CHAPTER ONE

OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH

1.1 Introduction
From the beginning of time, man has been inseparable from water to date. It has been
a major determinant of habitability of places, which accounts for the situation of most
ancient towns developing along river bodies. London along the Thames is topmost in
this league of water-related settlements. However, this coexistence between man and
water bodies has had a chequered history; facilitating agricultural development like
the situation in the Nile Valley in Africa, along the course of the Ganges in Asia and
sometimes causing devastation to human population and property.

Human activities in space have consequences on the environment of which they are
an integral part. Sometimes human habitation of the environment serves to improve
the environment, like the introduction of energy-efficient machines and sustainable
agricultural practices. However, in some instances, the interaction has spelt doom for
the environment by plundering and depleting natural resources.

Since humans desire comfort, and inherently have free will, they tend to live close to
their most needed commodities like water and food, accounting for early civilisations
rising in geographical areas which have abundant water and fertile soils. In some
instances large groups of people have moved from their original locations to other
places like confluences and river banks for both protection and water supply.

1.2 Problem Statement

Although many African states have implemented programmes aimed at controlling
floods and other natural hazards, the problem of flooding has persisted and seems to
be increasing in frequency. Severe flooding ravaged Mozambique in 2000, displacing
thousands of people and wiping out crops and livestock (Newitt, 2007).

The Accra Metropolitan Area perennially suffers from flooding with any sustained
downpour, although a greater percentage of the city is above sea level (50 to 100
metres) and has some form of organised drainage (AMA, 2002). The immediate areas
of concern had been to dredge the major rivers and streams to increase their capacity
as part of the Urban Environmental Sanitation Projects. Component One of the
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Second Urban Environmental Sanitation Project (UESPII) covered storm drainage at a
cost of US$16.5m. The main target group of this component was the urban population
in five towns (Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi-Takoradi and Tema) living and/or working in
low-lying areas, which are subject to flooding.

In July 2001, the French government donated US$5 million to help the Ghanaian
government de-silt, construct and restructure primary drains to solve the perennial
problem of flooding in the country's capital. It was, however, limited to only parts of
the Metropolis.

There have been various speculations on the factors causing the floods from both
ordinary residents and technocrats. In the aftermath of the June 2007 floods in the
Accra Metropolis, Ing. Dr. Hagan the then President of the Ghana Institution of
Engineers noted that the floods could not be attributed to natural causes but attributed
them to human activities. He pointed out the development of physical structures
within waterways, deposition of solid and plastic waste in drains and inappropriate
drainage structure as some of the causes of floods. A similar opinion was expressed
by the then Minister of Works, Housing and Water Resources, who attributed the
early June 2007 floods to improper disposal of solid waste.(Daily Guide, June 8,
2007).

Some people also attribute the situation to lack of co-ordination among agencies
involved in the planning, design and implementation of drainage schemes and rapid
changes in the land use pattern, resulting in higher volumes of run-offs.

Further, in the incidence of flooding, industries and commercial entities are affected
including some water treatment plants which have to shut down if their water intake
points are submerged to protect machinery. Proactively, the spillways have to be
opened to allow water to run downstream to prevent the collapse of the dams.
However, the action also results in flooding as experienced in and around Weija in the
Ga West District in July 2007.

There appears to be a great public concern about the frequent flooding in Accra and
its social and economic consequences. The public institutions also appear to be
overwhelmed by the causes and effects of the floods. To be able to resolve the issue,

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there is the urgent need for research to throw more light on the decision environment.
Some of the questions that need to be answered are:
a. What are the major causes of flooding in the metropolis?
b. Can the floods be attributed to human activities?
c. Why are the floods persisting?
d. Are there any situations which predispose the metropolis to flooding?

1.3 Objectives
Generally, the study seeks to examine the relationship between human activities and
the incidence of flooding in the metropolis. Specifically the study is to:

• Identify the factors responsible for flooding in the Accra Metropolis.

• Identify the land uses and activities in the flood endemic areas.
• Determine whether the floods can be attributed to the prevailing land uses and
activities.
• Make recommendations for managing land use and human activities to reduce
the incidence of flooding and its negative effects in the metropolis.

1.4 Research Methodology

The success of any research is based on its design and control to keep the process in
perspective and focussed on the objectives of the research. Therefore, the research has
been structured as outlined below.

1.4.1 Research Design

The research adopted the cross-sectional design and followed the logical sequence of
data collection, analysis and inferences, deductions and recommendations. Review of
relevant literature formed the initial stage in the research process. This involved a
desk study of literature concerning flooding and land use planning and management
issues in the Accra Metropolis and other relevant subjects, trying to draw out
information from previous research in the area of study. The next step involved an
analysis of the organisation of land uses and activities in the communities to see how
it predisposed them to flooding. Further, institutional arrangements and interventions
in land use planning, flood prevention and management were analysed for their
efficacy and shortfalls to explain the continued incidence of flooding in the Accra
Metropolis.
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1.4.2 Data Requirement, Collection Techniques and Instruments
To ascertain the flooding situation and the perception of the probable causes, effects
and suggested solutions at the community level, data were collected from Dzorwulu,
Kotobabi, Alajo, Avenor and Odawna (Adabraka). This was done through a direct
personal administration of questionnaire to a sample of households to solicit for the
information.

Data were collected for the research from some public institutions, especially those
found to be major stakeholders in urban governance, by means of semi-structured
questionnaires. Information sought from the institutions included their primary
functions and specific roles in flood prevention and management, and their
perceptions of the causes and practical suggested solutions to the Accra floods. The
following institutions were covered:
a) Accra Metropolitan Works Department (AMWD/City Engineers)
b) Accra Metropolitan Town and Country Planning Department (AMTCPD)
c) Hydrological Services Department (HSD) – Head Office
d) Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMA)
e) National Disaster Management Organisation (NADMO) – Greater Accra
Regional Office
f) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) – Head Office
g) Accra Metropolitan Roads Department (AMRD)
h) Accra Metropolitan Public Health Unit (AMPHUD)

Thirdly, with the aid of Survey Department Air Sheets and Planning Schemes, a
survey was carried out in Dzorwulu and Alajo to take stock of drainage infrastructure,
capture relevant features and activities in the flood prone areas. Data collected in this
phase was mainly qualitative and was captured by means of digital photography and
note-taking. The survey was also used to validate some of the answers provided in the
sample survey.

1.4.3 Sampling of Affected Population

Due to the fact that not all people can be covered in the data collection process within
the research time frame, sampling was adopted to delineate a representative group for
study with inferences drawn from the results. A multi stage sampling approach was
used, selecting one drainage basin from the existing four and further selecting five
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 settlements along the river course from the six major settlements in the lower course
which invariably were in the floodplains. The Accra Metropolitan Assembly
identified principal areas that are liable to flooding and estimated the population at
risk of flooding in the Metropolis as of 2006, which is presented in Table 1.0.

Table 1.0: Flood-prone areas and population at risk

Area Population
Dansoman/Mpoase/Gbegbeyise/Chorkor 19,031
Chokome/Faana/Tetegbu 3,173
Chemu Area 70,185
Korle/Odawna/Alajo/Dzorwulu 73,136
Nungua 1,557
Sakumo II 9,396
TOTAL 176,478
Source: AMA, 2006

The Odaw River was selected due to its dominance in the metropolis in terms of
catchment area and susceptibility to flooding. Further, Dzorwulu, Alajo, Kotobabi,
Avenor and Adabraka, which are settlements along the Odaw river course, were
selected for the study leaving out Korle due to its peculiarity of being in the proximity
of the Lagoon and the Sea. In terms of representation, Dzorwulu was the only 1st class
residential area with Odawna, Kotobabi and Avenor being 2nd class residential areas.
Alajo forms part of the 3rd Class residential group. Hence the sample covered all but
the 4th class residential group as none of the flood prone areas fell within this group.
Proportional allocation was made based on the population of the settlement.

The sampling frame (people affected by flooding along the Odaw) was estimated by
the AMA in 2006 to be 73,136. The sample covered in the household survey was one
hundred and twenty-nine (129) households, of which thirty-six (36) were in Alajo and
Adabraka each, twenty (20) in Dzorwulu, twenty-eight (28) in Kotobabi and nine (9)
in Avenor. The distribution of the sample among the settlements was based on
proportions of individual settlements’ populations of the total as presented in Table
1.1

Table 1.1: Sample Size Distribution among Settlements

Settlements Population Sample
Proportions Distribution
2000 2008*
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Alajo 23439 35444 26.5 36
Dzorwulu 9517 19708 10.7 20
Avenor 6681 9200 7.5 9
Adabraka 25425 35012 28.7 36
Kotobabi 23,485 27559 26.5 28
TOTAL 88547 126923 100.0 129
Source: Adapted from 2000 PHC, GSS and Projected*

The sample was calculated as follows:

Where n = sample size

N = Sampling frame Population affected by flooding along the Odaw
River course
e = significance level 4% or 0.04
hhs = average household size 4.8

1.4.4 Data Analyses

The data collected were analysed for the preparation of the report, with the help of
appropriate techniques. With the aid of the Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(SPSS), the responses from households were coded and entered into a database to
generate tables and cross-tabulation where necessary to present and analyse
quantitative data as well as establish relationships between variables. Some of the
data captured was combined with secondary data to establish some situations like
encroachments. Qualitative data was presented by description, but analyses included
drawing of inferences and linkages.

1.5 Scope of Study

Geographically, the study was limited to the floodplains of the Odaw River, covering
Dzorwulu, Alajo, Kotobabi, Avenor and Adabraka in the Accra Metropolitan Area.
With regard to content, the study covered human activities which were defined as
modification of the natural environment for providing and managing social and
economic services like houses, roads, drains and shop and offices. It therefore
includes the institutions which manage the urban economy. Flooding in this study is
limited to flooding resulting directly from rainfall.

1.6 Justification

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The results of this study can serve as a guide in approaching the flooding problem,
which is getting elusive. The findings of the study will provide an insight into what
factors interplay to cause the floods, so that cost-effective and appropriate measure
can be taken to reduce its incidence and negative effects on the populace.

It may also lay to rest the speculation about the causes and rather serve as a rallying
point for action as the possible causes have been identified, with some consensus
reached on solution steps. Also, owing to the fact that flooding is associated with
water borne and water related diseases, a solution to the perennial flooding situation
will reduce the national health expenditure and keep productivity at optimal levels.

Finding a solution to the flooding menace will invariably lead to a realisation of some
of the policy objectives of the nation as outlined in the GPRS II - “... the quality of
both the built and the natural environments is vital for long-term growth and
development. Increased production can only be meaningful on the one hand when it
occurs in well-managed, amenable, efficient, safe and healthy built environments”.

1.7 Organisation of the Report

The report is organised in five chapters. Chapter one gives a general orientation and
background to the research encompassing the problem statement, objectives of the
study, scope and research methodology among others. Chapter two covers review of
relevant literature in the subject matter and basic definitions and concepts. A general
profile of the study area is provided in Chapter three to understand the context within
which the phenomena are taking place. Chapter four contains data collected, analyses,
deductions and inferences while chapter five covers findings of the research, policy
implications and suggested recommendations.

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 CHAPTER TWO
FLOODING AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN SPACE: ISSUES AND
CONCEPTS

2.1 Introduction
Flooding, which causes much pain and havoc in almost all areas of the world has been
intellectually investigated to some extent to reduce its incidence, effects and impacts
on humans who inhabit the land. Flooding has been linked by many people to human
interventions but such interventions seem to vary from one locality to another. In
some instances, it is even dissociated from any human action whatsoever and taken as
an act of nature. However, few have actually sought to understand the relationship
between these two variables. This chapter seeks to provide an insight into how various
people and authorities consider the phenomenon.

2.2 Floods
The word comes from the old English ‘flōd’ akin to the German word ‘flut’ and the
Dutch word ‘vloed’ from the same root as is seen in flow and float (Wikepedia
Online Encyclopedia, 2007). The Oxford Reference Dictionary defines a flood as an
overflowing or influx of water beyond its normal confines. The Wikepedia
Encyclopedia further defines it as an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges
land. It is usually due to the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or
lake, exceeding the total capacity of the body, and as a result some of the water flows
or sits outside of the normal perimeter of the body.

Floods, which are the most frequent type of disaster worldwide are not recent
developments, but can be traced to biblical times. The first recorded being “the Great
Flood” in Noah’s time which was a consequence of forty days rain. Since then many
more have been chronicled with their associated destruction and disruption of social
and economic life.

Floods occur in almost all parts of the world with differing intensities and effects.
Most notable ones include the 1981, 1991 and 2002 floods along the Chiang Jiang
(Yangtze) River in China, the Mozambican floods in 2000, the 1983 and 1993 floods
on the Mississippi River and Hurricane Katrina floods in New Orleans, USA in 2005.

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Bangladesh is one of the most susceptible countries to flood disasters. About one half
of the land area in Bangladesh is at an elevation of less than 8 meters above sea level.
Up to 30% of the country has been covered with flood waters (Nelson, 2006). In
1991 more than 200,000 deaths resulted from flooding and associated tropical
cyclones in Bangladesh alone.

2.2.1 Types of Floods

In a study of flooding in six African cities including Accra in 2006, ActionAid
International (2006) identified four main types of flooding in urban areas, which are
mainly differentiated by their causes and are outlined as follows:
(i) Localised flooding occurs in slum areas because there are few drains, and
the ground is highly compacted and pathways between dwellings become
streams after heavy rain. Drains and culverts are often blocked by solid
waste and debris.
(ii) Small streams in urban areas which rise quickly after heavy rain, but often
pass through small culverts under roads. Although adequate when
designed, changes in the urban area and in storm intensity now produce
higher flows that exceed capacity. Channels may also have so much debris
in them that they are effectively smaller than they were two decades ago.
(iii) Major rivers flowing through urban areas are affected by land use
changes and engineering works upstream. Dams can trap sediment,
causing rivers to erode their banks downstream. Dam operation may lead
to high flows when stored water is released suddenly. Often, urban
growth has expanded over some of the floodplain, making parts of the city
below flood level and reducing the area into which floods can naturally
overflow. Levees have been raised artificially, but with the risk that they
may be breached and cause devastating urban flooding.
(iv) In lowland and coastal cities, rain and river water combine to raise the
levels of water in swamps that would have naturally been inundated at
certain times of the year. Dumping of waste beneath dwellings in these
areas tends to help raise levels further. Storm waves can also bring
flooding to such areas.
2.2.2 Floods Styles
It is indicated in literature available that floods can also be distinguished also by their
style of occurrence. Flash floods occur when a wall of water quickly sweeps over an
area, which are difficult to deal with as it is not easy to predict the amount of rain
expected within a spatial area over a short period of time.

