B-6a Aircraft Materials and Corrosion SR

Student Resource
Subject B-6a:
Aircraft Materials and Corrosion
Copyright 2008 Aviation Australia

All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, transferred, sold, or
otherwise disposed of, without the written permission of Aviation Australia.
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AA Form TO-18
B-6a Aircraft Materials and Corrosion
Part-66 Subject
CONTENTS
Definition
Study Resources
Introduction
Aircraft Materials Ferrous
B-6a 1 - 1
Aircraft Materials - Non-Ferrous
B-6a 2 - 1
Aircraft Materials Composite / Non-Metallic
B-6a 3 - 1
Corrosion Fundamentals and Identification
B-6a 4 - 1
Aircraft Rivets
B-6a 5.4 - 1
Pipes and Unions
Issue C: August 2009
B-6a 6 - 1
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DEFINITIONS
Define
To describe the nature or basic qualities of.
To state the precise meaning of (a word or sense of a word).
State
Specify in words or writing.
To set forth in words; declare.
Identify
To establish the identity of.
Itemise.
List
Describe
Represent in words enabling hearer or reader to form an idea of an object or process.
To tell the facts, details, or particulars of something verbally or in writing.
Explain
Make known in detail.
Offer reason for cause and effect.
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STUDY RESOURCES
B-6a Student Resource
Jeppesen General
Jeppesen Airframe
AC 43.13-1B/ AC 43.13-2A Combined Aircraft Inspection and Repair
Aviation Maintenance Technician Airframe by Dale Crane
Aviation Maintenance Technician General by Dale Crane
Glencoe Aviation Technology Series Aircraft Maintenance and Repair
Advanced Composites by Cindy Foreman
Metalurgy Fundamentals By Daniel A Brandt
Fundamentals of Aircraft Material Factors by Charles E Dole
Aviation Maintenance Technician Handbook (2008) FAA
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INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this subject is to familiarise you with aircraft ferrous, non-ferrous and nonmetalic (composite) materials and their characteristics, properties, treatment, defects and
relationship to the electro chemical series and corrosion.
On completion of the following topics you will be able to:
Topic 6.1.1 Aircraft Materials Ferrous
Identify common alloy steels used in aircraft and describe their

characteristics and properties.
Describe heat treatment methods and application of alloy steels used in
aircraft.
Topic 6.1.2 Aircraft Materials Ferrous
Define testing of ferrous materials for:
Hardness
Tensile strength
Fatigue strength
Impact resistance
Topic 6.2.1 Aircraft Materials Nonferrous.

Identify common nonferrous materials used in aircraft and describe their
characteristics and properties.
Describe heat treatment methods and application of nonferrous materials used
in aircraft.
Topic 6.2.2 Aircraft Materials Nonferrous.
Define testing of nonferrous materials for:
Hardness
Tensile strength
Fatigue strength
Impact resistance
Topic 6.3.1.1 Aircraft Materials Composite / Non-Metallic

Identify common composite and non-metallic materials, other than wood, used in
aircraft and describe their characteristics and properties.
List the sealing and bonding agents utilised with composite and non-metallic
materials and describe their use.
Describe special requirements for the handling and storage of common
composite and non metallic materials.
Topic 6.3.1.2 Aircraft Materials Composite/Non Metallic (Defects)
Describe methods used to detect defects in composite materials and common
repair methods.
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Topic 6.4.1 Corrosion (Fundamentals)

Identify the relationship of various aircraft structural materials to the ElectroChemical Series.
Describe corrosion formation by the following:
Galvanic action process
Microbiological
Stress
Topic 6.4.2 Corrosion (Identification)

Identify types of corrosion and describe their causes.
Explain the susceptibility of different material types to corrosion.
Topic 6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets
Describe types of solid and blind rivets by:
Head marking,
Physical characteristics
Identification number
Describe the heat treatment process for selected rivets.

Topic 6.6.1 Rigid and Flexible Pipes
Identify and describe types of rigid and flexible pipes and their connectors used
in aircraft.
Topic 6.6.2 Standard Unions
Identify and describe types of standard unions used in the following aircraft
systems:
Hydraulic.
Fuel.
Oil.
Pneumatic
Air
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TOPIC 6.1.1 AND 6.1.2: AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - FERROUS

PROPERTIES OF METALS
A given metal can possess several properties. Among these are strength, hardness,
malleability, ductility, brittleness, conductivity, expansion, elasticity, toughness, fusibility, and
density.
Strength
One way to classify metals is according to the amount of strength they possess. A metals
strength is determined by the percentage of parent metal and other elements used to make
an alloy.
There are many different types of strength, including:
Tensile strength
Compressive strength
Shear strength
Torsional strength
Flexural strength
Fatigue strength
Impact strength
Each type of strength is a measure of how a metal reacts to a specific type of loading.
Tensile Strength
Tensile Strength is the ability for a piece of sheet metal to withstand stress in tension. There
are three definitions in tensile strength:
Yield strength - the stress at which material strain changes from elastic deformation to
plastic deformation, causing it to deform permanently
Ultimate strength - the maximum stress a material can withstand when subjected to
tension, compression or shearing. It is the maximum stress on the stress-strain curve
Breaking strength - the stress coordinate on the stress-strain curve at the point of
rupture
Stress vs. Strain curve for structural steel is shown as an example.

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Reference numbers are:

1 - Ultimate Strength
2 - Yield Strength (elastic limit)
3 - Rupture
4 - Strain hardening region
5 - Necking region
Other strength
Compressive strength is the ability of a metal to withstand pressing or squeezing

together.
Shear Strength is a metals ability to withstand shear stress.
Torsional strength is the ability to resist rotational shear.
Flexural strength is bending strength of a metal.
Fatigue strength, or Endurance strength, refers to the ability of a metal to resist

repeated loading.
Impact strength measures the ability of a metal to resist shock.

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Hardness
A metals hardness refers to its ability to resist cutting, penetration, or abrasion. The tensile
strength of steel relates directly to its hardness, but for most metals this relationship is not
absolute. Some metals are hardened through heat-treating or work hardening, while others
are softened by a process called annealing.
Malleability
A materials ability to be bent, formed, or shaped without cracking or breaking is called
malleability. Hardness and malleability are generally considered opposite characteristics. To
help increase malleability, several metals are annealed, or softened. In this condition
complex shapes can be formed. After forming is complete, the metal is then heat treated to
increase its strength. A metal may be fully annealed when the forming is started, but
hammering and shaping can harden it to such an extent that it must be re-annealed before
forming is completed.
Ductility
The ability of metal to be drawn into wire stock, extrusions, or rods is called ductility. Ductile
metals are preferred for aircraft use because of their ease of forming and resistance to failure
under shock loads. For this reason, aluminum alloys are often used for cowlings, fuselage
and wing skins, and formed or extruded parts such as ribs, spars, and bulkheads.
Brittleness
Brittleness describes a materials tendency to break or shatter when exposed to stress, and is
the opposite of ductility and malleability. A brittle metal is more apt to break or crack before it
changes shape. Because structural metals are often subjected to shock loads, brittleness is
not a desirable property.
Cast iron, cast aluminum, and very hard steel are examples of brittle metals.
Conductivity
Conductivity is the property which enables a metal to carry heat or electricity. If a metal is
able to transmit heat it is said to be thermally conductive. However, before a metal can carry
heat away from its source, it must first absorb it. This ability to conduct heat away is called
heat exchange. The fins on the cylinder heads of an air cooled piston engine remove heat in
this fashion.
Metals that can carry heat also carry electrons, making them good electrical conductors.
Electrical conductivity is the measure of a materials ability to allow electron flow. A metal
conductor can be a wire, an aircraft frame, or an engine. Because of their molecular
structures, the best electrical conductors are gold, silver, copper, and aluminum.
Thermal Expansion
The property of a metal to expand when heated and shrink when cooled is called thermal
expansion. The amount of expansion or contraction is predictable at specific temperatures
and is called its coefficient of expansion. All aircraft experience thermal expansion and
contraction as the ambient temperature changes.
Elasticity
Elasticity describes a metals tendency to return to its original shape after normal stretching
and bending. The flexibility of spring steel used for the construction of landing gear is a good
example of elasticity. Another form of elasticity is demonstrated when aircraft skins expand
and contract when an aircraft is pressurized.
A metals elastic limit is the point beyond which the metal does not return to its original shape
after a deforming force is removed. Soft materials such as lead, copper, and pure aluminum
have very low elastic limits, while the elastic limit of hard spring steel is very high.
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Toughness
Toughness is a materials ability to resist tearing or breaking when it is bent or stretched.
Hammer faces and wrenches are examples of metal that must be tough as well as hard to be
useful.
Fusibility
The ability of metal to be joined by heating and melting is defined as fusibility. To fuse metal
means to melt two or more compatible pieces of metal into one continuous part. The correct
term is called fusion joining or welding.
Density
Density is a materials mass per unit volume, and throughout this section the term is used to
compare the weights of various metals.
FERROUS METAL
Any alloy containing iron as its chief constituent is called a ferrous metal. The most common
ferrous metal in aircraft structures is steel, an alloy of iron with a controlled amount of carbon
added.
Iron
Iron is a chemical element which is fairly soft, malleable, and ductile in its pure form. It is
silvery white in colour and is quite heavy, having a density of 7.0 grams per cubic centimetre.
Iron combines readily with oxygen to form iron oxide, which is more commonly known as rust.
This is one reason why iron is usually mixed with various forms of carbon and other alloying
agents or impurities.
Iron poured from a furnace into moulds is known as cast iron and normally contains more
than two percent carbon and some silicon. Cast iron has few aircraft applications because of
its low strength-to-weight ratio. However, it is used in engines for items such as valve guides
where its porosity and wear characteristics allow it to hold a lubricant film. It is also used in
piston rings.
Steel
To make steel, pig iron is re-melted in a special furnace. Pure oxygen is then forced through
the molten metal where it combines with carbon and burns. A controlled amount of carbon is
then put back into the molten metal along with other elements to produce the desired
characteristics; the molten steel is then poured into moulds where it solidifies into ingots. The
ingots are placed in a soaking pit where they are heated to a uniform temperature of about
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1200oC (2,200F). They are then taken from the soaking pit and passed through steel rollers
to form plate or sheet steel.
Much of the steel used in aircraft construction is made in electric furnaces, which allow better
control of alloying agents than gas-fired furnaces. An electric furnace is loaded with scrap
steel, lime stone, and flux. Carbon electrodes are lowered into the steel, producing electric
arcs between the steel and the carbon. The intense heat from the arcs melts the steel and the
impurities mix with the flux. Once the impurities are removed, controlled quantities of alloying
agents are added, and the liquid metal is poured into moulds.
Composition of Steel
Steel is a material composed primarily of iron. Most steel contains more than 90% iron. Many
types of carbon steel contain more than 99% iron.
All types of steel contain a second elementcarbon. Many other alloying elements are used
m most steel, but iron and carbon are the only elements found in all steel.
The relationship of steel to cast iron and wrought iron is shown in Figure. 7
The difference in the three materials is primarily based on the carbon content.
The percentage of carbon in steel ranges from just above 0% to approximately 2%. Most
steel has between 0.15% and 1.0% carbon.
Wrought iron contains essentially no carbon.
Most types of cast iron contain 2% to 4% carbon.
At approximately 6% carbon, the material becomes so brittle that it is relatively useless.
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STEEL NUMBERING SYSTEM

In general, the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) uses a four digit numerical index
system to represent chemical composition standards for steel specifications:
The first digit identifies the principal alloying element
The second digit indicates the percentage of the principal alloying element
The last two digits indicate the average carbon content in hundredths of a percent
SAE STEEL NUMBERING SYSTEM

The numbers assigned in the combined listing of standard steels issued by the SAE (Society
of Automotive Engineers) and AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute) represent the type of
steel and makes it possible to readily identify the principal elements in the material.
SAE designation for major classifications of steel:
1xxx - Carbon steels
2xxx - Nickel steels
3xxx - Nickel-chromium steels
4xxx - Molybdenum steels
5xxx - Chromium steels
6xxx - Chromium-vanadium steels
7xxx - Tungsten steels
8xxx - Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels
9xxx - Silicon-manganese steels

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Some are identified by a 3 digit AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute) system and others
are designated by the manufacturer.

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ALLOYING AGENTS IN STEEL

Iron has few practical uses in its pure state. However, adding small amounts of other
materials to molten iron dramatically changes its properties. Some of the more common
alloying agents include carbon, sulphur, silicon, phosphorous, nickel, and chromium.
Carbon
Carbon is the most common alloying element found in steel. When mixed with iron,
compounds of iron carbides called cementite form. It is the carbon in steel that allows the
steel to be heat-treated to obtain varying degrees of hardness, strength, and toughness. The
greater the carbon content, the more receptive steel is to heat treatment and, therefore, the
higher its tensile strength and hardness.
However, higher carbon content decreases the malleability and weldability of steel.
Ferrous materials are generally classified according to their carbon content as shown in the
table.
Wrought iron is not found in aircraft structures.

Low carbon Mild Steel in aircraft is primarily used in non structural areas but in the past, was
used in steel tube fuselage construction. In sheet form these steels are used for secondary
structures where loads are low. Low-carbon steel is easily welded and machines readily, but
does not accept heat treatment well.
Medium carbon steels will accept heat treatment. This steel is especially adaptable for
machining or forging and where surface hardness is desirable.
High carbon steels are very hard and are primarily used in springs, files, and some cutting
tools.
Cast iron has few aircraft applications because of its low strength-to-weight ratio. However it
can be found in engine valve guides where its porosity and wear characteristics allow it to
hold a lubricant film.
Sulphur
Sulphur causes steel to be brittle when rolled or forged and, therefore, it must be removed in
the refining process. If all the sulphur cannot be removed its effects can be countered by
adding manganese. The manganese combines with the sulphur to form manganese sulphide,
which does not harm the finished steel. In addition to eliminating sulphur and other oxides
from steel, manganese improves a metals forging characteristics by making it less brittle at
rolling and forging temperatures.
Silicon
When silicon is alloyed with steel it acts as a hardener. When used in small quantities, it also
improves ductility.
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Phosphorous
Phosphorous raises the yield strength of steel and improves low carbon steels resistance to
atmospheric corrosion. However, no more than 0.05 per cent phosphorous is normally used
in steel, since higher amounts cause the alloy to become brittle when cold.
Nickel
Nickel adds strength and hardness to steel and increases its yield strength. It also slows the
rate of hardening when steel is heat-treated, which increases the depth of hardening and
produces a finer grain structure. The finer grain structure reduces steels tendency to warp
and scale when heat-treated.
SAE 2330 steel contains 3% nickel and 0.30% carbon, and is used in producing aircraft
hardware such as bolts, nuts, rod ends, and pins.
Chromium
Chromium is alloyed with steel to increase strength and hardness as well as improve its wear
and corrosion resistance. Because of its characteristics, chromium steel is used in balls and
rollers of antifriction bearings.
In addition to its use as an alloying element in steel, chromium is electrolytically deposited on
cylinder walls and bearing journals to provide a hard, wear-resistant surface.
Nickel-Chromium Steel
Nickel toughens steel, and chromium hardens it. Therefore, when both elements are alloyed
they give steel desirable characteristics for use in high-strength structural applications.
Nickel-chrome steels such as SAE 3130, 3250 and 3435 are used for forged and machined
parts requiring high strength, ductility, shock resistance and toughness.
Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is a classification of corrosion-resistant steels that contain large amounts of
chromium and nickel. Their strength and resistance to corrosion make them well suited for
high-temperature applications such as firewalls and exhaust system components. These
steels can be divided into three general groups based on their chemical structure:
Austenitic
Ferritic
Martensitic
Austenitic
Austenitic stainless steels also referred to as 200 and 300 series stainless steels.
A structure known as austenite forms when these steels are heated to a temperature above
their critical range and held there. Austenite is a solid solution of pearlite, an alloy of iron and
carbon, and gamma iron, which is a nonmagnetic form of iron. Austenitic stainless steels can
be hardened only by cold working while heat treatment only serves to anneal them.
They are non-magnetic in the annealed condition, although some may be slightly magnetic
after cold-working.
Ferritic stainless steels
Ferritic Stainless Steels, which are part of the 400 series of stainless alloys, have chromium
as their major alloying element and are typically low in carbon content.
Ductility and formability are less than that of the austenitic grades. The corrosion resistance
is comparable to that of the austenitic grades in certain applications. Thermal conductivity is
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about half that of carbon steels. Ferritic stainless steels are magnetic; they generally have
good ductility and can be welded or fabricated without difficulty.
These grades can be hardened by cold rolling, but cannot be hardened as much as the
austenitic alloys.
Martensitic stainless steels

The major alloying addition in Martensitic stainless steels is chromium in the range of 11 to
17%. The carbon levels can vary from 0.10 to 0.65% in these alloys. This radically changes
the behaviour of the Martensitic alloys relative to the Ferritic 400 Series alloys. The high
carbon enables the material to be hardened by heating to a high temperature, followed by
rapid cooling (quenching). Martensitic types offer a good combination of corrosion resistance
and superior mechanical properties, as produced by heat treatment to develop maximum
hardness, strength and resistance to abrasion and erosion. The Martensitic grades are
usually sold in the soft state. This allows the customers to cut or form the parts before they
are thermally hardened.
They are magnetic.
Molybdenum
One of the most widely used alloying elements for aircraft structural steel is molybdenum. It
reduces the grain size of steel and increases both its impact strength and elastic limit.
Molybdenum steels are extremely wear resistant and possess a great deal of fatigue
strength. This accounts for its use in high-strength structural members and engine cylinder
barrels. Chrome-molybdenum (chrome-moly) steel is the most commonly used alloy in
aircraft. Its SAE designation of 4130 denotes an alloy of approximately 1 percent
molybdenum and 0.30 percent carbon. It machines readily, is easily welded by either gas or
electric arc, and responds well to heat treatment. Heat-treated SAE 4130 steel has an
ultimate tensile strength about four times that of SAE 1025 steel, making it an ideal choice for
landing gear structures and engine mounts. Furthermore, chrome-molys toughness and
wear resistance make it a good material for engine cylinders and other highly stressed
engine parts.
Vanadium
When combined with chromium, vanadium produces a strong, tough, ductile steel alloy.
Amounts up to 0.20 percent improve grain structure and increase both ultimate tensile
strength and toughness. Most wrenches and ball bearings are made of chrome-vanadium
steel.
Tungsten
Tungsten has an extremely high melting point and adds this characteristic to steel it is alloyed
with. Because tungsten steels retain their hardness at elevated operating temperatures, they
are typically used for breaker contacts in magnetos and for high-speed cutting tools.
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HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL

As mentioned before, pure iron is not suitable for use as a structural material. It is weak, soft,
is very ductile and does not respond to heat treatment to any appreciable degree.
Steel, which is basically iron alloyed with carbon and a few percent to a few tens of percent of
other alloying elements can be heat treated to a wide range of strengths, toughnesses and
ductilities. Carbon is the most important of these alloying elements in terms of the mechanical
properties of steel and most heat treatments of steel are based primarily on controlling the
distribution of carbon. Heat treating of steel is the process of heating and cooling of carbon
steel to change the steel's physical and mechanical properties without changing the original
shape and size.
Heat treating is often associated with increasing the strength of the steel, but it can also be
used to alter certain manufacturability objectives such as improve machinability, formability,
restore ductility etc. Thus heat treating is a very useful process to help other manufacturing
processes and also improve product performance by increasing strength or provides other
desirable characteristics. High carbon steels are particularly suitable for heat treatment, since
carbon steel respond well to heat treatment and the commercial use of steels exceeds that of
any other material.
There are many difference types of heat treating processes, it individual process provides
different desirable characteristics to the product.
Iron-Carbon Equilibrium Diagram

Iron is an allotropic metal, meaning it can exist in more than one type of lattice structure,
depending on temperature. A stable Iron-carbon equilibrium diagram is showing in the figure.

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Pure molten iron begins to solidify at 2,800 F (1538C). Its structure at this point is known as
the Delta () form. However, if cooled to 2,554F (1401C), the atoms rearrange themselves
into the Gamma () form, it is now called Austenite. Strangely enough, iron in this form is
nonmagnetic. When nonmagnetic gamma iron in this form is cooled to 1,666F (908 C),
another change occurs and the iron is transformed into a nonmagnetic form, called Alpha
structure (). As cooling continues to 1,414F (768 C), the material becomes magnetic with
no further changes in its lattice structure.
Austenite, Ferrite and Martensite are the different crystal structures that occur in steels as a
result of heat treatment:
Austenite (gamma-iron) is a metallic, non-magnetic solid solution of carbon and iron

that exists in steel above its upper critical temperature
Ferrite (alpha-iron) is iron, or a solid solution with iron as the main constituent. In pure
iron, ferrite is stable below its lower critical temperature
Martensite has a very similar crystalline structure to austenite and results from the
rapid cooling of austenite during quenching
Face Centred Cubic (FCC) crystal Austenite.

