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Subject B2-13c
Autoflight
AA Form TO-19
B2-13c Autoflight
Part 66 Subject
CONTENTS
Topic
Definitions
ii
Study Resources
iii
Fundamentals
13.3.1
13.3.2
Modes of Operation
13.3.3
13.3.4/6
System Interface
13.3.7/8
13.3.9/10
Helicopter Autoflight
13.3.5
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DEFINITIONS
Define
State
Identify
List
Itemise.
Describe
Explain
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STUDY RESOURCES
E. H. J. Pallett, & Shawn Coyle (1993). Automatic Flight Control, (fourth edition): Blackwell
Science, London.
Jeppesen Sanderson, (1974). Avionics Fundamentals, United Airlines.
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INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this subject is to allow you to gain knowledge in the operation Aircraft
Automatic Flight Systems.
On completion of the following topics you will be able to:
Topic 13.3.1
Autoflight -Fundamentals
Explain the fundamentals of automatic flight control including working principle
and define current terminology.
Topic 13.3.2
Topic 13.3.3
Roll;
Pitch and
Yaw.
Topic 13.3.4
Topic 13.3.5
Topic 13.3.6
Topic 13.3.7
Topic 13.3.8
Topic 13.3.9
Modes of operation;
Approach,
Glideslope,
Land and
Go-Around.
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Error sensing
Correction
Any autopilot follows the basic principles of error sensing, correction, follow-up and
command, although different types of sensors, servos are used.
The inner loop typically handles internal conditions
Attitude sensing, attitude changes in terms of error signals.
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Attitude sensing,
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Outer Loop
Raw data inputs such as air speed, altitude, magnetic heading and interception of ground
based radio aids for instance can also constitute outer loop control.
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Modes of Operation
Aircraft operating in automatic flight mode are capable of maintaining set operating
parameters depending on the stage of the flight. These can include:
attitude hold
heading hold
turbulence
airspeed hold:
altitude hold
navigation:
VOR
ILS
Aux
or several other modes as selected by the pilots to suit the particular stage of the flight.
A flight director system provides cues for the pilot to navigate and fly the aircraft, but a flight
director cannot control the aircraft. Only the pilot or the autopilot system can fly the aircraft.
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Single axis normally only roll axis most basic concept used in small light aircraft heading
hold and basic radio coupling capable
Two axis Typically around roll & pitch typically heading hold & radio coupling capable
altitude and attitude hold capabilities sometimes rudder has yaw damper incorporated
this is not considered a 3 axis system.
Three axis attitude control about all three axes typically full AFCS system
Multi axis autopilot a system which controls an aircraft about the roll and pitch axis (two
axis) or roll, pitch and yaw axis (three axis)
Authority
Limits may be placed on control signals that are demanded to prevent excessive attitude
changes or harsh maneuvering.
It is necessary to monitor what is known as the authority of the AFCS. This means that limits
must be placed on any control signals that are demanded to prevent excessive changes to
the attitude of the aircraft, or to cause any harsh maneuvering. For example, within a typical
roll channel incorporating a bank angle limiter and a roll rate limiter.
The bank angle limiter limits any input signal to a value which is required by a particular
mode of operation. The maximum bank angle limit is 25 degrees to 30 degrees, but can be
changed automatically depending which mode is selected.
For example, 20 degrees for VOR on course mode.
The roll rate limiter limits the rate at which the aircraft changes its bank angle, by limiting the
rate at which the servo motor turns. Typical roll rate limit outputs are 1 1/2 degrees per
second to 7 degrees per second.
Capture
Radio deviation signals are sensed by the AFCS, but are not used until capture occurs. The
term capture means the point at which the radio deviation is used by the AFCS as a
reference to fly the aircraft.
In the case of the ILS the capture point is determined by the vertical beam sensor in the pitch
channel and the lateral beam sensor in the roll channel. The beam sensors are voltage level
sensing circuits that satisfy certain switching functions and apply radio deviation to the signal
chain.
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Couple
Autopilot Principle of Operation
To control autopilot steering the flight control computer can utilise many references. Heading,
attitude and instrument landing system commands.
The basis of operation to maintain a selected reference is typically conducted by selecting a
reference and then having the flight control system generate corrective attitude changes
whenever a deviation from the selected parameter is selected.
For example, the pilot flies onto a heading and engages heading hold. The actual heading
and desired heading signals are compared in an operational amplifier and any variation from
the desired heading will produce a differential between the two signals (phase or amplitude)
which will be applied to a servo amplifier to correct for the deviation.
Similarly, a parameter can be selected on an autopilot control box, eg rate of climb. When
auto pilot is selected the difference between the actual rate of climb and the selected rate of
climb will produce an error signal (from an Op Amp) which will only be nulled when the
aircraft is climbing at the same rate as selected.
This principle is the basis of all automated flight management. Aircraft actual parameters are
applied to Op Amps (or something similar) and are compared with desired parameters
whenever automatic pilot is engaged. Whenever a differential between selected parameter
and actual parameter is detected the aircraft attitude will be corrected to re-align.
In a fully computerised system heading changes can be programmed in advance.
Assume an aircraft is programmed to fly from Brisbane to Coffs Harbour on a heading of
180 and upon reaching Coffs Harbour heading is to change to 190 to then track toward
Sydney. The parameters are typed into a Flight Management Computer (FMC), the aircraft
takes off and heads for Coffs Harbour. When the inertial Reference System determines the
aircraft is over Coffs Harbour a signal will trigger the change of heading required and the
aircraft flight control system will respond and turn onto the new selected heading of 190
automatically.
The maximum rate of turn permissible is typically programmed into the flight control
computer so as not to throw the aircraft into violent manoeuvres.
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Couple Related to the mode of operation it is the provision of raw data input to the AFCS
relevant to a particular flight path
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Runway visual range (RVR). The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the line of a
runway can see the runway surface markings or the lights delineating the runway or
identifying its centre line.
Decision height (DH). A specified altitude or height in the precision approach at which a
missed approach must be initiated if the required visual reference to continue the approach
has not been established.
Categories of precision approach and landing operations:
(a) Category I. DH 200 feet and RVR 2,400 feet (with touchdown zone and centerline
lighting, RVR 1,800 feet);
(b) Category II. DH 100 feet and RVR 1,200 feet;
his Category IIIA. No DH or DH below 100 feet and RVR not less than 700 feet;
(d) Category IIIB. No DH or DH below 50 feet and RVR less than 700 feet but not less than
150 feet; and
(e) Category IIIC. No DH and no RVR limitation.
Engagement
Autopilot Engagement
The basic principle of autopilots is to hold the aircraft in basic heading, pitch and roll channel
attitude at the time of engagement. An autopilot system is designed so there will be a gradual
transition when it is engaged, therefore if heading hold is engaged when aircraft is 90 from
selected heading the aircraft will not immediately throw itself into a violent bank to capture
the commanded heading. The aircraft will be limited in its rate of heading change to perhaps
3 per second, thereby taking 30 seconds or more to align to the commanded heading.
Typically the rate of change of heading can also be selected by the pilot. The same gradual
engagement is replicated for any autopilot function.
Autopilot Control Panel provides for engagement for the range of autopilot options, eg
Heading Hold, Roll stabilisation and Vertical speed hold all engaged simultaneously to
control a climb to assigned altitude. Often autopilot cannot be engaged until preset conditions
are met, eg roll stabilisation cannot be engaged until bank angle less than 10, Autoland can
only be engaged if Radar Altimeter system functioning, Radar altitude hold and barometric
altitude hold cannot be engaged simultaneously.
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Autopilot is engaged by selecting the appropriate switches and buttons to select the autopilot
functions desired.
Autopilot will not engage if:
Synchronisation
The synchronisation of signals is normally performed as a pre-engage function. This is to
remove any standing signals that may cause snatching of the controls when initially
engaged, and allows the autopilot to take control in a smooth manner. The attitude sensing
elements, such as the vertical gyro are continuously monitoring the aircrafts attitude, and
supplying signals to the servo motors. If the aircraft has been placed, as an example, in a
nose down attitude prior to engagement, on engaging the autopilot would immediately
receive an error signal from the vertical gyro. The computer would then signal the servo
motors to move the control surfaces to provide a nose up attitude. It is therefore necessary to
oppose the vertical gyro error signal and reduce it to zero before engaging the autopilot. This
ensures that the system is synchronised with the attitude of the aircraft.
Amplification
Any error signal derived from a detection device or command signal must be amplified, for
they do not have the magnitude to operate a servo actuator.
The type of aircraft and its handling characteristics will have a great bearing on the way it
responds to control surface movement. For example, an empty aircraft will respond quite
differently to the same one that has a full load of fuel and passengers on board. It is therefore
necessary for the AFCS to have a system which will adjust the ratio of the output signal to the
input signal to achieve the desired rate of response. The response of an aircraft to a
command or detection signal will therefore be determined by the gain of the amplifier circuits
in the flight control computer.
The gain or transfer ratio of an amplifier is the ratio of the output to the input. To put it another
way, the gain is equal to the transfer ratio, which is equal to output divided by the input.
Turbulence
An aircraft experiencing turbulent air conditions in flight will have varying degrees of load
applied to its structure. In these circumstances, the pilot will adjust speed, power and use of
controls to suit the prevailing conditions.
If the aircraft encounters turbulent conditions while the AFCS is engaged, the AFCS will
correct for any movement that takes place. However, this correction, in these conditions,
could possibly lead to additional loads being applied to the structure due to the rate at which
the AFCS responds. This can cause the AFCS response rate to get out of phase with the
disturbance rate. The pilot would normally disengage the AFCS in these conditions, but in
some AFCS there is a mode selection which reduces the gain of the pitch and roll channels
thereby softening the response of the AFCS to the disturbance.(Turbulence Penetration)
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Gain Diagram
Wash Out
Wash out is the automatic sensing and opposition of any standing signals existing from
attitude signal transmitters.
This enables engagement of the Autopilot system without any sudden control surface
position change or snatching of control surfaces.
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Artificial Feel
Artificial feel is used to provide an artificial mechanical feedback between the control
surfaces and the pilot.
This feel is provided by a variety of methods depending on aircraft complexity and
sophistication.
The feedback is provided so the pilot can determine what aerodynamic loads are on the
control surfaces.
This is necessary as in some situations without this feedback the pilot could demand a
control surface movement that exceeds the allowable aerodynamic loading.
Controls
When control column is moved backwards, the elevators are raised thereby decreasing lift of
the horizontal stab so that the aircraft is displaced by a pitching moment about the lateral axis
into a nose up or climbing attitude.
Forward movement of the control column lowers the elevators to increase the lift of the
horizontal stabiliser and so the pitching moment causes the aircraft to assume a nose-down
or descending attitude. Pitch displacements are opposed by aerodynamic damping in pitch
and by the longitudinal stability and as the response to elevator deflections is a steady
change of attitude. Elevators are essentially displacement control devices. Control column
and control wheel movements are independent of each other so that lateral and longitudinal
displacements can be obtained separately or in combination. This concept of having
separate control movements for each axes goes right through to the most complex automatic
flight control systems with multi axis control.
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system, it is electrical signals not mechanical inputs which control the actuator or servo
operation.
Going one step further, the electrically operated flight control system can be programmed to
fly a specific route, at a specific altitude and then the pilot is simply along for the ride. The
avionic systems of the aircraft provides the flight control computer with inputs of heading,
altitude, waypoints, etc and the flight control computer repositions the actuators with
electrical signals to maintain the aircraft on the programmed flight path. This attribute in an
automatic flight control system is called an autopilot.
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Servomotors may be connected in series or parallel with the AFCS. A series servomotor is
one that moves the control surfaces without moving the pilots controls, whilst a parallel
servomotor moves the control surfaces and the pilots controls.
The most common actuator used on commercial aircraft flight control systems is the electrohydraulic actuator.
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the computer indicating the actual position of the control surface. The synchro signal is of a
phase opposite, but in proportion to the control surface displacement and will null the output
signal of the computer when both signals are equal. Thus control surface movement will
cease.
Both the pneumatic and electric servos are only power assisting servos, with the flight control
system still fundamentally powered by the pilots muscles. The pneumatic and electric flight
control servos are limited to use in only light and simple aircraft. Neither of these examples
are a fly-by-wire system.
The actuators used in larger and more modern aircraft are typically electro-hydraulic.
Pneumatic Servo when vacuum is applied the diaphragm pulls the cable repositioning the
flight control surface
Electric Motor Servo can use a reversible DC motor or a constant direction motor with
magnetically switched clutches
Electric motor and Pneumatic (vacuum) powered servos normally only incorporated in light
aircraft
Neither of these are fly-by-wire systems large modern aircraft typically use electro-hydraulic
actuators which are entirely electrically controlled
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Electro-Pneumatic Servo
Electro-pneumatic servo; consists of electro-magnetic valve, with dual poppet ports
connected via pressure ports & orifices to two cylinders containing pistons sealed against
pressure loss
Valves controlled by electrical command signals from the auto pilot
With no signal present both valves are open
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Electro-Hydraulic Actuators
The transfer valve is an electrically controlled hydraulic valve which operates a piston
assembly called the autopilot actuator, which in turn operates the main control valve for the
actuating cylinder. The movement of the actuator is monitored by the output of a linear
voltage differential transducer (LVDT). This will provide the follow up signal back to the
computer. Direct operation of the hydraulic power unit has two main advantages; one is the
very low computer power output required and the other is that it is more sensitive and
accurate, due to the absence of cable slack, stretch and drag.
