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A
A. contents A1
contents - A1
contents (continued)
A
B. general - installed power (continued)
4. power loading of an installation (continued)
4.5 diversity factor B18
4.6 choice of transformer rating B18
table B19
IEC-standardized kVA ratings of HV/LV 3-phase distribution transformers
and corresponding nominal full-load current values B18
4.7 choice of power-supply sources B19
contents - A3
contents (continued)
A
E. power factor improvement and harmonic filtering (continued)
5. how to decide the optimum level of compensation E11
5.1 general method E11
5.2 simplified method E11
table E17
kvar to be installed per kW of load, to improve the power factor of an installation E12
5.3 method based on the avoidance of tariff penalties E13
5.4 method based on reduction of declared maximum apparent
power (kVA) E13
A4 - contents
A
2. essential services standby supplies F5
2.1 continuity of electric-power supply F5
2.2 quality of electric-power supply F6
table F10
assumed levels of transient overvoltage possible at different points of a typical
installation F8
table F12
typical levels of impulse withstand voltage of industrial circuit breakers labelled
Uimp = 8 kV F8
table F18
compatibility levels for installation materials F13
6. distributors F39
6.1 description and choice F39
6.2 conduits, conductors and cables F41
table F60
selection of wiring systems F41
table F61
erection of wiring systems F41
table F62
some examples of installation methods F43
table F63
designation code for conduits according to the most recent IEC publications F44
table F64
designation of conductors and cables according to CENELEC code for harmonized
cables F45
table F66
commonly used conductors and cables F46
contents - A5
contents (continued)
A
F. distribution within a low-voltage installation (continued)
7. external influences F47
7.1 classification F47
table F67
concise list of important external influences (taken from Appendix A of IEC 364-3) F48
7.2 protection by enclosures: IP code F49
contents - A7
contents (continued)
A
H. the protection of circuits and the switchgear (continued)
H1. the protection of circuits (continued)
2. practical method for determining the smallest
allowable cross-sectional-area of circuit conductors (continued)
2.3 determination of conductor size for buried circuits H1-14
table H1-19
correction factor K4 related to the method of installation H1-14
table H1-20
correction factor K5 for the grouping of several circuits in one layer H1-14
table H1-21
correction factor K6 for the nature of the soil H1-15
table H1-22
correction factor K7 for soil temperatures different than 20 °C H1-15
table H1-24
case of a buried circuit: minimum c.s.a. in terms of type of conductor; type of insulation;
and value of fictitious current I'z (I'z = Iz) H1-15
K
contents - A9
contents (continued)
A
H2. the switchgear (continued)
4. circuit breakers H2-12
table H2-20
functions performed by a circuit breaker/disconnector H2-12
4.1 standards and descriptions H2-12
4.2 fundamental characteristics of a circuit breaker H2-15
table H2-28
tripping-current ranges of overload and short-circuit protective devices
for LV circuit breakers H2-16
table H2-31
Icu related to power factor (cos ϕ) of fault-current circuit (IEC 947-2) H2-17
4.3 other characteristics of a circuit breaker H2-18
table H2-34
relation between rated breaking capacity Icu and rated making capacity Icm at different
power-factor values of short-circuit current, as standardized in IEC 947-2 H2-19
4.4 selection of a circuit breaker H2-20
table H2-38
examples of tables for the determination of derating/uprating factors to apply to CBs
with uncompensated thermal tripping units, according to temperature H2-21
table H2-40
different tripping units, instantaneous or short-time delayed H2-23
table H2-43
maximum values of short-circuit current to be interrupted by main and principal
circuit breakers (CBM and CBP respectively), for several transformers in parallel H2-25
4.5 coordination between circuit breakers H2-27
table H2-45
example of cascading possibilities on a 230/400 V or 240/415 V 3-phase installation H2-28
table H2-49
summary of methods and components used in order to achieve discriminative tripping H2-29
4.6 discrimination HV/LV in a consumer's substation H2-32
A10 - contents
A
2.8 choice of main-supply and circuit cables, and cables for the battery
connection J20
table J2-21
voltage drop in % of 324 V d.c. for a copper-cored cable J21
table J2-22
currents and c.s.a. of copper-cored cables feeding the rectifier, and supplying the load
for UPS system Maxipac (cable lengths < 100 m) J21
table J2-23
currents and c.s.a. of copper-cored cables feeding the rectifier, and supplying the load
for UPS system EPS 2000 (cable lengths < 100 m). Battery cable data are also included J21
table J2-24
input, output and battery currents for UPS system EPS 5000 (Merlin Gerin) J22
2.9 choice of protection schemes J23
5.3 basic protection schemes: circuit breaker / contactor / thermal relay J38
table J5-4
utilization categories for contactors (IEC 947-4) J39
5.4 preventive or limitative protection J41
contents - A11
contents (continued)
A
J. particular supply sources and loads (continued)
5. asynchronous motors (continued)
5.5 maximum rating of motors installed for consumers supplied at LV J43
table J5-12
maximum permitted values of starting current for direct-on-line LV motors (230/400 V) J43
table J5-13
maximum permitted power ratings for LV direct-on-line-starting motors J43
5.6 reactive-energy compensation (power-factor correction) J43
A12 - contents
1. methodology
B
the study of an electrical installation listing of power demands
The study of a proposed electrical installation corresponding chapter
by means of this guide requires the
necessitates an adequate understanding of B - general - installed power
reading of the entire text in the order all governing rules and regulations.
in which the chapters are presented. A knowledge of the operating modes of
power-consuming appliances, i.e. "loads"
(steady-state demand, starting conditions,
non-simultaneous operation, etc.) together
with the location and magnitude of each load
shown on a building plan, allow a listing of
power demands to be compiled. The list will
include the total power of the loads installed
as well as an estimation of the actual loads to
be supplied, as deduced from the operating
modes.