This is the same ferrous metal heated above its upper critical temperature.
This crystal structure is harder than a body centred cubic crystal.

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Body Centred Cubic (BCC) crystal Ferrite.

This is the crystal structure of un-heat treated ferrous metals below its lower critical
temperature.
Body Centred Tetragonal (BCT) crystal - Martensite

This is the same ferrous metal heated above its upper critical temperature and then rapidly
quenched.
This crystal structure is stronger, harder and more brittle than a body centred cubic crystal.
Critical Temperature
The temperature at which a phase change occurs in a metal during heating or cooling.
Above this temperature the steel crystal structure changes from Body Centred Cubic to Face
Centred Cubic.

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Heat Treatment Process

Annealing
Annealing softens steel and relieves internal stress. To anneal steel, it is heated to about
50F above its critical temperature, soaked for a specified time, and then cooled. The soaking
time is typically around one hour per inch of material thickness.
The steel can be cooled by leaving it in the furnace and allowing both the furnace and steel to
cool together or by packing the steel in hot sand or ash so the heat is conducted away slowly.
Normalizing
The processes of forging, welding, or machining usually leave stresses within steel that could
lead to failure. These stresses are relieved in ferrous metals by a process known as
normalizing. To normalize steel, it is heated to about 100F above its upper critical
temperature and held there until the metal is uniformly heat soaked. The steel is then
removed from the furnace and allowed to cool in still air. Although this process does allow
particles of carbon to precipitate out, the particles are not as large as those formed when
steel is annealed.
One of the most important uses of normalizing in aircraft work is on welded parts. When a
part is welded, internal stresses and strains set up in the adjacent material. In addition, the
weld itself is a cast structure whereas the surrounding material is wrought. These two types
of structures have different grain sizes and, therefore, are not very compatible. To refine the
grain structure as well as relieve the internal stresses, all welded parts should be normalized
after fabrication.

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Hardening
Pure iron, wrought iron, and extremely low-carbon steels cannot be hardened by heat
treatment since they contain no hardening element. Cast iron, on the other hand, can be
hardened, but the amount and type of heat treatment used is limited. For example, when cast
iron is cooled rapidly, it forms white iron, which is hard and brittle. However, when cooled
slowly, grey iron forms, which is soft but brittle under impact.
Carbon steel can be hardened readily. The maximum hardness obtained by carbon steel
depends almost entirely on the amount of carbon content.
To harden steel, it is heated above its critical temperature so carbon can disperse uniformly
in the iron matrix. Once this occurs, the alloy is cooled rapidly by quenching it in water, oil, or
brine. The speed of the quench is determined by the quenching medium. Oil provides the
slowest quench, and Brine is the most rapid.
Tempering
Tempering reduces the undesirable qualities of Martensitic steel (brittle). To temper an alloy,
it is heated to a level considerably below its critical temperature and held there until it
becomes heat soaked. It is then allowed to cool to room temperature in still air. Tempering
not only reduces hardness and brittleness, but also relieves stress and improves steels
ductility and toughness.

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Determining Steel Temperature

When steel must be heat treated without the aid of a pyrometer, its temperature can be
estimated fairly accurately through the use of commercial crayons, pellets, or paints that melt
at specific temperatures. The least accurate method of estimating temperature is by
observing the colour of the material being heated. Some of the reasons why colour
observation is inaccurate include the fact that the observed colour is affected by the amount
of artificial and natural light and the ambient air temperature.
However, as a last resort, when annealing or hardening non- structural components, colour
observations can be used.
Case Hardening
Certain components in aircraft engines and landing gear systems require metal with hard,
durable bearing surfaces and core material that remains tough. This is accomplished through
a process called case hardening. The steels best suited for case-hardening are the lowcarbon and low-alloy steels. If high-carbon steel is case-hardened, the hardness penetrates
the core and causes brittleness.
The two methods presently used to case harden steel are:
Carburizing
Nitriding.

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Carburizing
Three methods of this form of case hardening are:
Pack Carburising is achieved by enclosing the metal in a fire-clay container and

packing it with carbon-rich material such as charcoal. The container is then sealed
and heated to a temperature of 1,700F (900C). As the charcoal heats up, carbon
monoxide gas forms and combines with the gamma iron in the metals surface. The
depth to which the carbon penetrates depends upon the soaking time.
Gas carburising is similar to pack carburising, except the carbon monoxide is

produced by a gas rather than a solid material.
Liquid carburising produces a high-carbon surface when heated in a molten bath of

sodium cyanide or barium cyanide. Either of the components supplies the carbon
needed to harden the metals surface.
Nitriding
Nitriding is achieved by first hardening and tempering, then grinding the part to its finished
dimensions. It is then heated to approximately 1000F (540C) and surrounded with
Ammonia gas. The high temperature breaks the ammonia down into nitrogen and hydrogen.
The nitrogen is absorbed into the steel as iron nitride. Most steels can be nitrided; however,
special alloys are required for best results. These special alloys contain aluminium as one of
the alloying elements and are called nitralloys. The depth of a nitrided surface depends on
the length of time it is exposed to the ammonia gas.
Aircraft engine crankshafts and cylinder walls are commonly nitrided for increased wear
resistance. However, since nitrided surfaces are highly susceptible to pitting corrosion they
must be protected from the air with a coating of oil.

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METAL TESTING
Once the heat treatment process has been carried out, the material must then be tested to
insure that the desired qualities have been achieved.
Some of the properties that would be tested for are:
Hardness
Tensile strength
Fatigue strength
Impact resistance
Note testing is carried out with a test piece consisting of the same material and thickness of
component, which was heat treated with the component.
Hardness Testing
Since the strength of most metals varies with hardness, it is often required to measure the
hardness of a metal.
The two most widely used methods of hardness measurement are the Brinell and Rockwell
methods.
The diagram below is a sample data producing by hardness testing.

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Brinell hardness tester

The Brinell hardness tester uses a hydraulic force to impress a spherical penetrator into the
surface of a sample. The amount of force used is approximately 3,000 kilograms for steel,
and 500 kilograms for nonferrous metals.
This force is hydraulically applied by a hand pump and read on a pressure gauge. When the
sample is removed from the tester, the diameter of the impression is measured with a special
calibrated microscope.
The diameter of the impression is then converted into a Brinell number by using a chart
furnished with the tester.

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Rockwell hardness tester

The Rockwell hardness tester gives the same information the Brinell tester gives, except that
it measures the depth to which the penetrator sinks into the material rather than the diameter
of the impression.
To use a Rockwell hardness tester, a sample is thoroughly cleaned, the two opposite
surfaces are ground flat and parallel, and all scratches are polished out. The sample is then
placed on the anvil of the tester and raised up against the penetrator. A 10 kilogram load,
called the minor load, is applied and the machine is zeroed. A major load is then applied and
the dial on the tester indicates the depth the penetrator sinks into the metal.
Instead of indicating the depth of penetration in thousandths of an inch, it indicates in
Rockwell numbers on either a red or a black scale.
Rockwell testers use three types of penetrators: a conical diamond, a 1/16 inch ball, and a
1/8 inch ball. There are also three major loads: 60 kilograms, 100 kilograms, and 150
kilograms. The two most commonly used Rockwell scales are the B-scale for soft metals,
which uses a 1/16 ball penetrator and a 100 kg major load, and the C-scale for hard metals,
which uses the conical diamond penetrator and a 150 kg major load.
Procedure for Rockwell Hardness Test:

The indenter moves down into position on the part surface
A minor load (F0) is applied and a zero reference position is established
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Major load (F1) is applied for a specified time period (dwell time) beyond zero
The major load is released leaving the minor load applied
The resulting Rockwell number represents the difference in depth (E - e) from the zero
reference position as a result of the application of the major load
Tensile Strength Testing

Tensile strength of a ferrous metal is tested by applying a longitudinal load to a sample of
material and plotting the load against the resulting elongations on a graph.
Fatigue Strength Testing

It is used to establish the stress level at which structural failure will occur.
A specially shaped test piece is gripped at one end, while at the other end a ball race is fitted.
A load is suspended from the ball race and the test piece is then rotated from the end at
which it is held by an electric motor.
Under the action of the overhung load, it is stressed in tension and compression once every
revolution.

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The numbers of cycles are measured to determine fatigue failure.

This number of cycles is then classified as fatigue life.
Airframe Fatigue Testing

Aircraft are subjected to fatigue tests.
The purpose of an airframe fatigue test is to provide key data that help design engineers
identify the likelihood and causes of premature fatigue damage or wear on the airplane's
structure and structural components.
Aircraft are subjected to fatigue strength tests to determine fatigue life of components to help
with maintenance programs.
The picture is showing the Boeing 787 airframe fatigue test.

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Impact Resistance Testing

Two tests called the Charpy and Izod impact tests are used to measure the impact resistance
(or impact strength) of a metal.
Both tests are mechanical tests in which a pendulum hammer (swinging through a fixed
distance) fractures a standard size notched piece of material with one blow.
The main difference between the Izod impact test and the Charpy impact test is that each
one uses a different beam configuration (cantilevered configuration vs a three point beam
configuration).

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Charpy V-notch (CVN) technique

By far the most common impact testing method used today for metals is the Charpy V-notch
impact test.
With the Charpy V-notch (CVN) technique, the specimen is in the shape of a bar of square
cross section with a V notch. The load is applied as an impact below from a weighted
pendulum hammer that is released from a position h. The pendulum with a knife edge strikes
and fractures the specimen at the notch. The pendulum continues its swing, rising to a
maximum height h', which is lower than h. The energy necessary to fracture the test piece is
directly calculated from the difference in initial and final heights of the swinging pendulum.
The impact energy (toughness) from the Charpy test is related to the area under the total
stress-strain curve.
Pictured is a machined charpy specimen, a standard impact tester, and a computer
controlled chiller unit capable of maintaining temperatures down to 50 degrees centigrade
for reduced temperature impact testing.

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66 Subject
TOPIC 6.2.1 AND 6.2.2: AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - NONFERROUS

PROPERTIES OF NONFERROUS METALS
Much of the metal used on aircraft contains no iron. The term that describes metals which have
elements other than iron as their base is nonferrous.
Aluminium, copper, titanium, and magnesium are some of the more common nonferrous metals
used in aircraft construction and repair.
Pure aluminium lacks sufficient strength to be used for aircraft construction. However, its strength
increases considerably when it is alloyed, or mixed with other compatible metals. For example,
when aluminium is mixed with copper or zinc, the resultant alloy is as strong as steel with only one
third the weight.
Furthermore, the corrosion resistance possessed by the Aluminium carries over to the newly
formed alloy.
Aluminium alloys are classified by their major alloying ingredient. The elements most commonly
used for Aluminium alloying are:
Copper
Magnesium
Manganese
Zinc
Based on the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standards H35.1 and H35.2, there are
TWO main classes of aluminium alloys:
Wrought alloys, rolled from an ingot or extruded from customer-specified shapes
Cast alloys, poured as a liquid into a mould and cooled into a solid shape

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Most aircraft parts are wrought aluminium alloys.
Wrought Aluminium Alloys Designation System

Wrought aluminium alloys are identified by a four-digit index system.
Alloy Series
Principal Alloying Elements
1xxx
2xxx
3xxx
4xxx
5xxx
6xxx
7xxx
8xxx
9xxx
Min 99.00% Aluminum

Copper
Manganese
Silicon
Magnesium
Magnesium and Silicon
Zinc
Other elements
Unused series
1XXX series
1XXX series is the only exception to the wrought alloy designation system.
The 1st digit indicates the minimum aluminium content is 99%, and there is no major alloying
element.
The second digit indicates modifications in impurity limits. If the second digit is zero, there is no
special control on individual impurities.
Digits 1 through 9, which are assigned consecutively as needed, indicate special control of one or
more individual impurities.
The 3rd and fourth digits provide the minimum aluminium percentage above 99%.
Thus, 1030 would indicate 99.30% minimum aluminium without special control on individual
impurities. The designations 1130, 1230, 1330, etc. indicate the same purity with special control on
one or more impurities. Likewise, 1100 indicates minimum aluminium content of 99.00% with
individual impurity control.

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2xxx through 9xxx Series

The major alloying elements are indicated by the first digit, as follows:
2xxx Copper
3xxx Manganese
4xxx Silicon
5xxx Magnesium
6xxx Magnesium and silicon
7xxx Zinc
8xxx Other element
9xxx Unused series
The second digit indicates alloy modification. If the second digit is zero, it indicates the original
alloy. Digits 1 through 9, which are assigned consecutively, indicate alloy modifications. The last
two digits have no special significance, serving only to identify the different alloys in the group
(number has no significance but is unique).

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Aluminium And Alloys Series

1xxx - Pure Aluminium:
Strain-hardenable
High formability, corrosion resistance and electrical conductivity
Electrical, chemical applications
Representative designations: 1100, 1350
The 1xxx series represents the commercially pure aluminium, ranging from the baseline 1100
(99.00% min. Al) to relatively purer 1050/1350 (99.50% min. Al) and 1175 (99.75 % min. Al). Some,
like 1350 which is used especially for electrical applications, have relatively tight controls on those
impurities that might lower electrical conductivity.
The 1xxx series are strain-hardenable, but would not be used where strength is a prime
consideration. Rather the emphasis would be on those applications where extremely high corrosion
resistance, formability and/or electrical conductivity are required.
Alloys within the 2xxx series utilize copper as the principle alloying agent. When aluminium is
mixed with copper, certain metallic changes take place in the resultant alloys grain structure. For
the most part, these changes are beneficial and produce greater strength. However, a major
drawback to aluminium-copper alloys is their susceptibility to intergranular corrosion when
improperly heat-treated.
Most aluminium alloy used in aircraft structures is an aluminium-copper alloy. Two of the most
commonly used in the construction of skins and rivets are 2017 and 2024.

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The 3xxx series alloys have manganese as the principle alloying element, and are generally
considered non heat-treatable. The most common variation is 3003, which offers moderate
strength and has good working characteristics.
The 4xxx series aluminium is alloyed with silicon, which lowers a metals melting temperature. This
results in an alloy that works well for welding and brazing.
Magnesium is used to produce the 5xxx series alloys. These alloys possess good welding and
corrosion resistance characteristics. However, if the metal is exposed to high temperatures or
excessive cold working, its susceptibility to corrosion increases.

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If silicon and magnesium are added to aluminium, the resultant alloy carries a 6xxx series
designation. In these alloys, the silicon and magnesium form magnesium silicide which makes the
alloy heat-treatable. Furthermore, the 6xxx series has medium strength with good forming and
corrosion resistance properties.
When parts require more strength and little forming, harder aluminium alloys are employed. The
7xxx series aluminium alloys are made harder and stronger by the addition of zinc. Some widely
used forms of aluminium-zinc alloys are 7075 and 7178.
The aluminium-zinc alloy 7075 has a tensile strength of 77 KSI and a bearing strength of 139 KSI.
However, the alloy is very hard and is difficult to bend. An even stronger zinc alloy is 7178 which
has a tensile strength of 84 KSI and a bearing strength of 151 KSI.
1KSI = 1 kilopounds / square inch (1 KIP) = 1,000 pound-force/square inch (PSI)
For example, on B737-200 aircraft:
Frames, stringers, keel and floor beams, wing ribs - Aluminium alloy 7075 (Aluminium
and zinc) - High mechanical properties and improved stress corrosion cracking
resistance.
Bulkheads, window frames, landing gear beam - Aluminium alloy 7079 (Aluminium and
zinc) Tempered to minimise residual heat treatment stresses.
Wing upper skin, spars and beams - Aluminium alloy 7178 (Aluminium, zinc,
magnesium and copper) - High compressive strength to weight ratio.
Landing gear beam - Aluminium alloy 7175 (Aluminium, zinc, magnesium and copper) A very tough, very high tensile strength alloy.
Wing lower skin - Aluminium alloy 7055 (Aluminium, zinc, magnesium and copper) Superior stress corrosion.

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8xxx series used for those alloys with lesser used alloying elements such as Fe, Ni and Li. Each is
used for the particular characteristics it provides the alloys:
Fe and Ni provide strength with little loss in electrical conductivity and so are used in a series of
alloys represented by 8017 for conductors.
Li in alloy 8090 provides exceptionally high strength and modulus (elasticity), and so this alloy is
used for aerospace applications where increases in stiffness combined with high strength reduces
component weight.
The 9xxx series alloys are unassigned at the time.
Clad Aluminium Alloy

The clad surface greatly increases the corrosion resistance of an aluminium alloy. However, if it is
penetrated, corrosive agents can attack the alloy within. For this reason, sheet metal should be
protected from scratches and abrasions. In addition to providing a starting point for corrosion,
abrasions create potential stress points.

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HEAT TREATMENT OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

Heat treatment is a series of operations involving the heating and cooling of metals in their solid
state. Its purpose is to make the metal more useful, serviceable, and safe for a definite purpose. By
heat-treating, a metal can be made harder, stronger, and more resistant to impact. Heat-treating
can also make a metal softer and more ductile.
However, one heat-treating operation cannot produce all these characteristics. In fact, some
properties are often improved at the expense of others. In being hardened, for example, a metal
may become brittle.
All heat-treating processes are similar in that they involve the heating and cooling of metals. They
differ, however, in the temperatures to which the metal is heated and the rate at which it is cooled.
There are two types of heat treatments used on aluminium alloys. One is called solution heat
treatment, and the other is known as precipitation heat treatment. Some alloys, such as 2017 and
2024, develop their full properties as a result of solution heat treatment followed by about 4 days of
cooling, or aging, at room temperature. However, other alloys, such as 2014 and 7075, require
both heat treatments.
Solution Heat-Treatment
The process of heating certain aluminium alloys to allow the alloying element to mix with the base
metal is called solution heat-treating. In this procedure, metal is heated in either a molten sodium or
potassium nitrate bath or in a hot-air furnace to a temperature just below its melting point. The
temperature is then held to within about plus or minus 10 degrees Fahrenheit of this temperature
and the base metal is soaked until the alloying element is uniform throughout.
Once the metal has sufficiently soaked, it is removed from the furnace and cooled or quenched. It
is extremely important that no more than about ten seconds elapse between removal of an alloy
from the furnace and the quench. The reason for this is that when metal leaves the furnace and
starts to cool, its alloying metals begin to precipitate out of the base metal. If this process is not
stopped, large grains of alloy become suspended in the aluminium and weaken the alloy.
Excessive precipitation also increases the likelihood of intergranular corrosion.
To help minimize the amount of alloying element that precipitates out of a base metal, a quenching
medium is selected to ensure the proper cooling rate. For example, a water spray or bath provides
the appropriate cooling rate for aluminium alloys. However, large forgings are typically quenched in
hot water to minimize thermal shock that could cause cracking.

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Thin sheet metal normally warps and distorts when it is quenched, so it must be straightened
immediately after it is removed from the quench. After the quench, all metals must be rinsed
thoroughly since the salt residue from the sodium or potassium nitrate bath can lead to corrosion if
left on the alloy.
Precipitation Heat Treatment

Heat-treatable aluminium alloys are comparatively soft when first removed from a quench. With
time, however, the metal becomes hard and gains strength. When an alloy is allowed to cool at
room temperature, it is referred to as natural aging and can take several hours or several weeks.
For example, aluminium alloyed with copper gains about 90 percent of its strength in the first halfhour after it is removed from the quench, and becomes fully hard in about four or five days.
An alloys aging process time can be lengthened or shortened. For example, the aging process can
be slowed by storing a metal at a sub-freezing temperature immediately after it is removed from the
quench. On the other hand, the aging process can be accelerated by reheating a metal and
allowing it to soak for a specified period of time. This type of aging is identified by several terms
such as artificial age-hardening, precipitation-hardening or precipitation heat treatment. This
process develops hardness, strength, and corrosion resistance by locking a metals grain structure
together.