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Manual Operation
In manual operation, the control column moves the control quadrant, we will assume this
relates to a back stick input to move the elevators. The pilot pulls the stick backwards to start
a climb (moves the cockpit control to the left on the slide), the control cables will turn the
control input quadrant which will move the upper end of the control valve actuator (long green
arm) to the left. At this point before the surface begins to move the control surface actuator is
hydraulically locked in position (shown still centred on the diagram, because this is before it
begins to move) so the control valve actuator (long green arm) is anchored at the bottom.
The end result of the top of the arm moving left is that the control valve will be displaced left.
When the control valve moves left hydraulic supply pressure is ported to the left hand side of
the control surface actuator, which will force the piston to the right.
The pressure applied to the left of the control surface actuator will force the piston to the right
moving the control surface. This will move the bottom anchor point of the control valve
actuator (long green arm) to the right, and this time the top of the arm is held stationary (pilot
still has control column pulled back) so the control valve spool will be moved to the right, thus
synchronising again and causing a hydraulic lock on either side of the control surface
actuator piston, locking the control surface in the commanded position (whilst ever the pilot
maintains the back stick input).
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The control surface will remain in the back stick position until the stick is recentred. When
back stick is released, the same process as previously described occurs again. The bottom
of the control valve actuator (long green arm) is locked in place because the control surface
is initially still hydraulically locked in the extended position. With the bottom of the control
valve actuator (long green arm) locked, the control valve will be displaced to the right, porting
hydraulic pressure to the right side of the control surface actuator.
With the bottom of the control valve actuator (long green arm) locked, the control valve will
be displaced to the right, porting hydraulic pressure to the right side of the control surface
spool piston. The hydraulic pressure applied to the control surface spool piston will force the
piston to the left and retract the control surface. This will also reposition the control valve to
the left recentreing it and again hydraulically locking the control surface in the central position
until the control column is again displaced.
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This description of flight control system operation still refers to a manually operated system.
No electrical inputs have been described yet. As you can see actuator operation is
dependant upon control valve position. If we can electrically drive the control valve, we can
control the actuator with electrical signals alone.
On/Off Solenoid
An ON/OFF solenoid is simply a hydraulic relay. With no electrical power applied hydraulic
pressure is shut-off because the solenoid spring holds the seat against a seal, preventing
pressure from being felt downstream.
When power is applied the solenoid coil magnetises and unseats the valve (overpowers
spring pressure) and permits hydraulic oil to flow.
In the hydraulic actuator, the ON/OFF solenoid provides pressure to the transfer valve when
autopilot is activated. Power to the ON/OFF solenoid is typically controlled through a series
of monitors which detect any failures in the autopilot system. In the event that an autopilot
failure is detected, the ON/OFF solenoid is de-energised, isolating autopilot inputs from the
actuator.
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Transfer Valve
Before looking at the operation of the actuator, we must understand the workings of the
transfer valve, which transforms electrical signals from the computer into hydraulic pressure.
A transfer valve is also often called a Electro-Hydraulic Valve (EHV), or a hydraulic servo can
be driven by torque motors directly connected to the Autopilot Actuator spool. The torque
motor style is a high current application though, so the transfer valve and EHV style of
electrical interface to the hydraulic actuator are more common in modern flight control
installations.
On the right hand side there is a coil of windings around a C shaped core. If a signal is
presented to this coil, it will move the permanent magnet armature up or down about its pivot.
The computer outputs a DC signal and the polarity of the signal determines the direction of
movement. Hydraulic fluid is fed into the unit through the feed pipe, passing through a
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flexible tube which then divides across the pointed divider, just under the flexible tube. The
feed pipe provides full hydraulic system pressure to the transfer valve nozzle, but it is
supplied through only very narrow gauge plumbing because the work it has to perform to
manipulate the spool valve is minimal, so a high rate of flow of pressurised hydraulic fluid is
unnecessary.
If there is no electrical signal to the coil, the flexible tube remains in the neutral position, due
to spring loading (represented by the two black lines connecting the nozzle point and the
spool valve piston assembly). In this position, the spool valve and feedback springs sense
equal hydraulic pressure at both ends and take up the neutral position, closing off both
control ports.
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Other actuators are designed so that electrical inputs only move the control surface and have
no effect on the cockpit controls. Damper signals are typical of this method of operation.
When aircraft oscillations are detected by a gyro, it outputs a signal through the flight control
computer to the actuator to counter the oscillations, but the rudder pedals or control column
will not me moved. This design of the actuator is not that different from the type described
here, but the differences will not be covered in this lesson.
As the autopilot actuator moves to the left, the autopilot LVDT produces an electrical output
which is sent back to the computer to null the command signal input.
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In Series Operation.
Because the pilot has no feel of the aerodynamic loads acting on the control surfaces it is
necessary to incorporate an artificial feel device at a point between the pilots controls and
their connection to the servo-unit control lever.
This is commonly a q feel unit in which the feel force varies with the dynamic pressure of
the air sensed by the Pitot/static system. Q=1/2V2
It monitors hydraulic pressure and produces control forces dependent on the amount of
control movement and forward speed of the aircraft.
A q feel unit monitors hydraulic pressure and produces control forces dependent on the
amount of control movement and forward speed of the aircraft.
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In a q feel unit the feel force varies with the dynamic pressure of the air sensed by the
pitot/static system.
An artificial feel unit is connected at a point between the pilots controls and their connection
to the servo-unit control lever it restricts movement of the control column.
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Electrohydraulic Servomotors
Servomotors Duplex
In some aircraft the possibility of a hard over or runaway condition resulting from automatic
flight control malfunctions is prevented by utilising two independent control systems which
displace control surfaces via duplex servomotors & differential Gearing.
The pitch & roll servo motors are of equal authority and torque, and their outputs are
summed by their respective differential gearing. The yaw servomotor is of a single type with
torque limiting.
When the commands from AFCS computer 1 & 2 to a servomotor are identical (normal
operation) the motions of both motors within the servo are identical, so providing doubled
authority to operate the appropriate control surface.
If however a malfunction in one system occurs such that a hardover roll is commanded by
that system, then it will turn the differential gear in the direction commanded. The other
system however will (at the outset) detect the undesired attitude change and will command
its motor to rotate the differential in the opposite direction with the net result that the
deflection is prevented.
Each motor is coupled electrically to a sensor known as a speed monitor, which in turn is
connected to braking units. The purpose of the monitor is to identify a runaway motor, which
it does within about 2 milliseconds, and then to apply a signal to the respective brake thus
locking out of the differential gear and enabling the good motor to drive the control surface
through its half of the gearing. Since the servo power is halved, then any hard over risk in the
remaining control system is reduced.
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Runaway conditions resulting from malfunctions are prevented by utilising two independent
control systems which displace control surfaces via duplex servomotors.
When commands from AFCS computer 1 & 2 to a servomotor are identical (normal
operation) motions of both motors within servo are identical & complimentary
Purpose of monitor is to identify a runaway motor (it does within 2 milliseconds)
Applies signal to respective brake thus locking out of differential gear
Enabling good motor to drive control surface through its half of gearing
No failsafe after one system fails no monitor to counteract a failure of second motor or
computer additional redundancy typically incorporated 3 or 4 computer channels
Hydraulic servo-actuators also incorporated duplex operation
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Servomotors Duplex
Common command applied to all EHVs from all 4 channels all signals identical &
complimentary.
DPs monitor EHV outputs when all pressures balanced (normal operation) no failure
signal generated.
Any detected computer fails (in a single channel) turns off the command signal remaining
signals still command actuator with no loss of efficiency: eg LVDT fail, cross channel mismatch wiring short or open cct.
If DP sensor detects EHV failure SOV controlling EHV turned OFF removing hyd pressure
from EHV pressure still provided to MCV & main ram actuator continues to function on
remaining good EHV with no efficiency loss.
Bypass damper ports return pressure to MCV to prevent hydraulic lock with EHV deenergised
If 2nd EHV fails 2nd SOV turns OFF & actuator reverts to mechanical operation input
directly to MCV
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Servomotors Duplex
Quadruple redundant duplex hydraulic servo actuator
Upper half of actuator autopilot actuator mechanical input applied to main control valve
from command select mechanism if both EHVs fail.
Schematic diagram of hydraulic duplex servoactuator:
Components:
SOVs
MCV
Bypass Damper
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Interlocks
Before an automatic control system can be engaged with an aircrafts flight controls, certain
preliminary operating requirements must be fulfilled to ensure that the system is in a
condition whereby it may safely take control of the aircraft.
The principal requirements are that the connections between system power supplies, the
elements comprising the system, and the appropriate signal and engage circuits are
electrically complete.
It is the practice, therefore, to incorporate within any automatic control system a series of
switches and/or relays, known as interlocks, which operate in a specific sequence to ensure
satisfactory engagement, and the coupling of input signals from outer loop control elements.
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Two moving vane transducers can be mounted on the inner and outer gimbal rings of a
vertical gyro to sense pitch and roll attitude changes.
A square wave a.c power supply is applied to coils 1 and 2, the voltages being out-of phase.
In level flight there is no output but with change of attitude there is relative movement
between vane and coil assembly with the resultant output as a command signal to the
computer
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The dynamic vertical sensor is a pendulum actuated synchro transmitter the axis of which is
aligned with the fore and aft axis of the aircraft. The unit is oil damped and in a coordinated
turn the pendulum aligns with the resultant of centrifugal and gravitational forces. At the
dynamic vertical there is no signal output but if the aircraft is slipping or skidding the
pendulum will be displaced from the vertical with a signal output.
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Rate gyros detect short term attitude changes, these signals are used to modify
displacement inputs, e.g. rudder channel for turn co-ordination.
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The gyroscopic sensors used with autopilots are similar to the gyro instruments.
These sensors detect aircraft pitch, roll, and yaw motions. Deviations in attitude or in the rate
of change from a selected attitude are converted into electrical error signals and sent to the
autopilot computer.
On small aircraft, the autopilot sensors are frequently built in to the attitude and heading
gyros.
The latest types of autopilots use sensors that employ laser beams instead of a spinning gyro
rotor. these laser sensors, called ring laser gyros, or RLGs.
The RLG has two laser beams that travel in opposite directions around a triangular course.
Sensitive detectors measure the Doppler shift or frequency change whenever the unit is
rotated.
One RLG is needed for each axis measured. RLGs are much more expensive than an actual
gyro, but they do not precess, and they eliminate the moving parts that cause a conventional
gyro to gradually wear out.
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All automatic flight control systems (AFCS) are based on the closed loop servo system.
Their input signals originate from either a command signal device or a gyro stabilisation
signal (attitude gyro). The signal is amplified to provide an increase in signal strength to
power the correction unit (servomotor) to move the aircraft control surface.
The amplifier output is reduced to zero (null) by a follow up system (direct feedback) that
cancels the input signal and the control surface movement stops.
Since movement of the control surface causes aircraft response, the original input signal will
be cancelled by the change in aircraft attitude.
The control surface is now returned to neutral by the follow up (direct feedback) system
providing the only input to the amplifier to drive the servomotor back to a null or zero signal
from the follow up system.
Basic AFCS loop consists of the detection, amplification, correction follow up and the aircraft
response loop.
Response loop. The function of the follow up signal is to cancel the input signal by applying
an opposite signal proportional to the command required to bring the aircraft to the desired
attitude.
Position feedback provides control surface displacement proportional to the strength of the
input signal.
Rate feedback allows a control surface displacement to be applied at a rate that matches the
rate of input signal application. It provides a damping effect on the control surface response,
providing tighter control over the aircraft.
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Inner Loop
The inner loop is the basis of any AFCS and is responsible for the basic attitudinal stability of
the aircraft. Its function may be called a stability augmentation system (SAS) or a damper
system.
The operation of inner loop is by the sensing of aircraft attitude changes and the transmission
of error signals, which is accomplished by the use of gyros, accelerometers and transducers.
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An example of a circuit as applied to a roll control channel is shown in the figure and is one
which uses the characteristics of both an operating amplifier in the integrating function, and
of servomechanism feedback.
Assuming that prior to engagement of the AFCS, the aircraft is at some angle of roll there will
be a corresponding roll attitude signal output from the roll sensing transducer of the verticalaxis gyroscope unit, and this is supplied to summing point 2. All other command inputs
normally supplied to summing junction 1 are at zero, since the control system is not at this
stage coupled to any mode. The roll attitude signal is therefore, an error signal which flows
out from summing junction 2 to summing junction 3 via an amplifier and the roll displacement
path, and also back to summing junction 1.
Since the AP ENG and ROLL HOLD switches are both closed prior to engagement of the
control system, the error signal is also applied to the input of the integrating amplifier to drive
it until its output to summing junction 2 is equal to the roll attitude signal, thereby zeroing the
output from junction 2.
During the time that the foregoing synchronisation process is taking place, an error signal is
also produced at the output of summing junction 3 as a result of summing the signal along
the roll displacement path, with a roll rate signal developed from the roll attitude signal after
passing it through a rate taker circuit; the purpose of the rate signal is to provide a shortterm damping of servo-actuator operation.
The resulting error signal passes to the aileron servo-actuator, via the summing and servo
amplifiers, and so it is driven in the appropriate direction; the ailerons are not displaced of
course, since with the control system not engaged the servomotor clutch is de-energised.
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At the same time that the motor operates, it drives a position feedback synchro (CX), the
output of which is demodulated and fed to summing junction 3 to oppose the error signal
which, as a result of the synchronisation process, becomes less than the feedback signal,
leaving the latter as the sole means of driving the servomotor until the feedback signal itself
is reduced to zero.
An example of a circuit as applied to a roll control channel is shown in the figure and is one
which utilises the characteristics of both an operating amplifier in the integrating function, and
of servomechanism feedback.