From these data the power required from
the supply source and (where appropriate)
the number of sources necessary for an
adequate supply to the installation, are
readily obtained.
Local information regarding tariff structures is
also required to permit the best choice of
connection arrangement to the power-supply
network, e.g. at high voltage or low voltage.
service connection
This connection can be made at:
c High Voltage: C - HV/LV distribution substations
a consumer-type substation will then have to
be studied, built and equipped. This
substation may be an outdoor or indoor
installation conforming to relevant standards
and regulations (the low-voltage section may
be studied separately if necessary). Metering
at high-voltage or low-voltage is possible in
this case
c Low Voltage: D - low-voltage service connections
the installation will be connected to the local
power network and will (necessarily) be
metered according to LV tariffs.
reactive energy
The compensation of reactive energy within E - power factor improvement
electrical installations normally concerns only
power factor improvement, and is carried out
locally, globally or as a combination of both
methods.
LV distribution
The whole of the installation distribution F - distribution within a low-voltage
network is studied as a complete system. installation
The number and characteristics of standby
emergency-supply sources are defined.
Earth-bonding connections and neutral-
earthing arrangements are chosen according
to local regulations, constraints related to the
power-supply, and to the nature of the
installation loads.
The hardware components of distribution,
together with distribution boards and
cableways, are determined from building
plans and from the location and grouping of
loads.
The kinds of location, and activities practised
in them, can affect their level of resistance to
external influences.
B
circuits and switchgear
Each circuit is then studied in detail.
From the rated currents of the loads; the level
of short-circuit current; and the type of
protective device, the cross-sectional area of
circuit conductors can be determined, taking
into account the nature of the cableways and
their influence on the current rating of
conductors.
Before adopting the conductor size indicated H1 - the protection of circuits
above, the following requirements must be
satisfied:
c the voltage drop complies with the relevant
standard,
c motor starting is satisfactory,
c protection against electric shock is assured.
The short-circuit current Isc is then
determined, and the Isc thermal and electro-
dynamic withstand capability of the circuit is
checked.
These calculations may indicate that a
different conductor size than that originally
chosen is necessary.
The performance required by the switchgear H2 - the switchgear
will determine its type and characteristics.
The use of cascading techniques and the
discriminative operation of fuses and tripping
of circuit breakers are examined.
B
Low-voltage installations are governed by a
number of regulatory and advisory texts,
which may be classified as follows:
c statutory regulations (decrees, factory acts,
etc.),
c codes of practice, regulations issued by
professional institutions, job specifications,
c national and international standards for
installations,
c national and international standards for
products.
B
2.2 regulations
In most countries, electrical installations shall
comply with more than one set of regulations,
issued by National Authorities or by
recognised private bodies. It is essential to
take into account these local constraints
before starting the design.
2.3 standards
This Guide is based on relevant IEC
standards, in particular IEC 364. IEC 364 has
been established by medical and engineering
experts of all countries in the world
comparing their experience at an international
level. Currently, the safety principles of
IEC 364 and 479-1 are the fundamentals of
most electrical standards in the world.
IEC - 38 Standard voltages
IEC - 56 High-voltage alternating-current circuit breakers
IEC - 76-2 Power transformer - Part 2: Temperature rise
IEC - 76-3 Power transformer - Part 3: Insulation levels and dielectric tests
IEC - 129 Alternating current disconnectors and earthing switches
IEC - 146 General requirements and line commutated converters
IEC - 146-4 General requirements and line commutated converters - Part 4: Method
of specifying the performance and test requirements of uninterruptible power
systems
IEC - 265-1 High-voltage switches - Part 1: High-voltage switches for rated voltages above
1 kV and less than 52 kV
IEC - 269-1 Low-voltage fuses - Part 1: General requirements
IEC - 269-3 Low-voltage fuses - Part 3: Supplementary requirements for fuses for use by
unskilled persons (fuses mainly for household and similar applications)
IEC - 282-1 High-voltage fuses - Part 1: Current limiting fuses
IEC - 287 Calculation of the continuous current rating of cables (100% load factor)
IEC - 298 AC metal-enclosed switchgear and controlgear for rated voltages above 1kV
and up to and including 52 kV
IEC - 364 Electrical installations of buildings
IEC - 364-3 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 3: Assessment of general
characteristics
IEC - 364-4-41 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 4: Protection of safety - Section 41:
Protection against electrical shock
IEC - 364-4-42 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 4: Protection of safety - Section 42:
Protection against thermal effects
IEC - 364-4-43 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 4: Protection of safety - Section 43:
Protection against overcurrent
IEC - 364-4-47 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 4: Application of protective measures
for safety - Section 47: Measures of protection against electrical shock
IEC - 364-5-51 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 5: Selection and erection of electrical
equipment - Section 51: Common rules
IEC - 364-5-52 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 5: Selection and erection of electrical
equipment - Section 52: Wiring systems
IEC - 364-5-53 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 5: Selection and erection of electrical
equipment - Section 53: Switchgear and controlgear
IEC - 364-6 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 6: Verification
IEC - 364-7-701 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 7: Requirements for special
installations or locations - Section 701: Electrical installations in bathrooms
IEC - 364-7-706 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 7: Requirements for special
installations or locations - Section 706: Restrictive conductive locations
IEC - 364-7-710 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 7: Requirements for special
installations or locations - Section 710: Installation in exhibitions, shows, stands
and funfairs
IEC - 420 High-voltage alternating current switch-fuse combinations
IEC - 439-1 Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - Part 1: Types-tested
and partially type-tested assemblies
IEC - 439-2 Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - Part 2: Particular
requirements for busbar trunking systems (busways)
IEC - 439-3 Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - Part 3: Particular
requirements for low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies intended
to be installed in places where unskilled persons have access for their use -
Distribution boards
IEC - 446 Identification of conductors by colours or numerals
IEC - 479-1 Effects of current on human beings and livestock - Part 1: General aspects
IEC - 479-2 Effects of current on human beings and livestock - Part 2: Special aspects
IEC - 529 Degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP code)
IEC - 644 Specification for high-voltage fuse-links for motor circuit applications
B
2.5 initial testing of an installation
Before a power-supply authority will connect These tests and checks are basic (but not
an installation to its supply network, strict exhaustive) to the majority of installations,
pre-commissioning electrical tests and visual while numerous other tests and rules are
inspections by the authority, or by its included in the regulations to cover particular
appointed agent, must be satisfied. cases, for example: TN-, TT- or IT-earthed
These tests are made according to local installations, installations based on class 2
(governmental and/or institutional) insulation, SELV circuits, and special
regulations, which may differ slightly from one locations, etc.