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Naturally aged alloys, such as the copper-zinc-magnesium alloys, derive their full strength at room
temperature in a relatively short period and require no further heat treatment. However, other
alloys, particularly those with high zinc content, need thermal treatment to develop full strength.
These alloys are called artificially aged alloys.
Annealing
Annealing is a process that softens a metal and decreases internal stress. In general, annealing is
the opposite of hardening.
To anneal an aluminium alloy, the metals temperature is raised to an annealing temperature and
held there until the metal becomes thoroughly heat soaked. It is then cooled to 500F at a rate of
about 50 per hour. Below 500F, the rate of cooling is not important.
When annealing clad aluminium metals, they should be heated as quickly and as carefully as
possible. The reason for this is that if clad aluminium is exposed to excessive heat, some of the
core material tends to mix with the cladding. This reduces the metals corrosion resistance.

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Aluminium Alloy Temper Designations

Heat-treatable alloys have their hardness condition designated by the letter -T followed by one or
more numbers. A list of these designations includes:
T Solution heat-treated
T2 Annealed (cast products only)
T3 Solution heat-treated, followed by strain hardening. Different amounts of strain
hardening of the heat-treated alloy are indicated by a second digit. For example, -T36
indicates that the material has been solution heat-treated and has had its thickness
reduced 5 percent by cold rolling.
T4 Solution heat-treated, followed by natural aging at room temperature to a stable
condition.
T5 Artificially aged after being rapidly cooled during a fabrication process such as
extrusion or casting.
T6 Solution heat-treated, followed by artificial aging (precipitation heat-treated).
T7 Solution heat-treated and then stabilized to control its growth and distortion.
T8 Solution heat-treated, strain hardened, and then artificially aged.
T9 Solution heat-treated, artificially aged, and then strain-hardened.
T10 Artificially aged and then cold worked.
Reheat Treatment
A material which has been previously heat-treated can generally be heat-treated several times. As
an example, rivets made of 2017 or 2024 are extremely hard and typically receive several heat
treatments to make them soft enough to drive.
The number of solution heat treatments allowed for clad materials is limited due to the increased
diffusion of core material into the cladding. This diffusion results in decreased corrosion resistance.
As a result, clad material is generally limited to no more than three heat treatments.

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NON HEAT-TREATABLE ALLOYS

The non heat-treatable aluminium alloys are usually designated, therefore in the 1000, 3000, 4000,
5000 series. Their properties can be adjusted by cold work, usually by cold rolling.
Commercially pure aluminium does not benefit from heat treatment since there are no alloying
materials in its structure.
By the same token, 3003 is an almost identical metal and, except for a small amount of
manganese, does not benefit from being heat-treated. Both of these metals are lightweight and
somewhat corrosion resistant. However, neither has a great deal of strength and, therefore, their
use in aircraft is limited to non-structural components such as fairings and streamlined enclosures
that carry little or no load.
Alloy 5052 is perhaps the most important of the non heat-treatable aluminium alloys. It contains
about 2.5 percent magnesium and a small amount of chromium. It is used for welded parts such as
gasoline or oil tanks, and for rigid fluid lines. Its strength is increased by cold working.
Strain Hardening
Both heat-treatable and non heat-treatable aluminium alloys can be strengthened and hardened
through strain hardening also referred to as cold working or work hardening.
This process requires mechanically working a metal at a temperature below its critical range. Strain
hardening alters the grain structure and hardens the metal. The mechanical working can consist of
rolling, drawing, or pressing.

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Heat-treatable alloys have their strength increased by rolling after they have been solution heattreated. On the other hand, non heat-treatable alloys are hardened in the manufacturing process
when they are rolled to their desired dimensions. However, at times these alloys are hardened too
much and must be partially annealed.
Hardness Designations
Where appropriate, a metals hardness, or temper, is indicated by a letter designation that is
separated from the alloy designation by a dash. When the basic temper designation must be more
specifically defined, one or more numbers follow the letter designation.
These designations are as follows:
F As fabricated.
O Annealed, recrystallised (wrought materials only).
H Strain hardened.
H1 Strain hardened only.
H2 Strain hardened and partially annealed.
H3 Strain hardened and stabilized.
The digit following the designations H1, H2, and H3 indicate the degree of strain hardening. For
example, the number 8 represents the maximum tensile strength while O indicates an annealed
state.
The most common designations include:
Hx2 Quarter-hard
Hx4 Half-hard
Hx6 Three-quarter hard
Hx8 Full-hard
Hx9 Extra-hard

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MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Magnesium is collected by electrolysis of sea water or brine but does not have the required
strength in its pure form.
Magnesium alloys are used for castings and in its wrought form is available in sheets, bars, tubing,
and extrusions. Magnesium is one of the lightest metals having sufficient strength and suitable
working characteristics for use in aircraft structures. It has a lower density compared with
aluminium. It weighs only about 2/3 as much as aluminium
The drawbacks to using magnesium are:

High susceptibility to corrosion - This is over come by treating the surface with
chemicals that form an oxide film and exclude oxygen.
Tendency to crack when formed This is over come by heating the parts when forming
such as hot dimpling thin material.
In addition to cracking and corroding easily, magnesium burns readily in a dust or small
particle form.
For this reason, caution must be exercised when grinding and machining magnesium. If a fire
should occur, extinguish it by smothering it with dry sand or some other dry material that excludes
air from the metal and cools its surface. If water is used, it will only intensify the fire.

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Solution heat treatment of magnesium alloys increases tensile strength, ductility, and resistance to
shock. After a piece of magnesium alloy has been solution heat-treated, it can be precipitation
heat-treated by heating it to a temperature lower than that used for solution heat treatment, and
holding it at this temperature for a period of several hours. This increases the metals hardness and
yield strength.
The American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) has developed a classification system for
magnesium alloys that consists of a series of letters and numbers to indicate alloying agents and
temper condition.
The letter after the alloying elements and percentages simply identifies the sequence in which the
specific alloy specification for the general alloy composition was registered with ASTM.
Example: AZ31A is the first specification registered for the 3% Al - 1% Zn alloy of magnesium,
AZ31B is the second alloy specification. The difference between the two is the limits on the minor
elements/contaminants, which can impact corrosion performance or other performance factors

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TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Titanium and its alloys are light weight metals with very high strength. Pure titanium weighs 0.163
pounds per cubic inch, which is about 50 percent lighter than stainless steel, yet it is approximately
equal in strength to iron. Furthermore, pure titanium is soft and ductile with a density between that
of aluminum and iron.
Titanium is a metallic element which, when first discovered, was classified as a rare metal.
However, in 1947 its status was changed due to its importance as a structural metal. In the area of
structural metallurgy, it is said that no other structural metal has been studied so extensively or has
advanced aircraft structures so rapidly.
In addition to its light weight and high strength, titanium and its alloys have excellent corrosion
resistance characteristics, particularly to the corrosive effects of salt water. However, since the
metal is sensitive to both nitrogen and oxygen, it must be converted to titanium dioxide with
chlorine gas and a reducing agent before it can be used.
Titanium is classified as alpha, alpha beta, and beta alloys. These classifications are based on
specific chemical bonding within the alloy itself. The specifics of the chemical composition are not
critical to working with the alloy, but certain details should be known about each classification.
Alpha alloys have medium strengths of 120 KSI to 150 KSI and good elevated-temperature
strength. Because of this, alpha alloys can be welded and used in forgings. The standard
identification number for alpha titanium is 8A1-lMo-1 V-Ti, which is also referred to as Ti-B-i-I. This
series of numbers indicates that the alloying elements and their percentages are 8 percent
aluminum, 1 percent molybdenum, and 1 percent vanadium.
Alpha-beta alloys are the most versatile of the titanium alloys. They have medium strength in the
annealed condition and much higher strength when heat treated. While this form of titanium is
generally not weldable, it has good forming characteristics.
Beta alloys have medium strength, excellent forming characteristics, and contain large quantities of
high-density alloying elements. Because of this, beta titanium can be heat-treated to a very high
strength.
The grain size of titanium is refined when aluminium is added to the alloy mixture, however, when
copper is added to titanium, a precipitation-hardening alloy is produced. Titanium added to high
temperature nickel-cobalt-chromium alloy produces a precipitation-hardening reaction which
provides strength at temperatures up to 1,500F.
Because of its high strength-to-weight ratio, titanium is now used extensively in the civilian
aerospace industry. Although once rare on commercial aircraft, modern jet transports now utilize
alloys containing 10 to 15 percent titanium in structural areas.

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NICKEL AND ITS ALLOYS

Two commonly used nickel alloys are:
Monel
Inconel
Monel contains about 68% nickel and 29% copper with small amounts of iron and manganese.
Monel can be welded and has very good machining characteristics. Certain types of Monel,
especially those containing small percentages of aluminium, are heat-treatable to tensile strengths
equivalent to steel. Monel works well in gears and parts that require high strength and toughness,
as well as for parts in exhaust systems that require high strength and corrosion resistance at
elevated temperatures. Monel rivets are also available for aircraft structural applications.
Inconel contains about 80% nickel and 14% chromium with small amounts of iron and other
elements. The alloys find frequent use in turbine engines because of their ability to maintain their
strength and corrosion resistance under extremely high temperatures.
For example Inconel can be found in nozzle supports, fan casings, and blades.
Inconel and stainless steel are similar in appearance and are frequently used in the same areas.
Differentiating between the two must be done through a chemical test.

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COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS

Neither copper nor its alloys find much use as structural materials in aircraft construction. However,
due to its excellent electrical and thermal conductivity, copper is the primary metal used for
electrical wiring.
Of the several alloys that use copper as a base, the following alloys are the primary alloys found on
aircraft:
Brass: Brass is a copper alloy containing zinc and small amounts of aluminium, iron,
lead, manganese, magnesium, nickel, phosphorous, and tin.
Bronze: Bronze is a copper alloy that contains tin. A true bronze consists of up to 25%
tin, and along with brass, is used in bushings, bearings, fuel metering valves, and valve
seats.
Beryllium: Beryllium copper is probably one of the most used copper alloys. It consists
of approximately 97% copper, 2% beryllium, and sufficient nickel to increase its
strength. Beryllium is used for diaphragms, precision bearings and bushings, ball
cages, and spring washers.

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NONFERROUS METAL TESTING

Once the heat treatment process has been carried out, the material must then be tested to insure
that the desired qualities have been achieved.
Some of the properties that would be tested for are:
Hardness
Tensile strength
Fatigue strength
Impact resistance
Note testing is carried out with a test piece consisting of the same material and thickness of
component, which was heat treated with the component.
Hardness Testing
Since the strength of most metals varies with hardness, it is often required to measure the
hardness of a metal.
The two most widely used methods of hardness measurement are the Brinell and Rockwell
methods.
Brinell hardness tester

The Brinell hardness tester uses a hydraulic force to impress a spherical penetrator into the surface
of a sample. The amount of force used is approximately 3,000 kilograms for steel, and 500
kilograms for nonferrous metals.
This force is hydraulically applied by a hand pump and read on a pressure gauge. When the
sample is removed from the tester, the diameter of the impression is measured with a special
calibrated microscope.

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The diameter of the impression is then converted into a Brinell number by using a chart furnished
with the tester.
Alloy
number
Hardness
temper
Brmell number
500 kg load
10 mm ball
1100
O
H18
O
H16
O
T6
O
T6
O
T4
O
H36
O
T4
T6
T6
23
44
28
47
5
135
45
105
47
120
47
73
30
55
95
135
3003
2014
2017
2024
5052
6061
7075

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Rockwell hardness tester

The Rockwell hardness tester gives the same information the Brinell tester gives, except that it
measures the depth to which the penetrator sinks into the material rather than the diameter of the
impression.
To use a Rockwell hardness tester, a sample is thoroughly cleaned, the two opposite surfaces are
ground flat and parallel, and all scratches are polished out. The sample is then placed on the anvil
of the tester and raised up against the penetrator. A 10-kilogram load, called the minor load, is
applied and the machine is zeroed. A major load is then applied and the dial on the tester indicates
the depth the penetrator sinks into the metal.
Instead of indicating the depth of penetration in thousandths of an inch, it indicates in Rockwell
numbers on either a red or a black scale.
Rockwell testers use three types of penetrators: a conical diamond, a 1/16 inch ball, and a 1/8 inch
ball. There are also three major loads: 60 kilograms, 100 kilograms, and 150 kilograms. The two
most commonly used Rockwell scales are the B-scale for soft metals, which uses a 1/16 ball
penetrator and a 100 kg major load, and the C-scale for hard metals, which uses the conical
diamond penetrator and a 150 kg major load.

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Procedure for Rockwell Hardness Test:

The indenter moves down into position on the part surface
A minor load (F0) is applied and a zero reference position is established
Major load (F1) is applied for a specified time period (dwell time) beyond zero
The major load is released leaving the minor load applied
The resulting Rockwell number represents the difference in depth (E - e) from the zero
reference position as a result of the application of the major load
Tensile Strength Testing

Tensile strength of a ferrous metal is tested by applying a longitudinal load to a sample of material
and plotting the load against the resulting elongations on a graph.

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Fatigue Strength Testing

It is used to establish the stress level at which structural failure will occur.
A specially shaped test piece is gripped at one end, while at the other end a ball race is fitted. A
load is suspended from the ball race and the test piece is then rotated from the end at which it is
held by an electric motor.
Under the action of the overhung load, it is stressed in tension and compression once every
revolution.
The numbers of cycles are measured to determine fatigue failure.
This number of cycles is then classified as fatigue life.
The Wohler Cantilever bending fatigue machine is shown as an example.
Airframe Fatigue Testing

Aircraft are subjected to fatigue tests.
The purpose of an airframe fatigue test is to provide key data that help design engineers identify
the likelihood and causes of premature fatigue damage or wear on the airplane's structure and
structural components.
The picture is showing the Boeing 787 airframe fatigue test.

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Impact Resistance Testing

Two tests called the Charpy and Izod impact tests are used to measure the impact resistance (or
impact strength) of a metal.
Both tests are mechanical tests in which a pendulum hammer (swinging through a fixed distance)
fractures a standard size notched piece of material with one blow.
The main difference between the Izod impact test and the Charpy impact test is that each one uses
a different beam configuration (cantilevered configuration vs a three point beam configuration).

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Charpy V-notch (CVN) technique

By far the most common impact testing method used today for metals is the Charpy V-notch impact
test.
With the Charpy V-notch (CVN) technique, the specimen is in the shape of a bar of square cross
section with a V notch. The load is applied as an impact below from a weighted pendulum hammer
that is released from a position h. The pendulum with a knife edge strikes and fractures the
specimen at the notch. The pendulum continues its swing, rising to a maximum height h', which is
lower than h. The energy necessary to fracture the test piece is directly calculated from the
difference in initial and final heights of the swinging pendulum. The impact energy (toughness) from
the Charpy test is related to the area under the total stress-strain curve.
Pictured is a machined charpy specimen, a standard impact tester, and a computer controlled
chiller unit capable of maintaining temperatures down to 50 degrees centigrade for reduced
temperature impact testing.

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TOPIC 6.3.1 COMPOSITES AND NON-METALLIC

NON-METALLIC STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
Non-metallic structural materials played a very important role in the early days of aviation.
However, after the introduction of aluminium, non-metallic materials saw considerably less use.
Today, aluminium is still the most widely used material in the construction and repair of aircraft.
However, since its introduction, several new materials have come into use, many of which are spinoffs from the space program. These materials once again have the aviation industry taking a close
look at non-metallic materials for use on aircraft.
WHAT IS A COMPOSITE STRUCTURE?

The term composite is used to describe two or more materials that are combined to form a
structure that is much stronger than the individual components.
A more contemporary example of composite material is the traditional dope and fabric aeroplane.
In this instance, nitrate or butyrate dope is combined in proper proportions with grade A cotton
fabric, producing a strong, light weight skin covering. The strength and simplicity of the dope and
fabric aeroplane has endured through the years and is still a favourite airframe material for handcrafted classic and high-performance aerobatic aeroplanes.

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Composite structures differ from metallic structures in several ways: excellent elastic properties,
ability to be customized in strength and stiffness, damage tolerance characteristics, and sensitivity
to environmental factors. Consequently, composites require a vastly different approach from metals
with regard to their design, fabrication and assembly, quality control, and maintenance.
One main advantage to using a composite over a metal structure is its high strength-to-weight ratio.
Weight reduction is a primary objective when designing structures using composite materials.
In addition, the use of composites allows the formation of complex, aerodynamically contoured
shapes, reducing drag and significantly extending the range of the aircraft. Composite strength
depends upon the type of fibres and bonding materials used, and how the part is engineered to
distribute and withstand specific stresses.

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COMPOSITE IN AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

Below image is simply to underscore the amount of composite used in A320 aircraft structure.
Composite materials are found in the manufacture of primary flight controls and high integrity
structural repairs in aircraft.

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COMPOSITE ELEMENTS
In aircraft construction, most currently produced composites consist of a reinforcing material to
provide the structural strength, joined with a matrix material to serve as the bonding substance. In
addition, adding core material saves overall weight and gives shape to the structure.
The three main parts of a fibre-reinforced composite are the fibre, matrix, and interface or boundary
between the individual elements of the composite.
Reinforcing Fibres
Reinforcing fibres provide the primary structural strength to the composite structure when
combined with a matrix. Reinforcing fibres can be used in conjunction with one another (hybrids),
woven into specific patterns (fibre science), combined with other materials such as rigid foams
(sandwich structures), or simply used in combination with various matrix materials. Each type of
composite combination provides specific advantages.
Following are the five most common types of reinforcing fibres used in aircraft composites:
Fibreglass (Glass Cloth)
Aramid
Carbon / Graphite
Boron
Ceramic

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Fibreglass (Glass Cloth)

Fibreglass is made from small strands of molten silica glass (about 1260oC) that are spun together
and woven into cloth. There are many different weaves of fibreglass available, depending on the
particular application. Its widespread availability and its low cost make fibreglass one of the most
popular reinforcing fibres.
Fibreglass weighs more than most other composite Fibres, but has less strength. In the past,
Fibreglass was used for non-structural applications; the weave was heavy and polyester resins
were used, making the part brittle. Recently, however, newly developed matrix formulas have
increased the benefits of using Fibreglass.
The two most common types of fibreglass are S-glass and E-glass. E-glass, otherwise known as
electric glass because of its high resistivity to current flow, is produced from borosilicate glass and
is the most common type of fibreglass used for reinforcement.
S-glass is produced from magnesia-alumina- silicate, and is used where very high tensile strength
fibreglass is needed.
Aramid
In early 1970s, Dupont introduced Aramid, an organic aromatic-polymide polymer, commercially
known as Kevlar.
Aramid exhibits high tensile strength, exceptional flexibility, high tensile stiffness, low compressive
properties, and excellent toughness. The tensile strength of Kevlar composite material is
approximately four times greater than alloyed aluminium. Aramid fibres are non-conductive and
produce no galvanic reaction with metals. Another important advantage is its outstanding strengthIssue C: August 2009

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to-weight ratio; it is very light compared to other composite materials. Aramid-reinforced

composites also demonstrate excellent vibration-damping characteristics in addition to a high
degree of shatter and fatigue resistance.
A disadvantage to Aramid is that it stretches, which can cause problems when it is cut. Drilling
Aramid can also be a problem if the drill bit grabs a fibre and pulls until it stretches to its breaking
point. When cuffing Aramid fabrics, the material will look fuzzy if inappropriate tools are used.
Fuzzy material left around fastener holes or seams may act as a wick and absorb moisture or other
liquid contaminants such as oil, fuel, or hydraulic fluid. Liquid contaminates may deteriorate the
resin materials in the composite structure, producing delamination. It is important to cut Aramid
cloth correctly because even a slight amount of moisture will prevent Aramid from bonding
properly. Fuzz around the drilled hole may also prevent a fastener from seating properly, which
may cause joint failure.
Carbon / Graphite
Carbon Fibre, also known as graphite Fibre, is a very strong, stiff reinforcement. For many years,
American manufacturers used the term graphite, while European manufacturers used the term
carbon. Carbon correctly describes the Fibre since it contains no graphite structure. Regardless of
what you call it, you order it by number. If you order Carbon #584 you will get the same weight and
weave as if you order Graphite #584. It is the same material. Some structural repair manuals may
call for Carbon #584 in one area, and Graphite #584 in another. Recently, Carbon has become the
favoured term by both American and European manufacturers. There are still many structural
repair manuals however, that use the term Graphite, so understanding that this material can be
referred to in either way is still important to the maintenance technician.