Regional floods occur when rain falls over a large area for days or weeks causing
river flood levels to rise slowly and then fall slowly usually inundating large areas and
9
causing widespread economic losses (Abbott, 2006). Flash floods are called upstream
floods whereas regional floods are called downstream floods.

2.2.3 Causes of Floods

Technically, according to Nelson (2003), floods occur when a stream’s discharge
increases and overtops its bank. Streams increase in depth and width to accommodate
the water that flows into it from rainfall, tributary streams and underground water
seeping into it. The discharge of a stream is the amount of water passing any point at a
given time, and is represented by the following formula: Q ,
Where Q = Discharge (m3/sec)
A = Cross-sectional area: width average depth (m2)
V = Average velocity (m/sec)
As the amount of water in a stream increases, the stream adjusts its velocity and cross-
sectional area in order to form a balance, thereby going beyond its normal channel
boundaries.

Floods can be attributed to several factors, which include natural ones like the
topography of the floodplain and prolonged and heavy precipitation. However, human
activities in river courses and the floodplain can also exacerbate and increase the
frequency of flooding.

2.2.3.1 Natural Causes

Floods happen when soil and vegetation cannot absorb all the water from downpours.
The water then runs off the land in quantities that cannot be carried in stream channels
or kept in natural ponds or man-made reservoirs.

Floods also occur when a river bursts its banks and the water spills onto the flood
plain. Flooding tends to be caused by heavy rain: the faster the rainwater reaches the
river channel, the more likely it is that it will cause flooding. The nature of the
landscape around a river will influence how fast rainwater reaches the channel.

ActionAid (2006) argues that flood hazards are natural phenomena, but damage and
losses from these floods are the consequence of human action. This stand may be
understood if one assumes floods in natural environments tend to have less drastic
effects on human life and property.

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However other floods following tsunamis and coastal surges have natural causes like
earthquakes in the sea bed and high tides attributed to the pull forces of the moon.
Coastal flooding may also be the result of severe sea storms and strong winds which
create strong waves that batter the coast.

2.2.3.2 Human-induced Causes

Although human populations have been victims of natural flooding, their presence
and subsequent activities near rivers have also contributed to the problem. In naturally
occurring conditions, vegetation captures significant amounts of precipitation and
returns it to the atmosphere before it has a chance to hit the ground and be absorbed
by the earth. However, certain farming practices in urban agriculture like clear-cutting
land hamper this process. Without the natural growth of vegetation to trap the rain, the
ground absorbs more moisture than it would and the likelihood of flooding increases
when the absorption limit of the soil is reached.

Further, the construction of concrete and stone buildings contributes to the problem of
flooding. While rain is easily absorbed into sand and other porous materials, it is not
easily absorbed by man-made building materials, such as pavement and concrete.
These substances cause additional run-off which must be absorbed by the surrounding
landscape. ActionAid (2006) supports this point by singling out urbanisation as the
major cause of flooding. By restricting where flood waters can go, covering large
parts of the ground with roofs, roads and pavements, obstructing sections of natural
channels and building drains that ensure that water moves to rivers faster than it did
under natural conditions. In sum, urbanisation tends to increase susceptibility to
floods. Akin to the position held by ActionAid, the BBC (2008) believes a river is
more likely to flood when its drainage basin is in an urban area. Urban areas consist
largely of impermeable concrete, which encourages overland flow. Drains and sewers
take water quickly and directly to the river channel. Houses with sloping roofs further
increase the amount of run-off.

2.3 Effects of Flooding

The primary effects of flooding include physical damage to buildings and weakening
of structures. Culverts, bridges and drainage systems are also seriously affected.
There are instances of loss of human lives and livestock, and the outbreak of diseases
and epidemics.
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Secondary effects include contamination of water supplies, unhygienic conditions and
water borne diseases. Flooding also results in the loss of entire harvests like in the
instance of Mozambique in 2000 and Northern Ghana in 2007. The long term or
tertiary effects of flooding are increased public expenditure in rebuilding damaged
infrastructure, inflation as a result of food shortage and increased vulnerability of the
poor.

2.4 Benefits of Flooding

There are many disruptive effects of flooding on human settlements and economic
activities. However flooding can bring benefits, such as making soil more fertile and
providing nutrients in which it is deficient. Periodic flooding was essential to the well-
being of ancient communities along the Tigris-Euphrates Rivers, the Nile River, the
Indus River, and the Ganges among others.

2.5 Flooding in Accra

Accra suffers from perennial flooding in the face of several interventions like the
Urban Environmental Sanitation Projects to reduce its incidence. Some notable but
not exhaustive dates in the chronology of Accra floods since the 1990s include 5th
July 1995, 27th June 2001, 26th March 2007, 3rd June 2007 and 18th May 2008.

2.5.1 Flood Frequency

Flooding in the Accra Metropolis does not appear to follow any apparent pattern and
frequency, but seems to be picking up. The only known link is that the floods come
with the rains, which are expected in two regimes annually. Flood forecasting is non-
existent because flood monitoring is apparently nil, but prior warnings are given of
rainstorms moving across the West African coast.

2.5.2 Flood Control and Official Response

Man has long tried, not always successfully, to control and prevent the damaging
effects of flooding rivers. River or hydrological engineers may build artificial flood
banks, straighten the river course, or dredge the riverbed to make it deeper. All of
these methods of control can work, although they often have a negative effect on the
river as a habitat for other organisms.

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Most African governments have national disaster and emergency policies, some, such
as Uganda, have special ministries with responsibility for disaster preparedness and
response. In Ghana, the National Disaster Management Organisation (NADMO) was
established by Act 517 of 1996 and tasked to be responsible for all disaster types and
phases in Ghana. NADMO prepares for pre-disaster, disaster, and post-disaster
phases. In order to accomplish its objectives, NADMO has set up seven (7) Technical
Sub-Committees to cover all types of disasters in Ghana, such as geological and
hydro-meteorological, pest and insect infestation, bushfires and lightening, epidemic
outbreaks, relief and reconstruction disasters.

The Ghana National Disaster Management Organization (NADMO) has to coordinate

emergency and disaster response, and general national disaster preparedness.
NADMO has established disaster management committees at the national, regional
and district levels and plans to coordinate the activities of all collaborating agencies.

Another important institution in the environmental sector is the Hydrological Services

Department, which is charged with planning, building, and maintaining all of the
waterways in the City of Accra. The Hydrological Services Department sets buffers or
no-build easement for rivers and other water bodies in the Metropolis. This serves to
fulfill the basic concept of drainage infrastructure.

In furtherance of reducing the incidence of flooding and other environmental

sanitation problems, the Government of Ghana borrowed US$71m from the World
Bank to finance the Ghana Environmental Sanitation Project in 1996. The project
covered Ghana’s five major cities (Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi-Takoradi, Tema, and
Tamale) with the aim of promoting productivity and raising living standards in the
major cities, by improving sanitation services, drainage and sanitation; help establish
better institutional and financing mechanisms and more effective policy frameworks
so that improvements are sustained over time; and build up the capacity of the
Metropolitan and Municipal Assemblies to manage urban environmental sanitation
services.

After the devastating effects of the 1963 floods in Accra, the first Drainage Master
Plan for Accra was prepared and implemented covering certain parts of the
Metropolis. In 1991 the area covered under the Plan was extended. Currently, the

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HSD is preparing another Drainage Plan for Accra West, which is now increasingly
being ravaged by floods.

2.5.3 Flood Prevention in other Places

In western countries, rivers prone to floods are often carefully managed. Defences
such as levees or dikes and reservoirs, are used to prevent rivers from bursting their
banks. London is protected from flooding by a huge mechanical barrier across the
River Thames, which is raised when the water level reaches a certain point.

The New Orleans Metropolitan Area, a low-lying area of which approximately 35

percent is below sea level, is protected by hundreds of miles of levees and flood gates.
This system failed to hold back the surging waters during Hurricane Katrina in the
central area and in eastern sections of the Metro Area, resulting in the inundation of
approximately fifty percent of the Metropolitan area, ranging from a few inches to
twenty feet in coastal communities (Wikipedia Encyclopedia).

Various central and local government bodies across the world in flood prone areas
have drawn up policies and strategies to at least reduce the incidence of flooding and
lower its effects on human populations living in the flood plains. The results of some
of these elaborate programmes are mixed, with some chalking successes. However in
the case of New Orleans as cited earlier, the defences were breached, calling for a
revision of the approach.

The People’s Republic of China and Mozambique in Asia and Africa respectively
suffer from extensive flooding. Therefore, the various governments set out to protect
their people from the perennial floods by adopting various localised policies as the
causes of flooding differ from place to place.

China adopted a much more physical intervention approach of building dams, levees
and preserving wetlands, while Mozambique opted for a stringent land use policy.
Summaries are presented from the works of Zhang and Kang (2001) and Wisner
(1979) for China and Mozambique respectively.

2.5.3.1: Flood Control and Management in China

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East China suffers from flood disasters primarily caused by rainstorms in
combination with coastal storm surges and the west region is subject to the mixed-
type floods from snow and glacier melting as well as the local storms.

Beginning from the twentieth century, major rivers in China were struck by a number
of serious disastrous floods. In the 1990s big floods frequently hit southern part of
China with the 1998 flood being the most noticeable one, resulting in floods in some
major rivers as Yangtze, Songhua, pearl and Min River. The severe flood which took
place in the Yangtze River is the second biggest flood in the 20th century since 1954.

In response to the flood, China built and reinforced 245,000 km of levees to protect
33 million ha of cultivated land and over 200million people by 1997. Also, over
84,000 large, medium and small reservoirs were completed with the storage capacity
of 472 billion m3 to serve as flood retardation basins for major rivers.

Flood monitoring, information transmission and forecasting systems were also

developed to complement activities in the sector. Far reaching water and flood laws
were passed with institutional restructuring to fight the menace of the floods also
adopted.

2.5.3.2: Flood Prevention in Mozambique

Mozambique seems to be battered by floods every year with annual losses close to
US$43m. It is located in a geographical region with inherent risks. The region is
liable to heavy rainfall variability, periods of droughts (5-7 months).
Topographically, the country is much of a plain, with a greater portion barely rising
beyond 200m with rivers having extensive floodplains increasing the flood hazard or
risk.

The Limpopo and Zambesi with their source outside Mozambique pose the first
danger with enormous flooding but there is usually considerable warning and a lower
frequency. More frequent are Lurio, Nonapo, Ligonha, Messalo and Licunga rivers
that have their sources in the well-watered highlands in Mozambique receiving
rainfall between 1400 and 1800mm/year. These rivers rise fast with very little
warning, but their devastation is much smaller than the international rivers.

In response to the floods, Mozambique adopted comprehensive land-use planning in

floodplain management. Some other options considered are presented in the table.

Table 2.0: Flood Management Options

Modify the Flood Modify the Damage Modify the loss burden Do
susceptibility (Redistributive losses) Nothing
(Floodplain Management)
Flood protection Land-use regulation and Flood insurance Bear the
(channel phase) changes loss
Dykes Statutes Tax writeoffs
Floodwall Zoning ordinances Disaster relief

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Channel Building codes Volunteer Private
Improvement activities
Reservoirs Subdivision regulations Government aid
River Diversions Government purchase of Emergency Measures
lands and property
Watershed Subsidised relocation Removal of persons and
Treatment property
(land phase)
Modification of Flood proofing Flood fighting
cropping practices
Terracing Permanent closure of low Rescheduling operations
level windows
Bank stabilisation Waterproofing interiors
Land elevation and fill
Source: Wisner (1979)

Considering the fact that the 2000 Mozambican floods followed five weeks of
torrential rainfall including a cyclone landfall, the floods cannot be attributed to
failure of the chosen approach as most elaborate defences may fall under such
pressure. South Africa, Botswana and Swaziland also suffered from the floods
although on a less severe scale.

2.6 Floodplains, Wetlands and Reservoirs

The American Floodplain Management Association defined floodplains as low areas
subject to flooding from time to time. Most floodplains are adjacent to streams, lakes
or oceans although almost any area can flood under the right circumstances.

Floodplains are designated by the size of the flood that will cover them. For instance,
a 10-year floodplain is the dry land that is covered by a once in 10 years flood and the
100-year floodplain is the land covered by a once in a 100 years flood. The likelihood
of property being flooded varies depending on how high it is above the stream.
Buildings on a 10-year floodplain can be expected to flood on the average of once
every 10 years while buildings on higher ground will be flooded less often.

Figure 2.0: Cross-section of a Floodplain

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 Source: www.floodplain.org (u.d.)

Wetlands are the swampy land along the edges of some rivers. When it rains, the wet
soil and mud of a wetland acts like a sponge and stores the extra water. Anku (2006)
suggests wetlands prevent runoff from running too swiftly downstream and
overflowing, thus preventing erosion and flooding, but are under siege in Ghana.

A levee or dike is a natural or artificial slope or wall, usually earthen and often
parallels the course of a river, to control and contain its flow and protect lands beyond
it. However, levees have their drawbacks like breaches, whereby part of the levee
actually breaks away, leaving a large opening for water to flood the land protected by
the levee. Levees also fail when they are overtopped when water levels are simply
beyond the capacity of the channel lined by the levees.

2.7 Land Use and Human activities

Human activities may be segregated into economic and social sectors with various
sub-sectors. However, no matter the form it takes, such activities take place in space,
regulated or unregulated. Human activities on land is considered as land use, in the
sense that it is the human modification of natural environment into built environment
such as fields, pastures, and settlements (Wikipedia Encyclopedia, 2008).

2.7.1 Evolution of Urban Land Use Planning

Planning of human settlements had been advocated and practised from the beginning
of time, gaining prominence with the design of Greek towns and later the Roman
towns. These were done with safety, aesthetics and efficiency in mind. The Canadian
Institute of Planners define land use planning as “the scientific, aesthetic, and orderly
disposition of land, resources, facilities and services with a view to securing the
physical, economic and social efficiency, health and well-being of urban and rural
communities”.