country to another. The principles of all such The aim of this guide is to draw attention to
regulations however, are common, and are the particular features of different types of
based on the observance of rigorous safety installation, and to indicate the essential rules
rules in the design and realization of the to be observed in order to achieve a
installation. satisfactory level of quality, which will ensure
IEC 364 and related standards included in safe and trouble-free performance. The
this guide are based on an international methods recommended in this guide,
consensus for such tests, intended to cover modified if necessary to comply with any
all the safety measures and approved possible variation imposed by a local supply
installation practices normally required for authority, are intended to satisfy all pre-
domestic, commercial and (the majority of) commissioning test and inspection
industrial buildings. Many industries however requirements.
have additional regulations related to a
particular product (petroleum, coal, natural
gas, etc.). Such additional requirements are
beyond the scope of this guide.
The pre-commissioning electrical tests and
visual-inspection checks for installations in
buildings include, typically, all of the following:
c insulation tests of all cable and wiring
conductors of the fixed installation, between
phases and between phases and earth,
c continuity and conductivity tests of
protective, equipotential and earth-bonding
conductors,
c resistance tests of earthing electrodes with
respect to remote earth,
c allowable number of socket-outlets per
circuit check,
c cross-sectional-area check of all
conductors for adequacy at the short-circuit
levels prevailing, taking account of the
associated protective devices, materials and
installation conditions (in air, conduit, etc.),
c verification that all exposed- and
extraneous metallic parts are properly
earthed (where appropriate),
c check of clearance distances in bathrooms,
etc.
declaration of conformity
In cases where the equipment in question is
to be used by qualified or experienced
persons, the declaration of conformity
provided by the manufacturer (included in the
technical documentation) together with a
conformity mark on the equipment
concerned, are generally recognized as a
valid attestation. Where the competence of
the manufacturer is in doubt, a certificate of
conformity can be obtained from an
independent accredited laboratory.
certification of Quality
Assurance
A laboratory for testing samples cannot certify
the conformity of an entire production run:
these tests are called type tests. In some
tests for conformity to standards, the samples
are destroyed (tests on fuses, for example).
Only the manufacturer can certify that the
fabricated products have, in fact, the
characteristics stated.
Quality assurance certification is intended to
complete the initial declaration or certification
of conformity.
As proof that all the necessary measures
have been taken for assuring the quality of
production, the manufacturer obtains
certification of the quality control system
which monitors the fabrication of the product
concerned. These certificates are issued by
organizations specializing in quality control,
and are based on the international standard
ISO 9000, the equivalent European standard
being EN 29000.
These standards define three model systems
of quality assurance control corresponding to
different situations rather than to different
levels of quality:
c model 3 defines assurance of quality by
inspection and checking of final products,
c model 2 includes, in addition to checking of
the final product, verification of the
manufacturing process. This method applies,
for example, to the manufacture of fuses
where performance characteristics cannot be
checked without destroying the fuse,
c model 1 corresponds to model 2, but with
the additional requirement that the quality of
the design process must be rigorously
scrutinized; for example, where it is not
intended to fabricate and test a prototype
(case of a custom-built product made to
specification).
general - installed power - B7
3. motor, heating and lighting loads
B
The examination of actual values of
an examination of the actual
apparent-power required by each load
apparent-power demands of different enables the establishment of:
loads: a necessary preliminary step c a declared power demand which
in the design of a LV installation. determines the contract for the supply of
energy,
c the rating of the HV/LV transformer, where
applicable (allowing for expected increases in
load),
c levels of load current at each distribution
board.
motor-starting current
Starting current (Id) for 3-phase induction Id depends on the value of starting
motors, according to motor type, will be: resistances in the rotor circuits:
c for direct-on-line starting of squirrel-cage Id = 1.5 to 3 In (mean value = 2.5 In).
motors: c for induction motors controlled by speed-
v Id = 4.2 to 9 In for 2-pole motors changing variable-frequency devices (for
v Id = 4.2 to 7 In for motors with more than example: Altivar Telemecanique), assume
2 poles (mean value = 6 In), where that the control device has the effect of
In = nominal full-load current of the motor, increasing the power (kW) supplied to the
c for wound-rotor motors (with slip-rings), and circuit motor (i.e. device plus) by 10%.
for D.C. motors:
table B4: power and current values for typical induction motors.
Reminder: some columns refer to 220 and 380 V motors. for 230 V and 400 V motors is 0.95, as noted on the
The international (IEC 38) standard of 230/400 V has been previous page.
in force since 1983. The conversion factor for current values
B
3.2. direct-current motors
D.C. motors are mainly used for specific
applications which require very high torques
and/or variable speed control (for example
machine tools and crushers, etc.).
Power to these motors is provided via speed-
control converters, fed from 230/400 V
3-phase a.c. sources; for example, Rectivar 4
(Telemecanique).