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Advantages to carbon/graphite materials are in their high compressive strength and degree of
stiffness. However, carbon fibre is cathodic while aluminium and steel are anodic. Thus, carbon
promotes galvanic corrosion when bonded to aluminium or steel, and special corrosion control
techniques are needed to prevent this occurrence. Carbon/graphite materials are kept separate
from aluminium components when sealants and corrosion barriers, such as fibreglass, are placed
at the interfaces between composites and metals. To further resist galvanic corrosion, anodize,
prime, and paint any aluminium surfaces prior to assembly with carbon/graphite material.
Carbon fibre composites are used to fabricate primary structural components, such as ribs and
wing skins.
Even very large aircraft can be designed with a reduced number of reinforcing bulkheads, ribs, and
stringers, thanks to the high strength and high rigidity of carbon fibre composites. Carbon fibre is
stronger in compressive strength than Kevlar, but it is more brittle.
Boron
Boron fibres are made by depositing the element boron onto a thin filament of tungsten. The
resulting fibre is approximately .004 inch in diameter, has excellent compressive strength and
stiffness, and is extremely hard. However, boron is not commonly used in civil aviation because it
can be hazardous to work with, and is extremely expensive.
In designing components that need both the strength and stiffness associated with boron, many
civil aviation manufacturers are utilizing hybrid composite materials of Aramid and carbon/graphite
instead of boron.
Ceramic
Ceramic fibres are used where a high-temperature application is needed. This form of composite
will retain most of its strength and flexibility at temperatures up to 2,200 F Tiles on the Space
Shuttle are made of a special ceramic composite that dissipates heat quickly.
Some firewalls are also made of ceramic-fibre composites.
The most common use of ceramic fibres in civilian aviation is in combination with a metal matrix for
high-temperature applications.

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FIBRE SCIENCE
The selective placement of fibres needed to obtain the greatest amount of strength in various
applications is known as fibre science. The strength and stiffness of a composite depend on the
orientation of the plies to the load direction. A sheet metal component will have the same strength
no matter which direction it is loaded.
For example, a helicopter rotor blade has high stress along its length because of centripetal forces.
If the blade is made of metal, the strength is the same in all directions, giving strength in directions
that are not needed. If fabricated of composites, however, the blade may have the majority of fibres
running through its length to give more strength in the direction in which the most stress is
concentrated. These vectors of strength might be referred to as zero degree plies (to react to axial
loads like those to which a rotor blade is subjected), 45 plies (to react to shear vectors), or 90
plies (to react to side loads).
For example, if a wing in flight bends up as well as twists, the part can be manufactured so one
layer of fibres runs the length of the wing, reducing the bending tendency, and another layer with
the fibres running at 45 and at 90, to limit the twist, Each layer may have the major fibres running
in a different direction. The strength of the fibres is parallel to the direction the threads run. This is
how designers can customize fibre direction for the type of stress the part might encounter.
Figure below shows in flight the structure tends to bend and twist. The fibre layers are laid in a way
to limit the forces, thereby customizing a part to the type of stresses encountered.
Fabric Orientation
When working with composite fibres, it is important to understand the construction and orientation
of the fabric because all design, manufacturing and repair work begins with the orientation of the
fabric. Unlike metallic structures, the strength of a composite structure relies on the proper
placement and use of the reinforcing fibres. Some of the terms used to describe fibre orientation
are warp, weft, selvage edge and bias.

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Warp
The warp of threads in a section of fabric run the length of the fabric as it comes off the roll or bolt.
Warp direction is designated as 0. There are typically more threads woven into the warp direction
than the fill direction, making it stronger in the warp direction. Because warp is critical in fabricating
or repairing composites, insertion of another colour or type of thread at periodic intervals identifies
the warp direction. Marked plastic backings on the underside of pre-impregnated fabrics also
identify the orientation of the warp threads. Pre-impregnated fabrics are pre-impregnated with
resins by the manufacturer and later cured in the field.
Weft/Fill
Weft or fill threads of the fabric are those that run perpendicular (90 degree) to the warp fibres. The
weft threads interweave with the warp threads to create the reinforcing cloth.
Selvage Edge
The selvage edge of the fabric is the tightly woven edge parallel to the warp direction, which
prevents edges from unravelling. The selvage edge is removed before the fabric is utilized. The
weave of the selvage edge is different from the body of the fabric and does not have the same
strength characteristics as the rest of the fabric.
Bias
The bias is the fibre orientation that runs at a 45 degree angle (diagonal) to the warp threads. The
bias allows for manipulation of the fabric to form contoured shapes. Fabrics can often be stretched
along the bias but seldom along the warp or fill.

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Fabric Styles
Fabrics used in composite construction are manufactured in several different styles:
Unidirectional,
Bi-directional,
Multidirectional, and
Mat
Component designers can use any or all of these fabric styles, depending on the strength and
flexibility requirements of the component part.
Unidirectional
Unidirectional fibre orientation is one in which all of the major fibres run in one direction, giving the
majority of its strength in a single direction. This type of fabric is not woven together, meaning that
there are no fill fibres. Occasionally, small cross threads are used to hold the major fibre bundles in
place. However, the cross threads are not considered woven fibres.
Bi-directional/Multi-directional
Bi-directional or multi-directional fabric orientation calls for the fibres to run in two or more
directions. Bi-directional fabrics are woven with the warp threads usually outnumbering the weft, so
there is usually more strength in the warp direction than the fill. When using bi-directional fabrics, it
is important to align the warp threads when performing a repair, due to the differences in the
strength properties of the warp and weft directions.

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Mats
Chopped fibres that are compressed together are often called mats. These mats are typically used
in combination with other woven or unidirectional layers of fabric. A mat is usually not as strong as
unidirectional or bidirectional fabric, and is not commonly used in repair work.
This type of mat is used extensively in the marine industry for the manufacture of Glass fibre boat
hulls.
Fabric Weaves
Fabrics are woven together in a number of weaves and weights. Woven fabrics are more resistant
to fibre breakout, delamination, and damage than unidirectional materials. Because of the wide
variety of uses and strength requirements, composite fabrics are available in many weaves.
Some of them are:
Plain weave
Satin weave
Twill weave
Plain weave
In this most simple weave pattern, warp and fill yarns are interlaced over and under each other in
alternating fashion.
The plain weave provides good stability, porosity and the least yarn slippage for a given yarn count.

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Satin weave
In the satin weave, the warp floats or skips over as many as 12 fill yarns before being woven in. A
satin weave is notable for its smooth surface created by the relatively long warp yarn floats.
The warp yarn in a 5-harness satin float over 4 fill yarns is shown.
Twill weave
Twill weaves repeat on three or more warp and fill yarns. Twill weaves have a distinctive diagonal
line on the surface of the fabric.
There are many variations on the twill and a 2x2 twill weave is shown in the diagram.
The most common weaves used in advanced composite aircraft construction are the plain and
satin weaves.

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MATRIX SYSTEMS
The matrix is a bonding material that completely surrounds the fibre, giving it extra strength. The
strength of a composite lies in the ability of the matrix to transfer stress to the reinforcing fibres. An
advanced composite uses various manufacturing techniques and newer matrix formulas with
newer reinforcing fabrics.
Polyester resin is an example of an early matrix formula used with fibreglass for many nonstructural applications such as fairings, spinners, and trim. The old polyester/fibreglass formulas
did not offer sufficient strength to be used to fabricate primary structural members; it can be
somewhat brittle. The newer matrix materials display remarkably improved stress distributing
characteristics, heat resistance chemical resistance, and durability. Most of the newer matrix
formulas for aircraft are epoxy resins.
Resin matrixes are two-part systems consisting of a resin and a catalyst or hardener, which acts as
a curing agent. The term resin often times means both parts together, not just the resin. Many
times a maintenance manual may use the term catalysed resin, meaning that the resin and the
curing agent or hardeners have been mixed, but not necessarily cured.
Resin Matrix Systems

Resin matrix systems are a type of plastic. Some companies refer to composites as fibre reinforced
plastics.
There are two general categories of plastics:
Thermoplastic
Thermosetting
By themselves, these resins do not have sufficient strength for use in structural applications,
however, when used as a matrix and reinforced with other materials, they form the high strength,
lightweight structural composites used today.
Thermoplastic Resins
Thermoplastic resins use heat to form the part into the desired shape; one that is not necessarily
permanent. If a thermoplastic is heated a second time, it will flow to form another shape.
Two types of transparent thermoplastic materials are used for aircraft windshields and side
windows. They are cellulose acetate and acrylic. Early aircraft used cellulose acetate plastic
because of its transparency and light weight. However, it has a tendency to shrink and turn yellow
and, therefore, has almost completely been replaced. Cellulose acetate can be identified by its
slightly yellow tint and the fact that, if a scrap of it is burned, it produces a sputtering flame and dark

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smoke. Another way to identify cellulose acetate is with an acetone test. When acetone is applied
to cellulose acetate it softens.
Acrylic plastics are identified by such trade names as Lucite or Plexiglas, or in Britain by the name
Perspex. Acrylic is stiffer than cellulose acetate, more transparent and, for all practical purposes, is
colourless. It burns with a clear flame and produces a fairly pleasant odour. Furthermore, if acetone
is applied to acrylic it leaves a white residue but remains hard.
Thermosetting Resins
They are usually liquids or low melting point solids in their initial form.
When used to produce finished goods, they are cured by the use of a catalyst, heat, or a
combination of the two.
Once cured, solid thermosetting resins cannot be converted back to their original liquid form.
Unlike thermoplastic resins, cured thermosets will not melt and flow but will soften when heated
(and lose hardness) and once formed they cannot be reshaped.

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At this time, 2 common structural airframe applications are:

Polyester resins
Epoxy resins
Polyester Resin
Polyester resin, an early thermosetting matrix formula, is mainly used with fibreglass composites to
create non-structural applications such as fairings, spinners, and aircraft trim. While fibreglass
possesses many virtues, its greatest limitation lies in its lack of structural rigidity. Polyester resins
give fibreglass cohesiveness and rigidity. However, polyester resin/fibreglass composites do not
offer sufficient strength to fabricate primary structural members.
Like other plastics, polyester shrinks when cured. While this inherent characteristic helps in some
ways, it hurts in others.
In its pure form, polyester resin is thick and unmanageable. For this reason, a styrene monomer is
added to polyester resin to thin it and make it more workable.
If left alone, a mixture of polyester and styrene eventually hardens into a solid mass. To prevent
this, inhibitors are added to resins to extend their working time. However, when the resin is to be
used, a catalyst must be introduced to suppress the inhibitors and initiate the curing process.
Furthermore, the resins curing time can be appreciably shortened by the addition of a measured
amount of an accelerator. The amount of accelerator needed depends on the ambient temperature
and the thickness of the resin layer.

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The actual cure of polyester resin occurs when a chemical reaction between the catalyst and
accelerator generates heat within the resin. The less surface area there is for heat to escape, the
more heat remains in the resin and the faster it cures.
Therefore, when submitted to identical conditions, a thick layer of resin cures more rapidly than a
thin layer.
Commonly catalysts used in polyester resins systems are:

Methyl Ethyl Ketone Peroxide (M.E.K.P)
Benzoyl Peroxide (BPO)
Commonly accelerators used in polyester resins systems are:
Cobalt Naphthenate (CoNap), also known as Cobalt Soap
Dimethyl Amine (DMA)
WARNING:
Never mix accelerators directly with catalysts as they will violently react with each other, and catch
on fire or explode, if not diluted by the resin first.
Epoxy Resins
Most of the newer aircraft composite matrix-formulas utilize epoxy resins, which are thermosetting
plastic resins. Epoxy resin systems are well known for their outstanding adhesion, strength, and
resistance to moisture and chemicals. They are also useful for bonding nonporous and dissimilar
materials, such as metal parts to composite components. The manner in which the joints are
designed, and how the surfaces are prepared, determines the quality of the bond.
Each epoxy composite system is designed for a specific purpose. For example, a cowling may use
an epoxy resin that will withstand high temperatures, while an aileron may require one made to
withstand bending stresses. Both use epoxy resin systems but are very different in their chemical
makeup, producing structures with different characteristics. Thus, not every type of epoxy resin is
suitable for every type of structure or repair. Make sure to use the proper resin called for in the
manufacturers repair manual. Never use an epoxy resin that is not approved for aircraft use, as the
strength, flexibility, and moisture resistance qualities cannot be guaranteed.
Some of the properties of epoxy which make it useful for bonded structures are its low shrinkage
percentage, high strength-to-weight ratio, exceptional chemical resistance, and ability to adhere to

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an almost endless variety of materials. Epoxy forms an extremely tight bond between glass and
metal, however, if epoxy is used to bond glass to a metal window frame, the glass will crack from
temperature changes because of the different expansion rates of the metal and the glass.
Epoxy resins are 2 part systems consisting of a base resin and a hardener - not catalyst, for curing.
Hardener is mixed in larger amounts than a catalyst.
Epoxies may be used in place of polyester resins for almost any application. They also have a long
shelf life. Unmixed, epoxies generally keep for almost a year at 72 F. Once they are mixed,
however, they have a very short pot life, which is the amount of time a catalysed resin remains in a
workable state.
Adhesives
Resins come in different forms. Resins used for laminating are generally thinner, to allow proper
saturation of the reinforcing fibres. Others are used for bonding and are typically known as
adhesives because they glue parts together. Adhesive resins and catalysts are available either in
pre-mixed quantities or in separate containers.
One of the most unique forms of adhesive is the film adhesive. This type of adhesive pre-blends
the resin and catalyst on a thin film of plastic. Refrigeration of the film is required to slow the cure
rate (the rate of change to its permanent form) of the resin. If left out at room temperature, the resin
and catalyst will start to cure. In the freezer, the curing process slows down, lengthening the shelf
life of the film. Adhesive films are often used to help bond patches to a repair area.

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Another form of adhesive is available in foam, which is primarily used to splice replacement
honeycomb core segments to existing cores. When heat is applied to the adhesive, it foams up and
expands into crevices. These types of foaming adhesives can also be used to permanently install
fasteners.
Pre-Impregnated Materials
Pre-impregnated fabrics, commonly known as pre-pregs, are fabrics that have the resin system
already saturated into the fabric. Because many epoxy resins have high viscosity, it is often difficult
to mix and work epoxy resins into the fabric to completely encapsulate the fibres. Fabrics are preimpregnated with the proper amount and weight of a resin matrix to eliminate the mixing and
application details such as proper mix ratios and application procedures.
In addition to woven fabrics, manufacturers also pre-impregnate unidirectional materials. Preimpregnating unidirectional fabrics involves saturating the fibres with resin directly from individual
spools of thread.
Pre-preg materials offer a convenience over raw fabrics in many ways:
The pre-preg contains the proper amount of matrix. It does not produce a resin rich or
resin lean component if cured properly.
The reinforcing fibres are completely encapsulated with the matrix. During hand lay-up,
if a resin system has a high viscosity, or is very thick, it is sometimes difficult to get the
resin into and around each individual fibre to produce the strongest cure. This is not a
problem with the pre-preg fabrics. The technician does not have to worry about
distorting the fabric weave while working the resin into the fabric.

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Pre-preg fabrics eliminate the need to manually weigh and mix components. In hand
lay-up, the resin and curing agent must be properly weighed. If they are not weighed
properly, too much resin or curing agent could result in a part that will not cure properly,
causing an unairworthy condition.
In many cases, pre-preg materials produce a stronger component or repair. This is
because just the right amount of matrix-to fabric ratio has been applied and it has been
mixed properly. However, the strength of a composite repair also varies greatly upon
the manner in which the repair is accomplished and the manner in which it is cured.
Pre-pregs were invented for the use of aircraft manufacturers to reduce the problems associated
with completely wetting out the fabric with resin. It also saves time and reduces the problems
associated with weighing and mixing the resins.
Pre-preg fabrics also have disadvantages when working in a maintenance facility. Some of the
disadvantages of working with pre-pregs are:
Many pre-pregs must be stored in a freezer. This requirement must be met. If some
pre-pregs are allowed to remain at room temperature for even a few hours, the
resins/catalysts start their chemical reaction and begin to cure. The term out of- freezer
life is the time that the material is actually out of the freezer and is being cut or
transported. During this time, the resins are warming up to room temperature and will
start to cure. While in the freezer, this chemical reaction is slowed down to allow a
longer shelf life. Pre-preg fabrics usually have a limited shelf life even if kept in the
freezer. Some pre-pregs must also be shipped in cold storage overnight, which adds to
the expense.
Many companies do not want to sell small quantities of a specific weave and resin
system, so a full roll must be purchased. For those shops that do not work with large
amounts of these materials, this is not cost effective.
Pre-preg material is much more expensive than raw fabric that can be impregnated with
the same type of resin system. This is especially true if the material exceeds its shelf
life and must be discarded.
Composite components and materials have not yet been standardized. When working
with metal aircraft, any manufacturer can call for 2024-T3, and you would know what
type of metal to use.
The resin systems in prepreg materials will rapidly degrade if not kept in cold storage.
Moisture, dust or other contaminants will compromise bond durability.
Warning: Bags containing pre-preg material should be opened only in a controlled environment and
not open until the material has thawed to room temperature.

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Fillers
Fillers, also known as thixotropic agents, are materials added to resins to control viscosity and
weight, to increase pot life and cured strength, and to make the application of the resin easier.
Fillers increase the volume of the resin, making it less dense and less susceptible to cracking, as
well as lowering the weight of the material. Most fillers are inert and will not react chemically with
the resin. Microballoons, chopped fibres, and flox are common types of fillers used in composite
construction.
Microballoons are small spheres manufactured from plastic or glass. Plastic microballoons must be
mixed with a compatible resin system that will not dissolve the plastic. Glass microballoons, on the
other hand, are not affected by resin mixtures, making them the primary thixotropic agent used in
composite construction. The advantages to using microballoons are that they provide greater
concentrations of resin in the edges and corners of the structure, they are less dense, which
reduces the overall weight, and they provide lower stress concentrations throughout the structure.
However, microballoons do not add strength to the composite structure.
Chopped fibres and flox can also be added as fillers and have the advantage of adding strength to
the cured mixture. Chopped fibres are made from any type of fibre cut into certain lengths,
commonly 1/4 to 1/2-inch lengths.
Flox is the fuzzy fibre taken from the fabric strands. Both chopped fibres and flox may be used
when added strength is desired. For example, if a hole is accidentally drilled in the wrong place in a
composite structure, filling the hole with a mixture of resin and flox provides more strength than
pure resin. Using pure epoxy resin produces brittle and heavy plugs.
Metal Matrix Composites

A metal matrix composite incorporates metal in the matrix, instead of a plastic resin or ceramic
material. Metal matrices provide specific stiffness, improved fatigue, strength, and wear resistance,
along with improved thermal characteristics. However, they are not readily used in the aviation field
presently; they are still in the experimental stage. Several considerations being analysed are the
potential reinforcement, matrix corrosion reactions, and thermal stresses due to the mismatch of
thermal expansions between the reinforcements and the matrix.

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A large difference in melting temperature between the matrix and the reinforcements may result in
matrix creep while the reinforcement remains elastic.
Types of Fibre-Reinforced Composites

Several methods of fibre-reinforced composite construction are in use today.
The two main methods used are laminated and sandwich construction.
Laminated Composites
The uses of structural laminations of fibreglass, paper, and linen have been around for some time.
As knowledge of composites has evolved, materials made of Aramid (Kevlar), carbon/graphite,
boron, and ceramic fibres have been developed. Laminate composites consist of two or more
layers of reinforcing material bonded together and embedded in a resin matrix. Laminated
composites are built up to desired thicknesses by using multiple layers of reinforcing fabrics.
Interply Hybrid Laminates
Interply hybrid composites consist of two or more layers of different reinforcing material laminated
together. Blending different advanced composite fabrics in a laminate can achieve the proper
balance of stiffness, strength, and weight for a particular application. For example, Kevlar may be
combined with carbon to produce a structure that merges the flexibility, lightweight, and impact
resistance of Kevlar with the stiffness of carbon.
The figure illustrates an interply-hybrid laminate that consists of layers of carbon, fibreglass, and
Kevlar.

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This type of laminate has the toughness of Kevlar, the stiffness of carbon, and the heat resistance
of fibre-glass.
Sandwich Composites
Sandwich construction consists of two or more laminated face sheets bonded to each side of a
relatively thick, lightweight core. Sandwich composites offer high strength to weight ratios as
compared to solid laminated structures.
As previously discussed, there are several types of core materials available for use in sandwich
construction. Each offers its own advantage and unique strength and rigidity characteristics. In
general, the strength of the sandwich composite varies with the thickness and type of core material.
The use of core materials in composite construction dramatically increases the strength of a
structure. The core material is essentially sandwiched between two or more face sheets.
The advantages of a sandwich structure can be shown by comparing a four-layer solid fibreglass
laminate to that of a foam-core sandwich structure that is four times as thick. The sandwich
composite incorporates two layers of fibreglass on the top and bottom of a foam core. In this
arrangement, the part becomes 37 times stiffer than the solid fibreglass laminate, and ten times
stronger, with only a 6% increase in weight.

