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 Definition of
Quantitative and Qualitative Research

   
 generates  
 through the use of -

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This type of research reaches many more people, but the contact with those
people is much quicker than it is in qualitative research.

   
 explores   , /   and 0
 

through such methods as interviews or focus groups. It attempts to get an in-
depth opinion from participants. As it is attitudes, behaviour and experiences
which are important, fewer people take part in the research, but the contact
with these people tends to last a lot longer. Under the umbrella of qualitative
research there are many different methodologies.
Quantitative Research Methodologies

Experimental

Single-
Survey
subject

Causal
Correlational
Comparative
 Experimental Research

Experimental Research means,

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among variables.

Examples:

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 Experimental Research

Manipulation
of the
Independent
Variable

Comparison of
Randomization
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The researcher (
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The researcher determines what forms the independent

variable will take and then which group will get which
form.

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teaching method, type of counseling, learning activities,
assignments, materials.

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gender, ethnicity, age, religious preference.

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Random assignments mean every     who is

participating in an experiment has an * 


of being   to any of the experimental or
control conditions being compared.

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DIt takes place before the experiment begins

DIt is a process of assigning or distributing
individuals to groups, not a result of such
distribution
DGroups are equivalent at the beginning of the
study and only differ in variables of interest.
 Single-Subject Research

Typically examines 


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  the effects of an 1
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on a 
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(e.g. a treatment on some behavior of that
participant.

Generally will use ( 
 (i.e. 6-10 participants)

which are basically replications of the research each
time an additional participant is used.

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D 
 (  (need reliable

measurement/instrument)
D *  
 

  
    
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 (baseline and treatment
conditions, but could have probes, etc.)
Single-Subject Research
 Single-Subject Research
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DPeriod of no treatment (Independent Variable) or traditional treatment (reflects
natural state)
DAllows research to have a comparison for the effect of Independent Variable and to
determine if extraneous variables are operating
(i.e. the control condition)

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DIntroduction of the Interdependent Variable
DPhase length should be approximately at least as long as baseline (for comparison
purposes)
DRepeated measurement of the Dependent Variable continues

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DThe A-B Design
DThe A-B-A Design
DThe A-B-A-B Design
DThe B-A-B Design
DThe A-B-C-B Design
DMultiple-Baseline Design
 Single-Subject Research
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D1 baseline and 1 treatment phase

DConsider the example below:

͞A child having trouble working on school work (i.e. staying on task), the
treatment is setting up a reinforcement contingency that gives him a Ringgit
for every minute he stays on task͟

DProblem:
There is a limited control over threats to internal validity.
No control for extraneous variables - that is changes in the Dependent
Variable could be caused by numerous things

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D1 baseline - 1 treatment ʹ 1 baseline phase.
DAdvantage

The withdrawal strengthens the relationship between the IV and DV

DConsider the example below:

A child having trouble working on school work (i.e. staying on task),
the treatment is setting up a reinforcement contingency that gives
him a Ringgit for every minute he stays on task

DProblem:
DDoesn͛t completely control for extraneous variables (but more
evidence!)
DIrreversibility (Some IVs can͛t be withdrawn and some behaviors can͛t
be reversed)

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 Correlational Research

Also known as Ô

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 them.

1  the
 /   of

relationships between two variables.

There is (
 of

 / in Correlational research.
 Correlational Research

Explanatory Prediction
Studies Studies

Purposes of
Correlational
Research
 Correlational Research
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Explaining  (/ .

To clarify our understanding of (

(by identifying

relationships among variables.

Examples:
Identify factors which might have caused underachievement among senior
high school students
T
Results: Study habits were highly associated with the students͛ academic
performance
 Correlational Research
3
   
If a relationship of  
(  exists between . /, it
becomes
 / to

 a score on one variable if a score on the other
variable is known.