The operating principle of the converter does
not allow heavy overloading. The speed
controller, the supply line and the protection
are therefore based on the duty cycle of the
motor (e.g. frequent starting-current peaks)
rather than on the steady-state full-load
current.
For powers i 40 kW, this solution is
progressively replaced with a speed-
changing variable-frequency device and an
asynchronous motor. It is still used for
gradual starters and/or retarders.
Im
M
V power-supply network
In
B
3.4. fluorescent lamps and related equipment (continued)
arrangement of tube power current (A) at 220V/240 V tube
lamps, starters power consumed PF not PF electronic length
and ballasts (W) (1) (W) corrected corrected ballast (cm)
single tube with starter 18 27 0.37 0.19 60
36 45 0.43 0.24 120
58 69 0.67 0.37 150
single tube without 20 33 0.41 0.21 60
starter (2) with 40 54 0.45 0.26 120
external starting strip 65 81 0.80 0.41 150
twin tubes with starter 2 x 18 55 0.27 60
2 x 36 90 0.46 120
2 x 58 138 0.72 150
twin tubes without starter 2 x 40 108 0.49 120
single tube with 32 36 0.16 120
high frequency ballast 50 56 0.25 150
cos ø = 0.96
twin tubes with high- 2 x 32 72 0.33 120
frequency ballast 2 x 50 112 0.50 150
cos ø = 0.96
(1) Power in watts marked on tube.
(2) Used exclusively during maintenance operations.
table B12 gives the current taken by type of power current In(A) starting luminous average utilization
a complete unit, including all lamp demand PF not PF Ia/In period efficiency life of
(W) at corrected corrected lumens lamp
associated ancillary equipment. (W) 230V 400V 230V 400V 230V 400V (mins) (per watt) (h)
high-pressure sodium vapour lamps
50 60 0.76 0.3 1.4 4 to 6 80 to 120 9000 - lighting of
70 80 1 0.45 to 1.6 large halls
100 115 1.2 0.65 - outdoor
150 168 1.8 0.85 spaces
250 274 3 1.4 - public
lighting
400 431 4.4 2.2
1000 1055 10.45 4.9
low-pressure sodium vapour lamps
standard lamp
18 26.5 0.14 1.1 7 to 15 100 to 200 8000 to - lighting of
35 43.5 0.62 0.24 to 1.3 12000 autoroutes
55 72 0.34 - security
lighting, station
90 112 0.84 0.50 platform,
135 159 0.73 stockage areas
180 216 0.98
economy lamps
26 34.5 0.45 0.17 1.1 7 to 15 100 to 200 8000 to - new types
36 46.5 0.22 to 1.3 12000 more
66 80.5 0.39 efficient
same
91 105.5 0.49 utilization
131 154 0.69
mercury vapour + metal halide (also called metaliodide)
70 80.5 1 0.40 1.7 3 to 5 70 to 90 6000 - lighting of
150 172 1.80 0.88 6000 very large
250 276 2.10 1.35 6000 areas by
projectors (for
400 425 3.40 2.15 6000 example:sports
1000 1046 8.25 5.30 6000 stadiums, etc)
2000 2092 2052 16.50 8.60 10.50 6 2000
mercury vapour + fluorescent substance (fluorescent bulb)
50 57 0.6 0.30 1.7 3 to 6 40 to 60 8000 to - workshops
80 90 0.8 0.45 to 2 12000 with very high
125 141 1.15 0.70 ceilings (halls,
hangars)
250 268 2.15 1.35 - outdoor
400 421 3.25 2.15 lighting
700 731 5.4 3.85 - low light
1000 1046 8.25 5.30 output (1)
2000 2140 2080 15 11 6.1
(1) replaced by sodium vapour lamps.
Note: these lamps are sensitive to voltage dips. They extinguish if the voltage falls to less than 50% of their nominal voltage, and
will not re-ignite before cooling for approximately 4 minutes.
Note: Sodium vapour low-pressure lamps have a light-output efficiency which is superior to that of all other sources. However,
use of these lamps is restricted by the fact that the yellow-orange colour emitted makes colour recognition practically impossible.
table B12: current demands of discharge lamps.
B
In order to design an installation, the actual for the installation, from which the
maximum load demand likely to be imposed requirements of a supply system (distribution
on the power-supply system must be network, HV/LV transformer, or generating
assessed. set) can be specified.
To base the design simply on the arithmetic
sum of all the loads existing in the installation
would be extravagantly uneconomical, and
bad engineering practice. *power: the word "power" in the title has
The aim of this chapter is to show how all been used in a general sense, covering
existing and projected loads can be assigned active power (kW) apparent power (kVA) and
various factors to account for diversity (non- reactive power (kvar). Where the word power
simultaneous operation of all appliances of a is used without further qualification in the rest
given group) and utilization (e.g. an electric of the text, it means active power (kW).
motor is not generally operated at its full-load The magnitude of the load is adequately
capability, etc.). The values given are based specified by two quantities, viz:
on experience and on records taken from c power,
actual installations. In addition to providing c apparent power.
basic installation-design data on individual power
The ratio = power factor
circuits, the results will provide a global value apparent power
When some or all of the load characteristics generally too small to be expressed in kVA or
are not known, the values shown in table B13 kW). The estimates for lighting loads are
may be used to give a very approximate based on floor areas of 500 sq-metres.
estimate of VA demands (individual loads are
B
4.3 estimation of actual maximum kVA demand
All individual loads are not necessarily
all individual loads are not
operating at full rated nominal power nor
necessarily operating at full rated necessarily at the same time. Factors ku and
nominal power nor necessarily at the ks allow the determination of the maximum
same time. Factors ku and ks allow power and apparent-power demands actually
the determination of the maximum required to dimension the installation.