Assuming that prior to engagement of the AFCS, the aircraft is at some angle of roll there will
be a corresponding roll attitude signal output from the roll sensing transducer of the verticalaxis gyroscope unit, and this is supplied to summing point 2. All other command inputs
normally supplied to summing junction 1 are at zero, since the control system is not at this
stage coupled to any mode. The roll attitude signal is therefore, an error signal which flows
out from summing junction 2 to summing junction 3 via an amplifier and the roll displacement
path, and also back to summing junction 1.
The resulting error signal passes to the aileron servo-actuator, via the summing and servo
amplifiers, and so it is driven in the appropriate direction; the ailerons are not displaced of
course, since with the control system not engaged the servomotor clutch is de-energised.
At the same time that the motor operates, it drives a position feedback synchro (CX), the
output of which is demodulated and fed to summing junction 3 to oppose the error signal
which, as a result of the synchronisation process, becomes less than the feedback signal,
leaving the latter as the sole means of driving the servomotor until the feedback signal itself
is reduced to zero.
The servo-actuator also drives a tachogenerator which supplies a rate feedback signal to
summing junction 4, the purpose of this signal being to synchronise the servomotor operation
and to prevent any tendency for it to over shoot its nulled position. Thus, in the synchronised
condition, the net signals at summing junctions 2 through 4 are zero, and since the
servomotor is stopped at a position synchronised with the datum attitude detected by the
vertical-axis gyroscope unit, it can be engaged with the aileron control system without
snatching.
On engagement, the :AP ENG and ROLL .HOLD switches are opened and so the integrator
is isolated from the circuit. since the aircraft is still some angle of roll, the appropriate roll
attitude signal is now predominant and from summing junction 3 is able to drive the
synchronised servo actuator motor which thereby displaces the ailerons to restore a wingslevel attitude.
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The rates at which different types of aircraft respond to displacements of their flight control
surfaces vary between types and their basic handling characteristics.
In particular they vary with altitude, speed, aircraft load and configuration, and rate of
maneuver. Thus, it is necessary to incorporate gearing elements within flight control
systems which will adapt them to aircraft and thereby reduce the effects which variations in
flight parameters can have on handling characteristics.
Similarly, in applying particular types of AFCS to individual aircraft control systems, it is
necessary to provide facilities for altering the response of an automatic system to any given
level of input signal, thereby obtaining a signal ratio best suited to the operation of the
systems when working in combination.
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Such a ratio is known as gain and may be considered as having a function analogous to the
changing of gear ratios in a mechanical gearing system .
The signal path from error to response is known as the system forward path, and the
amplification from error to response, measured as amplification ratio, is the loop gain.
Satisfactory closed-loop performance depends on determining a loop gain which
compromises between long-term accuracy plus initial response, and acceptable settling time
plus limited overshoot. These factors, in turn, require sufficient inherent damping in the load.
Certain adjustments of command and feedback signals can be pre-set within amplifier and/or
computer units in order to produce gain factors which establish a basic match between an
AFCS and aircraft characteristics.
Adjustments are based on the variation of electrical resistance at appropriate sections of
signal circuits, and as in several types of control system, this is accomplished by means of
potentiometers located on a calibration panel that forms an integral part of an amplifier or
computer unit.
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The program is accomplished by using signals from a low range radio altimeter which are
supplied to a gain programmer control section in a vertical path module of the pitch control
channel.
After the GS mode is engaged plus 10 seconds, the GS deviation beam signal is modulated
and amplified, and supplied as a pitch down command signal.
Initially, the gain of the beam deviation amplifier is zero, but it then increases to, and is held
at, 100% until the aircraft descends to 1,500 ft radio altitude.
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The altitude signal then produced by the radio altimeter develops a bias voltage which is
applied to the GS beam deviation amplifier so that its gain is reduced as the aircraft
descends (graph A).
The gain programmer control section of the vertical path module also supplies a gain control
signal to a lateral path module in the roll control channel in order that the gain of the LOC
beam deviation amplifier may also be reduced.
In this case, the reduction is gradual from 100% to 57%.
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In the event that there is an invalid signal from the radio altimeter, a time programme control
is developed (see graph B).
In respect of the GS, this programme starts 10 seconds after GS has been engaged, and
results in an initial gain of 80%, decreasing to approximately 20% over a period of time of
120 seconds.
The LOC beam deviation amplifier gain programme is initiated directly at GS engage, and
after 120 seconds time period the gain is reduced to 57%.
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This system is provided in some AFCS to enable the pilot to maneuver the aircraft in pitch
and roll through the AFCS by exerting normal pressure on his control wheel.
On releasing the control wheel, the AFCS will hold aircraft at the newly established attitude.
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When power is applied to an AFCS, the attitude sensing elements are monitoring the
aircrafts attitude. The sensing signals are supplied to the appropriate AFCS channel and
servo amplifier. Any output signal from the servo amplifier is also fed to the appropriate trim
indicator.
The purpose of the trim indicator is to provide an indication of signals being supplied to the
servomotors, whether in the engaged or disengaged conditions, and also to indicate any out
of trim conditions of the aircraft under normal operating conditions of the control system.
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Trim Sensor
This consists of a fixed mounting plate with two adjustable contacts and a sliding bar with a
common contact which is attached to pulleys that ride on the up and down elevator cables.
Trim Servo
The servomotor is a geared DC reversible motor installed on a mounting bracket together
with its amplifier.
The output from the motor is transmitted to the elevator trim tab via a capstan connected to
the trim tab control cables.
The elevator channel command signal to the elevator servomotor is used as the appropriate
command signal to the pitch autotrim.
Its direction is sensed by up trim and down trim sensor circuits, which operate relays that
apply a signal to the trim servomotor to run it in the appropriate direction.
The signal is pulse width modulated, the pulse duration being a function of airspeed.
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If an aircraft under auto-pilot control encounters turbulence it will sense the turbulence as
disturbances to aircraft attitude, but in applying corrective control it is possible for additional
loads to be imposed.
In this mode the gain of pitch and roll signals is reduced gain, therefore softening flight
control system response.
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Axes of an Aircraft
An aircraft in flight is controlled within three stabilized planes. Movement within each plane is
about an axis, rather than centred on an axis. All three axes pass through the centre of
gravity (C of G).
The three principal axes are:
lateral (Y axis) which runs parallel with a line from wing tip to wing tip and intersects the X
axis at the C of G
normal/vertical (Z axis) runs perpendicular to the other two axes intersecting them at the C
of G.
Roll
Movement around the longitudinal axis is called rolling, its control or stability is called the
lateral stability, and is controlled by ailerons.
Pitch
Movement around the lateral axis is called pitching, and the control or stability is called the
longitudinal stability, and is controlled by elevators.
Yaw
Movement around the vertical axis is called yawing. Control or stability is called the
directional stability and is controlled by the rudder.
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Rudder This controls the direction of the aircraft in the same way as the rudder on a boat.
The rudder is hinged at the rear of the vertical fin, and is operated by the pilots rudder
pedals. Pushing the right pedal forward causes the aircraft to turn right.
Stabilators Some aircraft have dispensed with the elevators on the tail plane, and replaced
them with a horizontal surface that moves in its entirety and is called a stabilator. It is mainly
used in high performance fighter aircraft.
Canards Some aircraft have an additional set of wings set forward of the C of G instead of a
tail plane. They are used to give additional lift to the main wings, and improve the handling of
the aircraft at low and high speeds.
Elevons These are combined control surfaces that act as both elevators and ailerons on
delta winged aircraft.
Ruddervators These are a combined control surface to operate in pitch and yaw, and fitted
to aircraft that have a butterfly of V tail.
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This concept of having separate control movements for each axes goes right through to the
most complex automatic flight control systems with multi axis control
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electrical signals to maintain the aircraft on the programmed flight path. This attribute in an
automatic flight control system is called an autopilot.
LVDT Operation
By incorporating two secondary coils (or a single coil with a centre-tap) whenever one end of
the secondary is positive the other end will be negative. If the signals from each end of the
coils are measured and compared to earth, the two signals will be of equal amplitude and
frequency, but of opposite phase. If the two signals are combined the resultant will be zero
volts because the two signals will cancel each other out.
The two signals will only be of equal amplitude when the ferrite rod is in the centre of the
secondary coil. If the rod is displaced in either direction, one of the secondary coils signals
will be stronger than the other, and the resultant signal will be indicative of direction (the
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Force Transducers
In an E & I bar force transducer, the principle of operation is virtually the same as for an
LVDT.
The AC input signal is applied to the centre winding on the E bar and the outer legs support
the secondary windings. In the force transducer pictured, any input on the left hand end will
move the I bar with respect to the E Bar because the outer case of the transducer is
designed to expand and contract as force is varied. The magnetic relationship between the E
& I bar will vary, producing output signals in the same manner as the LVDT.
In an E & I bar force transducer, the principle of operation is virtually the same as for an
LVDT.
The AC input signal is applied to the centre winding on the E bar and the outer legs support
the secondary windings. In the force transducer pictured, any input on the left hand end will
move the I bar with respect to the E Bar because the outer case of the transducer is
designed to expand and contract as force is varied. The magnetic relationship between the E
& I bar will vary, producing output signals in the same manner as the LVDT.
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Example of signal interface between sensor and control surface. Sensor electrical output can
be from LVDT, E & I bar, Synchro, etc. Signal amplified and applied to servomotor. Feedback
signal fed back to amplifier nulling error signal (Op amp for example)
In modern aircraft error signal digitised within computer. Computer processor interprets
attitude change requested by pilot and sends appropriate analogue signals to servoactuators
to achieve required attitude change. Has advantage of gain scheduling signals before
applying them to servoactuators, and computer can select appropriate control surface to
move to achieve attitude change most efficiently FCC software load.
Although not new in concept, complete re-development of fly-by-wire systems has been
necessary in recent years, as a means of controlling some highly sophisticated types of
aircraft. Mechanical linkages to the control surfaces required would have been prohibitively
complex, thus fly-by-wire systems where wires carry the electrical signals from the pilots
controls, replaced mechanical linkages entirely.
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In a fly-by-wire system the control column will not be physically connected to the servo
actuator, the control column and rudder output is only applied to an LVDT (or similar
transducer) to convert the mechanical movement into and electrical signal proportional to the
degree of movement. This electrical signal is then transmitted to the Flight Control Computer
where the phase is detected to determine the direction in which the control column has
moved. The amplitude of the signal represents the distance the control column has been
displaced. Once phase detected the signal is rectified and amplified. The now DC signal is
applied to the transfer valve to reposition the control surface as explained on the previous
slide.
When the autopilot Actuator displaces (due to the hydraulic force applied from the Transfer
Valve) the autopilot LVDT will be displaced and the signal generated within the autopilot
LVDT will be phase detected, amplified and rectified and applied to the servo amp, to oppose
or null out the initial signal generated by the control column LVDT. When the feedback
voltage nulls the initial error voltage there will be no servo amplifier output, so the transfer
valve will recentre. The actuator will remain in the extended position until the control column
is released, then the autopilot LVDT signal applied to the servo amp will drive the transfer
valve, recentreing the autopilot actuator and control surface until the autopilot LVDT is again
at its null (centred) when the servo amp will no longer have an input from either the control
column LVDT or the autopilot LVDT
This concept is called closed servo loop operation. The feedback signal opposing the initial
input signal nulls it out, thus closing the loop of operation.
When flight control surfaces are aligned the control column LVDTs and autopilot LVDTs
must all be calibrated and aligned to the null position, this alignment is called rigging.
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Typically a flight control surface will have several flight control channels, so the amount of
LVDTs will be trebled. That is there will be three for the control column in the pitch axis,
three in the roll axis and three connected to the rudder pedals.
The Hornet aircraft has 4 flight control computer channels to operate 2 Ailerons, 2 Rudders 2
leading edge flaps, 2 trailing edge flaps and two stabilators, and has a total of approximately
100 LVDTs within the flight control system for position feedback, rate feedback and error
sensing monitors.
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Comparison of signals to achieve position and rate feedback to achieve fast response &
critical damping
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These units are used to measure the aircrafts rate of turn. If the nose of the aircraft is
deflected, the gyro will sense this, and signals will be sent to the rudder to move the aircraft
back to the correct heading.
The rate gyro output shown below the aircraft represents the 400 Hz synchro signal
developed during an aircrafts flight path. It also shows the rate gyros DC voltage output.
When the aircraft is flying in a straight line, there is not signal output from the synchro, but
when the aircraft turns, there is a signal with a constant amplitude.
On an aircraft is which is constantly changing direction, and as the rate of turn is constantly
changing so is the output from the rate gyro synchro. After the signal has been demodulated
and filtered, as seen in the DC graph, we have a DC voltage that is constantly changing
value and polarity with each aircraft turn. The DC values are at their highest when the rate of
turn is greatest. This signal is the one used by the autopilot to eliminate the condition known
as dutch roll. Pallet Automatic Flight Controls Pg 25
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All automatic flight control systems (AFCS) are based on the closed loop servo system. Their
input signals originate from either a command signal device or a gyro stabilization signal
(attitude gyro). The signal is amplified to provide an increase in signal strength to power the
correction unit (servomotor) to move the aircraft control surface. The amplifier output is
reduced to zero (null) by a follow up system (direct feedback) that cancels the input signal
and the control surface movement stops.
Since movement of the control surface causes aircraft response, the original input signal will
be cancelled by the change in aircraft attitude. The control surface is now returned to neutral
by the follow up (direct feedback) system providing the only input to the amplifier to drive the
servomotor back to a null or zero signal from the follow up system. The aircraft drift has
therefore been corrected by the sensor output and when the aircraft is returned to the
selected attitude by the control surface displacement, the control surface is returned to the
neutral position.