For example:
Secondary school grades are highly related to university/college grades.
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)

Prediction: A person with a high grade/CGPA in Secondary School would likely

to have a high grade/CGPA in college.
T
The variable that is used to make the prediction = 3
5 /
The variable about which the prediction is made =   5 /

Predictor Variable: Secondary school grades

Criterion Variable: University/college grades
Correlational Research
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 Correlational Research
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 Correlational Research
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What is the  
between TV violence and aggressive

behavior?
How to determine the 
  among levels of academic
achievement, motivation and persistence for high school gifted
and talented seniors in the sciences?
This study is to determine the

 /   of high school
grade point average (GPA) to forecast first to fourth year College
GPA.
Is maternal smoking during pregnancy  to increased of
crime in adult offspring?
 Causal-Comparative Research

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 Three types of causal-comparative research

Type 1 Type 2 Type 3

ͻ Exploration of effects ͻ Exploration of causes ͻ Exploration of the

(dependent variable) (independent consequences
cause by variable) of group (dependent variable)
membership in a membership of an intervention
given group ͻ Question: What ͻ Question: How do
ͻ Question: What causes individuals to students taught by
differences in join a gang? the inquiry method
abilities are caused ͻ Research hypothesis: react to propaganda?
by gender? Individuals who are ͻ Research hypothesis:
ͻ Research hypothesis: members of gangs Students who were
Females have a have more taught by the inquiry
greater amount of aggressive method are more
linguistic ability than personalities than critical of
males. individuals who are propaganda than are
not members of those who were
gangs. taught by the lecture
method.
 Causal-comparative versus Correlational
Research
Similarities
Associational research ʹ researchers seek to
explore relationship among variables.
Explain phenomena of interest.
Identify variables that are worthy of later
exploration through experimental research
Provide guidance for subsequent
experimental studies.
Neither permits the manipulation of variables
by the researcher.
Explore causation (in both cases, causation
must be argued)
Differences
Causal-comparative studies typically
compare two/more groups of subjects while
correlational studies require a score on each
variable for each subject
Correlational studies investigate two (or
more) quantitative variables, whereas causal-
comparative studies typically involve at least
one categorical variable.
Correlational studies often analyze data using
scatter plots and/or correlational coefficient,
while causal-comparative studies often
compare averages or use crossbreak tables.
 Causal-comparative versus Experimental
Research

Similarities Differences
In experimental research, the independent variable is
manipulated; in causal-comparative research, no
One categorical variable. manipulation takes place.

Causal comparative studies are likely to provide much

weaker evidence for causation than do experimental
studies.
Compare group performances (average score) to
determine relationship.
In experimental research, the researcher can sometimes
assign subjects to treatment groups; in causal-comparative
research, the groups are already formed ʹ the researcher
must locate them.

Compare separate groups of subjects. * In experimental studies, the researcher has much greater
flexibility in formulating the structure of the design.

* Except in counterbalanced, time-series, or single-subject experimental designs (see Chapters

13 and 14)
 Survey Research
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The main way in which

Information is collected from a
information is collected is
group of people in order to
through asking questions; the
describe some aspects or
answers to these questions by
characteristics of the population
the members of the group
of which that group is a part.
constitute the data of the study.

Information is collected from

a sample rather than from
every member of the
population.
The Purpose of Survey Research

To describe the characteristics of a

population

To find out how the members of a

population distribute themselves on one
or more variables

Rarely is the population as whole studies,

however. Instead, a sample is surveyed and
a description of the population is inferred
from what the sample reveals.
 Types of Survey

Cross-sectional surveys
ͻ A cross-sectional survey collects information
from a sample that has been drawn from a
predetermined population.
ͻ The information is collected at just one point
in time.
ͻ When an entire population is surveyed, it is
called a census.
 Types of Survey

Longitudinal survey
ͻ Information is collected at different points in time.
ͻ Three longitudinal designs commonly employed in survey
research are:
ͻ |
 : different samples from a population whose
members may change are surveyed at different points in
time.
ͻ    : sample from a particular population
whose members do not change over the course of the
survey.
ͻ ˜Ô
 : sample are the same sample of individuals
at different times during the course of the survey.
Qualitative Research Methodologies

Phenomenology

Historical Case Studies

Observation
Ethnographic and
Interviewing
 The Nature of the Qualitative Research

Qualitative research ʹ studies that investigate the quality of relationships,

activities, situations, or materials.
The natural setting is a direct source of data, and the researcher is a key
part of the instrumentation process in qualitative research.
Qualitative researchers are especially interested in how things occur and
particularly in the perspectives of the subjects of a study.
Qualitative researchers do not, usually, formulate a hypothesis beforehand
and then seek to test it. Rather, they allow hypotheses to emerge as a
study develops.
Qualitative data are collected mainly in the form of words/pictures and
seldom involve numbers. Content analysis is a primary method of data
analysis.
Qualitative and quantitative research differ in the philosophic assumptions
that underlie the two approaches.
Approaches to Qualitative Research

Phenomenology

To investigate various reactions to, or perceptions of, a particular

phenomenon.