power and apparent-power demands
actually required to dimension the factor of maximum utilization (ku)
installation. In normal operating conditions the power In an industrial installation this factor may be
consumption of a load is sometimes less than estimated on an average at 0.75 for motors.
that indicated as its nominal power rating, a For incandescent-lighting loads, the factor
fairly common occurrence that justifies the always equals 1.
application of an utilization factor (ku) in the For socket-outlet circuits, the factors depend
estimation of realistic values. entirely on the type of appliances being
This factor must be applied to each individual supplied from the sockets concerned.
load, with particular attention to electric
motors, which are very rarely operated at full
load.
utilization apparent- utilization apparent- simultaneity apparent- simultaneity apparent- simultaneity apparent-
power (Pa) factor power demand factor power demand factor power demand factor power demand
kVA max. max. kVA kVA kVA kVA
workshop A lathe n°1 5 0.8 4 distribution
box
n°2 5 0.8 4
n°3 5 0,8 4 power
circuit
0.75 14.4 workshop
n°4 5 0.8 4 A
distribution
pedestal- n°1 2 0.8 1.6 board
drill main
n°2 2 0.8 1.6 0,9 18.9
socket- general
5 socket- outlets distribution
outlets 10/16 A 18 1 18 0.2 3,6 lighting board
circuit MGDB
30 fluorescent 3 1 3 1 3
lamps
power
circuit LV/HV
workshop B compressor 15 0.8 12 1 12 socket- workshop
B 65
3 socket- 10/16 A 10.6 1 10.6 0.4
outlets
4,3 lighting distribution 15.6 0.9
outlets circuit
board
10 fluorescent 1 1 1 1 1 0.9
lamps
workshop C ventilation n°1 2,5 1 2.5 distribution workshop
fan box C
n°2 2,5 1 2.5 power distribution
circuit
1 35 board
oven n°1 15 1 15
0.9 37.8
n°2 15 1 15
socket-
5 socket- outlets
outlets 10/16 A 18 1 18 0.28 5 lighting
circuit
20 fluorescent 2 1 2 1 2
lamps
table B18: an example in estimating the maximum predicted loading of an installation (the factor values used are for demonstration purposes
only).
B
4.5 diversity factor
The term DIVERSITY FACTOR, as defined
in IEC standards, is identical to the factor of
simultaneity (ks) used in this guide, as
described in 4.3. In some English-speaking
countries however (at the time of writing)
DIVERSITY FACTOR is the inverse of ks i.e.
it is always u 1.
In (A)
voltage (at no load) 400 V 420 V 433 V 480 V
rated power (kVA)
50 72 69 67 60
100 144 137 133 120
160 231 220 213 192
250 361 344 333 301
315 455 433 420 379
400 577 550 533 481
500 722 687 667 601
630 909 866 840 758
800 1155 1100 1067 962
1000 1443 1375 1333 1203
1250 1804 1718 1667 1504
1600 2309 2199 2133 1925
2000 2887 2749 2667 2406
2500 3608 3437 3333 3007
table B19: IEC-standardized kVA ratings of HV/LV 3-phase distribution transformers and
corresponding nominal full-load current values.
The nominal full-load current In on the LV Simplified equation for 400 V (3-phase load)
side of a 3-phase transformer is given by: In = kVA x 1.4
Pa 103 The IEC standard for power transformers is
In = where
Ue IEC 76.
* as given on the transformer-rating
Pa = kVA rating of the transformer
nameplate. For table B19 the no-load voltage
U = phase-to-phase voltage at no-load* (in
used is 420 V for the nominal 400 V winding.
volts)
In is in amperes.
For a single-phase transformer:
3
In = Pa 10 where
V
V = voltage between LV terminals at no-load*
(in volts).
C
At present there is no international agreement one stage of stepdown voltage
on precise limits to define “High” voltage. transformation, in order to feed into low-
Voltage levels which are designated as “high” voltage networks, will be referred to as High-
in some countries are referred to as Voltage systems.
“medium” in others. For economic and technical reasons the
In this chapter, distribution networks which upper nominal voltage limit of high-voltage
operate at voltages of 1,000 V or less are distribution systems, as defined above,
referred to as Low-Voltage systems, while seldom exceeds 36.5 kV.
systems of power distribution which require
Notes:
1.- The highest voltage for equipment is
indicated for nominal system voltages higher
than 1,000 V only. It is understood that,
particularly for certain nominal system
voltages, normal operation of equipment
cannot be ensured up to this highest voltage
for equipment, having regard to voltage
sensitive characteristics such as losses of
capacitors, magnetizing current of
transformers, etc.
In such cases, the relevant recommendations
must specify the limit to which the normal
operation of this equipment can be ensured.
2.- It is understood that the equipment to be
used in systems having nominal voltage not
exceeding 1,000 V should be specified with
reference to the nominal system voltage only,
both for operation and for insulation.
3.- The definition for “highest voltage for
equipment” given in IEC 38 is identical to that
given in IEC 694 for “rated voltage”.
IEC 694 concerns switchgear for nominal
voltages exceeding 1,000 V.
C
1.1 power-supply characteristics of high voltage distribution networks (continued)
The following Table C1, taken from IEC 38, Notes:
lists the most-commonly used standard levels 1 - It is recommended that in any one country
of high-voltage distribution, and relates the the ratio between two adjacent nominal
nominal voltages to corresponding standard voltages should be not less than two.
values of “Highest Voltage for Equipment”. 2 - In a normal system of Series I, the highest
Two series of highest voltages for equipment voltage and the lowest voltage do not differ
are given below, one for 50 Hz and 60 Hz by more than approximately ± 10% from the
systems (Series I), the other for 60 Hz nominal voltage of the system. In a normal
systems (Series II - North American practice). system of Series II, the highest voltage does
It is recommended that only one of these not differ by more than + 5% and the lowest
series should be used in any one country. voltage by more than - 10% from the nominal
It is also recommended that only one of the voltage of the system.
two series of nominal voltages given for
Series I should be used in any one country.
