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OBJECTIVE
To measure the drag coefficient CD, over the range of velocities in the test section for
hemispherical (open end facing flow and open end facing down stream).
THEORY
Drag is the component of force on a body acting parallel to the direction of relative
motion. The drag force, FD, was written in the functional form FD = f1 (d, V, μ, ρ).
Application of the Buckingham Pi theorem resulted in two dimensionless П parameters
that written in function form as
FD ρVd
= f 2
1
ρV 2 d 2 µ -----------------(1.0)
2
Note that d2 is proportional to the cross-sectional area (A = лd2/4) and therefore we could
write
FD ρVd
= f 3 = f 3 (Re)
1 µ -------(1.1)
ρV A
2
2
Although Eq. 1.1 was obtained for sphere, the form of equation is valid for
incompressible flow over any body; the characteristic length used in the Reynolds
Number depends on body shape.
FD
CD =
1
ρV 2 A
-------------(1.2)
2
APPARATUS
Wind tunnel and accessories
Velocity (m/s) 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Force (N) 0.16 0.28 0.44 0.74 0.94 1.21 1.48
Table 1 Drag force, FD for open end facing upstream
Velocity (m/s) 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Force (N) 0.03 0.05 0.09 0.12 0.14 0.18 0.25
Table 3 Drag force, FD for streamlined body
Holder/Connecting Rod
Velocity (m/s) 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Force (N) 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.09 0.10 0.13
Table 4 Drag force, FD for holder/connecting rod
Velocity FD CD
(m/s) Streamlined body streamlined body Re
8 0.03 0.2303 35912.4
10 0.05 0.2456 44890.5
12 0.09 0.3070 53868.6
14 0.12 0.3008 62846.7
16 0.14 0.2686 71824.8
18 0.18 0.2729 80802.9
20 0.25 0.3070 89781.0
Graph
CD NET (hemisphere) vs Velocity
1,4
1,2
1
0,8
CD NET
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Velocity (m/s)
CD NET (hemisphere) vs Re
1,4
1,2
1
0,8
CD NET
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
0,0 20000,0 40000,0 60000,0 80000,0 100000,0
Re
0,3500
0,3000
CD (streamline body) 0,2500
0,2000
0,1500
0,1000
0,0500
0,0000
0 5 10 15 20 25
Velocity (m/s)
CD (streamline body) vs Re
0,3500
0,3000
CD (streamline body)
0,2500
0,2000
0,1500
0,1000
0,0500
0,0000
0,0 20000,0 40000,0 60000,0 80000,0 100000,0
Re
Sample of Calculation
Air density in lab
P
ρ=
RT
105000
ρ=
286 .9 × 297 .5
ρ=1.23 kg m 3
D = 0.065m
V = 8 m/s
ρ = 1.23 kg/m3
FD
CD =
1
ρV 2 A
2
0.16
CD =
1
×1.23 × 8 2 × (3.31 ×10 −3 )
2
CD = 1.2281
CD Net
CD Net = (CD for open end facing upstream) – (CD for open end facing downstream)
= 1.2281- 0.3838
= 0.8443
Reynolds Number, Re
ρVD
Re =
µ
1.23 ×8 ×0.065
Re =
17 .81 ×10 −6
Re = 35912.4
C D exp −C D theoretica l
= ×100 %
C D exp
0.56 − 0.4
= ×100 %
0.56
= 28 .5%
DISCUSSION
The drag coefficient values can be calculated after obtaining the drag force. The drag
force can be taken by the experiment. The Reynolds number, Re, also can be obtained
using a formula and the data from the experiment.
ρVD
Re =
µ
From the graph drag coefficient, CD Net against Reynolds number, Re for hemisphere
object that has been plotted, we can see that the highest drag coefficient C D = 1.2532
occur at Re = 62846.7. At this point the velocity of air act to the body is 14 m/s. But then
the drag coefficient decrease dramatically to 0.7859 when the weight and drag force
increase. After the drag drop down the value of drag coefficient sometimes is increase
and sometimes is decrease.
From the both graph we can conclude that the drag coefficient C D increase when the
Reynolds number decreasing from big to small numbers. After the drag coefficient CD
was increase the Reynolds number also increased. So its mean that the value of drag is
depend on their Reynolds number.