The Greek Hippodamus is widely considered the father of city planning in the West,
for his design of Miletus in present day Turkey. He also planned the city of Rhodes in
Greece and the town of Thurii in Italy. He is widely known for his symmetrical and
gridiron layouts.

2.7.2 Aspects of Urban Land use planning

17
At its most basic level, land use planning involves zoning. It is an important part of
social policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider
economy and population as well as to protect the environment. Further, land use
planning seeks to introduce aesthetics into the urban landscape, reducing the clutter of
physical structures by integrating landscaping with the design.

Land use planning seeks to achieve safety in the urban environment, with the
interplay of all land uses and land use activities. This is sometimes done with the help
of some planning tools like zoning ordinances to segregate conflicting uses while
integrating complimentary uses.

2.8 Accra: Land Use and Growth

The Accra Metropolis is said to have developed from a small trading post into what it
is today. The metropolis apparently had a disorderly beginning as reported by Stanley
(1874) cited by Grant and Yankson (2003) saying the area was a compact mass of
thatched buildings arranged in a haphazard manner and separated by narrow crooked
streets.

The earthquake of 1862 offered the colonial authorities the opportunity to rebuild and
reorganise the growing settlement and spurred by the transfer of the capital from Cape
Coast, the stage was set for a transformation of the old trading post into a city.

Grant and Yankson (2003) indicate firstly, the city was spatially organized around a
port that connected the Gold Coast economy to England. Centrally located, the docks,
warehouses and railway terminals all supported functions of trade, storage and
distribution. Most of the buildings of the colonial administration and military bases
were also located in the immediate vicinity. Slum clearance took place, and the
British attempted to impose a rectangular-style pattern on the preexisting unplanned
area.

Secondly, adjacent to the port area was a well-defined European central business
district (CBD) that served as the headquarters for foreign companies. The CBD
functioned as a commercial area for trade, banking, storage and distribution and as a
transportation center

Zoning and building codes were strictly enforced to maintain an orderly European
character and ambiance in this district. This area currently houses the Ghana
18
Commercial Bank, Bank of Ghana, Accra Metropolitan Assembly Offices, Barclays
Bank, and Opera Square among others.

Thirdly there was a nearby district called “native town”, where Makola No. 1 Market
was built in 1924 as a permanent market to replace the small periodic markets. The
native town assumed a crowded, cluttered and congested look with poor structures
and unhealthy conditions as a result of an apparent neglect of urban planning by
colonial authorities (Grant and Yankson, 2003). It was reported to be physically
separated from the European-styled CBD by an open green area.

Fourth, the colonial authorities enforced a rigid policy of residential segregation for
European residences near the European CBD or at retreats further away like
Cantonments. These areas have preserved their organised look till now.

By implication, land use planning has been practised since the colonial times although
not throughout the growing city, accounting for the apparent disorderly development
of certain areas, especially where there were no European interests.

Figure 2.1 shows the result of land use planning and enforcement by the colonial
authorities in Accra, as reported by Grant and Yankson (2003).
Figure 2.1: Spatial Organization of Colonial Accra

Source: Grant and Yankson, 2003.

The Accra Metropolis grew gradually from Jamestown, Ussher Town and
Christianborg on the coast to places like Dansoman, Airport Residential, Abeka and
La by the end of the 1960s as shown in Figure 2.2. Now the sprawling city is
conurbating with Tema and Ga East Municipalities along the city’s major arterial
roads, with very little greenery separating them.
19
Figure 2.2: Accra-Expansion of Residential Areas (1900-1969)

Source: Macalaster University, 2008

According to Møller-Jensen et al (2004), a Master Plan of Accra was produced in

1958 but it was not fully implemented. Under the Economic Recovery Programme
and Structural Adjustment Programmes, implemented from 1983, urban planning,
development and management were seriously tackled. A new Structure Plan was
produced for Accra in 1992 to cover the period 1993-2010 to be executed in phases of
5-year development plans. The Accra Master Plan sets forth a structural land use plan
for the Accra metropolitan Area.

Guidelines were provided for the development of specific land use categories:
residential, commercial, civic and cultural, institutional/special uses, industrial,
defense, major roads, transportation (terminals), and open space/recreation. After
agricultural/rural land uses, the largest category is residential. Plans for the various
categories of land use are detailed as follows:
Residential
The overall density of residential dwellings in the metropolitan area is approximately
8dwellings per hectare. In newly developed areas densities of less than 5
dwellings/ha are occurring. The plan expresses an interest in increasing overall
density to 10 dwellings/ha by 2010. In the inner city up to 20 dwelling/ha are
common. Mixed-use dwellings, especially in the inner city, are also encouraged.

20
Commercial
It is expressed that the areas of Accra and Tema should develop as distinct, self-
sufficient “towns,” with amenities such as employment, services, retail and
entertainment available to the residents of each. Additionally, there will be distinct
neighborhoods with smaller shops and vendors meeting the needs of 5,000 to 8,000
residents. The Accra Central Area should have the “highest order commercial,
entertainment and tourist center in the Metropolitan Area.” This, in addition to
financial and administrative functions, will be located in the CBD within the Ring
Road. A desire is expressed to decentralize this commerce through planning, to both
preserve residential structures and more thoroughly meet the needs of residents.

Open Space
Specific open space areas should be designated part of the Metropolitan Open Space
System and preserved, including hills and rivers to the northeast of urban areas. The
plan specifies that 11,250 ha should remain as open space.

Industrial
In 1990, industry occupied 2690 ha (6.6% of the urban area). The plan estimates that
with the labor force growing at a rate of 2% per annum (density of 120 workers), that
an additional 2,500 ha and 5,000 ha of land will be required by 2000 and 2010
respectively. Industrial areas are designated to be: the Ring Road West Industrial
Area, the North Industrial Area along Accra-Nsawam road, and the South Motorway
Industrial Zone.

Institutional and Special Use

This category, which includes government and public utilities, is the second-largest
land user after residential – it occupies 10.4 % of the total urban area. Uses in this
sector include: the Achimota-Legon/Greenhill Presbyterian Secondary School, north
of Accra; the Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital; the Military Hospital; the Trade Fair
Center in Accra; and the Radio Relay Station. Government offices and public
institutions are concentrated in the CBD and the Cantonments.

Military and Security (Defense)

A military “enclave” is located between Accra and Tema, where the Burma Camp,
the range, the Naval and Air force bases and the Military Academy and Training
School are located. There is an area north of Tema where another camp is located
(Michel Camp). The plan expresses an interest to limit future military development,
and locate it there if necessary.

Transportation
The existing roadway is arranged as radial spines, which the plan does not comment
on extensively.

New Development
New development is slated for the following areas: the Teshie-Nungua area south of
the motorway; extend the Mccarthy Hill-Ofankor area; and extend the Ofankor-
Oyarifa sector to the urban limits bounded by the outer ring road, up to Aburi Road.

2.9 Statutory Bodies responsible for the Built and Natural Environment

21
The spatial economy of any country is a very essential sector which has tremendous
influence and actually contains all the other sectors. This is because all policies,
strategies and activities manifest themselves either within the environment or serve to
modify it, but can also be catalysed by the very environment. It is for this reason that
most countries including Ghana have Ministries, Departments, Agencies and
Commissions to oversee how activities are organised within the environment with a
view to protecting it from abuse. Some of the developed European countries even
have political parties aligned to the environment, often called the Greens, which are
gradually gaining prominence in national politics.

2.9.1 Environmental Protection Agency

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was established in 1973 as the
Environmental Protection Council with policy-making and advisory functions. In
1994 it became the Environmental Protection Agency following the promulgation of
Act 490 to advise the Minister on the formulation of policies on all aspects of the
environment and in particular make recommendations for the protection of the
environment. Among other functions, EPA is tasked with coordinating the activities
of such bodies as it considers appropriate for the purposes of controlling pollution and
generally protect the environment.

2.9.2 Hydrological Services Department

The Hydrological Services Department (HSD) was established as a Department on its
own in 1995 when Architectural and Engineering Services Corporation (AESC)
underwent restructuring to become a limited liability company. HSD before then
existed as the Hydrology Division of AESC. The Hydrological Services
Department provides engineering services for the Government of Ghana in the areas
of hydrology and water resources engineering.

2.9.3 Town and Country Planning Department

The Town & Country Planning Department is, among others, responsible for planning
and management of the orderly development of human settlements, providing
planning services to public authorities and private developers and provision of layout
plans (planning schemes) to guide orderly development.

22
The mandate of the Department is derived from five main legal instruments, namely;
the Local Government Act, 1993 (Act 462); National Development Planning
Commission Act, 1994 (Act 479); National Development Planning (Systems) Act,
1994 (Act 480); National Building Regulation, 1996 (L.I. 1630); and the Town and
Country Planning Ordinance, 1945 (Cap 84).

2.10 Link between Human activities and Flooding

Several people attribute flooding in the metropolis to factors like administrative
failures that overlook development of buildings in waterways and the reclamation of
wetlands which would have served as reservoirs in times of heavy rains. On the other
hand, after the June 2001 floods in Accra, Hon. Kwamena Bartels, the then Minister
for Works and Housing blamed it on poor drainage and poor city planning. Recently,
the Daily Graphic of 3rd April, 2008 quoted Amos Narh, a Senior Meteorologist with
the Ghana Meteorological Agency as saying “we are the cause of floods in Accra, it is
our own doing”. He said other places (Tema - 56.5mm, Ho - 52.1mm, Akosombo
-46.8mm) experienced more rainfall than Accra (Airport - 41.2mm) but did not suffer
from flooding. He blames the situation on poor layout, building in water courses and
choked drains in the Metropolis.

It is therefore evident that there is no consensus on the causes of the perennial

flooding in the metropolis though issues are raised concerning possible causes.

2.11 Summary
It can therefore be concluded that floods are caused by people in built-up areas and
also by natural factors in natural environments. Although a river’s course may pass
through an urban area, flooding would not have been a consequence if people had not
settled close and in most instances in the floodplain, carrying out detrimental
activities. Available literature points to the fact that flood prevention and management
in the form of channel improvement, evacuation from floodplains, flood-proofing and
information gathering and sharing can help reduce the incidence and impact of the
floods. Further, there are statutory authorities in the Ghanaian setting that are
mandated to ensure the safety of people within the urban space, although with
apparent difficulty.

23
24
 CHAPTER THREE
PROFILE OF STUDY AREA

3.1 Introduction
Accra is the capital city of Ghana and the largest city in the country. Like many cities
in Sub-Saharan Africa, it is experiencing a rapid rate of population growth, estimated
to be about 4% per annum (GSS, 2002). Indeed its rate of urbanization makes it one
of the fastest-growing cities in West Africa (United Nations Centre for Human
Settlements, 1999).

3.2 Location and size

The metropolis falls between longitude 0° 21’W and 0° 08’W and is bounded by
latitude 5° 37’N and 5° 30’N to the north and south respectively. The metropolis
covers approximately 200 sq km of land and is bounded by the Tema Municipality on
the East, by the Ga East Municipality to the North, Ga West to the North-west. Figure
3.0 shows the administrative limits of the Accra Metropolitan Area.

Figure 3.0: Administrative Boundaries of the AMA

Source: Centre for Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems, 2007

3.3 Climate and Vegetation

25
The city lies within the coastal-savannah zone with low annual rainfall averaging 810
mm distributed over less than 80 days (Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture and
Food Security, 2008). The rainfall pattern of the town is bimodal with the major
season falling between the months of March and June, and a minor rainy season
around October. The floods tend to occur during the major rainy season, usually in
May and June.

3.4 Drainage
The Accra Metropolitan Area is drained by many rivers and streams, mostly flowing
in a southerly direction towards the sea. The Metropolis is divided into four main
catchment areas. The largest is the Densu River Catchment with its source in the
Eastern Region and flows into the sea through the Lafa stream and the Sakumo
Lagoon and Panbros salt pans. The Lafa stream drains Dansoman, Kwashieman,
Awoshie and McCarthy Hill in the Ga West District. There is also some amount of
flooding within this river basin especially around the salt pans.

The Odaw River with its tributaries - Nima, Onyasia, Ado and Dakobi - flows into the
Korle and Chemu Lagoons, which forms the Korle-Chemu Catchment. These rivers
flow within the most urbanised areas of the Metropolis and drains East Legon, Airport
West, Dzorwulu, through Kwame Nkrumah Circle to Adabraka and some part of the
Central Business District. It also includes Darkuman, Alajo, Mamobi, and Nima. The
Odaw River is the main water body flowing through the metropolis and floods most
often.

The Kpeshie drainange basin covers the Military Academy at Teshie, La, Burma
Camp, Osu and Cantonments. Most streams in this area flow into the Kpeshie or
Korle Lagoon before emptying into the sea

The Songo-Mokwe catchment comprise of streams which flow into the Mokwe and
Songo Lagoons and covers communities like Teshie-Nungua. The drainage map of
the Metropolis is presented in Figure 3.1.

26
Figure 3.1: Drainage Map of the Accra Metropolitan District

Source: Centre for Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems (CERSGIS), 2007

27
3.5 Demographic Characteristics
According to the most recent census figures given by the Ghana Statistical Service
(GSS, 2002), the Accra metropolis grew at 4% per annum between 1984 and 2000.
On the eve of independence, in 1957, the population of Accra was only 190,000; it
increased quite appreciably to 1,658,937 in 2000 from under 1 million in 1984 (GSS,
2002). Assuming demographic factors do not change over time, the population of the
metropolis is projected to reach 2,044,762 by 2008. Table 3.1 presents a summary of
the population trend in the Accra Metropolis.

Table 3.1: Accra Metropolis Population Growth (1960-2008*)

Indices 1960 1970 1984 2000 2006 2008*
Population 338,396 636,667 969,195 1,658,937 1,915,983 2,044,762

Pop. Growth rate - 6.32% 7.51% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3%

Source: AMA Medium Term Development Plan, 2006 and Projection*

3.5.1 Population Distribution

The Accra Metropolis has the highest population density in the country exceeding 250
persons per hectare in the dominant immigrant and oldest parts areas of Accra like
Accra New Town, James Town and Ussher Town. On the contrary, densities range
between 17.5 and 40 in the high income areas (AMA, 2002). Over 60% of Accra’s
residents live in high-density, low-rental areas like Nima, Sabon Zongo and James
Town, where there is a lack of basic amenities such as sanitation, drainage and proper
roads (Grant and Yankson, 2003). Some of the settlements with high densities have
poor social services, inadequate internal drains, and general insufficient infrastructure
and tend to suffer from localised flooding.