These systems are generally three-wire
systems unless otherwise indicated. The
values shown are voltages between phases.
The values indicated in parentheses should
be considered as non-preferred values. It is
recommended that these values should not
be used for new systems to be constructed in
future.
series I series II
highest voltage nominal system highest voltage nominal system
for equipement voltage for equipment voltage
(kV) (kV) (kV) (kV)
3.6 (1) 3.3 (1) 3 (1) 4.40 (1) 4.16 (1)
7.2 (1) 6.6 (1) 6 (1) - -
12 11 10 - -
- - - 13.2 (2) 12.47 (2)
- - - 13.97 (2) 13.2 (2)
- - - 14.52 (1) 13.8 (1)
(17.5) - (15) - -
24 22 20 - -
- - - 26.4 (2) 24.94 (2)
36 (3) 33 (3) - - -
- - - 36.5 (2) 34.5 (2)
40.5 (3) - 35 (3) - -
1) These values should not be used for public distribution systems.
2) These systems are generally four-wire systems.
3) The unification of these values is under consideration.
table C1: relating nominal system voltages with corresponding rated system voltages
(r.m.s. values).
In order to ensure adequate protection of
equipment against abnormally-high short-
term power-frequency overvoltages, and
transient overvoltages caused by lightning,
switching, and system fault conditions, etc.
all HV equipment must be specified to have
appropriate Rated Insulation Levels.
Switchgear
Table C2 shown below, is extracted from
IEC 694 and lists standard values of
“withstand” voltage requirements. The choice
between List 1 and List 2 values of table C2
depends on the degree of exposure to
lightning and switching overvoltages*, the
type of neutral earthing, and the type of
overvoltage protection devices, etc. (for
further guidance reference should be made to
IEC 71).
* This means basically that List 1 generally applies to
switchgear to be used on underground-cable systems while
List 2 is chosen for switchgear to be used on overhead-line
systems.
C
1.1 power-supply characteristics of high voltage distribution networks (continued)
highest voltage rated short duration rated lightning impulse
for equipment Um power frequency withstand voltage
(r.m.s.) withstand voltage (peak)
(r.m.s.) distribution other
transformers transformers
(kV) (kV) (kV) (kV)
4.40 19 60 75
13.20
13.97
14.52
26.4
} 34
50
95 110
150
36.5 70 200
72.5 140 350
table C3B: transformers rated insulation levels in series II (based on current practice in
the United States of America and some other countries).
Other components
It is evident that the insulation performance of
other HV components associated with these
major items, e.g. porcelain or glass
insulators, HV cables, instrument
transformers, etc. must be compatible with
that of the switchgear and transformers noted
above. Test schedules for these items are
given in appropriate IEC publications.
General note
the national standards of any
The IEC standards are intended for world-
particular country are normally wide application and consequently embrace
rationalized to include one or two an extensive range of voltage and current
levels only of voltage, current, and levels.
fault-levels, etc. These reflect the diverse practices adopted in
countries of different meteorologic,
geographic and economic constraints.
The national standards of any particular
country are normally rationalized to include
one or two levels only of voltage, current, and
fault-levels, etc.
A
E
C A’
IMC
IAC D’
IDC C’
B X
B’
E’
C
1.1 power-supply characteristics of high voltage distribution networks (continued)
In such a case, a CB having a s.c. current-
the short-circuit current level of a HV
breaking rating sufficiently high to ensure an
distribution system is frequently adequate s.c. current-making performance
limited by design techniques to a pre- must be installed.
determined maximum value typically The short-circuit current level of a HV
in the range of 12.5 kA to 25 kA. distribution system is frequently limited by
design techniques to a pre-determined
All HV equipments connected to the maximum value typically in the range of
system must be capable of 12.5 kA to 25 kA.
withstanding, without damage, the All HV equipments connected to the system
thermal and mechanical stresses of must be capable of withstanding, without
damage, the thermal and mechanical
the maximum short-circuit current for
stresses of the maximum short-circuit current
1 second, or in particular cases for 1 second, or in particular cases
(depending on equipment (depending on equipment specifications) for
specifications) for 3 seconds. 3 seconds.
C
1.1 power-supply characteristics of high voltage distribution networks (continued)
HV LV
1
N
fault
If
consumer
If V=IfRs
Rs
3 3
N N
TN(R) IT(R)
A RS B
HV LV HV LV cases C and D Uw - Uo
Rs i Im
1 1
2 2 Where
Uw = the rated normal-frequency withstand
3 3 voltage for low-voltage equipment at
consumer installations
N N Uo = phase to neutral voltage at consumer's
installations
Im = maximum value of HV earth-fault current
IT(N)
TT(N)
RS RS
C D
2 2 Where
Uws = the normal-frequency withstand
3 3 voltage for low-voltage equipments in
the substation (since the exposed
N N conductive parts of these equipments
are earthed via Rs)
U = phase to neutral voltage at the substation
for the TT(s) system, but the phase-to-
IT(S)
TT(S) phase voltage for the IT(s) system
Im = maximum value of HV earth-fault current
RS RN RS RN
E F
In cases E and F the LV protective conductors (bonding exposed conductive parts)
in the substation are earthed via the substation earth electrode, and it is therefore the substation
LV equipment (only) that could be subjected to overvoltage.
Notes:
(R) signifies that the HV and LV exposed conductive parts at the substation and those at the consumer's installations, together with the LV neutral
point of the transformer, are all earthed via the substation electrode system.
(N) signifies that the HV and LV exposed conductive parts at the substation, together with the LV neutral point of the transformer are earthed via the
substation electrode system.