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Core Materials
Core materials are the central members of an assembly and are used extensively in advanced
composite construction. When bonded between two thin face sheets, it provides a rigid and
lightweight component. Composite structures manufactured in this manner are sometimes referred
to as sandwich construction.
A core material gives a great deal of compressive strength to a structure. For example, the sheet
metal skin on a rotor blade has a tendency to flex in flight. This constant flexing causes metal
fatigue. A composite blade with a central core material provides uniform stiffness throughout the
blade and eliminates most of the flexing associated with metal blades.
The two most common types of core materials utilized in sandwich construction are honeycomb
and foam cores. In addition, wood cores are also occasionally used in composite construction.
Honeycomb Cores
Honeycomb core materials consist of the six-sided shape of a natural honeycomb, which provides
a core with a very high strength-to-weight ratio. Manufacturers construct honeycomb cores from
aluminium, Kevlar, carbon, fibreglass, paper, and steel. Nomex, a paper impregnated material, is
also widely used as an advanced composite core material.

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The ribbon direction of a honeycomb core is the direction in which the honeycomb can be pulled
apart. Pulling one side of the honeycomb that is perpendicular to the ribbon direction separates it,
revealing the ribbon direction. If the pull is parallel to the ribbon, it is nearly impossible to tear the
honeycomb. It is important to line up the ribbon direction of the replacement honeycomb core with
that of the original when performing a repair honeycomb core repair to ensure consistent structural
strength along with uniform compressive strength.
Foam Cores
There are many different types of foam core materials available, depending on the specific
application. Foam core materials offer different densities and temperature characteristics for highheat applications and fire resistance. When using foams in a repair operation, it is important to use
the proper type and density. Always refer to the manufacturers repair guidelines for recommended
materials and procedures. Styrofoam, urethane foam, poly vinyl chloride (PVC), and strux are
several common types of foam cores used in aircraft composite construction.
Styrofoam is commonly used on home-built aircraft and should only be used with an epoxy resin.
Polyester resins dissolve Styrofoam. Do not confuse aircraft-quality Styrofoam with the type of
Styrofoam used to make Styrofoam cups. Styrofoam cups use foam with large cell configurations
that can not be used for structural applications. Aircraft-quality Styrofoam is comprised of smaller
cells, which produce a much stronger core material.
A heated cutting wire can be used to cut an airfoil-shaped part from a block of Styrofoam. A hot
wire cutter consists of a nichrome wire that is heated electrically. Technicians typically make the
tool by stretching the wire in a frame. Attach a template to each end of the foam to provide a

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uniform cut. Monitor the progress of the cut by making sure the increment marks, placed at each
end of the foam, are crossed simultaneously, resulting in a smooth and even surface.
Urethane foam can be used with epoxy or polyester resins. However, urethane cannot be cut with a
hot wire. Subjecting urethane foam to high heat produces a hazardous gas. Instead of a hot wire
cutter, urethane is cut with a number of common tools. Knives are typically used to rough out the
shape, and another piece of urethane foam is used to sand the piece to its desired size and shape.
Other foam core materials include poly vinyl cub- ride (PVC), and styx (cellular, cellulose acetate)
foam. PVC foam can be used with either polyester or epoxy resins and cut with a hot wire. Strux
foam is commonly used to build up ribs or other structural supports.
Storage conditions for core materials:
Dust free environment
Humidity controlled environment
Stored flat and separately on racks
Remotely from any contamination sources Moisture, dust or other contaminants will
compromise bond durability
If the storage area is not humidity controlled, core materials may have to be dried out before use.

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Composite Materials Time Terms

Shelf Life
This is the time span that a product will remain useful. This should be listed on the label.
Temperature during storage will affect the shelf life.
Pot life and Gel time
Are strictly related to the activity of the catalyst. This is governed both by the proportion of the
catalyst and the ambient temperature. For a given proportion of catalyst, the higher the air
temperature the shorter will be the pot life and gel time of the resin.
Hardening time
Can vary a lot depending on the size and thickness of the moulding, and also the proportion of
resin present. It will also again be affected by the air temperature.
Maturing time
Is the further period of time over which the moulding will continue to gain hardness and, eventually,
complete stability. When fully matured, the moulding will have its maximum strength, hardness,
chemical resistance and stability.
Working With Resins and Catalysts

The matrix formula for most advanced composites is very exacting. A slightly improper mix ratio
can make a tremendous amount of difference in the strength of the final composite. Because the
mixing procedures are so important, they are always included with the resin containers. The aircraft
structural-repair manual also outlines proper mixing procedures.
Manufacturers often produce pre-measured matrix packages. The advantage to using prepackaged resin systems is that they eliminate the weighing process and therefore remove the
possibility of a mixing ratio error.

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The resin and catalyst are divided into separate containers that are attached on one end. When
ready for use, the partition, which separates the resin from the catalyst, is broken to allow the two
to mix. Still within the package, the resin/catalyst combination is mixed together by squeezing and
kneading the package to thoroughly blend the mixture. When completely mixed, the package is cut
with scissors and the resin dispensed.
Disposable cartridges that store, mix, and apply two-component materials are also available and
convenient to use. They are available in many sizes and can be tailored to specific uses. Like the
pre-measured packages, cartridges also eliminate mixing ratio errors.
To use epoxy cartridges, the seal that separates the two components must be broken with a
plunger. The materials are then mixed together by moving the plunger in a twisting and up-anddown motion to thoroughly mix the resin and catalyst. The label describes how many strokes are
required to give a thorough mix. A needle or syringe may then be installed onto the end of the
cartridge, and the resin dispensed. Be sure to check the cartridge part number, shelf life expiration
date, and any special instructions.
Dispose of resins
Dispose of cured polyester resin /epoxy products I.A.W local regulations.
Disposal of time expired polyester resin systems can be accomplished by mixing with appropriate
catalyst and then disposing of cured product I.A.W local regulations.
Disposal of time expired two part epoxy resin systems by mixing the two components together
and disposing of cured product I.A.W local regulations.
Do not dispose of unmixed, uncured polyester resin /epoxy into general waste bins.
Do not dispose of catalyst soaked rags into general waste bins as rags could spontaneously
combust.
Contact local Hazardous material collection agencies for collection and disposal of large quantities
of uncured product, accelerators and catalysts.

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COMPOSITE MATERIALS SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

Safety is always important when working with composite materials. Many accidents have occurred
because of the improper usage and handling of composite materials. Before working with any
composite resin or solvent, it is important to know exactly what type of material you are using and
exactly how to use it.
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)

Material safety data sheets contain information on hazardous ingredients, health precautions,
flammability characteristics, ventilation requirements, spill procedures, information for health
professionals in case of an accident, along with transportation and labelling requirements.
MSDS must be available for review in the shop where the specific material is stored and used.
Review the MSDS and become familiar with the specific types of materials you come in contact
with before you begin working with the materials.
Personal Protection
Some materials cause allergic reaction and some people are more sensitive to certain materials
than others. Therefore, it is imperative to protect your skin from contact with composite matrix
materials. The most effective way to provide skin protection is by the use of protective gloves,
respirators, face shields, safety glasses, and shop coats.
Protective gloves are produced from many types of material. Make sure you review the MSDS to
find out what materials do not react with the composite materials you are using. For example,
natural rubber gloves disintegrate when exposed to certain types of epoxy resins. In any case, do
not reuse; replace safety gloves after heavy use.
If any materials come in contact with your skin, remove the material immediately and be sure to
wash the area thoroughly. In addition, wash your hands before and after working with the materials,
and before eating or smoking. Many composite chemicals are irritants and may cause serious skin
inflammation and irritation. There are special types of epoxy cleaners available that break down
resins without drying or reacting with the skin. Again, be sure to check the MSDS before working
with materials that may be potentially hazardous.
Always work in well-ventilated areas when working with resins or solvents. Some resins are toxic
enough to cause difficulty breathing and, in some cases, severe allergic reactions. Wear a
respirator when working with, mixing, and applying resins, solvents or any other hazardous
chemical, and keep contaminated hands away from your mouth. Do not ever ingest any composite
chemical, because some are fatally poisonous.

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Some of the solvents and matrix components can cause permanent blindness within a few seconds
after contact with the eye. Goggles, which can be worn alone or in combination with prescription
glasses, provide complete eye protection against front and side impact hazards, chemical liquid
splashes, and dust. If you should splash any epoxy resin or solvents in your eye, rinse the eye out
immediately, report the accident to your supervisor, and seek medical help.
Very serious eye accidents have occurred when people did not take the warnings seriously. If you
get any substance in your eye, do not wait to seek medical attention. If the substance is left in the
eye for a prolonged period of time, or overnight, the damage to the eye can become more severe.
Dont take chances. Tell your supervisor and seek medical help immediately. Some resins,
hardeners, and solvents may make you go blind.
Certain materials can cause allergic reactions when they contact the skin. Some people are more
sensitive to these materials than others. Using rubber gloves is the most effective way to provide
skin protection with these chemicals. These gloves should be replaced after heavy use.
Remove any splashed resin from your skin immediately. Wash hands thoroughly before and after
work, before eating or smoking, and before putting on gloves.

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Respiration and Ingestion

You must have the proper ventilation when working with any resins or solvents. Additionally, some
resins are sufficiently toxic as to require you to wear a respirator when working with them. To
alleviate respiratory issues, some shops provide a ventilated mixing booth. However, once the
chemicals have been mixed, it is often necessary to apply the resin in an unventilated area or
otherwise expose yourself to the chemical fumes. In such instances, it is important that respirators
are used once the mixed resins are removed from the mixing booth.
Protect exposed skin, use eye and respiratory protection and wear gloves when weighing, mixing
and applying any resin system.

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Fire Protection
Many solvents and resins are flammable, making it important to always work with and store these
types of materials in well-ventilated areas. Keep all resins away from heat and open flames. Follow
the safety recommendations of the manufacturer explicitly to reduce the chance of a fire.
The following fire-safety requirements will reduce the fire danger in the shop:
Eliminate all flames, smoking, sparks, and other sources of ignition from areas where solvents are
used.
Use non-spark-producing tools.
Ensure that all electrical equipment meets the applicable electrical and fire codes.
Keep flammable solvents in closed containers.
Provide adequate ventilation to prevent the build-up of vapours.
Statically ground the aircraft and any repair carts in use.
Never unroll bagging films or other materials around solvents, to reduce the chance of
static electricity.
Never store or use solvents in any area when sanding.
Solvent Safety Tips

There are many types of solvents used in composite construction today. Solvents are mainly used
for cleaning purposes in composite construction. However, most solvents are flammable and must
be used with the highest degree of safety in mind. Methyl-Ethyl-Ketone (MEK) and acetone are two
common solvents used in composite construction.
MEK is mainly used for cleaning dust, grease, and mold release agents from composite
components. Always use protective gloves and goggles when using it. MEK is an excellent cleaner
but also a carcinogen. It can be absorbed directly into the bloodstream through the skin and the
eyes. Acetone is used for general equipment and tool cleanup, in addition to cleaning the
composite parts after sanding as a pro-bond preparation. Follow the manufacturers
recommendations when choosing the proper solvent.

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These safety guidelines should be followed when using all solvents and matrices:
Do not use solvents in any area that may create a static charge.
Do not pour solvents onto the part. Instead, use a solvent-soaked soft cloth to apply
solvents to the working surface.
Use solvents in a well-ventilated area and avoid prolonged breathing of the vapors.
Wear gloves when applying solvents to protect the skin from drying out.
Never use solvents to clean skin. Use suitable epoxy cleaners that are less dangerous.
Wear goggles when pouring and working with solvents.
Store solvents in the original containers so they can be readily identified.
Materials Storage
For safety, read and follow the manufacturers instructions closely when handling and storing
composite materials. Read the labels on containers for all information on handling, storage, and
safety precautions. Improperly stored adhesives, resins, or prepregs may result in structurally
unsafe aircraft components.

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COMPOSITE INSPECTION
Todays composite inspection techniques and non-destructive testing (NDT) methods typically
involve the use of multiple methods to accurately determine the airworthiness of the structure.
Fortunately, many metal inspection and NDT methods transfer to composite applications.
Composite structures require ongoing inspection intervals along with non-scheduled damage
inspection and testing.
When a composite structure is damaged, it must first be thoroughly inspected to determine the
extent of the damage, which often extends beyond the immediate apparent defect. Proper
inspection and testing methods help determine the classification of damage, which is, whether the
damage is repairable or whether the part must be replaced. In addition, classifying the damage
helps to determine the proper method of repair. The manufacturers structural repair manual
outlines inspection procedures, damage classification factors, and recommended repair methods.
Visual Inspection
Visual inspection is the most frequently used inspection method in aviation. Ideally, pilots, ground
crew, and maintenance technicians visually inspect the aircraft on a daily basis. This method of
inspection is generally used to detect resin-rich areas, resin starvation, edge delamination, fibre
break-out, cracks, blistering, and other types of surface irregularities. A strong light and magnifying
glass are useful tools for visual inspection. In extremely critical cases, a small microscope is helpful
in determining whether the fibres in a cracked surface are broken, or if the crack affects the resin
only.

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Tap Testing
It is an effective way of discovering if a finished job / repair has a good bond line or it has air
pockets or other inclusions that may have caused a disbond.
Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic inspection is the most common instrumental NDT method used on composites today. An
ultrasonic tester is useful for detecting internal damage such as delaminations, core crush, and
other subsurface defects.
Two common methods of ultrasonic testing include the pulse echo and through transmission
methods.

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In the pulse echo method, the tester generates ultrasonic pulses, sends them through the part, and
receives the return echo. The echo patterns are displayed on an oscilloscope. An advantage to the
pulse echo method is that it only requires access to one side of the structure. However, nearsurface defects do not readily allow sound to pass through them, making it difficult to detect defects
located under the first defect. The pulse echo method works well on laminates because they do not
reduce the magnitude of sound waves as much as a bonded core structure.
The through transmission method uses two transducers. One transducer emits ultrasonic waves
through the part and the other receives them. Defects located at multiple levels throughout the
structure are more easily detected because the receiver, located on the backside of the part,
receives the reduced amount of sound waves that pass through the defects. The ratio of the
magnitudes of sound vibrations transmitted and received determines the structures reliability.
Testing bonded-core structures usually requires the through transmission method due to the fact
that sound waves reduce in magnitude as they travel through the sandwich structure. To effectively
test this type of structure, the use of a receiver on the backside of the part dramatically increases
the likelihood of detecting a defect.
Radiographic Inspection
Radiography or x-ray inspection is used to detect differences in the thickness or physical density
when compared to the surrounding material of a composite. It can be used to detect surface as well
as internal cracks. Radiography also detects entrapped water inside honeycomb core cells. In
addition to detecting the actual defect, it can also detect the extent and size of the damage, unlike
ultrasonic or tap testing.
X-ray inspection will also detect foreign objects in the composite structure if the objects density is
different from the composite structure.

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Thermography
Thermography locates flaws by temperature variations at the surface of a damaged part. Heat is
applied to the part and the temperature gradients are measured using an infrared camera.
Thermography requires knowledge of the thermal conductivity of the test specimen and a reference
standard for comparison purposes.
Dye Penetrants
Dye penetrant successfully detects cracks and other defects in metallic surfaces, but should not be
used on composite structure unless called for by the manufacturer.
If a dye penetrant is used on the composite structure and allowed to sit on the surface, the wicking
action of the fibers may absorb the penetrant. Absorbed penetrant does not allow fibers to bond to
new material. The entire area affected by the dye penetrant would have to be removed before new
patches could be applied, which could extend the damage to a size that would make the part nonrepairable.

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COMPOSITES DAMAGE
Depending on the manufacturer of the Aircraft, classifications of damage is usually placed in one of
three categories:
Negligible - damage that may be corrected by a simple repair procedure with no
restrictions on flight operations
Repairable - damage to the skin, bond or core that cannot exist without placing
restrictions on flight operations, but can be repaired
Non-repairable - self explanatory, damage to the structure or component that can not
be repaired (component must be replaced)
Areas of condensation remaining on a structure after the aircraft has warmed up following cold
soaking at altitude might be an indication of water ingress and should be investigated.
Cosmetic Defects
A cosmetic defect is a defect on the outer surface skin that does not involve damage to the
structural reinforcing fibres.

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Impact Damage
Impact damage occurs when a foreign object strikes the part. The degree of damage may range
from slight to severe. The most common cause of impact damage is careless handling during
transportation or storage, or standing parts on their edge without adequate protection.
The thin face sheets on a sandwich panel are very susceptible to impact damage. An area that has
been subjected to impact damage should also be inspected for delamination around the impacted
area.
Nicking, chipping, cracking, or breaking away pieces of the edge or corner can also be caused from
improper handling.
Delamination
Delamination is the separation of fabric layers of material in a laminate. Delamination can occur
with no visible indications from the outer skin. To compound the problem, delamination often
accompanies other types of damage, particularly impact damage. This damage occurs as the result
of several causes, including impact, moisture in the fabric, or lightning strikes.
Disbonds
The term disbond is defined as a separation of the composite material from another material to
which it has been adhesively bonded.
This is different to a delamination which refers to a similar separation between any plies or layers of
the composite. Separation between the skin and core of a composite sandwich structure is
separately referred to as a core disbond.
A disbond may be the consequence of poor adhesion, service loading or impact damage. The
disbond may not be visible externally and if tight or weakly bonded may be difficult to detect using
NDE methods. The latter is known as a kissing bond. Disbonding is particularly important to avoid
in joins such as end connections.
Cracks
Cracks can occur in composite structures just as in metallic ones. Cracking is a common form of
damage in composites arising in manufacture or under service conditions. Cracking has a
significant effect on the integrity of the composite, allowing environment ingress and damage to
extend under service loading. Cracking is often associated with the final stages of in-service failure.

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Sometimes they can be detected visually, other times they may require more advanced methods of
non-destructive inspection (NDI). A thorough inspection should be made to determine the extent of
each crack.
Resin Matrix Damage

It can be caused by many things, such as fire or excessive heat, UV rays, paint stripper, impacts
etc.
Water and Aircraft Fluid Intrusion

This is especially a problem with honeycomb cores.
Causes weight gain, contamination of bond joints, corrosion in aluminium honeycomb, and
disbonds if the water freezes and expands.
Water intrusion is a very common problem with high temperature repairs.
The heat of curing causes the trapped water to turn to steam, disbonding face sheets around the
repair.

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It is a progressive way to inadvertently convert a small area of damage into a large one.
Hole Damage
Holes may occur from impact damage, over-torquing fasteners, or as a result of fastener pullthrough. Holes drilled in the wrong location, wrong size, or wrong number of holes drilled can also
be classified as hole damage.
Holes caused by a lightning strike may burn off resins, leaving bare cloth.
Tiny holes, known as pin holes, in the skin surface are not easily detected; however, they could
lead to more extensive damage. If moisture is allowed to get into the core structure, along with the
airflow over the part, it could cause a small delamination, which could grow into a very large
delamination.