Basic AFCS loop
This consists of the detection, amplification, correction follow up and the aircraft response
loop. The function of the follow up signal is to cancel the input signal by applying an opposite
signal proportional to the command required to bring the aircraft to the desired attitude.
Position feedback
Provides control surface displacement proportional to the strength of the input signal.
Rate feedback
This allows a control surface displacement to be applied at a rate that matches the rate of
input signal application. It provides a damping effect on the control surface response,
providing tighter control over the aircraft.
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Accelerometers
Inertial Navigation Systems simply measure the magnitude of aircraft acceleration, and then
use that information to compute velocity and distance traveled. The graphic on the slide
shows a simple pendulum. You can visualize what happens to the pendulum if it is attached
to a vehicle which starts to move forward, the pendulum swings towards the rear of the
vehicle. This characteristic is explained by Newtons First Law of Motion, which states:
A body at rest tends to remain at rest and a body in motion tends to remain in motion in a
straight line unless forced to change its state by an external force.
Newtons second law of motion states:
The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the force causing it and inversely
proportional to the mass of the body.
Newtons second law applies to the pendulum in the vehicle on the slide and we can use the
pendulum to measure acceleration. The magnitude of acceleration can be measured
because the distance moved by the pendulum is proportional to the applied force. That is, the
greater the acceleration, the further the pendulum will move rearwards.
A device used to measure acceleration is called an accelerometer. Note that an
accelerometer will measure acceleration only that may seem like an obvious statement but
it is important to realize that once the vehicle is in a steady state of motion (or rest) the
pendulum will hang vertically. For example, let us assume our vehicle accelerates from rest
to 100 km/hr, then cruises at that speed for a short period before stopping. When the vehicle
is accelerating the pendulum will swing backwards. However, during cruise at 100 km/hr the
pendulum will hang vertically as velocity is constant and acceleration is zero. When the
brakes are applied the pendulum swings forward and the harder the brakes are applied the
further forward it will swing. Finally, when the vehicle is stationary the pendulum hangs
vertical again.
Accelerometers are sensitive only along a single axis. This axis of maximum sensitivity is
known as the sensitive axis of the accelerometer. To measure N-S & E-W accelerations, two
accelerometers are required.
An INS measures acceleration in longitudinal and Lateral axes and plots aircraft movement
with respect to aircraft velocity (speed and direction or heading). Because the functionality of
an INS basically depends on gravity as the constant, it is unaffected by wind and
atmospheric conditions like a pitot/static system. An INS can very accurately detect any
induced accelerations, eg drift and cross wind so can calculate groundspeed, heading and
time (the 3 requirements for a dead reckoning system) with exacting accuracy, providing a
reliable dead reckoning navigation reference.
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Accelerometers
The accelerometer is basically a pendulous device. When the aircraft accelerates, the
pendulum, due to inertia, swings off its null position. A signal pick off device will tell how far
the pendulum has moved. There are many different types of accelerometers. Figure on slide
shows the progression from a simple pendulum to an E and I pick off device.
The E and I pick off device accelerometer is an with its armature spring loaded to a null
position by two leaf springs. The output windings are connected in phase opposition to each
other so that when the armature is in a null position, the resultant output signal is null.
Accelerometers
Movement to one side causes the signal of one phase to dominate the other. The illustration
on the slide shows the movements and subsequent outputs of the accelerometer.
Accelerometer A is indicating that is it accelerating to the left and the armature, due to inertia,
is lagging to the right. Because of the position of the armature relative to the windings, the
output on the right will be greater.
Accelerometer B is accelerating to the right, so obviously the output on the left will be
greater.
Sometimes two accelerometers are used in the one system. In this configuration, one
accelerometer acts as a reference and the other is used to detect accelerations in another
location.
The illustration on the slide shows a pair of accelerometers connected in such a way, that if
both experience movement in the same direction, the output signal will be a null. If they
experience different accelerations, then there will be output, which is used by the autopilot
computer.
With no acceleration detected by the accelerometer, the output signals from each of the
capacitive pickoffs are equal in amplitude but opposite in phase. Therefore, the output from
the acceleration restoring amplifier will be zero and the output from the accelerometer will be
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zero. During accelerations the pendulum, due to its inertia, will begin to swing away from the
null position. The greater the acceleration the further it will tend to swing.
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The movement of the pendulum will be detected by the pickoffs causing an imbalance in the
output signals from the capacitive devices which are applied to the accelerometer restoring
amplifier (ARA). The output signal from the restoring amplifier is applied to the rebalance
torquers which generate a torque that will return and hold the mass at its null position. The
current required by the rebalance torquers to maintain the pendulum at the null position is
proportional to the amount of acceleration that the accelerometer is experiencing. This is
very useful, we now have an electrical signal that is proportional to acceleration.
In summary, when no acceleration is present, the inertial mass will be centred. The signals
generated by the pickoffs will be equal in amplitude but opposite in phase. Therefore, the
output from the restoring amplifier will be zero. When acceleration is present the following
takes place:
Pendulum tends to move away from centre pick-offs generate an imbalance signal which is
applied to the amplifier output from the amplifier is applied to the rebalance torquers.
Torquers generate a torque which holds the mass at the null position signal from the amplifier
is proportional acceleration.
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In fighter aircraft flight control computers can recover from a stall or out-of-control (flat spin)
by configuring flight control surfaces such that there is the greatest possibility of the aircraft
recovering to controlled flight. The surface positions would be as determined by test pilots
during the flight testing of prototypes. In large passenger aircraft the FCS system is
programmed to avoid entering a phase of flight where a stall or out of control condition is a
possibility, eg stick pushers, stall warning and stall avoidance systems.
Fly-By-Wire Benefits
The Airbus fly-by-wire system offers significant tangible benefits in terms of greater safety,
through unconstrained control input freedom within the flight envelope, and protection
against exceedance of operating limits, stalling, overspeeding or overstressing the aircraft
outside the envelope. To these can be added windshear protection, reduced pilot workload,
lower costs and improved aircraft performance. It makes a major contribution to reducing
maintenance costs by eliminating much of the complex mechanical system of cables, pulleys
and associated gear which need post-maintenance rigging work and checks.
Sidesticks
Because the pilot does not have to physically force the control column to deflect the control
surfaces with his/her muscular effort, a simple little computer joystick (sidestick) can be
incorporated to control the aircraft, with electronic outputs applied to a flight control
computer. Replacement of old-generation control columns by modern sidesticks has the
benefits of an unobstructed view of the instrument panel and a slide-out working table in front
of each pilot.
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Damping Systems
When a flight control system can be managed by electrical signals, the output of sensor
systems can be harnessed to automatically correct for any variations from the intended
attitude. This can take the form of damper systems to counter porpiosing, Dutch-roll or
turbulence induced motion where gyro or accelerometer outputs are used to automatically
correct for any non-pilot induced attitude changes (any variations not initiated by control
column or rudder input).
Consider an aircraft flying in a straight and level flight attitude with the AFCS engaged. If a
sudden gust of wind should move the aircraft, the attitude gyros would sense the movement
and send a signal to the computer. The computer will process this information and send a
signal to the servomotors to move the appropriate control surface to bring the aircraft back to
its original attitude. The servomotors will send a feedback signal to the computer, telling it
that the control surface has been displaced.
Note
When the aircraft is returned to its original attitude (before the gust of wind hit), this will null
the original error signal produced by the gyro. This is called aerodynamic feedback. Where
the attitude change of the aircraft initially produced an error signal detected by the gyro, the
response by the flight control system to counter the drift will null out the initial gyro error
signal.
Damper correction will not be felt back through the control inputs (control column or rudder
pedals). The correction will be applied to the servoactuator to drive a control spool which is
not mechanically connected back to the pilots controls, so the control surface will correct for
the sensed variation in attitude keeping the aircraft in straight and level flight, but the pilot will
not feel any of the correction inputs in the cockpit.
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Autopilot Engagement
The basic principles of autopilots are to hold the aircraft in basic heading, pitch and roll
channel attitude at the time of engagement. An autopilot system is designed so that there will
be a gradual transition when it is engaged. if heading hold is engaged when aircraft is 90
from selected heading the aircraft will not immediately throw itself into a violent bank to
capture the commanded heading. The aircraft will be limited in its rate of heading change to
perhaps 3 per second, thereby taking 30 seconds or more to align to the commanded
heading. Typically the rate of change of heading can also be selected by the pilot. The same
gradual engagement is replicated for any autopilot function.
Autopilot Control Panel provides for engagement for the range of autopilot options, eg
Heading Hold, Roll stabilisation and Vertical speed hold all engaged simultaneously to
control a climb to assigned altitude. Often autopilot cannot be engaged until preset conditions
are met, eg roll stabilisation cannot be engaged until bank angle less than 10, Autoland can
only be engaged if Radar Altimeter system functioning, Radar altitude hold and barometric
altitude hold cannot be engaged simultaneously, etc.
Autopilot is engaged by selecting the appropriate switches and buttons to select the autopilot
functions desired.
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Autopilot Coupling
ILS Localiser element The transmitter is located at the far end of the runway. To direct an
aircraft onto the centreline of the runway, the transmitter radiates azimuth guidance signals
to the left and right of the centreline. The signal transmitted to the left has a 90 Hz signal
superimposed on it, and a 150 Hz signal is superimposed on the signal transmitted to the
right. The two transmissions overlap along the centreline. When an aircraft is approaching,
the ILS receiver receives both signals at equal strength. This is indicated on the indicator. If
the aircraft deviates to the left of the centreline, the strength of the 90 Hz signal will be
greater than that of the 150 Hz signal. Both signals pass through a comparator circuit, (Op
Amp as described last slide) which then produces an output, causing the vertical bar of the
indicator to deflect to the right. This tells the pilot to fly right to intercept the centerline. The
same occurs if the aircraft deviates to the right, except that the 150 Hz signal becomes the
stronger.
Glidepath element The transmitter is located at the threshold of the runway. The transmitter
radiates a pattern similar to that of the localiser, but they provide vertical guidance above and
below the decent path at an angle of 2.5 to 3. When the aircraft is approaching along this
path, 90 Hz and 150 Hz are received at the same strength. The same conditions occur as
with the localiser, except the indicator will indicate up and down deviations.
By following the displayed commands, a pilot is able to carry out an ILS approach to an
airport runway. In order to carry out an approach under automatic control, it is necessary for
the AFCS to be coupled to the ILS. The signals from the ILS are purely command signals
varying in amplitude with displacement from the beam centres, but they have no directional
properties and cannot take into account the heading of the aircraft. It is therefore necessary
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for the pilot to align the aircraft with the runway in heading (this function can be carried out
automatically on modern computerised aircraft). Upon intercepting the localiser beams the
deviation pointer of the ILS indicator will display a fly left command. The pilot flies the aircraft
onto the appropriate heading, and now the ILS system can automatically control the aircrafts
approach to the runway threshold.
The localiser mode is selected so that the AFCS roll channel will respond to the result of the
beam signal and heading error signal. When the signals are in balance, the aircraft will fly
straight and level on the intercept heading.
As the aircraft enters the normal width of the beam, the signal is reduced and the runway
heading signal causes the aircraft to turn towards the centre of the beam until both beam and
runway heading signal are in balance. Any deviation from the runway heading or localiser
beam will produce an error signal and the deviation will be corrected so the aircraft will follow
the centre of the localiser beam right to the runway threshold.
The AFCS will also be receiving signals from the glide path transmitter, and these are fed to
the pitch channel. The glideslope signals will keep the aircraft on the optimum 3 glideslope.
Any deviation (so the 90 or 150Hz signals are imbalanced) will produce an error signal, and
when applied to the AFCS system to deviation will be automatically corrected.
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Autoland During cruise and initial stages of approach to land, the control system operates as
a single channel system, controlling the aircraft about its pitch and roll axis and providing the
appropriate flight director commands. As multichannel operation is required for an automatic
landing, at a certain stage of the approach, the other two channels are armed by a switch on
the flight control panel. This will also arm the localiser and glideslope modes. Both the off line
channels are continually supplied with the relevant outer loop control signals and operate on
a comparative basis the whole time.
Altitude information essential for vertical guidance to touchdown is always provided by
signals from a radio altimeter which becomes effective as soon as the aircrafts altitude is
within the altimeter s operating range. When the aircraft has descended to 1500 feet radio
altitude, the localiser and glideslope beams are captured and the armed off line control
channels are then automatically engaged. The localiser and glideslope beam signals control
the aircraft about the roll and pitch axis so that any deviations are automatically corrected to
maintain alignment with the runway. At the same time, the autoland status displays LAND 2
or LAND 3 on the indicator and computerised control of flare is also armed. At a radio altitude
of 330 feet, the aircrafts horizontal stabliser is automatically repositioned to begin trimming
the aircraft to a nose-up attitude. The elevators are also deflected to counter the trim and to
provide pitch control in the trimmed attitude.
When the landing gear is 45 feet above the ground (gear altitude), the flare mode is
automatically engaged. The gear altitude is based upon radio altitude, pitch attitude, and the
known distance between the landing gear, the fuselage and the radio altimeter antenna. The
flare mode takes over pitch attitude control from the glideslope, and generates a pitch
command to bring the aircraft on a 2 feet/second descent path. At the same time, a throttle
retard command signal is supplied to the auto throttle system to reduce engine speed.
Prior to touchdown and about 5 foot gear altitude, the flare mode is disengaged and there is
transition to the touchdown and roll out mode. At about 1 foot gear altitude, the pitch attitude
of the aircraft is decreased to 2 degrees, and at touchdown, a command signal is supplied to
the elevators to lower the aircrafts nose and so bring the nose wheel in contact with the
runway and hold it there during roll out. The AFCS remains in control until disengaged by the
pilot.