(S) signifies that the LV neutral point of the transformer is separately earthed outside of the area of influence of the substation earth electrode.
Uw and Uws are commonly given the (IEC 644) value 1.5 Uo + 750 V, where Uo is the nominal phase-to-neutral voltage of the LV system concerned.
fig. C7: maximum earthing resistance Rs at a HV/LV substation to ensure safety during a short-circuit to earth fault on the high-voltage
equipment for different systems of earthing.
C
1.1 power-supply characteristics of high voltage distribution networks (continued)
Practical values adopted by one national Assuming perfect insulation, all LV phase and
electrical power-supply authority, on its 20 kV neutral conductors will be raised by
distribution systems, are as follows: electrostatic induction to a potential
c maximum earth-fault current on overhead- approaching that of the equipotential
line distribution systems, or mixed (O/H line conductors.
and U/G cable) systems, is 300 A, In practice, it is more likely, because of the
c maximum earth-fault current on numerous earth-leakage paths of all live
underground systems is 1,000 A. conductors in a number of installations acting
The formula required to determine the in parallel, that the system will behave
maximum value of earthing resistance Rs at similarly to the case where a neutral earthing
the substation, to ensure that the LV resistor is present, i.e. all conductors will be
withstand voltage will not be exceeded, is: raised to the potential of the substation earth.
Uw - Uo In these cases, the overvoltage stresses on
Rs = in ohms
Im the LV insulation are small or non-existent.
(see cases C and D in figure C7). Diagrams D and F. In these cases, the high
Where potential of the substation (S/S) earthing
Uw = the lowest standard value (in volts) of system acts on the isolated LV phase and
short-term (5 s) withstand voltage neutral conductors:
for the consumer's installation and c through the capacitance between the LV
appliances windings of the transformer and the
= 1.5 Uo + 750 V (IEC 644 (1991)) transformer tank,
Uo = phase to neutral voltage (in volts) at the c through capacitance between the
consumer's LV service position equipotential conductors in the S/S and
Im = maximum earth-fault current on the HV the cores of LV distribution cables leaving
system (in amps). the S/S,
c through current leakage paths in the
A third form of system earthing referred to as insulation, in each case.
the “IT” system in IEC 364 is commonly used At positions outside the area of influence of
where continuity of supply is essential, e.g. in the S/S earthing, system capacitances exist
hospitals, continuous-process manufacturing, between the conductors and earth at zero
etc. potential (capacitances between cores are
The principle depends on taking a supply irrelevant - all cores being raised to the same
from an unearthed source, usually a potential).
transformer, the secondary winding of which The result is essentially a capacitive voltage
is unearthed, or earthed through a high divider, where each “capacitor” is shunted by
impedance (u 1,000 ohms). (leakage path) resistances.
In these cases, an insulation failure to earth In general, LV cable and installation wiring
in the low-voltage circuits supplied from the capacitances to earth are much larger, and
secondary windings will result in zero or the insulation resistances to earth are much
negligible fault-current flow, which can be smaller than those of the corresponding
allowed to persist until it is convenient to parameters at the S/S, so that most of the
shut-down the affected circuit to carry out voltage stresses appear at the substation
repair work. between the transformer tank and the LV
Diagrams B, D and F of figure C7 show IT winding.
systems in which resistors (of approximately The rise in potential at consumers’
1,000 ohms) are included in the neutral- installations is not likely therefore to be a
earthing lead. problem where the HV earth-fault current
If however, these resistors were removed, so level is restricted as previously mentioned.
that the system is unearthed, the following All IT-earthed transformers, whether the
notes apply. neutral point is isolated or earthed through a
Diagram B. All phase wires and the neutral high impedance, are routinely provided with
conductor are “floating” with respect to earth, an overvoltage limiting device which will
to which they are “connected” via the automatically connect the neutral point
(normally very high) insulation resistances directly to earth if an overvoltage condition
and (very small) capacitances between the approaches the insulation-withstand level of
live conductors and earthed metal (conduits, the LV system.
etc.). In addition to the possibilities mentioned
above, several other ways in which these
overvoltages can occur are described in
Clause 3.1.
C
1.2 different HV service connections (continued)
ring-main principle
Ring-main units (RMU) are normally
connected to form a HV ring main* or
interconnector-distributor*, such that the RMU
busbars carry the full ring-main or
interconnector current (figure C9).
The RMU consists of three compartments,
integrated to form a single assembly, viz:
c 2 incoming compartments, each containing
a load-break/isolating switch and a circuit
earthing switch,
c 1 outgoing and general protection
compartment, containing a load-break switch
and HV fuses, or a combined load-break/fuse
switch, or a circuit breaker and isolating
switch, together with a circuit-earthing switch
in each case.
All load-break switches and earthing switches
are fully rated for short-circuit current-making
duty.
This arrangement provides the user with a
two-source supply, thereby reducing
considerably any interruption of service due
to system faults or operational manœuvres
by the supply authority, etc.
The main application for RMUs is in public-
supply HV underground-cable networks in
urban areas.
* A ring main is a continuous distributor in the form of a
closed loop, which originates and terminates on one set of
busbars. Each end of the loop is controlled by its own circuit
breaker. In order to improve operational flexibility the
busbars are often divided into two sections by a normally-
closed bus-section circuit breaker, and each end of the ring underground
is connected to a different section. cable ring main
An interconnector is a continuous untapped feeder
connecting the busbars of two substations. Each end of the
interconnector is usually controlled by a circuit beaker.
An interconnector-distributor is an interconnector which
supplies one or more distribution substations along its
length. fig. C9: ring-main service.
parallel feeders
Where a HV supply connection to two lines or
cables originating from the same busbar of a
substation is possible, a similar HV
switchboard to that of a RMU is commonly
used (figure C10).