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COMPOSITES REPAIRS
The exact procedures for repair of various laminated composite structures depend partly on the
type of damage incurred. The damage can range from a relatively simple surface scratch, to
damage completely through all internal plies and core honeycomb material.
There are four basic types of composite repairs:
Bolted metal or cured composite patches
Bonded metal or cured composite patches
Resin injection
Laminating new repair plies to the damage
Bolted and bonded surface patches are not usually recommended due to the fact that these types
of patches do not restore the strength characteristics of the original structure. A bolted or bonded
patch that is attached to the surface also causes undesirable aerodynamic changes.
Resin injection repairs are used to fill holes or voids. They are accomplished by injecting resin into
the hole of a damaged area using a needle and syringe. This type of repair is usually done on nonstructural parts. The injected resin does not restore the original strength, and, in some cases,
expands the delamination.
The most desirable type of permanent repair to composite structure is to laminate new repair plies
in the damaged area. This type of repair involves removing the damaged plies, and laminating on
new ones.
Composites Damage Assessment and Repair Process

Below are the basic steps:
Find the damage - clean damaged area and remove surface coatings
Assess the extent of the damage - use visual and NDI techniques and then mark out
the repair
Define the repair procedure
Fabricate the repair
Prepare the repair site
Lay up/install the repair
Cleanup the repair site
Inspect repair site for structural integrity may use NDI again
Document repair

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Mechanically Fastened Repairs with Pre Cured Patches

At times, the facilities and bagging equipment are not available to produce a proper composite
repair. In this case, a temporary repair made of a pre-cured patch inserted with blind fasteners may
be used. However, this type of repair does not produce a structure with the same strength as the
original, and it may cause vibration because it is not a flush repair. If composite patches are
required, kits with pre-cured patches may be available. Pre-cured patches come in several sizes
and are produced to have the fibers of each layer in the correct orientation.
In addition, some manufacturers offer various sizes of core materials that are bonded to pre-cured
laminates. The technician can route out the damaged area and simply insert this type of core and

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laminate patch. This type of repair may have a type of adhesive pre-applied to help it bond. These
types of patches are usually stabilized using some type of mechanical blind fastener, which is
drilled through the patch and into the original part. The problem with using any type of rivet is that
they have a tendency to crush the core and produce delamination.
These types of repairs must be performed using the correct type of fasteners. Hole expanding
fasteners such as MS20470 rivets should not be used in composite structures because of the
possibility of causing damage. Impact damage and delamination may occur due to the pressure of
the rivet gun and bucking bar and the expansion of the rivet. In addition, you must also make sure
metallic fasteners will not react with the composite and cause galvanic corrosion. For example,
metal fasteners used with carbon/graphite composites must be made of corrosion resistant steel or
titanium to prevent this electrolytic action.
Potted Repairs
Potted repairs use a filler to complete the composite repair process. They provide an alternative to
installing a core material plug but do not provide as much strength as a core material. Filling a hole
with a resin and filler mixture adds weight and decreases the flexibility of the part. However, many
structural repair manuals still list the potted repair as a viable repair for composite structures,
Most potted repairs are appropriate for honeycomb core sandwich structures with damage up to
one-inch in diameter. In some cases, it is permissible to drill a small hole into a delaminated area
and inject resin to strengthen the part.
A typical potted repair procedure requires the technician to:
Clean the damaged area.
Sand out the delaminated area.
Fill the core area with a resin and mixture.
Prepare and install repair patches.
Apply pressure and cure.
Refinish the part.

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Injection Repairs
In some cases, internal delamination is minor enough to repair using a potting compound. It can
sometimes be repaired by simply injecting resin into the cavity that was caused by the ply
separation. If the delamination is severe enough, it must be removed and repaired or replaced;
always check the manufacturers repair limitations.
A typical delamination injection repair procedure for minor delamination follows.

Clean the surface with an approved solvent.
Outline the void area and mark the injection hole locations.
Drill two .060-inch holes into the disbonded area taking care not to drill through the part.
Inject mixed resin into one hole allowing air to vent from the other
Clean excess resin from the surface of the part.
Cure according to the manufacturers instructions.
Minor edge delamination can sometimes be repaired by injecting resin into the delamination,
clamping the edge and allowing the resin to cure.

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In addition, edges that have been damaged by crushing or puncture can be repaired by scarf
cutting, and installing new plies.
Laminate Damage to One Surface

This type of repair calls for the removal and replacement of the damaged laminate plies.
Fiber damage to one side of the surface that does not completely penetrate the part may be
repaired as follows:
Prepare the surface by removing the paint and cleaning.
Remove the damage by scarf or step-cutting the plies.
Mix the resin and prepare the bonding patches.
Apply pressure and cure the part.
Re-finish the part.

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Laminate Damage through the Part

Damage that runs through all of the laminate layers can be repaired in several ways depending on
the number of plies, the location of the damage, and the size of the damage. Check the
manufacturers repair manual for specific repair limitations regarding each type of damage.
Repairable damage can be fixed in several different ways. The damage can be repaired using a
step-cut that starts from one side of the part to the other, or, in the case of thicker laminate
structures, repaired by step-cutting from both sides and meeting in the middle.
View A illustrates a step-cut repair that runs from one side of the part to the other. In addition, a
surface patch and backing plate with a one-inch overlap are applied to both surfaces of the repair.
View B illustrates a modified step-cut repair. The step-cuts are started from both sides and meet in
the middle. This type of repair reduces the size of the patch when performed on thicker laminates.
Using view B as an example, the modified two-sided step-cut repair results in a patch that is four
inches in diameter. If the one sided step-cut repair was performed on this same five- layer
laminate, the patch would be five inches in diameter.
SANDWICH STRUCTURE REPAIRS

Sandwich structures are vulnerable to impact and puncture damage primarily because these types
of structures usually incorporate relatively thin face sheets. Because the face sheets of sandwich
structures are relatively thin, delaminations commonly occur at the point where the face sheet
bonds to the core material. Puncture damage may be repaired in several different ways depending
on the size, extent, and location of the damage.
Two of the more common types of sandwich structure repair are described below.
Puncture Repair
Honeycomb Core Repairs

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Puncture Repair
Small punctures that penetrate one side and into the core material may be repaired using a resin
and filler mixture. Check the repair manual damage limitations before proceeding with this type of
repair.
Generally, small punctures can be repaired using the following procedure:
Determine the extent of the damage and check the repair limitations.
Vacuum out the hole.
Prepare the resin and filler (milled glass fibers).
Work the resin/filler mixture into the hole.
Cure the resin in accordance with the manufacturers instructions.
Sand the surface with fine sandpaper.
Prepare the surface for finishing using an approved solvent.
Re-finish the part.

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Honeycomb Core Repairs

As discussed previously, potted repairs may be made to areas of damage of up to one-inch
diameter. If the damaged area is larger than an inch or in a more critical area, a balsa wood or
composite honeycomb plug may be cut and bonded in place. If balsa is used, cut the plug so the
grain is perpendicular to the skin. If honeycomb material is used, it should be the same density as
the original.
Transparent Plastic Repair

When a windshield on an unpressurised aircraft has a crack, it can be repaired by:
Stop-drill the ends of the crack to prevent it from growing
Drill a series of holes from the crack edges, and about apart
Lace the holes with brass safety wire to hold the crack together

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Another temporary repair for a cracked windshield is:

Stop-drill the ends of the crack
Drill holes every inch throughout the crack
Install AN515-6 screws with AN365-632 nuts and AN 960-6 washers
Transparent Plastic Materials Storage and Handling

Store in a cool dry location away from paint and solvent fumes.
Keep protective paper/tape on.
Do not store in direct sunlight (protective paper may deteriorate and become difficult to remove).
Store in racks at a 10 angle from vertical.
If storing horizontally is unavoidable:
Ensure there is no dirt between sheets,
Stack smallest sheets on top to prevent unsupported overhang, and
Do not stack higher than 18.
When storing formed sections:
Use ample support to retain shape,
Avoid vertical nesting,
Protect against high temperatures, and
Leave protective coatings on.

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SEALANTS
Sealants are manufactured to fulfil a multitude of applications and are generally available in two
forms:
One part sealants are prepared by the manufacturer and are ready for application as packaged.
Two-part sealants are compounds requiring separate packaging to prevent curing prior to
application. The two parts are identified as the base sealing compound and the accelerator. Two
part sealants are generally mixed by combining equal portions (by weight) of the base and the
accelerator compounds and any deviation from the prescribed ratios can reduce the materials
quality.
Some of the applications include sealing fuel tanks and pressurised structure, weatherproofing skin
joins and aerodynamic smoothing of aircraft surfaces as well as gluing skins and structure together
and separating skins, structure and fasteners as a corrosion preventative.

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TOPIC 6.4.1 AND 6.4.2: CORROSION FUNDAMENTALS AND

IDENTIFICATION
CORROSION
Corrosion is a complex electro-chemical action that causes metals to be transformed into their salts
and oxides. These powdery substances replace the metal and cause severe loss of strength in the
structure. While complex in its nature, the actual mechanics of corrosion are relatively simple and
straight forward.
For corrosion to form, three requirements must be met:

An electrical potential difference within the metal
A conductive path between the two areas of potential difference
Some form of electrolyte or fluid covering the two areas
Corrosion is a natural process, and its prevention almost impossible; but it can be controlled. The
aviation technician must prevent or remove one or more of the requirements for corrosion. In doing
this goes a long way in adding longevity to the structure of the airplane.
Training Material Only B-6a 4: Corrosion Fundamentals and Identification

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Cleanliness of the surface is one of the best ways to control corrosion. When moisture is held in
contact with the metal surface by an accumulation of dirt or grease, corrosion is sure to start. If the
surface can be kept perfectly dry and clean, however, corrosion has little chance of getting started.
The essence of corrosion control is therefore prevention rather than removal.
Dry Corrosion
At room temperature, most metals carry a thin oxide layer as a result of the reaction of metals with
oxygen in the atmosphere. Increase of temperature may cause formation of a heavier layer, or the
layer may detach.
Zinc and zinc coatings carry a fairly protective zinc hydroxide or carbonate layer (zinc patina) which
increases in thickness very slowly. Aluminium carries a thin, highly protective oxide layer.
Some corrosion takes place even under completely dry conditions.
Wet Corrosion
Wet corrosion takes place in environments where the relative humidity exceeds 60%. The
corrosion may be uniform destruction of the metal surface or localised destruction (pitting, stress
corrosion cracking). The corrosion can be concentrated adjacent to a more noble metal or at points
where the oxygen supply is limited.
Wet corrosion is an electro-chemical phenomenon. When two metals are in contact with water
solution containing salts, an electric potential is formed between two different metals or the
surfaces of the same metal with different surface conditions. This causes the dissolution of the less
noble metal. The more noble metal remains protected but the less noble metal corrodes.

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Wet corrosion is most efficient in waters containing salts, such as NaCl (e.g. marine conditions),
due to the high conductivity of the solution. Chlorides also may increase the corrosion rate of
metals.
Direct Chemical Attack

If an alkaline or acidic liquid comes into contact with metal, the result is a form of corrosion known
as Direct Chemical Attack.
It is also fundamentally electrochemical in nature. However, no current flow is detectable, nor are
there any definite anodic or cathodic areas. The theoretical rate of a chemical attack can be
affected by the formation of a protective film on the metal surface, through secondary reactions
involving the products of corrosion, and the mechanical removal of protective films, such as by
erosion, flexing of the metal surface, or by temperature changes.
For corrosion to form on a metal there must be an electrode potential difference and an electrolyte.
Almost all acids and alkalis react with metals to form metallic salts (corrosion), though some are
more active than others. Sulphuric acid as found in batteries is especially active in corroding
aluminium, while a weak solution of chromic or phosphoric acid is actually used as a surface
treatment when preparing a metal for painting.
Ferrous metals are subject to damage from both acids and alkalis, but aluminium is more
vulnerable to strong alkaline solutions than to acids. Aluminium structure, for instance, can be
severely corroded if allowed to remain on a concrete floor. Water will leach out enough lime from
the cement to form an alkaline solution that will corrode the aluminium.
Phosphate Ester hydraulic fluids (Skydrol) can cause severs corrosion and embrittlement of
titanium alloys at elevated temperatures above 120 C, probably because of decomposition of the
fluid to phosphoric acid.

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Mercury
Although it is not commonly found in any quantity around aircraft, there is a definite possibility that
mercury could be spilled in an aeroplane.
Mercury attacks aluminium by a chemical reaction known as amalgamation. In this process, the
mercury rapidly attacks along the grain boundaries of the aluminium, and in an exceedingly short
time will completely destroy it.
Extreme care must be exercised when removing spilled mercury, as it is slippery and will flow
through even a tiny crack to get to the lowest part of the structure where it can cause extensive
damage.
Not only is mercury damaging to aircraft structure, mercury and mercury vapours are also
dangerous to people. If mercury is spilled, remove every particle with a vacuum cleaner having a
mercury trap in the suction line, or with a rubber suction bulb or medicine dropper.
Never attempt to remove mercury by blowing with compressed air. This will scatter It and spread
the damage.
Brass control cable turnbuckle barrels are especially susceptible to mercury damage. Any sign of
mercury discoloration requires replacement of the barrel (brass takes on a slippery, chromed
appearance).
Often Mercury spills originate in cargo compartments where, rough handling of a passenger
baggage has broken a Mercury thermometer carried in the bag. Mercury and Mercury
thermometers cannot be legally carried on a commercial aircraft

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Electro-Chemical Series
If the anode is smaller than the cathode, the anode will give up electrons more easily and the
corrosion will be more rapid.
Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic Corrosion can take place where dissimilar metal skins are riveted together, or where
aluminium inspection plates are attached to structure with steel screws.

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Stress Corrosion
Stresses may come from a fitting that has been pressed into a structural part with an interference
fit. Cracks grow rapidly as the corrosive attack concentrates at the end of the crack, rather than
along its sides as in intergranular corrosion.
A common place for stress corrosion is between rivets in a stressed skin, around pressed-in
bushing, tapered pipe fittings. Careful visual inspection may show up this type of corrosion, but to
find the actual extent of the cracks requires dye penetrant inspection.
Surface Corrosion
Where an area of unprotected metal is exposed to an atmosphere containing battery fumes,
exhaust gases, or industrial contaminants, there will be a rather uniform attack over the entire
surface area.
This dulling of the surface is caused by microscopic amounts of the metal being converted into
corrosion salts. If these deposits are not removed and the surface protected against further action,
there will develop such a rough surface that corrosion pits will form.
Surface corrosion can go undetected until it breaks through the metal, when it is too late to save
the affected parts.

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Pitting Corrosion
A logical progression from uniform surface corrosion, if left untreated, is called pitting. Pits form as
localized anodic areas. Corrosive action may continue until an appreciable percentage of the metal
thickness is converted into salts which may. In extreme cases, eat completely through the metal.
Pitting corrosion may be detected by the appearance of clumps of white powder on the surface.
Intergranular Corrosion
Micro-photographs of aluminium alloys show them made up of extremely tiny grains held together
by chemical bonds; that is, the interaction of the atoms of the various elements.
In the process of heat treating, the metal is heated to such a temperature that these alloying agents
go into solution with each other. When this temperature has been reached uniformly throughout,
the metal is removed from the furnace and immediately quenched in water to solidify these
elements into extremely small grains. If quenching is delayed, for even a few seconds, these grains
will grow, and when finally quenched, will have reached such size that the areas of dissimilar
metals will provide efficient cathodes and anodes for corrosion formation.
It is hard to detect as it is inside the metal but often shows up as a blister on the surface.

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Filiform Corrosion
Filiform corrosion is a particular case of oxygen cell corrosion in a protective organic coating. In
certain conditions corrosion can be initiated at the defect and can propagate beneath the organic
coating: the front of the propagation acting as the anode (low aerated zone) and the defect
neighbourhood acting as the cathode (high aerated zone).
The unusual characteristic of this type of corrosion is that it forms in the areas where there is a
deficiency of oxygen.
A wash primer is a two-art metal preparation material in which phosphoric acid converts the surface
of the metal in to a phosphate film that protects the metal from corrosion, and provides an excellent
bond for paint. The conversion process relies on moisture in the air, and if there is not enough
moisture to convert all of the acid, some acid remains on the metal. If a dense polyurethane finish
is then applied, the acid becomes trapped and reacts with the aluminium alloy to form corrosion.
Fretting Corrosion
When two surfaces fit tightly together, but can move relative to one another, they may be eroded.
These surfaces are normally not close enough together to shut out oxygen so they do develop the
desired protective film. However, this film is destroyed by the continued rubbing action. This wear is
fretting corrosion. When movement between the two surfaces is small, the debris between them
does not have an opportunity to escape, and it acts as an abrasive to further erode the surfaces. By
the time this type of corrosion makes its appearance on the surface, the damage is usually done
and the parts must be replaced.
Fretting corrosion may occur around rivets in a skin. This will be indicated by dark deposits around
the rivet heads, streaming out behind. It gives the appearance of the rivet smoking. Rivets showing
this sign of fretting must be replaced as soon as possible.

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Exfoliation Corrosion
This type of corrosion, despite its high sounding name, is simply an extreme case of intergranular
corrosion. It occurs chiefly in extruded materials such as channels or angles where the grain
structure Is more laminar (layer-like) than In rolled sheets or castings. This type of corrosion occurs
along the grain boundaries and causes the material to separate or delaminate. As with other types
of Inter- granular corrosion, by the time it is evident on the surface, the strength of the metal has
been greatly decreased. In this state the metal no longer has any strength. The only remedy is
complete removal of the affected sections.
Microbiological Growths
New developments bring new problems. For years, water which condensed in the fuel tanks
produced relatively minor corrosion problems. Small perforated metal containers of potassium
dichromate crystals protected the fuel tanks by changing any water into a mild chromic acid
solution which inhibited corrosion. Jet aircraft, however, use fuel with a higher viscosity than
gasoline, fuel which holds more water in suspension. They also fly higher than reciprocating engine
aircraft. In high altitude, low temperature flight conditions, the water entrained in the fuel will
condense out and collect in the bottom of the tanks.
To further complicate matters, this water contains microbes which are simply microscopic sized
animal life and plant life. These organic bodies live in the water and feed on the hydrocarbon fuel.
The dark Insides of the fuel tanks promote their growth and before you know it, these tiny creatures

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have multiplied until they form a scum in the tank. It holds water in contact with the tank structure
where corrosion of the concentration cell type will inevitably form. If the scum forms along the edge
of a seal in an integral fuel tank, the sealant may pull away from the structure, causing a leak and
an expensive resealing operation.
Figure below shows the lower skin of a fuel tank - the splotchy areas are fungus, the darker area
around the corner of the tank is sealant.

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TOPIC 6.5.4: AIRCRAFT RIVETS

RIVETS SPECIFICATION AND STANDARDS
Specifications and standards for aircraft hardware are generally identified by the organization
originating them.
Some of the most common are:
AMS - Aeronautical Material Specifications
AN - Air Force-Navy
AND - Air Force-Navy Design
AS - Aeronautical Standard
ASA - American Standards Association
American Society for Testing and Materials
Military Standard
Naval Aircraft Factory
National Aerospace Standard
Society of Automotive Engineers
A rivet is any type of fastener that obtains its clamping action by having one of its ends
mechanically upset.
When an MS20470-AD4-4 rivet is required, specifications have already been written for it and are
available to both the aircraft manufacturer and rivet producer. These specifications stipulate the
material to be used as well as the rivet dimensions. By using these specifications and calling for
standard hardware, aircraft manufacturers are able to build reproducible aircraft at an economical
cost.

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B-6a 5.4 Aircraft Rivets

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Solid Shank Rivets

The solid shank rivet has been used since sheet metal was first utilized in aircraft, and remains the
single most commonly used aircraft fastener today. Unlike other types of fasteners, rivets change in
dimension to fit the size of a hole. When a rivet is driven, its cross sectional area increases along
with its bearing and shearing strengths. Solid shank rivets are available in a variety of materials,
head designs, and sizes to accommodate different applications.
Before driven, a rivet should extend beyond the base material at least 1.5 times the rivets
diameter. Once driven, the rivet shank expands to fill the hole and the bucktail expands to 1.5 times
its original diameter. Once the bucktail expands to the appropriate diameter it should extend
beyond the base material by at least one half the original rivets diameter.
Rivet Codes
Rivets are given part codes that indicate their size, head style, and alloy material.
Two systems are in use today, the Air Force - Navy, or AN system, and the Military Standards 20
system, or MS2O. While there are minor differences between the two systems, both use the same
method for describing rivets.
The first part denotes numbering system.

Second part describes head style (For examples, 470 is universal head and 426 is countersunk).
Third part is a one or two digit letter code representing rivet alloy material.
Next is the shank diameter indicated in 1/32 inch increments.

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Finally the length indicated in 1/16 inch increments.
The length of a universal head (AN470) rivet is measured from the bottom of the manufactured
head to the end of the shank. However, the length of a countersunk rivet (AN426) is measured from
the top of the manufactured head to the end of the shank.