3.5.2 Age - Sex Distribution

Just like the national situation, females outnumber males in the Metropolis, but only
marginally. Males account for 49.3% of total population while female take 50.7%.
The age sex structure of the Metropolis differs much from the national averages
mainly as a result of it being a net receiver of migrants, who usually distort the
structure by increasing the size of the economically active age groups. For instance
the compressed national age cohort of 15-59 years contributes 51.5%, which is much
less than the Accra Metropolis’ figure of approximately 61%.

28
Majority of the population is youthful with about 80 percent below 40 years, details of
which are shown in Table 3.2

Table 3.2: Age-Sex Distribution of the Accra Metropolis

Age Cohorts Male Female Total
0-4 5.54 5.76 11.29
5-9 5.47 5.90 11.37
10-14 5.08 5.71 10.79
15-19 5.39 5.95 11.34
20-24 5.65 5.61 11.26
25-29 5.08 5.16 10.24
30-34 3.89 3.92 7.81
35-39 3.11 3.18 6.29
40-44 2.56 2.52 5.08
45-49 2.13 1.90 4.03
50-54 1.54 1.44 2.98
55-59 1.11 0.91 2.02
60-64 0.82 0.76 1.58
65+ 1.91 2.02 3.92
Total 49.27 50.73 100.00
Source: GSS, 2002

3.6 Social Characteristics

Accra is cosmopolitan and heterogeneous. The Akan speaking grouping which
includes Asantes, Akyem, Fanti, Akwapims, Brongs, Ahanta, Wassa and Nzemas
dominate, accounting for 42% of the population. The Gas and Dangmes take up about
29% and the Ewe group 14%. Figure 3.2 shows graphically the percentage
contribution of the various ethnic groups to the population of the Metropolis.

Figure 3.2: Ethnic Composition of the Accra Metropolis

Source: GSS, 2002

3.6.1 Literacy Level

29
The AMA has the highest literacy rate of 85.1 percent in the country. Projections
show that, without investment in education, there will be backlog of 213 primary
schools in the city by 2007 (AMA, 2006), which will in the long run deny children of
school going-age the opportunity to have an education and lower literacy rates. High
literacy levels is believed to be directly related to good sanitary practices, but it is also
an opportunity in the sense that public education is more likely to be absorbed. And
yield good results.

3.6.2 Health
Similar to the national situation and against the unrelenting fight against unsanitary
condition and mosquitoes, malaria continues to be the leading disease reported at
health facilities as shown in Table 3.3. This situation may be attributed to choked
drains that are breeding mosquitoes. Diarrhoea, a sanitation-related disease follows as
the second highest with a small percentage.

Table 3.3: Leading cases reported at Health Facilities.

Disease Percentage
Malaria 94.3
Diarrhoea 3.9
AIDS 0.8
Pneumonia 0.7
Male urethral discharge 0.4
TOTAL 100.0
Source: AMA, 2006

3.7 Spatial Organisation of the Metropolis

Much of the modern city's layout was planned in the 1920s, and since then growth has
been rapid. After independence the Nkrumah government promoted the city as the
capital and growth pole of the national economy. Successive administrations all
prioritised the central functions of Accra in the national economy (Grant and
Yankson, 2003).

Although the predominant land use in the Accra metropolitan area in 1991 was
agricultural land occupying approximately 73% of the total land, it is quickly being
overtaken by residential use as the city grows and physically expands on a daily basis.
Commercial activities are scattered throughout residential development. In addition,
there are several commercial centres. Despite the fact that non-agricultural open space
30
is scarce; the largest amount of open space is between Teshie and Tema. In the eastern
parts of the city large tracts of land are reserved here for military use as shown in
Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3: Spatial organization of Modern Accra

Source: Aryeetey-Attoh (1997) in Bradshaw et al (2004).

Accra is home to the National Museum, the Ghana Academy of Arts and Science, the
Ghana Central Library and National Archives, the Osu Castle (Seat of the
Presidency), the Ohene Djan Stadium, the Accra International Conference Centre, the
W.E.B. Du Bois Centre for Pan-African Culture and the Ghana-India Kofi Annan
Centre for Excellence.

The physical development in Accra is governed by an elaborate Master Plan and

numerous sector layouts prepared by the Town and Country Planning Department of
the AMA. As the Master Plan provides a blue print as to broad zoning of the whole of
Accra, the sector layouts detail out land use classifications for specific delineated
sectors of land areas of Accra. The Current Master plan (Strategic Plan of Accra
1992-2010) was prepared in 1992 after the elapse of the 1970 Master Plan of Accra.

To oversee the physical development of the Metropolis is the Accra Metropolitan

Planning Committee which is a multi-disciplinary committee chaired by the Chief
Executive with the Town and Country Planning Department as its Secretariat. The
Committee has overall responsibility for the management of the land use plans and
physical development activities. Owing to the fact that there is a Master Plan in place
and institutions duly mandated to handle spatial development, there is a basis to start

31
correcting the mistakes of the past that turned a blind eye to indiscipline and allowed
disorder in the urban landscape.

3.8 Political Organisation and Administration of the Metropolis

With effect from 23 July 1982, The Greater Accra Region, with its capital Accra was
created by the Greater Accra Region Law (PNDCL 26) as a legally separate region to
include the Ada Local Council Area. Since 1960, Greater Accra, then referred to as
Accra Capital District, was geographically and legally part of the Eastern Region but
was, however administered separately by the Minister responsible for Local
Government.

The Accra Metropolitan area is administered by the Accra Metropolitan Assembly

under the local government structure. Since its establishment in 1898 as the Accra
City Council, it has been mandated to manage the growth and development of the
city. Empowered by section 10 (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) of the Local Government Act of
1993, Act 462 and established by Legislative Instrument (LI) 1500, the AMA has a
membership of 104. Its principal functions include the provision of sound sanitary and
healthy environment, provision of educational infrastructure, markets and lorry parks
within the metropolis, planning and development control of infrastructure within
Accra and the provision of public safety and comfort among others.

Currently, under the sub-district structures, there are thirteen (13) sub-metropolitan
district councils, up from the previous five in a bid to deepen the decentralisation
process and have manageable units. The on-going decentralisation process provides
an opportunity for tackling flooding issues at the various levels based on the scope of
work to be done and financial demands.

3.9 Economic Characteristics

Over 68% of the total population aged 15 years or older are economically active, with
unemployment rate estimated to be about 13%. The Metropolis is the financial and
commercial hub of the country, with markets spread out in suburbs like Achimota,
Accra New Town, Abeka, Mamobi and Nima. Commercial sector workers are
predominant in the Metropolis, accounting for close to 34% of persons employed and
the private informal sector engages 60% of employed people (MLGRD&E, 2006).
32
Doe (u.d.) indicates Accra accounts for 15-20% of Ghana's GDP and 10% of total
employment. In economic sub-sectors, the city provides 56% of national employment
in finance, insurance and real estate, 31% in construction, 30% in transportation,
storage and communication, 22% in wholesale/retail trade, and 18% in
manufacturing.

The economically vibrant Metropolis presents an opportunity for the AMA to collect
adequate revenue to finance development in its area of control. Further, using the
right approaches, the AMA can entice some corporate entities to honour their social
responsibilities by partnering with the AMA to direct them to distressed communities
to complement the AMA’s efforts.

33
 CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSES

4.1 Introduction
The communities along the Odaw River seem to be particularly susceptible to
flooding mainly as a result of the habitation of the banks of the river. The Odaw and
its tributaries meander its way through various settlements until they merge near the
Boomerang Nite Club and further joined by another tributary behind the current
Hawkers’ Market at Circle. The study covered Dzorwulu, Alajo, Kotobabi, Avenor,
and Adabraka, on the lower course of the Odaw where flooding appears to be
endemic.

4.2 Physical Characteristics

These flood prone areas are characterised by low relief with elevations rising to only
10 metres above sea level. The areas are generally floodplains accounting for their
low elevations. The communities are surrounded by higher terrain on the east and
west and form depressions like the case of Alajo which is between Kotobabi and
Abelenkpe, both of higher grounds. Similarly, Avenor is wedged between Kpehe on
the east and the Police Training school located on a small hill to the west at Tesano.
Dzorwulu is located in a valley between Roman Ridge and the Achimota Forest.
Adabraka is located along the western slopes of a hill (Ridge) towards the Odaw
River. Based on their physical characteristics, these settlements can be concluded to
be predisposed to flooding as they fall within a floodplain.

4.3 Origin and Development

Dzorwulu and Adabraka are well laid out settlements which development control had
worked to maintain essentially the form, although squatter settlements have developed
much closer to the Odaw River, popularly known as Odawna, which means “the
shores of the Odaw”, which unsurprisingly floods often.

Alajo is largely a densely populated settlement with no apparent design, although

settlement upgrading had brought some penetration by access roads and drainage
system. Kotobabi is predominantly a settlement that has failed to live up to its design,
especially at the western end close to the Odaw. The settlement has two faces. The
eastern part on the elevated ground is well laid out with access roads separating
blocks. However the western part in the valley has accessibility problems as
34
thoroughfares have been blocked in some instances and drainage is unorganised., with
the exception of those provided along the Mamobi High Street, the Nkansa Djan
Down road, and Palm Street all running downhill to the Odaw River.

The expansion of the Accra Metropolis reached Adabraka by 1945 and got to the
other settlement in the late 1960s, with Dzorwulu being the most recent to be
developed. In the 1970 Census, it was not covered and was probably part of the
Achimota Forest that had been cut away by the construction of the Accra-Tema
Motorway.

Adabraka began as a separate Muslim village in 1908. Many Muslims at this time left
the overcrowded central city in order to avoid the bubonic plague, which spread
rapidly throughout the city centre. It was not until 1925, that Adabraka was
incorporated into Accra. Governor Guggisburg built the Achimota School, north of
Accra, which encouraged many people to begin building houses north of the city
centre, and eventually Adabraka was absorbed into this development (Pellow, 1977)

A variety of land use activities are present in settlements which makes them ‘livable’
communities and self sustaining. Some of these are by design incorporated into the
Physical Development Scheme (Layouts), whereas others evolve or are demand
driven. A reconnaissance survey of Alajo and Dzorwulu revealed some intriguing
aspects of the settlements that may partially explain their susceptibility to flooding.

4.3.1 Land Uses and Activities in Alajo

The settlement is largely residential in design and classified as second class
residential. According to the Alajo Kpehe & Accra New Town West Revised Layout
with Plan Number ACC/N/SEC1/ANT/74/2, the Scheme made provision for
commercial activities at the current location of the Alajo Market and Post Office only,
with six educational sites and one sanitary area. The situation now is very different.
There are five Schools, two Sanitary Areas, three Churches, one Mosque and two
Hotels.

Plate 4.0: Some Land Uses in Alajo

35
 Source: Field Survey, April 2008.

Currently, with the exception of three houses on the Alajo Road, all residential plots
abutting the road have assumed a mixed residential-commercial outlook.
Interestingly, school sites and sanitary areas have not been encroached although the
residential sectors have been completely built. Other land uses in Alajo identified
include warehousing and light industrial. These land uses identified however has little
significance to flood, except in instance of converting stream buffers (reservations)
into residential and other uses.

There has been some level of penetration of secondary and tertiary drains, but it must
be noted that the drainage system is fraught with anomalies attributable to poor
maintenance and inadequate supervision at the construction phase of drains. Plate
4.1shows the situation in Alajo, which was also observed at Dzorwulu.

Plate 4.1: Drainage System Anomalies at Alajo

Source: Field Survey, April 2008.

4.3.2 Land Uses and Activities in Dzorwulu

36
Dzorwulu was designed as first class residential area with ancillary facilities.
Information provided by the Dzorwulu Revised Layout with Plan Number
TPA/ATM/ACC/SEC6/DZOR/1, indicates four educational sites, one worship site,
two commercial sites and a sanitary area. However, just like the Alajo Road and
Mamobi High Street, the whole of Blohum Street is lined up by commercial activities
with the exception of few houses that have maintained their full residential status.
This phenomenon is apparently not being checked as parcels abutting arterials and
other major roads in the metropolis have been de facto rezoned mixed use en bloc as
part of the implementation of the current Accra Master Plan.

The Electricity Company of Ghana’s Achimota Substation is located at Dzorwulu

very close to the Odaw tributary and floods periodically, presenting a very dangerous
situation. Electrical power supply is interrupted in such situations. It also raises a
question of what factors were considered in the siting of this essential facility and
whether there was any inter-agency collaboration to consider its appropriateness.

The presence of the river, coupled with the opportunity presented by the buffer zone
of the VRA high tension pylons has promoted the development of urban agriculture in
Dzorwulu East, with its problems of occasional flooding of beds and then deposition
of fertile silt to replenish the nutrient in the soil.

Of the settlements covered by the study, Dzorwulu had the highest number of
development applications (13) lodged with the AMTCPD, followed by Adabraka and
Avenor with four (4) and three (3) respectively. All were for residential developments
except that of Avenor, which was for industrial use.

4.4 Encroachment in the Floodplain

Based on the 30 metre reservation required by the HSD, four hundred and twenty-four
(424) buildings were identified to be in the Odaw floodplain in Alajo, Kotobabi and
Avenor. The western Odaw tributary accounted for 140 structures, of which one
mosque, one sanitary facility, one cinema and four shops fall within the reservation.
On the eastern tributary, 284 structures including one church fall within the
reservation. Considering the large number of encroachment, societal indiscipline
alone cannot be said to be the cause. Institutional inactions have provided the catalyst
for such haphazard development.

37
Figure 4.0: Mapped Encroachment into the Floodplain

Source: Adapted from Survey Department, 2002

Currently, properties have been marked for demolition to create a buffer and ease
manoeuvrability during the channelling of the eastern tributary. The extent of
encroachment is shown in Figure 4.0 and Plate 4.2.

Plate 4.2: Encroachment into the Floodplain

Source: Field Survey, April 2008.

Encroachment on the western tributary is light due to the creation of a buffer of a kind
(approximately 8 metres) during the channelling of the western tributary. The buffer
in Adabraka was recovered during the channelling of the river and has remained so. It
is shown in Plate 4.3

Plate 4.3: Recovered Drainage Reservations at Adabraka and West Alajo

38
Source: Field Survey, April 2008.

Plate 4.3 shows the current state of the recovered reservations in Adabraka and Alajo.
In the case of Adabraka, it is serving as a Parking Lot for commercial minibuses
awaiting their turn to load at the Odawna Lorry Station. It is worrying that the
Hawkers’ Market falls within the reservation, no wonder it suffers from flooding
frequently. However, if steps are not taken to secure or cordon it off, squatter
settlements at Odawna will spill over and take it up again.