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Autopilot Override
The autopilot can be overpowered at any time by the pilot if he moves his cockpit control with
enough force. A typical overpowering force would be 25 to 35 pounds of turning force on the
control wheel, or 40 to 50 pounds of force on the control column.
If the pilot overpowers the autopilot, in the preceding example, he would be pushing the autopilot actuator back toward the right. In doing so he would increase the hydraulic pressure in
the pressurized side of the actuator enough to open the top relief valve (just below and to the
right of the auto-pilot actuator). The relief valve would then dump the excess pressure into
the return line.
The operating pressure of the relief valve determines the amount of force required to
overpower the autopilot. The actual overpowering operation is considerably more
complicated than indicated here, but this is the basic principle involved. It is actually arranged
so that if the autopilot is over-powered, a portion of the autopilot actuator moves the LVDT
center slug hard over, developing a high LVDT signal. The autopilot LVDT and the control
surface LVDT are so arranged that, in normal operation of the actuator by the autopilot, these
two signals are equal.
But, if the autopilot has been overpowered, the autopilot LVDT signal becomes very high,
and it is then quite easy to detect electrically that the auto- pilot has been overpowered,
resulting in the flight control computer disengaging the autopilot to permit manual control
inputs commanded by the pilot.
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Flight Director Display Flight director information is displayed on Attitude Indicator and can
be used for Monitoring the Autopilot and for providing visual commands for the pilot to follow
so as to achieve selected profile of flight path as programmed (flight director cannot fly the
aircraft only pilot or autopilot can do this). Heading bug and course lines can be set in the
HSI and coupled to the autopilot system to fly a pre-programmed course. A flight director
uses sensors and computers but does not command servos to correct for deviations from
flight path, it only displays the deviation.
Autopilot Control Panel provides for engagement for the range of autopilot options, eg
Heading Hold, Roll stabilisation and Vertical speed hold all engaged simultaneously to
control a climb to assigned altitude. Autopilot functions can be adjusted utilising latest
installations, eg dial in airspeed, altitude, heading, etc. In older style autopilots the aircraft
would only assume the altitude, speed, etc at the time of engagement. In modern systems,
the aircraft can be flown just by inputs to the autopilot control panel. Typically located on
uppermost part of instrument panel, in the centre.
The mode control panel of a modern A/C provides the point at which the pilot programmes
the A/P-F/D into which mode it is to operate. Also this information is passed to the flight
director so as to give the pilot a visual presentation and allow monitoring
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Define the difference between an AFCS and the Autopilot to eliminate confusion between the
two.
A flight director system cannot fly the aircraft, it only provides directions for the pilot to follow.
FLY-BY-WIRE BENEFITS
The Airbus fly-by-wire system offers significant tangible benefits in terms of greater safety,
through unconstrained control input freedom within the flight envelope, and protection
against exceedance of operating limits, stalling, overspeeding or overstressing the aircraft
outside the envelope. To these can be added windshear protection, reduced pilot workload,
lower costs and improved aircraft performance. It makes a major contribution to reducing
maintenance costs by eliminating much of the complex mechanical system of cables, pulleys
and associated gear which need post-maintenance rigging work and checks.
SIDESTICKS
Because the pilot does not have to physically force the control column to deflect the control
surfaces with his/her muscular effort, a simple little computer joystick (sidestick) can be
incorporated to control the aircraft, with electronic outputs applied to a flight control
computer. Replacement of old-generation control columns by modern sidesticks has the
benefits of an unobstructed view of the instrument panel and a slide-out working table in front
of each pilot.
There will be an inbuilt delay time that must be satisfied before you can engage the system.
This allows for the warming up of amplifiers, correct speed and erection of gyros.
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Engagement will also depend on the selection and coupling of other systems into the AFCS,
the capture, hold and lock in of various radio navigation aids. It is provided as a safety
measure to ensure a smooth transition from manual to automatic flight.
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Basic stabilisation mode is selected whenever the auto-pilot is engaged without outer loop
mode selection.
It can be of two types:
1. Attitude hold (aircraft maintains roll attitude at engagement) or
2. Wings level ( if banked aircraft will roll out to level flight).
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Heading Hold: When selected on the Mode Control Panel (MCP) this locks the aircraft
heading to the current magnetic heading as sensed by the Directional Gyro (DG).
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Modes of Operation
The Turn Command Knob must be in the centre detent position before the autopilot can be
engaged.
Turn Command is initiated by pilot operation of the MCP turn knob.
The aircraft will disengage from heading and attitude hold modes and roll to the angle
commanded.
Yaw displacement during the turn is sensed by a rate gyro or pendulous accelerometer and
appropriate rudder compensation is applied.
When the displacement as measured by the Vertical Gyro satisfies the Turn Knob input the
aircraft will maintain this bank angle until another command is executed.
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During manual turn versine data crossfeeds from roll channel to pitch channel to compensate
for the loss of lift in roll.
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VOR mode is an enroute radio mode, when selected the aircraft will maintain a path along a
radio beam to or from the tuned VOR station. The VOR stations transmit on the 108 to 118
MHz band of frequencies.
The ILS [Instrument landing system] comprises LOC [Localiser] and GS [Glide slope].
LOC mode is coupling of the autopilot to a radio signal for lateral guidance to the airport
runway.
The Localiser stations transmit on the 108 to112MHz band of frequencies The GS [Glide
slope] operates in the 330 to 334MHz band with each GS station paired with a LOC station.
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Pilot reports that when a roll command is initiated by Turn Knob, aircraft continues to roll past
selected bank angle.
Reason: Loss of aileron position feedback signal.
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The patterned area represents a ten second period after capture where the autopilot initiates
a 700 feet per minute descent
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Pitch Command is initiated by input from the A/P MCP Pitch Control Wheel.
The aircraft establishes a pitch attitude when the VG signal matches the Pitch Wheel position
and control surface position.
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Vertical speed mode when selected on the MCP locks the A/C to a vertical speed as selected
on the MCP. The A/C is commanded to pitch up or down to satisfy the signal generated by
the Air data Computer baro-rate sensor.
Vertical speed mode when selected on the MCP locks the A/C to a vertical speed as selected
on the MCP.
The A/C is commanded to pitch up or down to satisfy the signal generated by the Air data
Computer baro-rate sensor.
Airspeed hold when selected on the MCP locks the A/C to the speed at selection as sensed
by the Air Data Computer.
At high altitudes Mach hold is used the air data computer measures a composite signal of
airspeed and altitude.
This then becomes the Mach reference speed for this mode.
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Altitude hold mode is selected on the MCP, this locks the aircraft to the altitude at selection.
Any deviation is sensed by the baro-altitude capsule in the Air Data computer (ADC) and
sent to the autopilot computer for processing as a pitch command output to maintain altitude.
Chaser motor holds null until Alt Hold engaged then Alt error is signal.
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Airspeed hold when selected on the MCP locks the A/C to the speed at selection as sensed
by the Air Data Computer.
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At high altitudes Mach hold is used the air data computer measures a composite signal of
airspeed and altitude. This then becomes the Mach reference speed for this mode. As the
Mach No. increases the stab trims more nose up.
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The Mach Trim System automatically senses increases of speed above a specific Mach
number and, through servo coupling, automatically re-adjusts the position of the horizontal
stabiliser, maintaining the pitch trim of the aircraft.
There will be two methods of Mach trim described. The first method uses a change in the
aircraft's centre of gravity. The second method trims the horizontal stabiliser.
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The mach trim system provides nose up commands to the horizontal stabiliser to
compensate for normal pitch down tendency that occurs with swept-wing aircraft at high
mach numbers.
This tendency is called mach tuck or tuck-under and is apparent above speeds 0.7M.
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The purpose of the yaw damper system is to improve the airplanes directional stability and
ride quality.
The yaw damper system commands small rudder movements as required to ensure correct
turn coordination, to correct for Dutch roll and to suppress body structural modal oscillations.
It uses sensor inputs from the inertial reference system (IRS), air data computers (ADC) and
dedicated accelerometers for computing the commands.
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Whenever aircraft yaws, rate gyro senses motion and provides output to electronic circuitry
coupling gyro to servoactuator.
Rate gyro output is filtered so only those oscillations at a frequency corresponding to aircrafts
dutch rolling tendency are permitted to pass, this eliminates the rate gyro from countering
normal turns.
Signal modified (gain scheduled) by airspeed to reduce signal as airspeed increases
reduces degree of rudder deflection.
Transfer valve in actuator responds to yaw damper signal, driving actuator to respond to rate
gyro detected deflection, and counter it. LVDT produces feedback signal to cancel rate gyro
input when actuator has moved required amount. Feed back signal also supplied to display
element to indicate direction of deflection of yaw damper actuator. When yaw damper
oscillation has been countered, LVDT output has no rate gyro signal to oppose, so causes
transfer valve to drive back to neutral position.
Rudder pedals are not displaced during this process the system is of a series connected
type.
Rate gyro output is filtered so only those oscillations at a frequency corresponding to aircrafts
dutch rolling tendency are permitted to pass, this eliminates the rate gyro from countering
normal turns.
Signal modified (gain scheduled) by airspeed to reduce signal as airspeed increases
reduces degree of rudder deflection.
Transfer valve in actuator responds to yaw damper signal, driving actuator to respond to rate
gyro detected deflection, and counter it.
LVDT produces feedback signal to cancel rate gyro input when actuator has moved required
amount. Feed back signal also supplied to display element to indicate direction of deflection
of yaw damper actuator. When yaw damper oscillation has been countered, LVDT output has
no rate gyro signal to oppose, so causes transfer valve to drive back to neutral position.
Rudder pedals are not displaced during this process the system is of a series connected
type.
When the servo actuator is used in a series operation, it is principally used as a rudder or
yaw damper actuator.
The rudder and yaw damper actuator differs from the typical hydraulic servoactuator
discussed in previous lessons, in that when it operates it does not move the rudder pedals.
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When the servo actuator is used in a series operation, it is principally used as a rudder or
yaw damper actuator.
The rudder and yaw damper actuator differs from the typical hydraulic servoactuator
discussed in previous lessons, in that when it operates it does not move the rudder pedals.
The yaw damper actuator and control valve are both shown with caging springs to the right,
and the white sections of the springs assemblies are moveable towards each other. If no
force is applied, they remain against the stops in the body of the actuator, positioning the
control valve or yaw damper in the neutral position.
Moving the rudder pedals rotates the heavy long arm about its pivot shaft at the bottom, and
at the lower end of the shaft, a short lever moves the summing lever. The yaw damper
actuator holds still because the caging spring maintains it in the neutral position. This will
result in the summing lever pivoting at its upper ball joint.
As it pivots around the upper ball joint, it pushes the control valve to one side or the other,
allowing pressure to be present at one side of the main actuator. This will cause rudder
movement and follow-up action without the movement of the yaw damper actuator.
A signal from the yaw damper to the transfer valve causes the upper black spool in the
transfer valve to move to one side of the other. This puts pressure to one side of the yaw
damper actuator piston assembly. When the piston assembly moves, it moves the top of the
summing lever which pivots at the ball joint in the middle. The summing lever then moves the
main control valve causing the rudder to move.
It can be seen that this action moves the rudder, but not the rudder pedals, and the actuator
is known as operating in series.
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Balancing of aerodynamic forces & moments and establishing desired flight attitudes are
continuous processes &, as we have already observed, are governed by the degree of
inherent stability of an aircraft & by the maneuvering capability afforded by the primary flight
controls system., In flight, however, control must be exercised over changes in weight & C of
G locations which occur as a result of consumption of fuel, disposition of passengers and
cargo and flight under asymmetric conditions, etc in addition the attitude changes resulting
from lowering the flaps must be controlled.
Although the required control could be maintained by repositioning the relevant primary flight
control surfaces, varying degrees of physical effort on the part of the pilot would be needed to
keep the control surfaces in specifically displaced positions. It is usual therefore to provide
secondary control system which can be separately adjusted so that it will displace the
primary control surfaces thereby reducing the effects of aerodynamic loads on the primary
control system, and so relieving the pilot of undue physical effort. The operation of such a
system is referred to as trimming, and some typical methods by which it is operated are
described in this lesson.
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Although the required control could be maintained by repositioning the relevant primary flight
control surfaces, varying degrees of physical effort on the part of the pilot would be needed to
keep the control surfaces in specifically displaced positions. It is usual therefore to provide
secondary control system which can be separately adjusted so that it will displace the
primary control surfaces thereby reducing the effects of aerodynamic loads on the primary
control system, and so relieving the pilot of undue physical effort. The operation of such a
system is referred to as trimming, and some typical methods by which it is operated are
described in this lesson.
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AFCS Components
The components that make up an AFCS will vary depending on how complex the
manufacturer, or indeed customer, requires it to be. However, a basic system will contain the
following, and there are at least two systems operating to ensure safety.
Vertical Gyro
This provides attitude signals in pitch and roll.
Directional Gyro
This provides heading information to the autopilot, flight director, and other navigation
systems.
Radar Altimeter
This supplies absolute altitude above terrain to the flight control system, and radar altimeter
indicator.
Autopilot
Static and dynamic stabilisation must also exist after a single system failure, which means
that a dual autopilot system is needed. There is another advantage in having a dual system
which is the fact that the failure response is softened if a hard over failure occurs, which
allows the pilot more time to act than on a single system. The basic autopilot controls the
helicopter by signals from an external source such as altitude, airspeed, etc. The number of
modes incorporated in the system depends on the type of helicopter and the manufacturer.
Most will have altitude signals from a radio/radar altimeter fed into the autopilot height hold,
along with airspeed signals from an air data computer.
A difficult task for the pilot is to hold the helicopter on heading by use of the rudder pedals.