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Rivets Head Design

As mentioned, solid shank rivets are available in two standard head styles, universal and countersunk, or flush. The AN470 universal head rivet now replaces all previous protruding head styles
such as AN430 round, AN442 flat, AN455 brazier, and AN456 modified brazier.
Joints utilizing countersunk rivets generally lack the strength of protruding head rivet joints. One
reason is that a portion of the material being riveted is cut away to allow for the countersunk head.,
Another reason is that, when riveted, the gusset may not make direct contact with the rivet head if
the rivet hole was not countersunk or dimpled correctly.
AN426 countersunk rivets were developed to streamline airfoils and permit a smooth flow over an
aircrafts wings or control surfaces. However, before a countersunk rivet can be installed, the metal
must be countersunk or dimpled. Countersinking is a process in which the metal in the top sheet is
cut away in the shape of the rivet head.
On the other hand, dimpling is a process that mechanically dents the sheets being joined to
accommodate the rivet head. Sheet thickness and rivet size determine which method is best suited
for a particular application.
Joints utilizing countersunk rivets generally lack the strength of protruding head rivet joints. One
reason is that a portion of the material being riveted is cut away to allow for the countersunk head.,
Another reason is that, when riveted, the gusset may not make direct contact with the rivet head if
the rivet hole was not countersunk or dimpled correctly, dimpled correctly, resulting in the rivet not
expanding to fill the entire hole. To ensure head-to-gunset contact, it is recommended that
countersunk heads be installed with the manufactured head protruding above the skins surface
about .005 to .007 of an inch. This ensures that the gunset makes direct contact with the rivet head.

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To provide a smooth finish after the rivet is driven, the protruding rivet head is removed using a
Microshaver. This rotary cutter shaves the rivet head flush with the skin, leaving an
aerodynamically clean surface.
Figure A - if the rivet head is allowed to protrude above the metal all of the gunsets energy hits the
head resulting in a stronger joint.
Figure B - if a countersunk rivet is set with the rivet head flush with the metals surface, some of the
gunsets driving energy is lost.
Rivet Alloys
Most aircraft rivets are made of aluminium alloy. The type of alloy is identified by a letter in the rivet
code and by a mark on the rivet head itself.

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1100 Aluminium (A)

Rivets made of pure aluminium have no identifying marks on their manufactured head, and are
designated by the letter A in the rivet code. Since this type of rivet is made out of commercially pure
aluminium, the rivet lacks sufficient strength for structural applications. Instead, 1100 rivets are
restricted to non-structural assemblies such as fairings, engine baffles, and furnishings.
The 1100 rivet is driven cold, and therefore, its shear strength increases slightly as a result of cold
working.
2117 Aluminium Alloy (AD)

The rivet alloy 2117-T3 is the most widely used for manufacturing and maintenance of modern
aircraft.
Rivets made of this alloy have a dimple in the centre of the head and are represented by the letters
put in rivet part codes. Because AD rivets are so common and require no heat treatment, they are
often referred to as field rivets.
The main advantage for using 2117-T3 for rivets is its high strength and shock resistance
characteristics. The alloy 2117-T3 is classified as a heat-treated aluminium alloy, but does not
require re-heat treatment before driving.

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5056 Aluminium Alloy (B)

Some aircraft parts are made of magnesium. If aluminium rivets were used on these parts,
dissimilar metal corrosion could result. For this reason, magnesium structures are riveted with 5056
rivets which contain about 5 percent magnesium. These rivets are identified by a raised cross on
their heads and the letter B in a rivet code. The maximum shear strength of an installed 5056H32
rivet is 28,000 pounds per square inch.
2017 Aluminium Alloy (D)

2017 aluminium alloy is extremely hard. Rivets made of this alloy are often referred to as D rivets
and were widely used for aircraft construction for many years. However, the introduction of jet
engines placed greater demands for structural strength on aircraft materials and fasteners. In
response to this, the aluminium industry modified 2017 alloy to produce a new version of 2017
aluminium, called the crack free rivet alloy. The minimum shear strength of the older 2017T31 rivet
alloy is 30 KSI, while that of the new 2017T3 alloy is 34 KSI (KSI = Kilo pounds per inch).
D-rivets are identified by a raised dot in the centre of their head and the letter D in rivet codes.
Because D-rivets are so hard they must be heat treated before they can be used.
When aluminium alloy is quenched after heat treatment it does not harden immediately. Instead, it
remains soft for several hours and gradually becomes hard and gains full strength. Rivets made of
2017 can be kept in this annealed condition by removing them from a quench bath and immediately

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storing them in a freezer. Because of this, D rivets are often referred to as icebox rivets. These
rivets become hard when they warm up to room temperature, and may be reheat-treated as many
times as necessary without impairing their strength.
2024 Aluminium Alloy (DD)
DD-rivets are identified by two raised dashes on their head. Like D-rivets, DD-rivets are also called
icebox rivets and must be stored at cool temperatures until they are ready to be driven, The length
of time the rivets remain soft enough to drive is determined by the storage temperature. For
example, if the storage temperature is -30 degree F, the rivets will remain soft enough to drive for
two weeks. When DD rivets are driven their alloy designation becomes 2024T31.
7050-T73 Aluminium Alloy (E)

A new and stronger rivet alloy was developed in 1079 called 7050T73. The letter E is used to
designate this alloy, and the rivet head is marked with a raised circle. 7050 alloy contains zinc as
the major alloying ingredient and is precipitation heat-treated. This alloy is used by the Boeing
Airplane Company as a replacement for 2024T31 rivets in the manufacture of the 767 wide-body
aircraft.

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Corrosion-Resistant Steel (F)

Stainless steel rivets are used for fastening corrosion-resistant steel sheets in applications such as
firewalls and exhaust shrouds. They have no marking on their heads and designated with the letter
F.
Monel (M)
Monel rivets are identified with two recessed dimples in their heads. They are used in place of
corrosion-resistant steel rivets when their somewhat lower shear strength is not a detriment.
Rivet Heat Treatment

When an alloy is allowed to cool at room temperature, it is referred to as natural aging and can take
several hours or several weeks.
This process can be accelerated by carrying out precipitation heat-treatment, also known as
artificial aging and precipitation-hardening.
This process applies a slightly elevated temperature for an extended period to attain the required
temper in the shortest time possible.

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Special Rivets
Conventional solid shank rivets require access to both ends to be driven. However, special rivets,
often called blind rivets are installed with access to only one end of the rivet.
While considerably more expensive than solid shank rivets, blind rivets find many applications in
todays aircraft industry.
Pop Rivets
Pop rivets have limited use on aircraft and are never used for structural repairs. However, they are
useful for temporarily lining up holes. In addition, some home built aircraft utilize Pop rivets. They
are available in flat head, countersunk head, and modified flush heads with standard diameters of
1/8, 5/32, and 3/16 inch. Pop rivets are made from soft aluminium alloy, steel, copper, and Monel.
Friction-Lock Rivets
One early form of blind rivet that was the first to be widely used for aircraft construction and repair
was the Cherry friction-lock rivet. Originally, Cherry friction-locks were available in two styles,
hollow shank pull-through and self plugging types. The pull-through type is no longer common;
however, the self-plugging Cherry friction-lock rivet is still used for repairing light aircraft.
Cherry friction-lock rivets are available in two head styles, universal and 100 degree countersunk.
Furthermore, they are usually supplied in three standard diameters, 1/8, 5/32, and 3/16 inch.
However, larger sizes can be specially ordered in sizes up to 5/16 inch.
The friction-lock rivet assembly consists of a shell and mandrel or pulling stem. The stem is pulled
until the header forms a bucktail on the blind side of the shell. At this point, a weak point built into
the stem shears and the stem breaks off. After the stem fractures, part of it projects upward. The
projecting stem is cut close to the rivet head and the small residual portion is filed smooth.

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A friction-lock rivet cannot replace a solid shank rivet, size for size. When a friction-lock is used to
replace a solid shank rivet, it must be at least one size (1/32 inch) larger in diameter. This is
because a friction-lock rivet loses considerable strength if its centre stem falls out due to damage
or vibration.
Mechanical-Lock Rivets
Mechanical-lock rivets were designed to prevent the centre stem of a rivet from falling out as a
result of the vibration encountered during aircraft operation. Unlike the centre stem of a friction-lock
rivet, a mechanical-lock rivet permanently locks the stem into place and vibration cannot shake it
loose.
Mechanical-lock rivets include:
Huck-Loks
Cherrylocks
Olympic-Loks
Cherrymax

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Huck-Loks
Huck-Lok rivets were the first mechanical-lock rivets and are used as structural replacements for
solid shank rivets. However, because of the expensive tooling required for their installation, HuckLoks are generally limited to aircraft manufacturers and some large repair facilities.
Huck-Loks are available in four standard diameters,1/8, 5/32, 31/6, and 1/4 inch, and come in three
different alloy combinations: a 5055 sleeve with a 2024 pin, an A-286 sleeve with an A-285 pin, and
a Monel 400 sleeve with an A-285 pin.
Cherrylocks
The Cherry mechanical-lock rivet, often called the bulbed CherryLOCK, was developed shortly
after the Huck-Lok. Like the Huck-Lok, the CherryLOCK rivet is an improvement over the frictionlock rivet because its center stem is locked into place with a lock ring. This results in shear and
bearing strengths that are high enough to allow CherryLOCKS to be used as replacements for solid
shank rivets.
CherryLOCK rivets are available with two head styles, 100 degree countersunk and universal. Like
most blind rivets, CherryLOCKs are available with diameters of 1/8, 5/32, and 3/16 inch, with an
oversize of 1/64 inch for each standard size. The rivet, or shell, portion of a CherryLOCK may be
constructed of 2017 aluminium alloy, 5056 aluminium alloy, Monel, or stainless steel. Installation of
CherryLOCK rivets requires a special pulling tool for each different size and head shape. However,
the same size tool can be used for an oversize rivet in the same diameter group.

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One disadvantage of a CherryLOCIC is that if a rivet is too short for an application, the lock ring
sets pre maturely resulting in a malformed shank header. This fails to compress the joint, leaving it
in a weakened condition. To avoid this, always use the proper rivet length selection gauge and
follow the manufacturers installation recommendations.
Olympic-LOKS
Olympic-LOK blind fasteners are light weight, mechanically-locking spindle-type blind rivets.
Olympic-loks come with a lock ring stowed on the head. As an Olympic-lok is installed, the ring
slips down the stem and locks the centre stem to the outer shell. These blind fasteners require a
specially designed set of installation tools. Olympic-lok rivets are made with three head styles:
universal, 100 degree flush, and 100 degree flush shear. Rivet diameters of 1/8, 5/32, and 3/16
inch are available in eight different alloy combinations of 2017-T4, A-286, 5056, and Monel.
The installation tools fit both countersunk and universal heads in the same size range.

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CHERRYMAX
The CherryMAX rivet is economical to use and strong enough to replace solid shank rivets, size for
size. The economic advantage of the CherryMAX system is that one size puller can be used for the
installation of all sizes of CherryMAX rivets. A CherryMAX rivet is composed of five main parts: a
pulling stem, a driving anvil, a safe-lock locking collar, a rivet sleeve, and a bulbed blind head.
Available in both universal and countersunk head styles, the rivet sleeve is made from 5056,
monel, and inco 600. The stems are made from alloy steel, CRES, and inco X-750. The ultimate
shear strength of CherryMAX rivets ranges from 5OKSI to 75KS1, Furthermore, CherryMAX rivets
can be used at temperatures from 1200 C to 7600 C. They are available in diameters of 1/8, 5/32,
3/16 and 1/4 inches and are also made with an oversize diameter for each standard diameter
listed.
Removal Of Mechanical-Lock Rivets

To remove mechanical-lock rivets, you must first file a flat spot on the rivets centre stem. Once this
is done, a centre punch is used to punch out the stem so the lock ring can be drilled out. With the
lock ring removed you can tap out the remaining stem, drill to the depth of the manufactured head,
and tap out the remaining shank.
All brands of mechanical-lock blind rivets are removed using the same basic technique.

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Hi-Shear Rivets
One of the first special fasteners used by the aero-space industry was the Hi-Shear rivet. Hi-Shear
rivets were developed in the 1940s to meet the demand for fasteners which could carry greater
shear loads.
The Hi-shear rivet has the same strength characteristics as a standard AN bolt. In fact, the only
difference between the two is that a bolt is secured by a nut and a Hi-Shear rivet is secured by a
crushed collar. The Hi-Shear rivet is installed with an interference fit, where the side wall clearance
is reamed to a tolerance determined by the aircraft builder. When properly installed, a Hi-Shear
rivet has to be tapped into its hole before the locking collar is swaged on.
Hi-Shear rivets are made in two head styles, fiat and countersunk. As the name implies, the HiShear rivet is designed especially to absorb high shear loads. The Hi-Shear rivet is made from
steel alloy having the same tensile strength as an equal size AN bolt. The lower portion of its shank
has a specially milled groove with a sharp edge that retains and finishes the collar as it is swaged
into the locked position.
Special Fasteners
Many special fasteners have the advantage of producing high strength with light weight and can be
used in place of conventional AN bolts and nuts. When a standard AN nut and bolt assembly is
tightened, the bolt stretches and its shank diameter decreases, causing the bolt to increase its
clearance in the hole.
Special fasteners eliminate this change in dimension because they are held in place by a collar that
is squeezed into position instead of being screwed on like a nut. As a result, these fasteners are
not under the same tensile loads imposed on a bolt during installation.
Lockbolts
Lockbolts are manufactured by several companies and conform to Military Standards. These
standards describe the size of a lockbolts head in relation to its shank diameter, as well as the
alloy used. Lockbolts are used to assemble two materials permanently. They are lightweight and
are as strong as standard bolts.
There are three types of lockbolts used in aviation, they are:
Pull-type lockbolt
Blind-type lockbolt
Stump-type lockbolt

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The pull-type lockbolt has a pulling stem on which a pneumatic installation gun fits. The gun pulls
the materials together and then drives a locking collar into the grooves of the lockbolt. Once
secure, the gun fractures the pulling pin at its break point.
The blind-type lockbolt is similar to most other types of blind fasteners. To install a blind lockbolt, it
is placed into a blind hole and an installation gun is placed over the pulling stem. As the gun pulls
the stem, a blind head forms and pulls the materials together. Once the materials are pulled tightly
together, a locking collar locks the bolt in place and the pulling stem is broken off. Unlike other blind
fasteners that typically break off flush with the surface, blind lockbolts protrude above the surface.
The third type of lockbolt is the stump-type lockbolt and is installed in places where there is not
enough room to use the standard pulling tool. Instead, the stump-type lockbolt is installed using an
installation tool similar to that used to install Hi-Shear rivets.
Lockbolts are available for both shear and tension applications. With shear lockbolts, the head is
kept thin and there are only two grooves provided for the locking collar. However, with tension
lockbolts, the head is thicker and four or five grooves are provided to allow for higher tension
values.
The locking collars used on both shear and tension lockbolts are colour coded for easy
identification.

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Hi-Loks
Hi-Lok bolts are manufactured in several different alloys such as titanium, stainless steel, steel,
and aluminium. They possess sufficient strength to with stand bearing and shearing loads, and are
available with flat and countersunk heads.
A conventional Hi-Lok has a straight shank with standard threads. Although wrenching lock nuts
are usually used, the threads are compatible with standard AN bolts and nuts.
To install a Hi-Lok, the hole is first drilled with an interference fit. The Hi-Lok is then tapped into the
hole and a shear collar is installed. A Hi-Lok retaining collar is installed using either specially
prepared tools or a simple Allen and box end wrench. Once the collar is tightened to the
appropriate torque value, the wrenching device shears off leaving only the locking collar.
Hi-Lites
The Hi-Lite fastener is similar to the Hi-Lok except that it is made from lighter materials and has a
shorter transition from the threaded section to the shank. Furthermore, the elimination of material
between the threads and shank give an additional weight saving with no loss of strength. The HiLites main advantage is its excellent strength to weight ratio.
Hi-Lites are available in an assortment of diameters ranging from 3/16 to 3/8 inch. They are
installed either with a Hi-Lok locking collar or by a swaged collar like the Lockbolt. In either case,
the shank diameter is not reduced by stretch torquing.
Cherrybucks
The CherryBUCK is a one-piece special fastener that combines two titanium alloys which are
bonded together to form a strong structural fastener. The head and upper part of the shank of a
CherryBUCK is composed of 6AL-4V alloy while Ti-Cb alloy is used in the lower shank. When
driven, the lower part of the shank forms a bucktail.

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An important advantage of the CherryBUCK is the fact that it is a one piece fasteners. Since there
is only one piece, CherryBUCKs can safely be installed in jet engine intakes with no danger of
foreign object damage. This type of damage often occurs when multiple piece fasteners lose their
retaining collars and are ingested into a compressor inlet.
Taper-Lok
Taper-Loks are the strongest special fasteners used in aircraft construction. Because of its tapered
shape, the Taper-Lok exerts a force on the conical walls of a hole, much like a cork in a bottle. To a
certain extent, a Taper-Lok mimics the action of a driven solid shank rivet, in that it completely fills
the hole. However, a Taper-Lok does this without the shank swelling.
When a washer nut draws the Taper-Lok into its hole, the fastener pushes outward and creates a
tremendous force against the tapered walls of the hole. This creates radial compression around the
shank and vertical compression lines as the metals are squeezed together. The combinations of
these forces generate strength unequalled by any other type of fastener.
Hi-Tigue
The Hi-Tigue fastener has a bead that encircles the bottom of its shank and is a further
advancement in special fastener design. This bead preloads the hole it fills, resulting in increased
joint strength. During installation, the bead presses against the side wall of the hole, exerting a
radial force which strengthens the surrounding area. Since it is preloaded, the joint is not subjected
to the constant cyclic action that normally causes a joint to become cold worked and eventually fail.
Hi-Tigue fasteners are produced in aluminium, titanium, and stainless steel alloys. The collars are
also composed of compatible metal alloys and are available in two types, sealing and non-sealing.

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As with Hi-Loks, Hi-Tigues can be installed using an Allen and box end wrench.
Jo-Bolts
These patented high-strength structural fasteners are used in close-tolerance holes where strength
requirements are high but physical clearance precludes the use of standard AN, MS, or NAS bolts.
The hole for a Jo-Bolt is drilled, reamed, and countersunk before the Jo-Bolt is inserted and held
tightly in place by a nose adapter of either a hand tool or power tool. A wrench adapter then grips
the bolts driving flat and screws it up through the nut. As the bolt pulls up it forces a sleeve up over
the tapered outside of the nut and forms a blind head on the inside of the work. When driving is
complete, the driving flat of the bolt breaks off.
Removal Of Special Fasteners

Special fasteners that are locked into place with a crushable collar are easily removed by splitting
the collar with a small cape chisel. After the collar is split, knock away the two halves and tap the
fastener from the hole. Fasteners which are not damaged during removal can be reused using new
locking collars. The removal techniques of certain special fasteners are basically the same as
those used for solid shank rivets. However, in some cases, the manufacturer may recommend that
a special tool be used.
Removal of Taper-Loks, Hi-Loks, Hi-Tigues, and Hi-Lites requires the removal of the washer nut or
locking collar. Both are removed by turning them with the proper size box end wrench or a pair of
vice-grips. After removal, a mallet is used to tap the remaining fastener out of its hole.

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To remove a Jo-Bolt, begin by drilling through the nut head with a pilot bit followed by a bit of the
same size as the bolt shank. Once the nut head is removed, a punch is used to punch out the
remaining portion of the nut and bolt.

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TOPIC 6.6.1 & 6.6.2: PIPES AND UNIONS

RIGID LINES
A single aircraft typically contains several different types of rigid fluid lines. Each type of line has a
specific application. However, as a rule, rigid tubing is used in stationary applications and where
long, relatively straight runs are possible. Systems that typically utilize rigid tubing include fuel, oil,
oxygen, and instrument systems.
Many fluid lines used in early aircraft were made of copper tubing. However, copper tubing proved
trouble some because it became hard and brittle from the vibration encountered during flight, and
eventually failed. To help prevent failures and extend the life of copper tubing, it must be
periodically annealed to restore it to a soft condition. Annealing is accomplished by heating the
tube until it is red hot and then quenching in cold water. When working on an aircraft that has
copper tubing, the tubing should be annealed each time it is removed. Furthermore, copper lines
must be regularly inspected for cracks, hardness, and general condition.
Today, aluminium-alloy and corrosion-resistant steel lines have replaced copper in most
applications.
Aluminium tubing comes in a variety of alloys. For example, in low pressure systems (below 1,000
psi) such as those used for instrument air or ventilating air, commercially pure aluminium tubing
made from 1100- H14 (half-hard), or aluminium alloy 3003-H14 (half-hard) is used.
Low pressure fuel and oil and medium pressure (1,000 to 1,500 psi) hydraulic and pneumatic
systems often use lines made of 5052-0 aluminium alloy. This alloy, even in its annealed state, is
about one and three-quarters times stronger than half-hard, commercially pure aluminium.
Occasionally, 2024-T aluminium alloy is used for fluid lines because of its higher strength.
However, it is not as flexible and, therefore, is more difficult to bend and flare without cracking.