4.5 Flooding along the Odaw River Course

Flooding in Dzorwulu is prevalent to the east and south of Odoteye Tsui Crescent.
The walls in this part of Dzorwulu bear marks showing previous water levels from
floods. The area suffers from flash floods as run-off rushes down from north and east
Dzorwulu. The drains provided in the area appear to be smaller than required and
overflow to the carriageway and adjoining houses.

With regard to Alajo, localised and regional floods occur with no apparent pattern.
The eastern part of Alajo, encroaching into the floodplain suffer from flooding with
any sustained downpour locally and upstream, whereas the central part and other
areas with clogged drains and incomplete drainage systems grapple with localised
flooding which creates pools on the carriageways and alleys cutting off access to
houses and other facilities. Table 4.0 gives a general impression of floods in the
metropolis over time.

Table 4.0: Heads of Households Experience with Flooding by Length of Stay

Length of stay Suffered from flooding
(years) Yes (%) No (%) Total
39
 0-4 14 10.9 19 14.7 33
5-9 7 5.4 19 14.7 26
10-14 15 11.6 10 7.8 25
15-19 6 4.7 0 0.0 6
20-24 13 10.1 0 0.0 13
25-29 5 3.9 0 0.0 5
30-34 12 9.3 0 0.0 12
35-39 4 3.1 1 0.8 5
40-44 4 3.1 0 0.0 4
Total 80 62.0 49 38.0 129
Source: Field Survey, April 2008.

From Table 4.0, it can be realised that over sixty-two percent (62%) of households
covered had endured the pain of having their homes flooded, of which 52.5% have
been living at their current residence up to 20 years. However, for a better
understanding of the floods and their causes, it was imperative to approach it from the
residents and stakeholders’ perspective.

4.5.1 Perception of the Causes of the Floods

Although floods in the metropolis affect business enterprises and industries, the group
that bears the most brunt are households living in the floodplains. Recent thoughts and
accusing fingers are being pointed in the direction of residents in the metropolis as
being a contributory factor to the floods. This implies a situation where apparently
humans are bearing the consequences of their own actions in the short and long term.

Most people living in the flood-prone areas are of the opinion that the floods that
afflict the metropolis are attributable to negative human activities and attitudes. A
combination of factors were mentioned of which poor solid waste disposal practices
was believed to have resulted in the choking of secondary and tertiary drains, leading
to localised flooding. Eighty-six percent (86%) of the households covered by the
survey supported this claim with a further 9.3% also attributing the floods to natural
causes like heavy rainfall and low terrain.

After the early April 2008 floods at Odawna and North Kaneshie, the 7th April 2008
Edition of the Daily Graphic reported flood victims as attributing their predicament to
dumping of refuse by some residents into the drains and inadequate capacity of the
drains to carry the runoff. Data from the sample survey confirm their belief as about a
quarter of households engage in direct dumping as shown in Table 4.1.
40
Table 4.1: Waste Disposal segregated by Educational Attainment
Waste Educational Attainment
Disposal Basic Secondary Tertiary None Total (%)
Public Dump 19 4 8 7 38 29.5
Door to Door 6 22 16 0 44 34.1
Direct Dumping 12 12 4 5 33 25.6
Burning 5 3 0 1 9 7.0
Burying 0 1 1 1 3 2.3
Waste Porter 0 2 0 0 2 1.5
Total 42 44 29 14 129 100.0
Source: Field Survey, April 2008

From Table 4.1, it can be seen that the direct dumping is not determined by
educational levels, but may be as a result of helplessness. For instance similar
proportions (28% and 27.3%) of respondents who have had basic education and
secondary education engage in direct dumping. It is however high among respondents
with no education, accounting for 35.7%.

All the environmental related agencies and institutions covered laid the blame on
negative human activities along the course of the rivers that flood and within
settlements that have localised flooding. They noted that natural conditions could not
be altered or modified easily, but had to be adapted to.

The Accra Metropolitan Works Department (AMWD) attributed the floods to the
overwhelming devastating effect of solid waste on the drainage system in the
metropolis and the poor drainage of localities in low-lying areas. However, the Ghana
Meteorological Agency (GMA) and the Accra Metropolitan Waste Management
Department (AMWMD) were of the view that it was the interplay of human and
natural factors. Further, the AMWMD was of the view that the topography of Accra
in certain parts and heavy rains (natural) makes the physical region prone to floods.
Unfortunately, this situation is exacerbated by negative human activities like building
in water ways and indiscriminate littering which chokes the provided drains.

NADMO observed that the Metropolis was experiencing the floods mainly as a result
of institutional lapses by the Accra Metropolitan Town and Country Planning
Department (AMTCPD) and the Building Inspectors from the AMWD in enforcing
regulations related to building in waterways and reservations. The AMTCPD
attributes the floods to human and natural causes. The human factor includes the
tendency of landowners to even sell/lease out flood prone and reserved floodplains to
41
unsuspecting people and the weak institutions’ inability to effectively enforce laws
which results in non-conforming land uses.

It was also observed that since the completion of the Odaw Channelling Project, no
management activities have been carried out although siltation is taking place,
carrying earth from upstream (Abelenkpe, Abofu, Achimota) prior to channelling of
those portions. Although the drains were designed such that a ramp was incorporated
at the confluence near Avenor to allow for evacuation of silt and other unwanted
elements in the drains, it is clear it had never been utilised. Rather, it has become the
entry point of ruminants who feed on the grass that has grown on sediments in the
drain.

Plate 4.4 shows the current situation of the channelled Odaw river near Zeus Hotel
and Alajo Junction along the Nsawam Road.

Plate 4.4: Heavily Silted Primary Drains

Source: Field Survey, April 2008.

4.5.2 Effect on socio-economic activities

The floods virtually disrupt socio-economic activities for three days on the average.
Whereas the water level may subside quickly, recovery of displaced items, cleaning
and drying takes much longer. School children who cross the Odaw to attend classes
are stranded on either side when flooding occurs. This is because the concrete bridge
linking Alajo to Kotobabi has been destroyed by the floods about six years ago,
making residents resort to a small rickety wooden bridge across the river to cross over
at a fee.

The residents de-link their health status from the floods, though this position is
tangential to that of the Accra Metropolitan public Health Directorate (AMPHD). The
42
AMPHD indicates the floods coincide with the outbreak of cholera and thus quickly
move into flooded areas to provide services.

Since most households mix up economic activities with household activities, flooding
destroys inputs and sometimes carries away returns, disrupting economic activities
and possibly reducing household incomes. Further, the Alajo Street is lined up by
commercial ventures in stores and kiosks, which were also affected by the famous
1995 floods. Currently, localised floods also affect their activities although not to the
scale of the earlier one.

Transmech Industries located at Avenor, a precision machining business venture had

machinery inundated during the 1995 floods and was closed for business for an
undisclosed period to rid the machine shop of sludge and debris. Consequently, their
entrances were also barricaded like most houses, providing stairs to climb over and
gain access to the offices. The machine shop was provided with ramps and their
standby electrical power generator put on a pedestal.

4.5.3 Relief Services

The only time relief services were felt in along the Odaw River course was after the
1995 floods that hit all communities along the Odaw River. The National Disaster
Management Organisation was in charge of distributing relief items to households,
although all households that acknowledged their activities complained of inadequate
assistance. Table 4.2 shows the response of households about relief services during
distressed times.

Table 4.2: Recipients of Relief Services

Benefited from Relief
Suffered from Flooding Yes No N/A Total
Yes 24 55 1 80
No - - 49 49
Total 24 55 50 129
Source: Field Survey, April 2008.

Of the eighty household heads who qualified to receive relief after flooding of their
homes, only twenty-four, representing thirty percent benefited. Impliedly, about two-
thirds of the flood victims received no relief at all, a situation NADMO claims was
caused by inadequate relief items. An international Non-Governmental Organisation,

43
World Vision International was also involved in the distribution of relief items,
especially in Kotobabi and Alajo.

4.5.4 Response to the Floods at the Household Level

Flood response in the communities varied at individual household levels. Most
households in frequently flooded areas tend to move electronic appliances to higher
tables and wardrobes in anticipation of floods. The height is determined by previous
experiences. Some place their valuables on beds, claiming it usually floats when the
water level get high.

In times of flooding some residents are temporarily displaced and move to higher
grounds, which in the instance of Alajo and Avenor do not exist. Alternatively refuge
is sought in nearby storey buildings as some did in the 1995 floods. In extreme
circumstances when flood waters surround homes, people climb on to rooftops and
await rescue.

4.5.5 Flood Prevention at the Household Level

In the area of flood prevention, 23.2% of the houses have constructed internal drains
to quickly discharge run-off from the house. Only 6.2% of respondents had filled up
their houses with sand to prevent flood waters from entering. This may be attributed
to the relatively higher cost of such a measure. Details of the various flood prevention
measures adopted by the households are presented in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3: Flood Prevention Measures by Households

Suffered from Flooding
Yes No
Flood prevention Measures Number (%) Number (%) TOTAL
Proper waste mgt 2 1.6 20 15.5 22
Construction of internal drains 8 6.2 22 17.1 30
Raising ramps and retaining walls 20 15.5 2 1.6 22
Filling up of houses 9 7.0 0 0.0 9
No Action 24 18.6 3 2.3 27
Cleanup/de-silting of drains 14 10.9 2 1.6 16
Reinforced walls 3 2.3 0 0.0 3
TOTAL 80 62.0 49 38.0 129
Source: Field Survey, 2008.

From Table 4.3, it is interesting to note that a third of households that have suffered
from flooding have taken no preventive measures, a sign of resigning themselves to
44
fate. It was also be realised that, 17.1% of respondents have raised retaining walls and
ramps above road and drain levels to keep water out the entrances of the houses and
rooms as shown in Plate 4.5.

Plate 4.5: Barricades to Prevent Flooding of Houses and Rooms.

Source: Field Survey, April 2008.

Constructing ramps, stairs and retaining walls serves to protect the houses from
floodwaters but also impedes ease of accessibility as shown in Plate 4.5. This
situation can be distressing to physically challenged people.

4.5.6 Effectiveness of Preventive Measures

Basically, most of the embankments or blockades erected by households and houses
to reduce the flow of runoff into their houses had reduced flood incidence at the
household and house level. However, localised flooding still occurs as there are
inadequate drains or low capacity drains to channel runoff out of the settlements.

Whereas the eastern part of Dzorwulu is provided with drains, their capacity is easily
overwhelmed by the high volume of runoff from the elevated western and northern
parts resulting in flash flooding. It must be noted that flooding in Dzorwulu is
restricted to the area between the pylons and Odaw River in the eastern part.

4.5.7 Coping strategies of Households affected by Flooding

Households cope with the floods by staying with friends and relatives during the
inundation of their homes. Daring victims return to their homes immediately the water
starts subsiding to salvage whatever remains of their property. Since foodstuff and
other consumables are destroyed by the floods, extended family members, friends and

45
other benevolent individuals help by supplying some food in the aftermath of the
floods. Some offer to cater for children until situations improve.

4.6 Institutional Responses

All institutions covered had stakes in the pathetic flooding situation, either being
blamed for inactions/actions or have activities that are directly linked to the causes of
the floods. Almost all the institutions acknowledged their roles in finding a solution to
the problem by collaborating efforts, but had been to little effect.

4.6.1 Ghana Meteorological Agency

The GMA collates, processes and disseminates meteorological data to the populace.
In the area of prevention, weather warnings and forecasts are issued for the concerned
agencies and institutions to be on alert and respond appropriately. Secondly, they
collaborate with other institutions in water resources management which involves
some of the rivers that bring disaster on people when the banks are overtopped.

4.6.2 National Disaster Management Organisation

NADMO relies on educational campaigns prior to the rains to help in flood
prevention, but are the lead agency in flood management. NADMO immediately
undertakes rescue missions while organising relief for victims. NADMO has a
representative on the Accra Metropolitan Planning Committee (AMPC), which is the
ultimate statutory body responsible for permitting new physical developments,
alterations and demolitions in the Metropolis.

NADMO has instituted a Rapid Response Team for floods in the Metropolis. It
comprises officials of NADMO, Ghana Health Service (GHS), Ghana Civil Aviation
Authority (GCAA), Ghana Red Cross Society (GRCS), Ghana National Fire Service
(GNFS), Ghana Police Service (GPS), Ghana Air Force and Ghana Navy.

4.6.3 Hydrological Services Department

The Drainage and Sewerage Unit of the HSD is responsible for primary drainage
designs and supervises the construction of such drains which are provided to carry
runoff from settlements. Additionally they do improvements, realignment and re-
channelling of earth drains and streams, which all serve to prevent flooding of built up
areas around them. Further, in the area of prevention, the HSD collaborates with other
Departments and Units of the AMA in the permitting process of the AMPC. The HSD
46
has established appropriate reservations for rivers and storm drains in the Metropolis,
which is presented in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4: Drainage Reservation in the Metropolis

River/Drain Reservation River/Drain Reservation
Odaw 30m Tesano Drain 12m
Onyasia & Tributaries 18-24m Klottey Drain 12m
Nima 18m Kpeshie Drain 18m
Nima & Tributaries 12m Mukose Drain 12m
South Kaneshie (Graphic Rd. 12m Awudome Drain & 12m
to Korle Lagoon) Tributaries
Chemu Drain 18m Mamponse Drain 15m
Source: Hydrological Services Department, 2008.

4.6.4 Accra Metropolitan Waste Management Department (AMWMD)

AMWMD in collaboration with HSD and AMRD also partakes in drain cleansing,
which is aimed at flood prevention. The AMWMD supervises the collection and
disposal of solid waste in the metropolis. This will also ensure that the provided
drains carry only liquid waste unimpeded and not overflow to houses and
carriageways.

4.6.5 Accra Metropolitan Public Health Directorate

In conjunction with NADMO, the AMPHD moves into flooded areas to undertake
disinfection to prevent cholera outbreaks. The disinfection is necessitated by faecal
matter carried by flood waters. This is because, pan latrines are the predominant toilet
facilities in these depressed communities and are discharged directly into the river
without any treatment. In the area of flood prevention, animations are carried out at
the community level to induce behavioural changes in waste disposal and discourage
direct dumping, which serves to choke the drains. The MPHD is also represented on
the AMPC.