The average of CD obtained from experiment is 1.6307 for open end facing upstream
0.56 for open end facing downstream and streamline body 0.2760. Compare to the
theoretical value, the drag coefficient, CD for open end facing upstream is 1.2 while for
open end facing downstream is 0.4 and streamline body is 0.04. The percentage of error
of CD for the open end facing upstream is 26.4% then open end facing downstream is
28.5% and finally for streamline body is 85.50%. From the percentage of error
calculated, it is not much differ than the theoretical value.
The error due to parallax error occurs in this experiment while taking the reading and also
the error because of apparatus itself such as the air goes out from the hole around the
holder that connected to the drag scale. Also the balancing of the hemisphere body maybe
unwell balanced.
CONCLUSION
The objective of the experiment achieved. The percentage of error between theoretical
value and experimental value is not much differing. There is no big difference between
velocity and Reynolds number and can be concluded similarly same. The parallax error
occur in this experiment is not constant that’s make the reading become difficult.
The drag coefficient profile on the graph for open end facing flow and open end facing
down stream is differ from each other due to streamlines and bluntness of the air flowing
towards the hemisphere. It is also due to the laminar and turbulent flow that occur during
the process that takes place at different Reynolds number
From the experiment also it can be concluded that the higher the drag coefficient the
higher the drag force involves. For 103<Re<3×105 the drag coefficient is approximately
constant. In this range the entire rear of the sphere has a low pressure turbulent wake and
most of the drag is caused by the front-rear pressure asymmetry.
In summarize, the drag, which contains portions due to friction (viscous) effects and
pressure effects, is written in terms of dimensionless drag coefficients, CD. It also shown
that the drag coefficient, CD, is a function of shape and Reynolds Number, Re.
REFERENCES
TITLE
Flow Pass a Circular Cylinder
Objective
The objective of this experiment is to study the pressure profile and flow characteristics
for flow around a circular cylinder.
Theoretical background
The structure and development of viscous flow over a cylinder is described in figure
9.17a below. The development of the boundary layer and changes in velocity profile from
the stagnation point at A until flow separation at point E are described in Figure 9.17b.
these changes are closely linked to the change of pressure gradient from A to F. negative
pressure gradient tends to maintain laminar boundary layer, while positive pressure
gradient will accelerate it to turbulent and (subsequently) reverse flow resulting in flow
separation.
Figure 9.17c compare the pressure distributions (it is customary to plot the coefficient of
pressure) around the cylinder between low Re number and high Re flow and high Re
flows and of that predicted by inviscid flow theory.
Experimental procedure
1. A 2-inch diameter circular cylinder of are placed at across 300 mm x 300 mm test
section of a wind tunnel as schematically shown below.
P∞ θ
2. 20 pressure tapping hole are drill at equidistance over half of the circumference of
the cylinder in older to measure pressure around the cylinder.
3. These holes are connected using flexible tube to the multitube manometer for
pressure measurement.
P1 = P∞ + ρgH
Given ρ = 0.784 kg/m2
g = 9.81 m/s2
H = 3x10-3
P1 - P∞ = ρgH
= 0.784x9.81x3x10-3
= 0.023 Pa
CP = P 1 - P ∞
1/2ρV
= 0.023
(0.5)(0.784)(10)
= 5.867x10-3
Sample calculation:
P1 = P∞ + ρgH
Given ρ = 0.784 kg/m2
g = 9.81 m/s2
H = 6x10-3
P1 - P∞ = ρgH
= 0.784x9.81x6x10-3
= 0.046 Pa
CP = P 1 - P ∞
1/2ρV
= 0.046
(0.5)(0.784)(20)
= 2.93x10-3
Discussion:
1. According to the graph coefficient of pressure against location, there are two type
of graph refer to velocity 10 m/s and 20 m/s. The gradient for the graph at
velocity 20 m/s and 10 m/s is mostly same. At the beginning the value of
coefficient pressure is increased until point 4.3x10-3. Then the value decreased at
location 11 and next it increased at location 12. After location 12, the graph is
constant until end of location.
2. The influence of velocity between 10 m/s and 20 m/s are very small. It not affects
the experiment result. We can assume the neglected.
Conclusion:
1. The coefficient pressure increase due to locations but at the certain point it
down and become constant at the end.
2. The velocity does not give big effects to the value of coefficient pressure.
References:
1. Fluids Mechanics
Volume 2
J.F Doughlas & R.D Matthews
Third Edition
2. Fluids Power with applications
Sixth Edition
Anthony Esposito
3. Fluids Mechanics
Fundamentals And Applications
Yunus A.Cengal, John M. Cimbala
Mc Graw Hill