Data are usually collected through in-depth interviewing.

Researchers seek to identify, understand, and describe some

commonality to how human beings perceive and interpret similar
experiences.
 Phenomenology

Examples of topics for a

phenomenological study
Teachers who
African American have used the Civil rights
students in a inquiry approach workers in the
predominantly in teaching South during the
high school. ninth-grade 1960s.
social studies.
 Approaches to Qualitative Research

Case Studies

A detailed study of one or (at most) a few individuals or other social

units, such as a classroom, a school, or a neighborhood. It can also be
a study of an event, an activity, or an ongoing process.

Intrinsic case study: the researcher is primarily interested in

understanding a specific individual or situational.

Instrumental case study: the researcher is interested in

understanding something more than just a particular case.

Multiple- (or collective) case study: a researcher studies multiple

cases at the same time as part of one overall study.
Which is to be preferred, multiple ʹ or single -
case designs?

The results of multiple-case

Multiple-case designs have both
studies are often considered
advantages and disadvantages
more compelling, and they are
when compared to single-case
more likely to lend themselves
designs.
to valid generalization.

Multiple case studies often

Certain types of cases require
require extensive resources and
single-case research.
time.
Observation &
Interviewing

Ethnographic
Research

Historical
Research
 Observation

Why observation?
Certain kinds of research questions can best be answered by
observing how people act or how things look.

Example:
Researcher could interview teachers about how their students
behave during class discussions, but a more accurate indication
of their activities would probably be obtained by actually
observing such discussions while they take place.
Two types of observation:
Participant Observation Nonparticipant Observation
(researchers participate in (researchers do not
the situation they are participate in the situation
observing) they are observing)

Complete Observer-as-
participant participant

Participant- Complete
as-observer observer
 Participant Observation

ͻ Researcher͛s identity is not known to

Complete any of the individuals being observed.
participant ͻ Interacts with members of the group as
naturally as possible.

ͻ Researcher participates fully in the

activities of the group being studied,
Participant-as- but also makes it clear that he is doing
research.
observer
 Nonparticipant Observation
ͻ She identifies herself as a
Observer-as- researcher but makes no pretense
of actually being a member of the
participant group she is observing.

ͻ The researcher observes the

activities of a group without in
Complete any way participating in those
observer activities.
 Naturalistic Observation

Observing individuals in their natural settings.

The researcher makes no effort to manipulate

variables or to control the activities, but simply
observes and records what happens as things
naturally occur.

Example: Jean Piaget (child psychologist)

 Limitation of Observation
ͻ She/he create a situation and ask subjects to act out, or
simulate certain roles.
Simulation

ͻ She/he produces other than normal behavior

Observer effect ͻ She/he influenced by the researcher͛s
purpose

ͻ She/he ͞expect͟ a certain type of

behavior, which may not be how the
Observer bias subjects normally behave.
 Interviewing

Purpose:
- To find out how they think or feel about something
- To find out what is on their minds

Four (4) types of interviews are:

- Structured
- Semi-structured
- Informal
- Retrospective
 ͻ Verbal questionnaires.
Structured and ͻ Consist of a series of questions
semi-structured designed to elicit specific
answers from respondents.
interviews

ͻ Much less formal than

structure and semi-structured.
Informal ͻ Do not involve any specific
interviews type or sequence of questions.
 ͻ Can be structured, semi-
structured, or formal.
Retrospective ͻ A researcher tries to get a
respondent to recall and then
interviews reconstruct from memory
something that has happened in
the past.
 Six types of interview questions are:

Background ( or Experience (or

Knowledge
demographic) behavior)
questions
questions questions

Opinion (or
Feeling Sensory
values)
questions questions
questions
Interviewing Behavior
Respect the culture of the group being studied

Respect the individual being interviewed

Be natural

Develop an appropriate rapport with the participant

Don͛t interrupt
 Ethnographic Research

ͻ Particularly appropriate for behaviors that are best

understood by observing them within their natural settings.