4.6.6 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Represented on the AMPC, the EPA grants Licences and Permits to prospective
developers that meet the requirements of locating in environmentally sensitive areas
like watersheds or wetlands and near water bodies. Similarly, applicants who intend to
carry out activities at a scale that may have implications for the environment like
manufacturing industries; fuel stations and the like also require such permits. The
EPA did not report of any flood management activities.

47
4.6.7 Accra Metropolitan Roads Department (AMRD)
The AMRD besides its supervision of drainage construction that accompanies roads
in the metropolis de-silts drains before and after the rainy seasons to keep them clear
and allow water to flow at optimal levels.

4.6.8 Accra Metropolitan Works Department (AMWD)

The enforcement unit of the AMPC has the primary responsibility of removing all
illegal physical developments, which includes those encroaching on the road and
drainage reservations.

4.6.9 Accra Metropolitan Town and Country Planning Department (AMTCPD)

The Department is the Secretariat and convenor of the AMPC. The success of flood
prevention to a large extent depends on the activities of the TCPD, which in
conjunction with the afore-mentioned institutions prepares development schemes or
layout for settlements in the metropolis. The schemes backed by law determine what
types of developments are allowed where, usually creating buffer zones for
environmentally sensitive areas like water bodies to preserve them as well as ensure
the safety of people.

4.7 Inter-agency Collaboration

It had been widely acknowledged that solving the problems of the metropolis requires
an inter-agency and cross-sectoral approach. It was interesting to note that all
agencies covered in the study had links with each other and were quite satisfied with
the level of collaboration, bearing in mind that all institutions were operating within
constraints. Figure 4.1 portrays a simplified layout of interaction amongst the
institutions in the governance of physical development.

The platform which provides this level of interaction is the Accra Metropolitan
Planning Committee (AMPC). The AMPC convenes monthly to deliberate and
approve physical development applications and other policy matters concerning
development in the Accra Metropolis. The AMPC is chaired by the Metropolitan
Chief Executive and comprises of Assembly members, Sub-Metropolitan District
Council Chairpersons and technical officers from the decentralised departments and
agencies in attendance, with no voting rights.

48
The AMPC is served by a Technical Sub-Committee which addresses technical issues
concerning applications like conformity of the intended development to the planning
schemes, allowance of adequate setbacks from road reservation, stream buffers and
considerations for the natural environment as well as public safety. The Technical
Sub-committee, which meets twice a month and is composed of representatives of the
EPA, HSD, Ghana National Fire Service (GNFS), AMRD, NADMO, AMPHD,
AMWD, Land Commission Secretariat, Survey Department and hosted by the
AMTCPD.

Figure 4.1 shows the working relationship between and among the institutions
covered by the study. Only the Ghana Meteorological Agency and Accra
Metropolitan Waste Management Department were not represented on the AMPC.
However the GMA is closely linked to NADMO in flood prevention activities by way
of warning of imminent storms and expected precipitation, whereas the AMWMD
also collaborates with AMRD and AMPHD in drainage management and public
education on good sanitation practices.

Figure 4.1: Inter-Agency Collaboration in Physical Development Governance

Source: Author’s Construct, April 2008.

4.8 Challenges in Flood Prevention and Managements

49
However, much as these institutions are aware of their individual and collective
functions in providing a safe environment for the populace, their steps are dogged by
inherent problems especially in the public service.

4.8.1 Human Capacity Problems

All the institutions covered suffered from staffing problems including acute shortages
and high labour turnover especially in the professional grade. In some instances, there
is inadequate capacity to carry out functions.

4.8.2 Financial Constraints

Since all the agencies are either part of the Metropolitan Assembly or subvented
institutions, they suffer from the common problem of inadequate inflow of funds to
finance activities. This is because most of their activities are service provision to the
populace and not income generating. Fees charged in some instances for services are
inadequate to meet demands of the institutions.

4.8.3 Logistics and Equipment Inadequacies

Closely linked to 4.87.2, the Departments rely on the AMA to supply logistics and
equipment. However, the flow of logistics and equipment is unreliable and therefore
most of the institutions are running at low capacity. The AMTCPD has only two Pick-
up vehicles dating to the early 1990s to undertake site inspections in until recently 13
sub-metropolitan areas. NADMO need extrication machines and official vehicles for
its activities. This problem is not limited to only decentralised departments. The GMA
lacks monitoring equipment.

4.8.4 Legal Issues

Legal issues are impeding the activities of some of the agencies. The HSD is legally
constrained as they have no laws backing their proposed drainage reservations, but
have to rely on the AMA and other District Assemblies to enforce them. The
AMTCPD desires an amendment of the legislations concerning physical
developments (CAP 84) and the Local Government Act (Act 462) to merge with the
MWD to ensure planning and implementation management (enforcement) are
coordinated and effective.

50
Also the will to enforce laws and regulations is absent as a result of social ties present.
This is also borne out of the perceived slow nature of the judicial system that thwarts
the efforts of the city authorities in speedily correcting defaulters.

4.8.5 Other challenges and constraints

Worthy of note is the low level of remuneration and accompanying low morale of
public servants, which invariably impinges on the commitment to render service to
the people and the nation. It may also be accountable for the low inflow of qualified
and competent personnel as well as serves to drive them out to the more financially
rewarding private sector.

4.9 Peoples’ Participation in Governance

Involvement of the populace in flood prevention and management activities instituted
by the related agencies is quite high, in spite of the fact that approximately sixty-five
percent of households interviewed expressed displeasure at AMA handling of the
flooding situations and provision of services.

The apparent indiscipline displayed by populace in physical development of the

metropolis can be explained by the high level of ignorance of the sample on the
permitting procedure of the AMA. Figure 4.2 shows just about a third of respondents
knew of the necessary steps to follow to legally develop a parcel of land or locate an
activity in space. The level of knowledge was low for those with basic and secondary
education and even for Diploma and Degree holders. It was alarming among illiterates
with just 7% of them expressing knowledge of the process.

Figure 4.2: Knowledge of AMA’s Permitting Procedure

51
Source: Field Survey, April 2008.

4.10 Future Plans

The effects of flooding on the urban population drift may not be seen at the macro
level easily; however results of the sample survey show that out of the eighty (80)
households affected by flooding in the study area, fifty-two (52) intend to move from
their present location to other places that are flood-free. It may explain the dwindling
population of Adabraka over the years, besides the displacement of residential land
use by commercial land use.

Table 4.5 presents the response of households to the possibility of relocating outside
their current place of abode as a result of the frequent flooding of their homes.

Table 4.5: Possible link between Flooding and Migration

Will you relocate (%)
Suffered from flooding Yes (%) No (%) Total
Yes 52 40.3 28 21.7 80 62.0
No 10 7.8 39 30.2 49 38.0
Total 62 48.1 67 51.9 129 100.0
Source: Field Survey, April 2008.

Deducing from Table 4.5, 40.3% of respondents have endured flooding for some time
and are contemplating on relocation to areas that are flood-free. On the other hand
about a fifth of respondents have suffered from flooding but do not intend moving
out. Some of the reasons accounting for their stance include high rent advances

52
demanded by house owners, lucrative businesses being run in the communities and
the fact that some are owner occupants. This phenomenon is better seen in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6: Decision to relocate by room occupation status.

Will you relocate
Occupation Status Yes No Total
Free Occupant 15 25 40
Tenant 42 21 63
Owner-occupant 5 19 24
Squatter 0 2 2
Total 62 67 129
Source: Field Survey, April 2008

From the table, it is clear that majority of rent-free occupants, that is owner-
occupants, free occupants and squatters are not ready to move out of their homes even
in the light of frequent flooding, whereas two-thirds of tenants are considering
relocating.

Institutionally, the HSD is in the process of finalizing the Accra Drainage Master Plan
to use as a policy guideline in determining the development and management of
drainage infrastructure in the entire Metropolis, with the AMWD set to demolish
encroachments in the floodplains.

4.11 Emerging Issues

Borne out of necessity and a mark of growing entrepreneurship, some young men in
parts of the Metropolis have started providing services as waste porters, and are
popularly referred to as “Kayaborla”. These enterprising young men collect solid
waste from homes at a fee and transfer to the skip containers provided in the
communities. Due to the manoeuvrability of their carts, they are able to access almost
any part of the settlements, overcoming the impediments of huge refuse collection
trucks in areas with poor or no roads. It is a phenomenon which can be enhanced as a
supplement to door-to-door collection for areas with surface accessibility problems.

53
 CHAPTER FIVE

FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Major Findings

In line with the objectives set out at the beginning of the study, important
observations were made, which are outlined hereafter.

5.1.1 Factors Accounting for the Floods

It has become very clear that besides human activities in floodplains, there are natural
factors that predispose the metropolis to flooding. However, it must be noted that the
human activities in modification of the environment is more responsible as there are
other geographical areas with similar physical characteristics but do not suffer from
flooding at the magnitude of Accra. This implies an intervention that targets changing
negative human activities in the floodplain. Also, it opens a window of hope by
indicating with the right engineering works and better management of the urban
economy, Accra can be flood-free.

5.1.2 Major Causes of Flooding

Principal among the causes identified to be responsible of the phenomena is human
habitation within floodplains. This is because flooding in uninhabited regions poses
very little risk to life and property or at best destroys crops cultivated. However, when
humans choose to settle within floodplains or too close to water bodies, there is grave
consequence of their actions when disaster strikes. There is bound to be reluctance to
move when attempts are made to relocate people from the floodplain, but owing to the
severity of the effects of the floods, they may give up portions of their properties to
allow for the movement of earth moving equipment during channelling of the eastern
tributary.

Secondly, negative human activities in the settlement in the form of direct dumping of
refuse into secondary and tertiary drains causes localised flooding within the
settlements, restricting movements and impinging on other socio-economic activities.
Such flooding is also responsible for increasing the incidence of malaria in the
metropolis as mosquitoes breed in the pools of water that are trapped in the choked
drains and elsewhere within the settlement. However, the situation may improve if the

54
skip containers are always made available and lifted regularly to control dumping.
This is because of the eighty-five (85) households that do not use door-to-door waste
disposal services; forty (40) dump their refuse at the designated places. Those
engaged in direct dumping complain of being turned away from public dump where
the skips are overflowing with refuse and therefore have no other option than to use
the drains as their refuse disposal site.

Institutional lapses have also contributed in part to the pathetic situation. This is
because strict enforcement of regulations considering physical development would
have prevented encroachment into the Odaw River floodplain. It can be safely said
that these statutory regulatory institutions have become more reactionary than
proactive. The Client Services Units have become mainly complaint stations instead
of providing a medium of education of clients and enhancing service provision. This
explains the low level of knowledge of the permitting procedure of the Assembly
exhibited by the sampled households and the general disregard of building regulations
and the local authorities. The existence of these Client Services Units can be seen as
potentials that when adequately resourced can help the institutions in information
dissemination.

In as much as the institutions are culpable by inactions, one must acknowledge the
enormous constraints that hinder their effective operations. Their inability to raise
adequate funds to support their activities is the major impediment, even as they
collaborate to prevent and manage flood disasters. However, the existence of these
institutions and their existing working relationship present an opportunity to pool their
resources for better service delivery to the populace.

The inability of the Metropolitan Assembly to pay the Solid Waste Collection
Contractors to evacuate refuse over the past two years has led to situation where
residents who are turned away from the already full skip containers dump them into
the Odaw River, clogging it and reducing its capacity to adequately carry runoff. As
the depth of the river is reduced, it widens its cross-sectional area to accommodate the
discharge. This accounts for the proximity of houses to the banks of the river in
heavily encroached areas, where erosion had eaten away the small buffer left between
the built and ‘natural’ environments.

55
Sedimentation of the channelled drain is on the ascendancy and discharge levels have
been observed by residents to be rising. The amount of sedimentation is so
pronounced (see Plate 4.4) a concerned resident joked about demarcating the primary
drain into plots for development.

5.1.3 The Contribution of Land Uses to Flooding

Based on the physical development schemes prepared for the various settlements, it
was evident that the primary functions of the settlements were residential and were
integrated into the city’s system with roads. To make them self-sufficient all the
settlements were designed with supporting ancillary facilities like schools, worship
areas, small commercial areas as well as sanitary sites.

However developments have led to a situation where commercial activities have

spread throughout the settlements giving them a mixed use outlook. It is now very
difficult to delineate commercial zones from residential areas as a result of the high
level of integration. Such a transition from residential to mixed-use cannot be blamed
for the flooding situation as the commodities traded (household consumables) do not
necessarily increase susceptibility to flooding. The development of mixed uses is in
line with provisions of the current Accra Master Plan, though unregulated in most
instances. It may also be blamed on the provision of inadequate commercial zones and
sub-centres in the settlements.

The contribution of land uses and activities to flooding can be seen in the
unauthorised change of use from stream buffer and open space to residential and other
land uses. This is because, if enforcement of schemes had been stringent enough,
human habitation of the floodplains would have been prevented, reducing
vulnerability to flooding.

5.1.4 Predisposition of the Metropolis to Flooding

Without a properly managed drainage system, it will be difficult to adequately drain
any geographical region with the attributes of Accra. The Odaw River flows through
these settlements with low elevation at its late stages, depositing silt at its base and by
a natural means raising the river bed, which is only worsened by direct dumping of
solid waste.

56
However, since the communities studied were above sea level and the Metropolis in
general, it points to the fact that it can be drained using appropriate engineering
solutions into the sea.

5.1.5 Persistence of Flooding

Disaster prevention like risk is a shared responsibility between institutions mandated
to manage the settlements and the residents of these settlements who are affected by
both decisions made and disasters that strike the locality. However, a look at the level
of involvement of the populace and their rate of participation clearly shows why the
level of success in flood prevention is low.

Residents at Avenor pointed out that at the point of merging of the two major
tributaries of the Odaw, the channelled one running with high velocity effectively
blocks water from the earthen one from entering, building up behind and flooding
areas upstream. However, since the presence of the AMA is not felt much on the
ground, it will be difficult to pick up such information to incorporate into future plans.