So by preventing yaw rates from developing, the pilot can reduce the workload involved in
maintaining heading. The only difference between the yaw axis and the other axes are the
sensors that are used, and the means of allowing manoeuvring. The sensors used will
include some sort of compass system, rate gyros, and/or attitude gyros. To allow the pilot to
change the heading, various methods are used. One way is to have a force threshold on the
pedals which the pilot has to overcome; another is to have switches on the pedals that the
pilot has to press. Yet another is to use the force trim switch on the cyclic stick to remove the
pedal position signal from the system.
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AFCS provides pitch, roll, and yaw stabilisation and collective power control. The system is
made up of dual vertical gyros, dual flight control computers, and dual control actuators in
each axis. Control position transducers connected to the cyclic stick, anti torque pedals, and
collective stick provide position information to the computers. Commands for flight path
guidance can also be coupled into the computers.
Autopilot Controller
This is used to engage various autopilot flight control functions, to carry out preflight tests,
and to couple and de-couple flight director commands.
AFCS Indicator
This panel displays the position of the pitch, roll, or yaw actuators in relation to their centre of
travel.
Rate Gyro
This provides a rate of turn signal to the autopilot and the EADI.
Accelerometer
This provides a voltage output proportional to aircraft lateral acceleration.
Series Actuator
This extends or retracts the control linkages on command of the flight computer to alter the
pitch change mechanism.
Navigation Receiver
This contains VOR, ILS, and marker beacon receivers.
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Due to the errors in integrating very small signals from the rate gyro, such as in a steady
condition with no gusts, the system will drift off the desired condition. Such systems can only
be regarded as providing a limited duration 'attitude' hold. The ability of an SAS to provide a
long-term attitude hold will largely be determined by:
SAS Mode
This mode is used during low and slow manoeuvring where the pilot may be making
continual attitude changes such as preparing to land. The helicopters response is determined
by the AFCS which will provide the pilot with a greater control to enhance the handling
qualities of the aircraft. As this is a hands on control mode, the AFCS may be operated with
the force trim on or off.
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The sensors are electrically oriented so that their outputs are nulled when the cyclic stick is at
its reference position corresponding to a level flight attitude.
Displacements of the stick from this position produce output voltages from the sensors which
are proportional to the amount of stick displacement, and are phase related to the direction of
displacement.
Both the rate damping and the pseudo attitude hold will interpret any movement of the flight
controls by the pilot as a disturbance, and will try to return the aircraft to datum. Therefore, a
means must be provided to allow the pilot to carry out a maneuver. The control stick is fitted
with a stick position sensor, which, when the stick is moved, will allow a rate sensing switch
to operate, disconnecting the rate gyro signal from the integrator.
The rate gyro will continue to supply the computer with an error signal which means that rate
damping will still occur, but there will be no attempt by the system to return the aircraft to its
original attitude. When the pilot returns the stick to the detent position, the rate sensing
switch will close, and the rate gyro signal will again be supplied to the integrator. In other
words, the SAS will hold the helicopter in datum until the pilot moves the stick out of datum.
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Attitude Stabilisation
A single pilot aircraft is required to exhibit longitudinal static stability and dynamic stability. If
the aircraft fails to meet the minimum stability requirements, artificial stabilisation must be
introduced in the form of an autopilot system.
These systems can range from the simple pilot assist type to the very complex integrated
systems. Helicopters are very unstable machines, and are extremely tiring to fly for long
periods of time. Basic rate damping systems are fitted to overcome this problem, and these
systems form the basis of all autopilot systems. It must be clearly understood that rate
damping will not maintain a specific attitude.
An example of rate damping, is to imagine a helicopter flying a straight and level course
when it encounters a gust of wind causing it to roll to the left. The rate sensor will detect the
movement after it occurs and send a signal to the computer, which will then command the
actuator to move the pitch change mechanism. This will stop the roll rate, but the pilot will
have to return the helicopter to its original attitude. Figure 4.1 shows a simple roll channel
circuit. As can be seen, any deviation of the helicopter from its flight path, will be felt by the
rate gyro, whose output is then computed, amplified, and then sent to the servo amplifier.
The signal is then sent to the servo actuator to alter the pitch of the rotor to bring the
helicopter back to the selected flight path. As the attitude of the aircraft changes, the
aerodynamic feedback will be felt at the rate gyro whose output signal will reduce, thus
reducing the signal to the computer. At the same time, the mechanical feedback from the
servo actuator will be reducing the output from the servo amplifier.
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navigation. VORs are radio beacons that transmit a signal which contains precise azimuth
information, so that upon reception of the signal, an aircraft can tell precisely what bearing
with respect to magnetic north the station is from the aircraft. ADFs are still in wide use
especially for aircraft flying to and from airports that are not equipped with VOR facilities.
VOR has been the standard radio navigation system for cross country flying around the world
for many years. The major advantages of the VOR system are:
Provides an infinite number of radials or course indications
Reduces the amount of indication errors from adverse atmospheric conditions
Accurately provides directional information
VOR operates in the VHF range 108 to 118 MHz. VOR reception is strictly line-of-sight. This
limits the useable range at low altitudes or over mountainous terrain
VOR is a VHF navigational aid for short and medium range flight distances, which is used
mainly along airways and in the airport terminal control areas. A VOR station emits position
lines, rather like a lighthouse, referring to magnetic north.
VOR Operation
When the appropriate VOR frequency is entered into a navigation radio, the VOR indicator
connected to that radio is used to find where the aircraft is relative to the VOR station. The
RMI or HSI pointer will indicate bearing to or from the VOR ground station regardless of
aircraft heading.
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The system provides flight crews with the ability to navigate accurately along a planned route
using VOR transmitters as waypoints. In effect, it provides the ability to follow a desired path
in the air.
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Introduction
The VHF Omni-directional Radio Range, the abbreviations for which are 'VOR' and 'Omni',
enables a pilot to determine the direction of his aircraft from any position to or from a VOR
beacon, and, if necessary, track to or from the beacon on a selected bearing. VOR is a Very
High Frequency (VHF) navigation aid. Because it is a VHF aid, its ground to air range is
limited to 'line of sight' reception which is typical of VHF transmission. The range achieved is
dependent, therefore, on the sitting of the VOR beacon with relation to surrounding terrain,
and on the height at which the aircraft is flying.
As a VHF navigation aid, the VOR is static-free, and the information given by it is displayed
visually on easily read and interpreted cockpit instruments. An infinite number of bearings
can be obtained and they may be visualised as radiating from the beacon like spokes from
the hub of a wheel. However, for practical purposes, the number of bearings can be
considered to be limited to 360, one degree apart, and these 360 bearings are known as
radials.
Operational Use
The VOR enables a pilot to select, identify, and locate a line of position from a particular VOR
beacon. The following information can be obtained:
when the aircraft is closing and when it is flying along a selected radial; and
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Automatic VOR
This term is give when the 30 Hz Reference signal is phase shifted automatically to measure
the phase angle between the Variable 30 Hz (V) and the Reference 30 Hz (R) signal. The
pilot need do no more than switch on and tune the receiver to an in range station in order to
obtain a continuous indication of the bearing to the VOR station on the Radio Magnetic
Indicator (RMI).
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Manual VOR
This requires the pilot to switch on and tune the receiver to the station, and then select a
particular radial on which he wants to position his aircraft. If the course selected in the course
indicator does not correspond with the VOR bearing set by the Omni Bearing Selector (OBS),
the deviation indicator will provide the appropriate left or right indications (as well as TOFROM indication).
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Cone of Confusion
Over the VOR transmitter, there is a cone-shaped area called the Cone of Confusion (also
known as; cone of silence or cone of ambiguity) in which the signals emanating from the
VOR station have a spurious, unusable quality. In this area, the TO/FROM indicator is likely
to fluctuate severely, accompanied by equally distorted presentations on the deviation
indicator needle. At such a situation, the signals would be ignored until they had settled down
again. The period of disturbance would depend for its length on the height at which the
aircraft was passing over the station. Due to its cone-shaped property, its effect would be felt
around an angle of about 40 degrees above the station. An aircraft flying over it at 1200 feet
would traverse a linear distance of 800 ft within the cone, while an aircraft flying at 12,000 ft
would suffer for a distance of 8,000 ft.
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Composite Signal
The reference phase signal and the variable phase signal are in phase when the positive
lobe of the Figure eight pattern is aligned with magnetic north. However, as the positive lobe
of the variable phase signal is rotated through 360 degrees, the phase angle between the
reference phase signal and the variable phase signal increases. When the variable phase
signal is aligned other than magnetic north, the positive voltage maxima of the variable
phase signal occurs at a given time later than the positive voltage maxima of the reference
signal. The phase displacement in the 2-voltage maxima at any point in azimuth designates
the bearing at that point. The difference in phase can be measured and indicated by
instrumentation in the aircraft. Therefore, a radial can be selected, and the aircraft's flight
path can be related to that selected radial.
The Figure of Eight pattern reinforces the omni-directional field strength pattern on the inphase side and weakens the field strength on the out-of-phase side. The resultant field
strength pattern is cardioid revolving at a rate of 30 r/s. As a result of the space modulation of
the rotating cardioid, an additional 30-Hz signal is apparent at the receiver input. The
receiver circuit detects what appears to be a 30-Hz FM signal with a 30-Hz AM component.
The phase of the two 30-Hz signals are compared, and the signal output is proportional to
the phase relationship of the two 30 Hz signals.
The phasing of the reference and variable signals is adjusted so they are in phase at
magnetic north. The frequency of the 9960-Hz subcarrier is frequency modulated between
9480 and 10,440 Hz at a 30-Hz rate and is synchronised with the rotation, of the dipole
antenna. When the frequency of the subcarrier is 10,440 Hz, the positive lobe of
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the dipole antenna is pointed toward magnetic north. The subcarrier frequency decreases to
9480 Hz as the dipole antenna rotates clockwise to 180 degrees (south). At 90 and 270
degrees from north (0 degree), the subcarrier frequency is 9960Hz. A maximum positive
audio modulating voltage produces 10,440 Hz, and a maximum negative voltage produces
9480 Hz. Thus the output of at FM detector will be positive when the frequency is 10,440 Hz
and negative when the frequency is 9480 Hz. The frequency of this voltage will be equal to
the rate the subcarrier frequency is varying, which is 30 Hz.
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the selected radial. If the aircraft is moving towards the VOR and the to-from indicator
indicates "TO", the aircraft is flown towards the needle to get back on course. That is,
assuming that the HSI is set to the desired radial and that the left-right needle is centred and
now deflects to the left, the selected radial is to the left, and the aircraft must be turned
towards the left to get back on the radial.
The amount we are off course depends on the amount of needle deflection, and on the
calibration of the needle. Typically, a full scale deflection indicates being 10 degrees off the
selected course. A full scale deflection, is from centre to one side. If the needle is half way
between centre and one side it will indicate 5 degrees.
The importance of the course width should be clear. A very sensitive needle would move too
much for an insignificant off course amount; an insensitive needle would not give a warning
to take corrective action until the aircraft was way off course. Suppose the aircraft was 30
miles from the station, which is a perfectly reasonable and usable distance for the VOR
system, and is 1 degree off course. The aircraft would be half a mile off course (see below).
At 30 miles, 3 degrees off course would be approx. 1.5 miles. (This approximation applies up
to a few degrees). At 60 miles 1 off course at 60 miles the off course distance approximates
to 3 miles.
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The Instrument Landing System is in every sense a precision approach system. With modern
equipment it can guide an aircraft right down to the runwayzero Decision-Height and zero
visibility. An ILS system provides adds glide-slope, or elevation information, localiser
information and distance to go to the runway threshold.
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An ILS is a fixed installation useful for only one runway, accordingly there may be more than
one ILS system at an airport (ie one for each runway).
The ground-based equipment consists of:
a localiser (LOC) transmitter and antenna located at the far end of the runway
a glideslope (GS) transmitter and antenna located near the runway threshold
an outer marker antenna located approximately 8 kilometres from the runway threshold
a middle marker antenna located approximately 1 kilometre from the runway threshold
an inner marker beacon antenna located approximately 150 metres from the runway
threshold.
Glideslope
The Glideslope is the signal that provides vertical guidance to the aircraft during the ILS
approach. The standard glide-slope path is 3 downhill to the end of the runway. The
glideslope antenna is capable of operating between 328 and 335 MHz, (UHF) with the lowest
assigned frequency at 329.15 MHz. The glideslope signal is radiated to produce two
intersecting lobes, one above the other. The upper lobe is modulated by a 90 Hz signal, the
lower lobe by a 150 Hz signal. When the aircraft is on the centre line, the two audio signals
are equal. This occurs at approximately 3 above the horizontal. This line of equal
modulation defines the glideslope approach path. If the aircraft is too high the 90 Hz signal
will predominate and if it is too low the 150 Hz signal will predominate. How these signals
effect the aircraft instrumentation will be explained later in this lesson.
The glide path projection angle is about 3 above horizontal and it intersects the inner marker
at 100ft, the MM at about 200 feet and the OM at about 1,400 feet above the runway
elevation. The glide slope is normally usable to a distance of 10 NM.
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Localiser
The localiser signal provides azimuth, or lateral, information to guide the aircraft to the
centerline of the runway. It is similar to a VOR signal except that it provides radial information
for only a single course; the runway heading.
The localiser operates between 108 and 112 MHz, with the lowest assigned frequency at
108.1 MHz. The localiser signal is similar to the glideslope except that the 90 and 150 Hz
signal radiated lobes are side by side and directed along the centre of the extended line of
the runway. The line of equal modulation defines the centre line of the runway approach
path. If the aircraft is left of the centreline the 90 Hz signal will predominate. If it is right of the
centreline the 150 Hz signal will predominate.