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B-6.6.1 and 6.6.2: Pipes and Unions

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Aluminium alloy tubes are identified in a number of ways. For example, on larger tubes, the alloy
designation is stamped directly on the tubes surface, however, on small tubing; the alloy
designation is typically identified by a coloured band. These colour bands are no more than 4
inches wide and are painted on the tubes ends and mid section. When a band consists of two
colours, one-half the width is used for each colour.
Corrosion-resistant steel tubing, either annealed or 1/4 hard, is used in high pressure systems
(3,000 psi). Applications include high pressure hydraulic, pneumatic and oxygen systems.
Corrosion-resistant steel is also used in areas that are subject to physical damage from dirt, debris,
and corrosion caused by moisture, exhaust fumes, and salt air. Such areas include flap wells and
external brake lines. Another benefit of corrosion-resistant steel tubing is that it has a higher tensile
strength which permits the use of tubing with thinner walls. As a result, the installation weight is
similar to that of thicker-walled aluminium alloy tubing.
Size Designations
The size of rigid tubing is determined by its outside diameter in increments of 1/16 inch. Therefore,
a -4 B nut tubing is 4/16 or 1/4 inch in diameter. A tube diameter is typically printed on all rigid
tubing.
Another important size designation is wall thickness, since this determines a tubes strength. Like
the outside diameter, wall thickness is generally printed on the tube in thousandths of an inch.
One dimension that is not printed on rigid tubing is the inside diameter. However, since the outside
diameter and wall thickness are indicated, the inside diameter is determined by subtracting twice
the wall thickness from the outside diameter. For example, if you have a piece of -8 tubing with a
wall thickness of 0.072 inches, you know the inside diameter is .356 inches, 0.5 (2 x .072) =
0.356.

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Tube Flaring
Much of the rigid tubing used in modem aircraft is connected to components by flaring the tube
ends and using flare-type fittings. A flared-tube fitting consists of a sleeve and a B-nut. Using this
type connector eliminates damage to the flare caused by the wiping or ironing action as the nut is
tightened. The sleeve provides added strength and supports the tube so that vibration does not
concentrate at the flare. The nut fits over the sleeve and, when tightened, draws the sleeve and
flare tightly against a male fitting to form a seal. The close fit between the inside of the flared tube
and the flare cone of the male fitting provides the actual seal. Therefore, these two surfaces must
be absolutely clean and free of cracks, nicks, and scratches.
Aircraft fittings have a flare angle of 37 degrees and are not interchange able with automotive-type
fittings, which have a flare angle of 45 degrees.
The combination of an AN 818 nut and AN 819 sleeve provides a tight, leak-free attachment that
does not damage the flare.
There are two types of flares used in aircraft plumbing systems, the single flare and the double
flare. As discussed, the flare provides the sealing surface and is subject to extremely high
pressures. Because of this, flares must be properly formed to prevent leaks or failures.
A flare which is made too small produces a weak joint, and may leak or pull apart. On the other
hand, if a flare is too large it may interfere with the installation of the nut and result in leakage. In
either case, if a fitting leaks when properly torqued, you should inspect the flare and fitting
components for proper manufacture and assembly.
Do not over-tighten a leaky fitting.

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Flared Tube Fittings

Flared fittings are identified by either an AN or MS number. However, prior to World War II fittings
were made to an AC standard. Since AC fittings are still used in some older aircraft, it is important
that you be able to identify the differences in fittings. For example, an AN fitting has a shoulder
between the end of the threads and the flare cone. The AC fitting does not have this shoulder.
Another difference between AC and AN fittings includes the sleeve design. The AN sleeve is
noticeably longer than the AC sleeve of the same size.
Flared-tube fittings are made of aluminium alloy, steel, or copper base alloys. For identification
purposes, all AN steel fittings are coloured black, and all AN aluminium fittings are coloured blue.
The AN 819 aluminium bronze sleeves are cadmium plated and are not coloured.
AN fittings come in a variety of shapes and sizes, each with a specific use. As an air craft
technician, you must be familiar with the most common fittings used on aircraft.

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Universal Bulkhead Fitting

One specific type of fitting is the universal bulkhead fitting. As the name implies, a bulkhead fitting
is used to support a line that passes through a bulkhead. Bulkhead fittings have straight machine
threads, similar to those on common nuts and bolts. Therefore, flared tube connections, crush
washers, or synthetic seals must be used to make these connections fluid-tight.
Tapered Pipe Thread Fittings

Fluid lines are commonly attached to components by tapered pipe thread fittings. Tapered pipe
thread fittings create a seal by wedging the tapered external
male thread and the tapered internal female threads. This is the same type of thread used in
household plumbing and automotive applications. These threads taper 1/16 inch to the inch, When
working with these fittings, care must be exercised when screwing them into cast aluminium or
magnesium housings so that the fitting is not screwed tight enough to crack the casting.
When joining tapered pipe thread fittings a small amount of thread lubricant or a thin strip of Teflon
tape on the male threads ensures that fittings screw together tightly enough to form a complete
seal. However, some manufacturers do not recommend Teflon tape because tape fragments can
be introduced into a system if the tape is not applied correctly. For this reason you should always
follow the manufacturers directions.

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Flareless Fittings
The heavy wall tubing used in some high-pressure systems is difficult to flare. For these
applications, the flareless fitting is designed to provide leak-free attachments without flares.
Although the use of flareless fittings eliminates the need to flare the tube, a step referred to as
presetting is necessary prior to installation of a new flareless tube assembly. Presetting is the
process of applying enough pressure to the sleeve to cause it to cut into the outside of the tube.
The tube end is fitted into the union and the nut tightens the ferrule up against it creating a seal.

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Banjo Fittings
Banjo fittings are available in all standards and used in many engine and airframe fluid systems. In
some applications o-rings are used in place of the aluminium gaskets shown.
The Banjo is free to rotate before the bolt is torqued; this allows stress free alignment of the fluid
line to the component.
Quick Disconnect Couplings

Couplings provide quick connect/disconnect capability with self-sealing action for use on Ground
Support Equipment (GSE) and other aerospace applications. Simple one hand operation to
connect and disconnect with positive visual and touch indicate full engagement.
Commonly used on fuel, hydraulic, water/waste servicing adapters. Built in shutoff valve provides a
no-spill connection and disconnect. Some have a multi-start thread turn attachment others have
a sliding collar, snap-lock attachment.

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Beading
Large diameter lines carrying low-pressure fluids such as engine return oil and cooling air are
typically joined by a rubber hose that is slipped over the tube ends and held in place with screwtype hose clamps. However, for this to be effective the tube must be beaded first.
This can be accomplished with either a power header or a hand beading tool. The diameter and
wall thickness of the tube being beaded determine which is used.
For example, a hand-beading tool is used with tubing having inch to 1 inch outside diameter.
When using a hand-beading tool, the bead is formed by a beader frame with the proper rollers. The
sizes, which are marked on the rollers in sixteenths of an inch, correspond with the outside tube
diameter. Separate rollers are required for the inside of different sized tubing so care must be taken
to use the correct parts when beading.
The beading tool operates somewhat like a tube cutter in that the roller is screwed down while
rotating the beading tool around the tubing. However, the inside and outside of the tube must be
lubricated with a light oil to reduce friction during beading.

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When joining two beaded tubes, begin by slipping the hose over the beads and centering the hose
clamps between the ends of the hose and the beads. Next, tighten the clamps finger-tight followed
by one and one-half to two complete turns using a wrench or pliers. When doing this, be careful not
to over tighten the clamps or you could cause excessive cold-flow, which is indicated by deep,
permanent impressions in the hose.
Identification of Fluid Lines

Large aircraft contain plumbing systems for many different types of fluids. Because of this, it is
important that each line be clearly identified. This is generally accomplished by marking tubing with
colour bands, symbols, or writing.
The symbols are generally printed on one-inch wide tape or decals and secured at regular intervals
along a line. On lines four inches or larger in diameter, or those subject to extreme temperatures,
steel tags are used instead of marking tape. In areas where there is the possibility that tape,
decals, or tags may be drawn into the induction system, paint is used.
Additional markings are sometimes provided to identify a lines function. These include
PRESSURE, RETURN, DRAIN, and VENT.
In addition to colour bands, some lines carrying fuel are marked with the word FLAM. This
identifies the lines as carrying a flammable fluid. Lines carrying fluids that are physically dangerous
such as oxygen, nitrogen, or Freon are marked PHDAN.

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Generally, tapes and decals are placed on both ends of a line and at least once in each
compartment through which the line runs. In addition, identification markers are placed immediately
adjacent to each valve, regulator, filter, or other accessory within a line. Where paint or tags are
used, location requirements are the same as for tapes and decals.
Flexible Fluid Lines

Flexible hose is used in aircraft fluid systems to connect moving parts with stationary parts in
locations subject to vibration or where a great amount of flexibility is needed. It can also serve as a
connector in metal tubing systems.
Flexible hose construction generally consists of an inner liner covered with layers of reinforcement
to provide strength and an outer cover to protect from physical damage. The materials and
manufacturing process of each layer determine the suitability of a specific hose for a particular
application.

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Inner Liners
The inner liner of a flexible hose carries the fluid and, therefore, must have a minimum porosity and
be chemically compatible with the material being carried. Furthermore, the liner must be smooth to
offer the least resistance to flow, and remain flexible throughout an entire range of operating
temperatures.
There are basically four different synthetic compounds used in the construction of the inner liner.
They are Neoprene, Buna-N, Butyl and Teflon. Each of these compounds has different
characteristics and is compatible with different types of fluid.
Neoprene is a form of synthetic rubber that is abrasion resistant and is used with petroleum- based
fluids.
Buna-N is a synthetic rubber compound that is also used to carry petroleum-based products. In
fact, Buna-N is better suited to carry petroleum products than neoprene.
Butyl is a synthetic rubber compound made from petroleum raw materials and, therefore, breaks
down if used with petroleum products. However, butyl is excellent as an inner liner for fluid lines
carrying phosphate ester-base hydraulic fluids such as Skydrol.
Teflon is the DuPont trade name for Tetrafluoroethylene resin. Teflon has an extremely broad
operating temperature range (65F to 450F) and is compatible with nearly every liquid used.
Furthermore, its unique wax-like surface offers minimum resistance to fluid flow. Because of its
unique chemical structure, Teflon experiences less volumetric expansion than rubber and has an
almost limitless shelf and service life.
When installing Teflon hose, you must always observe minimum bend radius restrictions.
Furthermore, after the hose has been in service, it takes a set, or becomes somewhat rigid.
Therefore, if a hose is removed from the aircraft, it must not be bent against this set. To further
reduce the possibility of damaging a hose, certain hose assemblies are manufactured with a preset shape. When this is done, they are usually shipped with a wire holding the assembly in its preset shape. When working with a hose that is shipped this way, the wire should remain in place until
the assembly is installed. If a pre-set assembly is removed from an aircraft, a wire should be
installed prior to removal to help the hose maintain its shape.

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Reinforcement Layers
The reinforcement layers placed over an inner liner determine the strength of a hose. Common
reinforcement layers are made of cotton, rayon, polyester fabric, carbon-steel wire, or a stainless
steel wire braid Since hose has a tendency to increase in diameter and decrease in length when
pressure is applied, the design of the reinforcement is critical. The proper design of the
reinforcement layers can minimize these dimensional changes.
Outer Cover
A protective outer cover, usually made of rubber-impregnated fabric or stainless steel braid, is put
over the reinforcement to protect the hose from physical damage. In areas of high heat the outer
cover is often designed as an integral fire-sleeve to provide extra protection.
The outer cover of almost all aircraft flexible hose is marked with a lay line, which consists of a
yellow, red, or white stripe running the length of the hose.
In addition to a stripe, the information needed to identify the hose, such as the MIL-SPEC number,
the manufacturers name or symbol, the dash number representing the hose size, and in some
cases, the manufacturers part number along with the year and quarter the hose was
manufactured. In addition to identifying a hose, the lay line shows if a hose is twisted when it is
installed. When a hose is installed properly, the lay line runs straight with no twists.
Flexible Line Identification

Lay lines and identification markings consisting of lines, letters, and numbers are printed on the
hose.
Most hydraulic hose is marked to identify its type, the quarter and year of manufacture, and a 5digit code identifying the manufacturer. These markings are in contrasting coloured letters and
numerals which indicate the natural lay (no twist) of the hose and are repeated at intervals of not
more than 9 inches along the length of the hose. Code markings assist in replacing a hose with one
of the same specifications or a recommended substitute. Hose suitable for use with phosphate
ester base hydraulic fluid will be marked Skydrol use. In some instances, several types of hose
may be suitable for the same use.

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Therefore, to make the correct hose selection, always refer to the applicable aircraft maintenance
or parts manual.

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Size Designation
The size of a flexible hose is determined by its inside diameter and is measured in increments of
1/16 inch. Like rigid tubing, a dash number indicates the tube diameter. For example, a -10
identifies a 10/16 or 5/8 inch hose.
Types Of Flexible Hose

While aircraft hose is manufactured to meet a variety of applications, the types of hose are
normally classified by the amount of pressure they are designed to withstand. These include lowpressure, medium-pressure, and high-pressure.
Low-Pressure Hose
Most air or vacuum hoses and some aircraft instrument lines are not required to carry high
pressures. Therefore, low pressure rubber hose is typically used with these types of installations.
These hoses have a seamless inner tube and a reinforcement made of a single layer of cotton
braid. An outer cover of ribbed or smooth rubber is used to protect the reinforcement from physical
abrasion.

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Medium-Pressure Hose
Medium-pressure hose is used with fluid pressures up to 3,000 psi. However, its maximum
operating pressure varies with its diameter. For example, smaller sizes carry pressure up to 3,000
psi while larger sizes are often restricted to lower pressures.
Medium-pressure hose has a seamless inner liner with one layer of cotton braid and one layer of
stainless-steel reinforcement. A braid of rough oil-resistant rubber-impregnated cotton is usually
used as an outer cover. If the hose is used with a petroleum-based fluid, its inner liner is made of
synthetic rubber and its outer braid is gray-black. However, if the hose is used with Skydrol or any
phosphate-ester based hydraulic fluid, the inner liner is made of synthetic Butyl rubber and the
outer braid is coloured green with SKYDROL written on it.
High-Pressure Hose
All high-pressure hose has a maximum operating pressure of at least 3,000 psi and uses a
synthetic rubber liner to carry petroleum products. This inner liner is wrapped with two or more
steel braids as reinforcement. To help distinguish high-pressure hose from medium-pressure hose,
the entire hose has a smooth outer cover. Most high-pressure hose is black with a yellow lay line.
However, a hose designed to carry Skydrol has a Butyl rubber inner liner and a green outer cover
with a white lay line.

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Page 15 of 18
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Fittings
Fittings provide a convenient method of connecting flexible hoses to components. Flexible hose
fittings are typically classified by the way they are attached to a hose and by the amount of
pressure they can withstand.
Swaged End Fittings

Hoses using swaged end fittings are assembled on special machinery that is typically not found in
the shop. These fittings cannot be removed and reused.
Therefore, replacement lines with swaged fittings must be obtained from the manufacturer or a
properly equipped hose assembly shop.
Reusable Fittings
Some hose assemblies incorporate reusable fittings consisting of a socket, a nipple, and a nut.
When a failure occurs in a hose with this type of fitting, a replacement assembly can generally be
fabricated. However, prior to reusing any fittings, they must be removed from the damaged hose
assembly and care fully inspected. Any damage to the sealing surface or the threads is cause for
rejection. Furthermore, the nut should be inspected for signs of cracking and damage caused by
wrenches. Damaged components should not be reused. While all fittings used on aircraft must
conform to MIL-SPEC, they are manufactured by several companies. Therefore, it is a good
practice not to mix components manufactured by different companies.
To install a reusable fitting, begin by determining the length of the hose required. One way to do
this is to use the damaged hose assembly with the fittings installed as a pattern. The length of hose
required extends from the inside of one socket to the inside of the opposite socket.

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Page 16 of 18
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
One thing to keep in mind is that flexible fluid lines must have between five and eight percent slack
to allow for the change in dimensions caused by fluid pressure. Under pressure, flexible hose
contracts in length and expands in diameter.
Once you know the proper hose length, mark the cut length on an identical type of new hose and
cut both ends off square. The cuts may be made with a cut ting tool designed especially for hose,
or with a fine tooth hacksaw. After the hose is cut, place a socket in a vice taking care to protect the
socket from the vice jaws. For low-pressure and some other types of fittings, a wooden vice block
can be fabricated to hold the socket securely with minimal chance for damage. With the socket
secured in the vice, screw the hose into the socket until it bottoms. Then, back off the hose just
enough to prevent the rubber in the inner liner from obstructing the hole.
With the socket securely in place, lubricate the end of the assembly tool and force it into the hose
to open the inner liner enough for the nipple to be inserted. The nipple screws into the socket with
the assembly tool and squeezes the tube tight between the outside of the nipple and the inside of
the socket. This squeezing action provides a strong physical attachment between the hose and the
fitting, and forms a leak-proof seal.

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Page 17 of 18
AA Form TO-18
Part-66 Subject
Once the nipple is screwed completely into the socket, back it off from 1/32 to 1/16 inch to allow the
nut to turn freely on the tube assembly. The inside of the nipple forms the sealing surface which
mates with the flare cone of the fitting, and the nut pulls these two sealing surfaces together. When
the assembly tool is screwed out of the hose, the inside of the hose should be blown out with
compressed air and the entire hose inspected for physical condition.
Blanks
When aircraft fluid lines are disconnected or removed it is a requirement that open ends of the lines
and fittings are covered.
Blanks are closed fittings, they can be made from either plastic, metal, wood or even a plastic bag.
This prevents the ingress of contaminants into the system under maintenance.
An appropriate cap plug should be fitted to disconnected lines or fittings and lightly torqued to
prevent the fluid leakage, injury to personnel or damage to equipment if the open system is
inadvertently energised.

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Page 18 of 18

B-6a Aircraft Materials and Corrosion SR

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Student Resource

Copyright 2008 Aviation Australia

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Aircraft Materials Ferrous

Aircraft Materials - Non-Ferrous

Aircraft Materials Composite / Non-Metallic

Corrosion Fundamentals and Identification

Pipes and Unions

Issue C: August 2009

To describe the nature or basic qualities of.

To state the precise meaning of (a word or sense of a word).

Specify in words or writing.

To set forth in words; declare.

To establish the identity of.

Represent in words enabling hearer or reader to form an idea of an object or process.

To tell the facts, details, or particulars of something verbally or in writing.

Make known in detail.

Offer reason for cause and effect.

Issue C: August 2009

Issue C: August 2009

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Issue C: August 2009

Identify common alloy steels used in aircraft and describe their

Define testing of ferrous materials for:

Topic 6.2.1 Aircraft Materials Nonferrous.

Topic 6.3.1.1 Aircraft Materials Composite / Non-Metallic

Issue C: August 2009

Topic 6.4.1 Corrosion (Fundamentals)

Galvanic action process

Topic 6.4.2 Corrosion (Identification)

Describe the heat treatment process for selected rivets.

Issue C: August 2009

TOPIC 6.1.1 AND 6.1.2: AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - FERROUS

Stress vs. Strain curve for structural steel is shown as an example.

B-6a 1: Aircraft Materials Ferrous

Reference numbers are:

Compressive strength is the ability of a metal to withstand pressing or squeezing

Shear Strength is a metals ability to withstand shear stress.

Torsional strength is the ability to resist rotational shear.

Flexural strength is bending strength of a metal.

Fatigue strength, or Endurance strength, refers to the ability of a metal to resist

Impact strength measures the ability of a metal to resist shock.

Training Material Only

B-6a 1: Aircraft Materials Ferrous

B-6a 1: Aircraft Materials Ferrous

B-6a 1: Aircraft Materials Ferrous

B-6a 1: Aircraft Materials Ferrous

STEEL NUMBERING SYSTEM

The first digit identifies the principal alloying element

SAE STEEL NUMBERING SYSTEM

1xxx - Carbon steels

2xxx - Nickel steels

3xxx - Nickel-chromium steels

4xxx - Molybdenum steels

5xxx - Chromium steels

6xxx - Chromium-vanadium steels

7xxx - Tungsten steels

8xxx - Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels

9xxx - Silicon-manganese steels

Training Material Only

B-6a 1: Aircraft Materials Ferrous

Training Material Only

B-6a 1: Aircraft Materials Ferrous

ALLOYING AGENTS IN STEEL