Further, as flood monitoring has been virtually absent, it is not surprising that it
continues to prevail in the light of interventions. Although well-intentioned, these
interventions may be ill-advised. Also the design and subsequent development of
some of the drains like the entry point of the Nima Stream leaves much to be desired
invoking its wrath on traders in the Hawkers’ Market at Odawna. Since the drain goes
underground at the Circle Overhead and only emerges near the market, its
maintenance, de-silting and re-engineering in this stretch is next to impossible.

5.2 Recommendations
After analyses of the existing situation and its derived problems, it is imperative to
suggest workable solutions to improve conditions if not totally remove the problems.
Nevertheless, since not all actions can be carried out considering the financial
demands of implementation and the gestation period, short and long term
recommendations have been made.

5.2.1 Long Term Actions

These strategies and programmes require enormous resources to undertake and results
are not felt immediately, but serve as a basis to draw short term activities.

57
The Mozambican approach of floodplain management can be adopted with
modifications to suit the local situation. This approach at the macro level promotes
land use regulation, modification of statutes, zoning ordinances and building codes,
regulating of subdivisions, government purchase of lands and property and subsidized
relocation like in the instance of the channeling of the western tributary. At the micro
level it involves flood-proofing of homes, permanent closure of low level windows,
water proofing of interiors, land elevation and filling (Wisner, 1979). Schwab (1998)
as cited by Godschalk (2001) also proposes actions ranging from structural
engineering and building code standards to land use planning and property acquisition
as hazard mitigation measures.

However, considering local conditions the following steps which are assigned to
various power levels are pragmatic and achievable in the long run.

5.2.1.1 Central Government

Working through the Ministry of Works and Housing, Lands Commission Secretariat
and the Lands Valuation Board, the state must reclaim reservations as per HSD
specifications through gradual acquisition of legally developed properties
accompanied by slum clearance especially at Odawna (Adabraka) as plainly put by
Mr Ebenezer Allotey, a Senior Hydrologist with HSD, “if there is no pain there is no
cure”.

Through the Public Services Commission and the Ministry of Public Sector Reforms,
the agencies and department should be strengthened institutionally, through
employment, adequate remuneration and retention of sensitive staff. This can be
complemented by providing the necessary equipment and logistics required for
effective and efficient operation of the institutions.

5.2.1.2 AMA and Decentralised Departments and Agencies

The Accra Metropolitan Assembly in conjunction with the Ministry of Local
Government, Rural Development and Environment, with technical advice from the

58
Attorney General’s Department should review physical development legislations and
building codes to respond to current issues.

The Information Services Department of the AMA, with the Client Services Units of
the various Departments should embark on public education in the metropolis to
induce behavioural change. Issues to be tackled must include physical development
permitting procedure, good sanitary practices and honouring of tax obligations as
residents in the metropolis.

The AMA should explore other possible means of development financing besides the
District Assemblies Common Fund. The Assembly can partner the private sector in
some economic ventures to increase the inflow of funds so that it will be able to
service debts owed private waste collection firms to evacuate waste from the
Metropolis promptly and properly.

The AMA, through its Disaster Management Sub-committee should incorporate

disaster planning in plan preparation and implementation to make the metropolis
resilient and adequately respond and absorb the shocks of disasters in the wake of
increasing occurrence of disasters in cities.

5.2.2 Short-term Actions

These proposals are aimed at reducing the possibility of flooding in the short term,
some of which are apparently shirked responsibilities of the Local Government with
its Decentralised Departments and Agencies and also measures by households and
communities.

5.2.2.1 AMA and Decentralised Departments and Agencies

The AMA Management should enhance its Management Information System Unit to
improve data collation, processing, storage and sharing among the various
departments and stakeholder institutions. Local and Wide Area Networks should be
constructed to help in this direction as some of the most departments are physically
detached from the Assembly offices due to inadequacy of space.

59
The Accra Metropolitan Waste Management Department should be included in the
Accra Metropolitan Planning Committee to ensure their concerns and contributions
are also considered at the level of managing the urban economy. Also, the AMWMD
can facilitate the operation of Private waste Management Companies to extend
coverage of door-to-door collection, by institutionalising and modernising waste
porters (kayaborla).

The AMA should extend the channelling of the Odaw River to its eastern tributary
(Onyasia stream) of the Odaw River to the confluence with the western tributary by
collaborating with the Ministry of Works, Housing and Water Resources as well as
ensuring routine maintenance of drains by AMRD to avert blockage caused by
damaged slabs and collapsed portions of the drains. The AMWMD, AMRD and HSD
should de-silt the Odaw River and its tributaries - the Nima and Onyasia Streams- and
secondary drains in flood prone areas to allow for free flow of runoff water.

The AMWD, EPA and HSD must enforce existing bye-laws and building to prevent
further development in drainage reservations and wetlands. This action should be
accompanied by clearing of encroachments where appropriate.

The AMA, through its Public Health Directorate and the Information Services
Department should encourage rainwater harvesting as a means of minimising run-off
especially as most houses and communities are not well drained with the intention of
reducing localised flooding as well as providing an additional source of water for
some household sanitation activities like washing, bathing and flushing of aqua
privies.

5.2.2.2 Households and Communities

Unit Committees in the various communities should be activated to enhance people’s
participation in local government activities by attending organised fora and public
hearings as well as reporting of unauthorised activities in the communities to the Sub-
Metropolitan District Councils.

Under the supervision of Unit Committees and Assemblypersons, solid waste disposal
should be organised at designated points into skip containers. Indiscriminate littering

60
should be discouraged through sensitisation/public education and provision of litter
bins at vantage points in the settlements.

Households should be assisted by the AMWD and AMRD, with technical advice from
HSD to construct proper drains to carry run-off from houses into tertiary drains. Also,
where necessary, the erection of ramps and retaining walls should be constructed
under the supervision of the AMWD.

5.4 Conclusion
The Metropolis is a complex system with interacting related activities which ensures
the development of its constituents and demands to be managed to reap its full
benefits. Failure to effectively manage the system leads to entrenchment of
inefficiencies, poor service, high living costs, falling standards of living and
deepening of poverty. The problem of the urban economy are often hydra-headed and
requires the collaboration of all stakeholders, not only in discussing but pooling of
human and material resources to reinforce each other in finding a lasting solution.

Individually, it appears the residents of the Accra Metropolis, the institutions and the
private sector are powerless against the floods, often negating the gains made by each
other and allowing the phenomenon to go on, amidst much suffering.

It is important therefore to tackle urban flooding with zeal to extricate the urban
populace from the undesirable effects and ultimate impact of flooding (disrupting
social and economic activities) firstly by prevention and risk minimisation and finally
by preparing for the once in fifty years and once in a hundred years floods that can
hardly be forecasted. To conclude it must be noted that flood management cannot be
neglected, considering the fact even elaborate defenses are susceptible to breach.

61
 REFERENCES

Abbott, P.L., (2006), “Natural Disasters”, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.,
New York, USA.
Accra Metropolitan Assembly (2002), “2002-2004 Medium Term Development
Plan”, Metropolitan Planning Co-ordinating Unit, Accra.
Accra Metropolitan Assembly (2006), “2006-2009 Medium Term Development
Plan”, Metropolitan Planning Co-ordinating Unit, Accra.
ActionAid (2006), “Climate Change, Urban Flooding and the Rights of the Urban
Poor in Africa”, Key findings from six African cities, retrieved on 16th
February 2008 from www.actionaid.org
Anku, S. K. (2006), “Managing Wetlands in Accra, Ghana”, African Regional
Workshop, Cities, Ecosystems and Biodiversity, held at Nairobi, 21st
September 2006, Side Event at the Africities Summit.
Aryeetey-Attoh, S (1997), “Geography of Sub-Saharan Africa” in Bradshaw, W. and
J. P. Dymond (2004), “Contemporary World Regional Geography:
Global Connections, Local Voices”, McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.,
New York, USA.
BBC (2008), “Causes of Flooding” accessed on 18th March 2008 from
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/riverswater/index
.shtml
Canadian Institute of Planners (2008), “Planning is…” accessed on 15th March 2008
from http://www.cip-icu.ca/web/la/en
Doe, Ben K. (u.d.), “Reaching Consensus through a City Consultation”, Accra
Sustainable Project in Collaboration with UN-HABITAT, Accra.
Ghana Statistical Service (2002), “2000 Population and Housing Census Special
Report on Urban Localities”, GSS, Accra.
Ghana Statistical Service (2005), “Population Data Analysis Reports”, Vol. 2, Policy
Implication of Population Trend Data, Accra.
Godschalk, David R., (2002), “Urban Hazard Mitigation: Creating Resilient Cities”,
Plenary paper presented at the Urban Hazards Forum, John Jay College,
City University of New York, January 22-24, 2002.
Godschalk, David R., Timothy Beatley, Philip Berke, David J. Brower, and Edward J.
Kaiser, (1999), “Natural Hazard Mitigation; Recasting Disaster Policy
and Planning”, Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
Grant R. and P. Yankson (2003), “City Profile-Accra”, Cities, Vol. 20, No. 1, p. 65–
74, 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd.
Graphic Communications Group (2008), “Flood Alert!” Daily Graphic, 3rd April
2008, No. 150321, edited by Ransford Tetteh, Accra
62
“ “ (2008), “Floods destroys property in Accra”, 7th April, 2008,
edited by Ransford Tetteh, Accra.
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent (2005), “GHANA:
CHOLERA (ME no. 05ME069, 30 November 2005),” retrieved on 23rd
September 2007 from http://www.ifrc.org
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent (2006), “Ghana: Cholera;
(Disaster Relief Emergency Fund Bulletin no. 05ME069: Update no. 1,
3 March 2006),” retrieved on 23rd September 2007 from
http://www.ifrc.org
Microsoft Corporation (2006), “Accra ", Microsoft® Student 2007 [DVD], Redmond,
WA, USA.
“ “ (2006), “Hippodamus ", Microsoft® Student 2007 [DVD], Redmond,
WA, USA.
Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Environment (2006),
“Greater Accra Region Profile”, accessed 11th October 2007 from
www.modernghana.com/GhanaHome/regions/greateraccra.asp
Møller-Jensen L., P.W.K. Yankson and R.Y. Kofie (2004), “Monitoring urban
growth: urbanisation of the fringes of Accra, Working Paper, and
accessed 1st April, 2008 from http://rdgs.dk/djg/pdfs/105/2/04.pdf
Nelson, A. Stephen (2003), “Streams and Drainage Systems”, EENS 111, Physical
Geology Lecture Notes, Tulane University accessed on 12th March 2008
from http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/geol111/streams

Nelson, A. Stephen (2006), “River systems and causes of flooding”, EENS 204,
Natural Disasters Lecture Notes, Tulane University accessed on 12th
March 2008 from http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson
® ®
Newitt, M. D. D. (2006), “Mozambique”, Microsoft Encarta 2007. ©1993-2006
Microsoft Corporation.
Pellow, D. (1977), “Women in Accra: Options for Autonomy”, Reference Publications
Inc., Algonac, Michigan, USA.
Republic of Ghana (1993), Local Government Act, (Act 462).

Republic of Ghana (1997), National Disaster Management Organisation Act, (Act

517).
Resource Centres on urban Agriculture and Food Security (2008), “Accra, Ghana”
accessed on 27th March 2008 from http://www.ruaf.org/Ghana

Schwab, Jim (1998), “Planning for Post Disaster Recovery and Reconstruction”, PAS
Report No. 483/484. Chicago, IL: American Planning Association.

63
Stanley, H (1874) “Coomassie and Magdala”, cited in Grant R. and P. Yankson
(2003), “City Profile-Accra”, Cities, Vol. 20, No. 1, p. 65–74, 2003,
Elsevier Science Ltd.
The Daily Guide, (2007, June 8th), “Veep and Mills Clash,” retrieved on 23rd
September 2007 from
http://www.ghana2008.wordpress.com/category/floods
The World Bank (2004), “Second Urban Environmental Sanitation Project”, Report
No: 27884-GH Project Appraisal Document.
United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (1999), “Global Report on Human
Settlement”, Oxford University Press, New York.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and HABITAT (1992), “Strategic
Plan for Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA)” ,UNDP and
HABITAT, Accra.
Wisner, B (1979), “Flood Prevention and Mitigation in the Republic of
Mozambique”, Disasters, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp 293-306, Pergamon Press,
Great Britain.

Zhang Hai-Lun and Wen Kang (2001), “Flood Control and Management for Large
Rivers in China”, Presented during the Workshop on Strengthening
Capacity in Participatory Planning and Management for Flood
Mitigation and Preparedness in Large River Basins: Regional
Cooperation in Flood Control and Management in Asia and the Pacific,
Phase II, Bangkok, 20-23 November 2001.

Websites Accessed:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floods_in_the_United_States accessed 27th March 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floods accessed 27th March 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes of Floods accessed 27th March 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_Planning accessed 3rd march 2008
http://science.jrank.org/pages/2754/Flooding-Human-influence-on-flooding
http://www.floodplain.org accessed 18th March 2008

64
 APPENDIX I: HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE

DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

MSc DEVELOPMENT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

SPECIAL STUDY
“Perennial Flooding in the Accra Metropolis: The Human Factor”

Questionnaire Code Number:

1. (a) Name of Respondent:

………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ] (c) Age:
………………………………………………..
(d) Ethnicity: …………………………………….. (e) Household status:
……………………………
(f) Occupation: …………………………………. (g) Educational attainment:
…………………..
(g) Length of stay in the community ………………………………
(h) Occupation status: Free occupant [ ] Tenant [ ] Owner-occupant
[ ]

2. (a) Has your household suffered from any flooding since your
habitation?
Yes [ ] No [ ] (b) If yes, why are you still staying here?
(Give reasons)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………… (c) When was the last
flood ……………………………………………………………(month & year)
(d) How often does it flood? Once a year [ ] twice a year [ ] several times
a year [ ]
(e) What type of flooding do you experience? Gradual [ ] Flash [ ]

3. (a)How does the flood affect your household?

………………………………………………….......
i. Social (Education, Health etc)
……………………………………………………………………….
ii. Property Damage
………………………………………………………………………………………
…
iii. Economically
………………………………………………………………………………………
………
iv. Housing (structure)
……………………………………………………………………………………..
v. Others (specify)
………………………………………………………………………………………
…..
(b) Have you ever received any official help(relief) in times of floods? Yes [
] No [ ]

65
(c) If yes, from which agency?
……………………………………………………………………………………..

4. (a) What does your household do during floods?