How sensitive is the Localiser? Near the Outer Marker, a one-dot deviation puts you about
500 ft. from the centerline. Near the Middle Marker, one dot means you're off course by
150 ft.
The localiser signal also carries the audio identification.
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This table shows the pairing between localiser and glideslope frequencies. When the
localiser frequency is selected on the VOR/ILS controller, the paired glideslope frequency is
automatically selected.
Audio
Audio, which consists of the station ident (at 1020) Hz and voice information from the station
(between 300-3000 Hz), is supplied to the aircraft audio integration system. Filters in the
audio integration system can be selected to filter out neither, either or both signals to be
heard by the pilot. 100 mW nominal output at 30 percent modulation.
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Flag Outputs
Two high-level warning signals (super flag) and one low-level warning signal should be
provided by both localizer and glidepath receivers. The high-level flag characteristic is 28
VDC for valid status with current capabilities; 25 mA for AFCS warning; 250 mA for
instrument warnings. The low-level flag should provide a voltage of between 300 and 900 mV
into up to five parallel 1000 loads.
Monitoring
Warning signals when: no RF, either 90 or 150 Hz missing, total depth of modulation of
composite 90/150 Hz signal is less than 28 per cent, etc.
Deviation Outputs
Localizer: high-level 2 V for 0.155 d.d.m, low level 150 mV for 0155 d.d.m. Dual outputs in
parallel for AFCS. Output characteristics should not vary for loads between 200 and no
load. When 90 Hz predominates the `hot' side of all deviation outputs should be positive with
respect to the `common' side; in this case 'fly-left' is given.
Glideslope: similar to localizer but high and low-level outputs are 2 V and 150 mV
respectively for 0175 d.d.m.
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Autopilot
Localises and glideslope signals are also fed to the autopilot system, if one is fitted. The
localiser deviation will be used to supply the appropriate demand signal to the roll (aileron)
and yaw (rudder) channels. The pitch (elevator) channel will respond to glideslope. The
signals supplied to the autopilot is the same low voltage signals supplied to the instrument.
Dual outputs in parallel for AFCS.
Figure above shows what would happen to an airplane, controlled by an autopilot, while
flying a VOR or localizer course if a crosswind were to come up, and no crosswind correction
capability were included in the autopilot computer. (Autopilots always have a crosswind
correction capability).
In position A, the airplane is on the radio beam and on the selected heading (deviation
needle centered and course select cursor at the lubber line).
In position B, the airplane has been moved off the radio beam by the crosswind (dotted
pattern). The heading has not yet changed.
In position C, the autopilot has begun to change heading back toward the beam,
In position D, the autopilot has achieved a stable standoff condition (defined later).
Under airplane A is an HSI showing the pilots indication of the fact that the airplane is on
the chosen heading of 900, and centered on the radio beam.
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Under airplane B the HSI shows the airplane heading has not changed yet, but the aircraft
has been moved off the beam center. The two controlling signals into the autopilot roll
channel are radio deviation and course select error. If the radio beam is to the left of the
airplane, the deviation signal in the roll computer calls for a left turn, The vector chart below
the HSI (airplane B) shows that the deviation signal in the roll computer is calling for a left
turn, and there is no course select error signal.
Under airplane C the HSI shows that a course select error of 5 has been developed as a
result of the autopilot turning the airplane toward the beam center. The radio deviation signal
has increased to one dot. The chart below the HSI shows that the radio deviation signal,
calling for left turn, still exceeds the course select error signal, calling for a right turn.
Under airplane D, where steady standoff conditions have been achieved with a steady
crosswind, the two controlling signals are standing each other off. The HSI shows a course
select error of 10. The deviation needle shows a deviation error of 11/2 dots. The chart
below the HSI shows the deviation signal, calling for a left turn, balanced by the course select
error signal, calling for a right turn.
Consequently, the roll channel does not have an output to the ailerons, and the airplane
wings are level. This situation is described by saying that heading error is standing off radio
deviation.
The heading error signal (course select error) is required by the crosswind. In order for the
airplane to follow the radio course, it must head into the wind; its heading must be different
from its direction of travel, or ground path.
This condition could only develop in an autopilot without crosswind correction (typically
accomplished with an integrator circuit). Understanding what would happen without the
integrator correction for crosswind will make it easier to understand the function of an
integrator circuit in providing crosswind correction.
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Airplane E shows that the output of the integrator now equals its input, and therefore
complete cancellation of the required heading error is being accomplished with the integrator
output; no deviation error is needed to achieve a stable condition. The airplane is now
following the radio beam center, with the required heading error cancelled by the output of
the integrator.
As long as airplane speed and wind conditions remain constant, this situation will prevail.
In normal autopilot, the integrator action would begin as soon as any heading error develops,
and the airplane would not have been moved as far off course as we have indicated.
The crosswind correction function could have been accomplished with an amplifier, noninverting integrator, with the input signal being the deviation signal. In that case, some small
amount of residual deviation (determined by amplification factor) would be required to hold
the necessary output.
Integrators have other uses in autopilot, and their operation can often be observed in a
parked airplane when a mechanic is checking the autopilot. If the mechanic does not
understand what the autopilot is doing, he may think something is wrong. For example, the
control wheel may mysteriously creep all the way to the right or left, or the control column
may mysteriously creep forward or aft.
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VOR/LOC
The operation of the roll channel is the same for both the VOR and LOC modes of operation.
Here we will discuss the roll channel operation of the VOR mode only.
In the VOR mode of operation the pilot selects the VOR frequency. The system works on the
same principle as the heading mode except that the reference signal is now received from a
radio navigation aid instead of the aircraft directional gyro.
When the aircraft detects the signals from the radio navigation beacon, these signals are
sent to the roll channel, so the aircraft can start to turn onto the beam, as shown in Figure.
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Once this period has elapsed, the aircraft then detects the VOR signal corresponding to the
outbound radial. This is switched in, allowing the aircraft to continue on that radial.
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Glideslope
The glideslope mode of operation is similar to the VOR/LOC mode of operation of the roll
channel in that it requires the aircraft to capture a radio navigation aid beam for the aircraft to
follow. Instead of rolling the aircraft, the pitch attitude is adjusted and the aircraft follows the
glideslope beam to the airfield to land the aircraft. There are two different operations for the
pitch computer in this mode;
Capture
Flare
Glideslope Capture
Figure shows the method of capturing a glideslope beam from above and below.
The mode engaged prior to capture of the glideslope will be disengaged when the glideslope
capture occurs. The sensing circuit in the pitch computer which initiates glideslope capture
mode is called the "Vertical Beam Sensor" (VBS). The autopilot follows the glideslope using
a preset descent rate for example some passenger airliners use 700 feet per minute.
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Glideslope Flare
"Flare" is the term used to describe the touchdown manoeuvre. A signal from the RADAR
altimeter system is used to initiate the flare operation of the pitch computer. This signal is
normally initiated at 50 feet.
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By the late 1970s, with the advent of digital technology, digital computers had made their way
into avionics systems and subsystems. As time and technology progressed, the avionics
systems became more digital. And with the advent of the microprocessor, things really took
off.
The Flight Management Computer typically performs as the data management computer and
is responsible for directing the flow of data on the data bus. FMC is master computer which
integrates functions of:
Navigation Computer
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Data Verification Function. The purpose of this function is to receive and transmit digital
data to check the validity of data from the aircrafts systems which having inputs to the FMC.
Navigation Function. This function uses the navigational database in the FMC and the
output from the Inertial Reference Units (IRUs) for computing the aircrafts exact position,
velocity and other performance parameters.
Guidance Function. This function uses the output data from the navigation function to guide
the aircraft against a preset flight plan that has been entered into the FMS by the flight crew.
The flight plan is usually selected by the crew before departure, but it can be changed during
flight if required.
Vertical Profile Function. Using performance data and the data output form the navigation
function, the FMC compares actual to selected altitude, altitude rate and then through the
Flight Control Computer (FCC) and the auto-throttle, adjusts the pitch of the aircraft so as to
maintain the preselected vertical position of the aircraft.
EFIS Function. The FMC provides data to the EFIS system for the purpose of display. The
EFIS is used to display such data as radio navigation aids, aircraft way points and some
system failure messages.
The outputs from all of these functions are then used to guide the aircraft to a predetermined
flight in accordance with the operating parameters of the aircraft and the operating airline of
the aircraft.
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FMS Interfaces
In a normal aircraft installation, the FMC will directly connect to several basic aircraft systems
such as Air Data Computers, Inertial Reference Systems, Flight Control Computers and other
systems via multiple ARINC 429 serial data bus interfaces. The FMS Computer provides all
of the FMS sensor inputs.
Discrete Input
There are as many as 128 discrete input discrete channels available.
The Digital Input Board is designed to read a voltage from a variety of devices. The signals
may originate from electronic switching circuits, standard logic circuits, mechanical switch
contacts, relay contacts, or numerous other sources. The inputs can be configured for current
sinking or voltage sourcing input signals.
Discrete Output
One card is used to provide up to 128 output discrete channels. The board is designed for a
variety of applications such as relay drivers, lamp drivers, solenoid drivers, stepper motor
drivers, LED drivers, and fiber-optic drivers.
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Audio Output
Another addition can be a programmable Audio Alert card. This card allows the triggering of
programmed voice messages in response to logical events determined in the applications
software. Different messages may be recorded and loaded into non-volatile memory using an
external PC. The voice messages are fed into the aircraft inter-phone system for distribution
throughout the airplane.
CPU Transition
A PC Transition card takes the last VME card slot. This card works in conjunction with and is
connected to the CPU card. It provides the interface between standard Ethernet, parallel
port, and the two serial port connectors and the host board connector. The Ethernet and
parallel ports contain passive circuitry only. The I/O controllers reside in the host CPU board.
The serial ports contain active circuitry to provide multiplexing and buffering functions.
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Performance Database This database stores the engine installation data, aircraft
aerodynamic performance and atmospheric models.
Database
The Navigation Data Base contains all of the navaid, airport, airway, approach, and
departure information required to operate the aircraft in the national airspace system. The
FMC has 1 MB of nonvolatile bubble memory reserved for this purpose. The ARINC 424
compatible database is updated on a 28- day cycle and the memory is large enough to hold
two update cycles. The non-volatile memory also holds the FMC operations program,
performance data for the aircraft model and engine configuration, and specific customer
option data. Data is loaded into the FMC from floppy disks using a standard ARINC 615
compatible data loader, which can be connected via a loader connector on the rear of the
FMS.
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Navigation
The navigation function of the FMC generates aircraft position, velocity, and altitude data for
use
in the FMC and other external aircraft systems. Navigation algorithms combine data from the
Navigation Data
Base, position and velocity data from the three IRS systems, range and bearing data from
the DME and VOR
receivers, and altitude and airspeed data from the Air Data Computers. The combined data is
used to generate
geodetic aircraft position, velocity, wind vector, altitude and flight path angle, local earth
radius, and other
data. The FMC has algorithms for the automatic navigation-aid selection based on aircraft
position,
desired track, and data from the Navigation Data Base and provides tuning outputs for the
DME/VOR
receivers. The FMC can make use of high accuracy GPS position data.
Navigation Accuracy:
The FMS automatically selects and tunes VHR Omni- Range (VOR) and Distance Measuring
Equipment (DME) in order to constantly update the position and speed of the aircraft. This
information is used in conjunction with
the Inertial Reference System (IRS) and Global Positioning System (GPS) to ensure
accuracy in all phases of flight.
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The FMS will primarily attempt to utilise GPS position information, then combine range
information corrected for slant range from two separate DME locations, and finally position
from three Inertial Reference Units (IRUs). If no usable VOR/DME information is available,
the FMS will monitor aircraft position based on IRS/GPS data only, until the aircraft is
determined to be in a location where DME/VOR information is once again available for
position and velocity cross checking. The FMS navigation management system will also
compute and provide true and
magnetic track information, drift angle, magnetic variation for the current aircraft location and
vertical flight path information. The FMC automatically determines which VOR/DME
combinations will yield the best result given their position relative to the aircraft.
Flight Planning
The FMC allows for the input of complex 2-D and 3-D flight plans via either of the two CDU's.
The pilot or operator can select from thousands of airports, runways, waypoints, navaids,
airways, approach and departure procedures defined in the Navigation Data Base to build a
flight plan. Additionally, user defined waypoints can be entered based on latitude and
longitude or distance and bearing from a pre-defined waypoint. Once entered, flight plans
may be modified by adding, changing, or deleting any of its elements. The flight plans can be
further modified with altitude and speed constraints, holding patterns, path offsets, etc. Two
complete flight plans can be separately stored in the FMC and activated via CDU commands.
Guidance
The guidance function defines the two or three dimensional flight path to be flown and the
necessary computations and outputs for aircraft control referenced to the defined flight path.
The flight path may be defined in the lateral and/or vertical planes from flight plan and
performance data entered into the FMC from the CDU and augmented with navigation and
performance databases. The lateral flight plan is normally defined by a string of navigation
waypoints. The lateral path between waypoints may be any of 16 navigation leg types
required to fly all published ATC procedures. The vertical and thrust guidance functions are
closely integrated with performance management functions for optimum three-dimensional
path guidance. The FMC computed guidance output parameters include desired track, track
angle error, bearing and distance to the active waypoint, lateral and vertical path deviation,
and speed error. These guidance outputs can be fed into the aircraft autopilot via the I/O
Concentrator and Pilot Select Panel (PSP).
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Guidance Management:
Two dimensional flight path management is available along an FMC programmed flight path
in either the vertical navigation mode (VNAV) or lateral navigation mode (LNAV). Both of
these modes are selected by using the LNAV/VNAV buttons on the Autopilot Mode Control
Panel (MCP). When used in conjunction with one another, the FMS is capable of providing
fully integrated three dimensional flight path management along the FMC defined flight path.