ͻ Variety of approach are used in an attempt to obtain as

holistic a picture as possible of a particular society.

ͻ The emphasis is on documenting/portraying the everyday

experience of individual observation and interview.

ͻ The sample is almost always purposive.

Ethnographic Concepts
Culture

Holistic Perspective

Contextualization

An Emic Perspective

Thick Description

Member Checking
A Nonjudgmental
Orientation
Data Analysis in Ethnographic Research

Triangulation

Crystallization Patterns

Visual
Key Events
Representations

Statistics
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Ethnographic Research

Advantages Disadvantages
ͻ Provide a much more ͻ Highly dependent on the
comprehensive perspective. particular researcher͛s
ͻ Its lends itself well to topics observations.
that not easily quantified. ͻ Bias
ͻ Particularly appropriate for ͻ Generalization is practically
studying behaviors. nonexistent
 Historical Research

ͻ The systematic collection and evaluation of data to describe,

explain and thereby understand actions or events that
occurred sometime in the past.

ͻ An attempt is made to establish facts in order to arrive at

conclusions concerning past events or predict future events.

ͻ To understand present educational practices and policies

more fully.
 The purposes of Historical Research

To learn how
things were
To test
To make people done in the past
hypothesis
aware of what to see if they To assist in
concerning
has happened might be prediction.
relationships or
in the past . applicable to
trends.
present-day
problems.
 Four (4) Steps Involved in Historical
Research
Defining the problem or questions to be investigated.

Locating relevant sources of historical information.

Summarizing and evaluating the information obtained

from these sources.

Presenting and interpreting this information as it

relates to the problem or question that originated the
study.
Four Basic categories of historical
source materials
Documents

Numerical records

Oral statements

Relics
Primary and Secondary Sources
Secondary
Primary Sources
Sources
Document prepared by an individual
One prepared by an individual who
who was not a direct witness to an
was a participant in or a direct
event but who obtained his or her
witness to the event being
description of the event from
described.
someone else.

Example :
Essays written during World War II Example:
by students in response to the A textbook on educational research,
question, original documents, newspapers.
artifacts.
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Historical Research

Advantages Disadvantages

It is the only research method The measures used in other

methods to control for threats to
that can study evidence from internal validity are simply not
the past . possible in a historical study.

Wider range of evidence than

Bias
most other methods
 Quantitative Vs Qualitative

Quantitative Qualitative

Preference for hypotheses that emerge as

Preference for precise hypothesis
study develops

Data reduced to numerical score Preference for narrative description

Much attention to assessing and improving Preference for assuming that reliability of
reliability of score obtained from instruments inferences in adequate

Assessment of validity through a variety of Assessment of validity through cross-checking

procedures with reliance on statistical indices sources of informational (triangulation)
 Quantitative Vs Qualitative

Quantitative Qualitative

Preference for specific design Primary reliance on researcher to

control for procedural bias deal with procedural bias

Preference for breaking down Preference for holistic

complex phenomenon into description of complex
specific parts analysis phenomena

Willingness to manipulate
Unwillingness to tamper with
aspects, situations, or conditions
naturally occurring phenomenon
in studying complex phenomena
 Which types of educational
research to use?
Quantitative
Research?

Mixed
Research? Qualitative
Research?
 Mixed-Method Research
Mixed-Method research involves the use of both *    and *   
methods in a single study.

 0-



DHelp to
  and 0
  relationships found to exist between variables.
DAllow researchers to 0
 the relationships between variables in depth.
DHelp to
 ( or
-  relationships discovered between
variables, as when quantitative and qualitative methods are compared to see
if they converge on a single interpretation of a phenomenon.

Examples:

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 Mixed-Method Research
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The Quantitative
Qualitative Study Combine and
Exploratory (higher priority)
Study
interpret result
Design (lower priority)
time

The Quantitative
Qualitative Study Combine and
Study
Explanatory (lower priority) interpret result
(higher priority)
Design
time

Qualitative Study
The (higher priority)
Combine and
Triangulation interpret result
Design Quantitative
Study
(higher priority)
time