…………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………(b) How do you cope with the floods?
…………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

5. (a) Do you think the floods in your community are caused by human
activities?
Yes [ ] No [ ] (b) If yes what are they?
Building in water courses [ ] Bad refuse Disposal [ ]
Building Designs [ ]
Hard Landscaping [ ] Lack of Drains [ ] Poor design of
Drains [ ]
Choked drains [ ] others ………………………………

(c) If No, what factors are responsible?

………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

6. (a) What steps has your household taken to reduce the incidence of
flooding? ………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………..
(note how the house is drained)
………………………………………………………………………....................
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………
(b) As a community, what steps has been taken?
…………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
7. (a) Do you harvest rainwater? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) What use do you put such water?
……………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………

8. (a) Are you aware of any activities by the Authorities (AMA) in the
area of flood prevention? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b)If Yes, what are they?
………………………………………………………………………………………………

66
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
9. (a) Has the authorities demolished or stopped any building in the
community?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) if yes, when and
where?...........................................................................................................
...................
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………

10.(a) Are you satisfied with the city authorities’ (AMA) handling of the
flooding situation in the community in particular? Yes [ ]
No [ ]
(b) Give reasons for your response
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………

11.(a) Are you satisfied with the city authorities’ (AMA) performance in
terms of service provision in the community? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) Giver reasons for your response
……………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………

12.(a) Waste disposal method? Public Dump [ ] Door to Door [ ]

Direct Dumping [ ]
Burning [ ] Burying [ ] others [ ] specify
…………………………………………..
(b) If not door-to-door, are you prepared to pay for such a service? Yes [ ]
No [ ]
(c) If yes, how much? GH¢……………………

13.(a) Are you aware of the procedure to locate an activity on a parcel

of land in this community? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, what are they?
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………

14.(a) Is the procedure being followed in this community? Yes [ ] No

[ ]
67
(b) If no, why?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
15.What do you suggest be implemented to solve the flooding problem
in your community by the following?
Households
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………
Community…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………
AMA……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………
Central Government
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

16.(a) Will you move out of the community in view of the flood
problem? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, where
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………..

68
 APPENDIX II: INSTITUTIONAL INTERVIEW GUIDES

DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

MSc. DEVELOPMENT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT SPECIAL

STUDY

HYDROLOGICAL SERVICES DEPARTMENT

1. (a) Name of Respondent

………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Position Held
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

2. Major functions of institution

(i) …………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………
(ii) …………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………
(iii) …………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………
(iv) …………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………

3. (a) Are you aware of any programmes/projects aimed at reducing

the incidence of flooding in the Accra Metropolis? Yes [ ] No
[ ]
(b) If yes, which one(s)
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………

4. What specific responsibilities do you have in flood prevention and

management? .
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

5. Is the institution adequately resourced to carry out its

responsibilities?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
If No, in what areas are you challenged?
i. Human………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………
ii. Financial………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………
iii. Logistics &
Equipment……………………………………………………………………………
………..

69
 iv. Legal
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………
v. Others (specify)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……

6. (a) Do you collaborate with any agencies in flood prevention and

management?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If Yes which one(s)
…………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………...
(c) Are you satisfied with the level of collaboration? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(d) If no, why?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………….

7. Why does the Accra Metropolis suffers from persistent flooding?

……………………………
......................................................................................................................
.................................................................
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………

8. What steps are being taken to address them?

…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………

9. (a) Do you involve the citizenry in the activities of the institution?

Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, how do you rate their level of participation?
High [ ] Average [ ] Low [ ] Nil [ ]
(c) What do you think account for this level?
………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

70
(d) If No, why?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

71
 DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

MSc. DEVELOPMENT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT SPECIAL

STUDY

GHANA METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES

1. (a) Name of Respondent

………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Position Held
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

2. Major functions of institution

(i) …………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………
(ii) …………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………
(iii) …………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………
(iv) …………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………

3. (a) Are you aware of any programmes/projects aimed at reducing

the incidence of flooding in the Accra Metropolis? Yes [ ] No
[ ]
(b) If yes, which one(s)
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………

4. What specific responsibilities do you have in flood prevention and

management? .
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

5. Is the institution adequately resourced to carry out its

responsibilities?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
If No, in what areas are you challenged?
i. Human………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………
ii. Financial………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………
iii. Logistics &
Equipment……………………………………………………………………………
………..
iv. Legal
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………

72
 v. Others (specify)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……

6. (a) Do you collaborate with any agencies in flood prevention and

management?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If Yes which one(s)
…………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………...
(c) Are you satisfied with the level of collaboration? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(d) If no, why?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………….

7. Why does the Accra Metropolis suffers from persistent flooding?

……………………………
......................................................................................................................
.................................................................
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………

8. What steps are being taken to address them?

…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………

9. (a) Do you involve the citizenry in the activities of the institution?

Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, how do you rate their level of participation?
High [ ] Average [ ] Low [ ] Nil [ ]
(c) What do you think account for this level?
………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
(d) If No, why?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………..

73
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

10. Please suggest general preventive measures to take against

flooding …………………...…
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………

74
 DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

ACCRA METROPOLITAN TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING

DEPARTMENT

1. (a) Name of Respondent

…………………………………………………………………………………………..
(b) Official position Held
……………………………………………………………………………………………..

2. Major functions of institution

(i)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………
(ii)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………
(iii)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………..
(iv)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………..

3. (a) Do you have planning schemes for the flood prone areas of the
metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, are they being implemented and enforced? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(c) Do you think land use activities are responsible for the flooding of such
communities? Yes [ ] No [ ]
Give reasons for response
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………….................................

(d) Please supply the following information

Settleme Application Approved Refused Remarks
nt s
Received
2007 2008 200 200 200 200
7 8 7 8
Alajo

Dzorwulu

Avenor

Adabraka

75
4. (a) Are you aware of any programmes/projects aimed at reducing the
incidence of flooding in the Accra Metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, which one(s) ……………………………………………………………….
……………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………….............................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
.....

5. What specific actions do you take in flood prevention and management?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………

6. Is the institution adequately resourced to carry out its

responsibilities? Yes [ ]No [ ]
If No, in what areas are you challenged?
i. Human………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………
ii. Financial………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………
iii. Logistics &
Equipment……………………………………………………………………………
…………..
iv. Legal
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………
v. Others(specify)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………

7. What steps are being taken to address them?

…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………..…..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………..………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………

8. (a) Do you collaborate with any agencies in flood prevention and

management?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If Yes which one(s)
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………..
……………………………………………………………………………...........................
................................
76
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
.............................................
(c) Are you satisfied with the level of collaboration? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(d) If no, why? ….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………

9. Why do you think the Accra Metropolis suffers from persistent flooding?
........................
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………….............................................................................................
.............................................................................................................

10. (a) Do you involve the citizenry in the activities of the institution? Yes [
] No [ ]
(b) If yes, at what level?
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
(c) how do you rate their level of participation?
High [ ] Average [ ] Low [ ] Nil [ ]
(d) What do you think account for this level? ………………………………..
……………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………….
………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………..
(e) If No, why?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…….………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………

77
 DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

MSc. DEVELOPMENT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT SPECIAL

STUDY

ACCRA METROPOLITAN WORKS DEPARTMENT

1. (a) Name of Institution

…………………………………………………………………………………………..
(b) Name of Respondent
…………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Major functions of institution

(i)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………..….……….
(ii)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………….…..….………
(iii)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………….…………..
(iv)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………….…………..
(v)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………...….…………

3. (a) Do you have planning schemes for communities in the metropolis?

Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, are they being implemented and enforced? Yes [ ] No
[ ]
(c) If No, why?
…………………………………………………………………………………………….…….
……….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….…….……...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………….….……...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….…….……...
(c) Do you think land use activities are responsible for the flooding of such
communities? Yes [ ] No [ ]
Give reasons for response
…………………………………………………………………………………….……..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………................................
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………..........
78
4. (a) Are you aware of any programmes/projects aimed at reducing the
incidence of flooding in the Accra Metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, which one(s) ……………………………………………………………….
……………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………….................................

5. What specific actions do you take in flood management and

prevention? ……..….….……
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………….

6. Is the institution adequately resourced to carry out its responsibilities?

Yes [ ] No [ ]
If No, in what areas are you challenged?
i. Human………………………………………………………………………………
…………………..…………
ii. Financial………………………………………………………………………………
…………………..………
iii. Logistics &
Equipment……………………………………………………………………………
…………
iv. Legal
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………….
v. Others(specify)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………

7. What steps are being taken to address them?

………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………..…..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………..………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
.………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………..............
...............................................

8. (a) Do you collaborate with any agencies in flood management and

prevention?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If Yes which one(s)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

79
(c) Are you satisfied with the level of collaboration? Yes [ ] No
[ ]
(d) If no, why?
……………………………………………………………………………………………….....
.............
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………...............................

9. Why are the floods persisting in the Accra Metropolis?.

…………………………………
............................................................................................................
............................................................
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………...

10. (a) Do you involve the people in the communities in the

activities of the institution? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, at what level? ……………………………………………………
(c) How do you rate their level of participation?
High [ ] Average [ ] Low [ ] Nil [ ]
(d) What do you think account for this level?
……………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
(e) If No, why?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……….
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……

80
 DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

NATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT ORGANISATION (NADMO)

1. (a) Name of Respondent

………………………………………………………………………………..
(c) Official position Held …………..
……………………………………………………………………

2. Major functions of institution

(i)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………..
(ii)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………..
(iii)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………….
(iv)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………….

3. (a) Do you have any special regulations for activities in flood prone
areas of the metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, are they being enforced? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(c) Do you think land use activities are responsible for the flooding of
such communities? Yes [ ] No [ ]
Give reasons for response
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………...…………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………........................……..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………..…

4. (a) Are you aware of any programmes/projects aimed at reducing the

incidence of flooding in the Accra Metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, which one(s) ……………………………………………………………….
………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………….............................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......

5. What specific actions do you take in flood prevention and

management?

81
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………

6. Is the institution adequately resourced to carry out its

responsibilities?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
If No, in what areas are you challenged?
i. Human………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………..
ii. Financial………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………..
iii. Logistics &
Equipment……………………………………………………………………………
…………
iv. Legal
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………….
v. Others (specify)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…….

7. What steps are being taken to address them?

………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………..…..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………..……………………….

8.(a) Do you collaborate with any agencies in flood management and

prevention?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If Yes which one(s)
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
.............................................
(c) Are you satisfied with the level of collaboration? Yes [ ] No
[ ]
(d) If no, why?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………..

9. Why do you think the Accra Metropolis suffers from persistent

flooding? ……………….
82
......................................................................................................................
......................................……………….......
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………….

10.(a) Do you involve the citizenry in the activities of the institution?

Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, at what level?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(c) How do you rate their level of participation?
High [ ] Average [ ] Low [ ] Nil [ ]
(c) What do you think account for this level?
…………………………………………………………….....
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
(d) If No, why?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……

83
 DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

METROPOLITAN WASTE MANAGEMENT DEPARTMENT (WMD)-AMA

1. (a) Name of Respondent

…………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Official position Held …………..
…………………………………………………………………………….

2. Major functions of institution

(i)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………..
(ii)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………….
(iii)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………
(iv)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………….

3. (a) Do you have any special regulations for activities in flood prone
areas of the metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, are they being enforced? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(c) Do you think land use activities are responsible for the flooding of
such communities? Yes [ ] No [ ]
Give reasons for response
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………........................……..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………..….

4.(a) Are you aware of any programmes/projects aimed at reducing the

incidence of flooding in the Accra Metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, which one(s) ……………………………………………………………….
…………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………….................................

5. (a) What specific actions do you take in flood prevention and

management?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

84
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………
(b) Is the institution adequately resourced to carry out its
responsibilities? Yes [ ] No [ ]
If No, in what areas are you challenged?
vi. Human………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………….
vii. Financial………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………
viii. Logistics &
Equipment……………………………………………………………………………
………..
ix. Legal
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………
x. Others (specify)
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……

(c) What steps are being taken to address them?

………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………..…..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………...............................................................

8. (a) Do you collaborate with any agencies in flood management and

prevention?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If Yes which one(s)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….....
............................................
(c) Are you satisfied with the level of collaboration? Yes [ ] No
[ ]
(d) If no, why?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………

9. Why do you think the Accra Metropolis suffers from persistent flooding?
……………….

85
......................................................................................................................
......................................
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………

10. (a) Do you involve the citizenry in the activities of the institution?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, at what level?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
(c) How do you rate their level of participation?
High [ ] Average [ ] Low [ ] Nil [ ]
(c) What do you think account for this level?
……………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………
(d) If No, why?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………

86
 DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

INSTITUTIONAL INTERVIEW GUIDE

ACCRA METROPOLITAN PUBLIC HEALTH UNIT

1. (a) Name of Respondent

……………………………………………………………………………….
(c) Official position Held …………..
……………………………………………………………………

2. Major functions of institution

(i)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………….
(ii)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………
(iii)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………
(iv)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………

3. (a) Do you have any special regulations for activities in flood prone
areas of the metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, are they being enforced? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(c) Do you think land use activities are responsible for the flooding
of such communities? Yes [ ] No [ ]
Give reasons for response
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………........................…….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………..

4. (a) Are you aware of any programmes/projects aimed at reducing

the incidence of flooding in the Accra Metropolis? Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, which one(s)
……………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………................................

5(a) What specific actions do you take in flood prevention and

management?

87
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………

(b) Is the institution adequately resourced to carry out its responsibilities?

Yes [ ] No [ ]
If No, in what areas are you challenged?
i.
Human…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………
ii.
Financial………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………......
iii. Logistics &
Equipment……………………………………………………………………………………
………
iv. Legal
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
v. Others (specify)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…..

(c) What steps are being taken to address them?

………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………..…..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………..………………………..

8.(a) Do you collaborate with any agencies in flood management and

prevention?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If Yes which one(s)
……………………………………………………………………………………….
…………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………….………………………………………
(c) Are you satisfied with the level of collaboration? Yes [ ] No
[ ]
(d) If no, why?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………..

9.Why do you think the Accra Metropolis suffers from persistent flooding?
………………….

88
......................................................................................................................
......................................…………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……….………………………

10. (a) Do you involve the citizenry in the activities of the

institution?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
(b) If yes, at what level?
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
(c) How do you rate their level of participation?
High [ ] Average [ ] Low [ ] Nil [ ]
(c) What do you think account for this level?
………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
(d) If No, why?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

89