The LNAV guidance function issues steering commands to the AFDS in order to keep the
aircraft navigating correctly along the programmed route of flight. Deviations from the center
of the desired flight track are corrected using intercept procedures and flight track
adjustments. Normal lateral flight path deviation should not exceed 0.1nm in most phases of
flight. In all phases of an LNAV managed flight, the FMS will monitor cross track error, which
is defined as the lateral distance separating the aircraft from its desired path of flight. Roll
and steering commands are provided to the AFDS Flight Control Computers in order to
correct the cross track error. The FMS is capable of providing a great circle Direct-To track to
any point programmed into the FMC/CDU displayed flight path.
The VNAV guidance function controls the aircraft along the vertical flight path as defined by
the FMC/CDU entered flight path and the aircrafts performance limitations. VNAV takes
position data from the navigation system and compares it to the vertical profile as defined in
the FMC/CDU entered flight plan. The vertical navigation function then provides pitch and
thrust commands to the AFDS in order to intercept and maintain the defined vertical profile
for
the current phase of flight. For vertical performance modes where vertical speed is
unconstrained (most
climbs) the VNAV system will provide pitch and thrust commands to the AFDS so as to
maintain the most efficient climb based on the current thrust mode selected. This results in
the most economically beneficial climb gradient, not necessarily the most rapid climb
gradient. VNAV uses essentially two basic pitch control modes to manage the vertical flight
profile: speed or rate of climb/descent. When speed the controlled factor the AFDS
autothrottle will be given a target thrust setting by the vertical navigation function, and the
elevator will be used to control speed, resulting in a variable rate of climb or descent based
upon conditions. When vertical speed is the controlled factor, the AFDS will issue commands
to the elevator for vertical speed control, and the AFDS will adjust the autothrottle to maintain
speed, resulting in a fixed rate of climb/descent and variable speed based upon conditions.
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The lateral guidance function provides guidance between waypoints of the active flight plan
route. The crew receives this guidance via the cockpit displays and can elect to couple the
FMS to the autopilot if the aircraft is so equipped.
The vertical guidance function provides control of the vehicle along the vertical route of the
flight plan. Vertical guidance generates the pitch, speed, altitude, and thrust targets that are
again displayed on the cockpit displays and can be coupled to the autopilot and auto-throttle
equipment if the aircraft is so equipped.
The time navigation function provides the calculated times of arrival at various waypoints
along the flight plan. The crew can select a required time of arrival (RTA) at a waypoint and
the FMS will generate the appropriate commands to achieve that time on station. The crew
can specify the performance mode (RTA, fuel economy, maximum speed) and the FMS
provides the proper commands to achieve that performance. The estimated times of arrival
are displayed to the crew via the cockpit displays. Performance targets are translated into
flight director cues and can be coupled with the autopilot/auto-throttle systems if so
equipped.
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In target reference Vertical Navigation (VNAV) mechanizations, the FMS utilizes FCS vertical
modes for Flight Level Change, Altitude Hold, Vertical Speed, Glide Path, or Pitch. The FMS
is responsible for managing the vertical modes and providing target references to the FCS.
Glide Path modes often require the FMS to supply a pitch command and Altitude Hold mode
requires the FMF to supply an altitude reference. The remaining vertical modes, Flight Level
Change and Vertical Speed, use the speed reference supplied by the FMS. To integrate the
FMS with a Flight Control System (FCS), the data required to steer the aircraft to the desired
flight path could be based on a command reference, target reference or a combination of
command and target reference data. Typically, lateral guidance from an FMS is provided in
terms of a roll command. Vertical guidance often uses a combination of pitch command
and/or various target references, such as airspeed/mach, altitude, or vertical speed, for
vertical guidance.
Performance
The performance function manages aircraft flight profile by computing display data that
assists the pilot in making decisions and commands that cause the aircraft to be controlled
according to the selected flight plan. Algorithms in the FMC-PIP compute speed, thrust
setting, and vertical guidance commands to meet the selected mode objectives, but are
subject to aircraft performance limits and flight plan constraints. Prediction data is computed
such as distance, time of arrival, altitude, speed, and fuel at future points on the active flight
plan. Other performance calculations include warning messages if future flight plan
constraints cannot be met, optimum and maximum cruise altitudes, time and fuel limits, climb
and descent limits, and engine out drift down.
Performance Management: The FMS is capable of managing nearly all aspects of aircraft
performance so as to optimize precision and economy of flight. The FMS is only capable of
providing such information if the gross weight, cost index target altitude and a route have
been entered into the FMC/CDU by the crew.. Vertical Navigation can only be accomplished
if the performance initialization page is complete. The performance model uses input from
fuel flow, engine data, altitude, gross weight of the aircraft, flaps, airspeed, Mach,
temperature, vertical speed, acceleration and location within a programmed flight plan to
determine the optimum performance for the aircraft at any given moment. The performance
management modeling used by the FMS attempts to provide a least cost performance
solution for all phases of flight, including climb, cruise and descent. The default cruise
performance management setting is ECON, or economy cruise. The airplane and engine
data models are used to provide an optimum vertical profile for the selected performance
mode, even if ECON has been overridden by the crew. During the climb, an optimum Mach
speed target and a corresponding thrust target are computed by the FMS, with the speed
target transmitted to the vertical guidance function of the autoflight director system. The
AFDS will then generate commands to the elevator in order to maintain the correct pitch for
the required speed. Thrust setting commands are delivered to the autothrottle servos by the
FMS, and used in conjunction with the pitch setting commands to maintain the optimum
speed and climb as directed by the FMS. During cruise, an optimum Mach setting is
computed and thrust setting commands are delivered to the autothrottle. During descent, a
vertical path is computed based on the flight plan entered into the FMC/CDU. The FMS will
evaluate expected wind conditions, aircraft speed, altitude, position relative to the planned
end-of descent point and any intermediate altitude or speed constraints between the aircraft
and the end-of-descent point. This information will be passed to the AFDS for pitch based
speed and vertical speed control and the autothrottles for vertical speed and thrust
management. In ideal conditions, an idle thrust optimum descent profile is flown, however in
many cases thrust and pitch will be varied to account for wind conditions or to ensure proper
tracking of the vertical descent profile.
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The first area is the display area. This part of the CDU is used to display information from
the FMC and also display information which has been entered into the FMC. Located next to
each line of information on the CDU display is a touch key which is used to select the
information located next to (if the option is available).
The second area is the key pad area of the CDU. This area is used to enter in information
into the CDU, change CDU displays and change FMC programming. This area has a full
alpha numeric touch pad for data entry
Navigation data downloading and cross-loading. This page is used to update the
navigational database every 28 days. The database is update every 28 days to update for
airways, radio navigational aid and other airline route change information that may have
occurred.
Performance. The purpose of this page is used by maintenance personnel to update and
change the performance data of the aircraft. This data is used by the FMC to calculate flight
plans and aircraft performance.
IRS. This page shows an estimate of the aircrafts position for each Inertial Reference Unit
(IRU).
BITE. Built in Test Equipment (BITE). This page allows maintenance personnel to access
different systems on the aircraft and perform set performance tests.
CDU Interface
Normally, the CDUs communicate directly to the FMC via ARINC 429 interface connections.
The I/O Concentrator provides all of the required ARINC 429 interface connections to the two
CDUs. The I/O Concentrator communicates with the translation software in the Computer
software.
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Thrust management
Lateral guidance
Vertical guidance
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Map Display
The FMC generates both dynamic map and map background data outputs which normally go
to the EFIS on an ARINC 429 high-speed link. Dynamic map data is normally related to the
airplane motion with respect to the flight plan and includes such data as airplane track,
ground speed, time and distance to go, computed winds and vertical/lateral deviations from
the active flight path. The computed background map data includes the location of
waypoints, navaids, obstacles, and airports within the EFIS field of view. In the map mode,
dynamic map data must be updated to reflect aircraft motion and is computed at 10 Hz. The
background data is normally slow changing and is updated every three seconds.
Thrust Management:
The FMS thrust management function is capable of performing autothrottle control law
calculations based upon commands from the navigation function, as well as direct crew input
from the FMC, manual adjustment of throttle position, or AFDS autothrottle commands. The
autothrottle control law function provides automatic N1 equalization in all modes of flight, as
well as thrust limit protection and N1 thrust requirement calculations to maintain MCP or
AFDS speed and thrust settings. Autothrottle modes can be selected or overridden by the
crew as required.
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Automatic Landing
During this operation, the autopilot system must be at its most accurate. Limits must be
imposed on the system, so that in the case of a runaway, the recovery rate is fast enough to
avoid an accident situation. Two requirements govern the safety devices fitted into the
system. They must:
limit the effect of a runaway such that a safe recovery can be made by the pilot
allow sufficient authority to the control system so that the required flight path
may be followed even though the aircraft encounters disturbances such as crosswinds, etc.
The AFCS must be capable of achieving the following during automatic landing.
They must:
warn of a passive failure
complete the manoeuvre following an active or passive failure.
To overcome these requirements, it was decided to use the concept of system redundancy.
This is to utilise multiple systems operating in such a manner that a single failure within a
system will have an insignificant effect on the aircraft during its approach and landing.
The following is a list of terminology used in the description of system redundancy.
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Multiplex
This term applies to a system comprising of two or more independent simplex systems used
collectively, so that in the event of a failure of a system, the remaining
system is capable of performing the controlling function.
Duplex system
A duplex system comprises of two complete systems of channels which are
interconnected and which together provide continuous control.
Triplex system
This is a fail-operational system of three complete systems or channels which are
interconnected and which together provide continuous control. In the event of a
failure of one of the systems or channels, that system or channel is overcome by the
other two and is automatically engaged. Control is therefore continued in duplex.
Duplicate-monitored
This refers to a system comprising two systems in parallel and with separate power
supplies. The components of both are designed to be either self-monitoring or to
have their outputs checked by parallel comparator circuits. Only one system is
engaged at a time, the other being in the follow up mode. In the event of a failure,
the system is automatically changed to the other.
Dual dual
This is used by some manufacturers to define a twin fail-operational control system
having twin passive monitoring systems. It should not be considered synonymous to
a duplex system, since the control systems may or may not be active simultaneously.
In the event of a monitor detecting a failure in its associated system, the second
system with its monitor is switched in.
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Monitoring
This term defines the process of comparing between two or more outputs, or
between an output and datum. It can also be used as a limiter, to cause a system to
disconnect when an output exceeds the prescribed limit.
Comparator
This operates on data supplied from comparative stages in two or more similar
systems.
Equaliser
This device adjusts the subsystem in multiplex systems to remove differences between
subsystem outputs that may arise other than fault conditions.
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Figure shows a typical automatic approach. During cruise and initial stages of approach to
land, the control system operates as a single channel system, controlling the aircraft about its
pitch and roll axis and providing the appropriate flight director commands. As multichannel
operation is required for an automatic landing, at a certain stage of the approach, the other
two channels are armed by a switch on the flight control panel. This will also arm the localiser
and glideslope modes. Both the off line channels are continually supplied with the relevant
outer loop control signals and operate on a comparative basis the whole time.
Altitude information essential for vertical guidance to touchdown is always provided by
signals from a radio altimeter which becomes effective as soon as the aircrafts altitude is
within the altimeters operating range.
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When the aircraft has descended to 1500 feet radio altitude, the localiser and glideslope
beams are captured and the armed off line control channels are then automatically engaged.
The localiser and glideslope beam signals control the aircraft about the roll and pitch axis so
that any deviations are automatically corrected to maintain alignment with the runway. At the
same time, the autoland status displays LAND 2 or LAND 3 on the indicator and
computerised control of flare is also armed.
At a radio altitude of 330 feet, the aircrafts horizontal stabiliser is automatically repositioned
to begin trimming the aircraft to a nose-up attitude. The elevators are also deflected to
counter the trim and to provide pitch control in the trimmed attitude. When the landing gear is
45 feet above the ground (gear altitude), the flare mode is automatically engaged.
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The gear altitude is based upon radio altitude, pitch attitude, and the known distance
between the landing gear, the fuselage and the radio altimeter antenna. The flare mode
takes over pitch attitude control from the glideslope, and generates a pitch command to bring
the aircraft on a 2 feet/second descent path. At the same time, a throttle retard command
signal is supplied to the auto throttle system to reduce engine speed.
Prior to touchdown and about 5 foot gear altitude, the flare mode is disengaged and there is
transition to the touchdown and roll out mode. At about 1 foot gear altitude, the pitch attitude
of the aircraft is decreased to 2 degrees, and at touchdown, a command signal is supplied to
the elevators to lower the aircrafts nose and so bring the nose wheel in contact with the
runway and hold it there during roll out. The AFCS remains in control until disengaged by the
pilot.
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Selection of a desired speed value is made on the AFCS mode control panel.
Approach gain of the auto throttle system is determined either by glideslope capture or by
radio altitude and flap position. Approach gain provides high gain setting for more precise
speed control and reduced throttle motion during changes of flap position. During an
approach in turbulent conditions, the gain tends to cause the system to be high on speed and
the degree of overspeed depends on the magnitude of turbulence.
During the landing flare maneuver, the retard rate of thrust reduction is adjusted so that
throttle angle is reduced to idle in 6 seconds. Retard occurs at 27 feet of radio altitude during
an automatic or manual landing. If it is not initiated by radio altitude, it can also occur 1.5
seconds after an automatic flare. When the aircraft lands and the ground mode is sensed,
the throttles are moved aft at 8 degrees a second to remove any residual displacement
above the idle position. The autothrottle system is disengaged after 2 seconds.
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