The main operational difference between this
arrangement and that of a RMU is that the
two incoming panels are mutually interlocked,
such that one incoming switch only can be
closed at a time, i.e. its closure prevents the
closure of the other.
On the loss of power supply, the closed
incoming switch must be opened and the
(formerly open) switch can then be closed.
The sequence may be carried out manually paralleled
underground-cable
or automatically. distributors
This type of switchboard is used particularly
in networks of high-load density and in
rapidly-expanding urban areas supplied by
HV underground cable systems. fig. C10: duplicated supply service.
If O1 RR O2 SR O3
In
Io 15 to 30s
If O1 RR O2 SR1 O3 SR2 O4
In
Io 15 to 30s 15 to 30s
If O1 RR O2 SR1 O3
In
SR2
Io 15 to 30s 15 to 30s
fig. C11: automatic reclosing cycles of a circuit breaker controlling a radial HV distributor.
C
1.3 some operational aspects of HV distribution networks (continued)
underground cable networks
Faults on underground cable networks are
sometimes the result of careless
workmanship by cable jointers or by cable-
laying contractors, etc., but are more
commonly due to damage from tools such as
pick-axes, pneumatic drills and trench
excavating machines, and so on, used by
other utilities.
Insulation failures sometimes occur in cable-
terminating boxes due to overvoltage,
particularly at points in a HV system where an
overhead line is connected to an
underground cable. The overvoltage in such
a case is generally of atmospheric origin, and
electromagnetic-wave reflection effects at the
joint box (where the natural impedance of the
circuit changes abruptly) can result in
overstressing of the cable-box insulation to
the point of failure. Overvoltage protection
devices, such as lightning arresters, are
frequently installed at these locations.
Faults occurring in cable networks are less
frequent than those on overhead (O/H) line
systems, but are almost invariably permanent
faults, which require more time for localization
and repair than those on O/H lines.
Where a cable fault occurs on a ring main,
supplies can be quickly restored to all
consumers when the faulty section of cable
has been determined.
If, however, the fault occurs on a radial
distributor, the delay in locating the fault and
carrying out repair work can amount to
several hours, and will affect all consumers
downstream of the fault position.
In any case, if supply continuity is essential
on all, or part of, an installation, a standby
source must be provided. Standby power
equipment is described in Chapter F
section 2.1.
C
Large consumers of electricity are invariably (1) The power-supplier constructs a standard
supplied at HV. substation close to the consumer’s premises,
On LV systems operating at 120/208 V but the HV/LV transformer(s) is (are) located
(3-phase 4-wires), a load of 50 kVA might be in transformer chamber(s) inside the
considered to be “large”, while on a premises, close to the load centre.
240/415 V 3-phase system a “large” (2) The consumer constructs and equips his
consumer could have a load in excess of own substation on his own premises, to
100 kVA. Both systems of LV distribution are which the power supplier makes the HV
common in many parts of the world. connection.
As a matter of interest, the IEC recommends In method (1) the power supplier owns the
a “world” standard of 230/400 V for 3-phase substation, the cable(s) to the transformer(s),
4-wire systems. This is a compromise level the transformer(s) and the transformer
and will allow existing systems which operate chamber(s), to which he has unrestricted
at 220/380 V and at 240/415 V, or close to access.
these values, to comply with the proposed The transformer chamber(s) is (are)
standard simply by adjusting the off-circuit constructed by the consumer (to plans and
tapping switches of standard distribution regulations provided by the supplier) and
transformers. include plinths, oil drains, fire walls and
The distance over which the load has to be ceilings, ventilation, lighting, and earthing
transmitted is a further factor in considering systems, all to be approved by the supply
an HV or LV service. Services to small but authority.
isolated rural consumers are obvious The tariff structure will cover an agreed part
examples. of the expenditure required to provide the
The decision of a HV or LV supply will service.
depend on local circumstances and Whichever procedure is followed, the same
considerations such as those mentioned principles apply in the conception and
above, and will generally be imposed by the realization of the project. The following notes
power-supply authority for the district refer to procedure (2).
concerned.
When a decision to supply power at HV has
been made, there are two widely-followed
methods of proceeding.
C
2.1 procedures for the establishment of a new substation (continued)
the power-supply organization must implementation
give official approval of the Before any installation work is started, the c full details of electrical equipment to be
official agreement of the power-supplier must installed, including performance
equipment to be installed in the be obtained. The request for approval must characteristics,
substation, and of proposed methods include the following information, largely c layout of equipment and provision for
of installation. based on the preliminary exchanges noted metering components,
above: c arrangements for power-factor
c location of the proposed substation, improvement if eventually required,
c one-line diagram of power circuits and c arrangements provided for emergency
connections, together with earthing-circuit standby power plant (HV or LV) if eventually
proposals, required.
C
The subject of protection in the electrical-
power industry is vast: it covers all aspects of
safety for personnel, and protection against
damage or destruction of property, plant, and
equipment.
These different aspects of protection can be
broadly classified according to the following
objectives:
c protection of personnel and animals against
the dangers of overvoltages and electric
shock, fire, explosions, and toxic gases, etc.,
c protection of the plant, equipment and
components of a power system against the
stresses of short-circuit faults, atmospheric
surges (lightning) and power-system
instability (loss of synchronism) etc.,
c protection of personnel and plant from the
dangers of incorrect power-system operation,
by the use of electrical and mechanical
interlocking. All classes of switchgear
(including, for example, tap-position selector
switches on transformers, and so on...) have
well-defined operating limits. This means that
the order in which the different kinds of
switching device can be safely closed or
opened is vitally important. Interlocking keys
and analogous electrical control circuits are
frequently used to ensure strict compliance
with correct operating sequences.
It is beyond the scope of a guide to describe
in full technical detail the numerous schemes
of protection available to power-systems
engineers, but it is hoped that the following
sections will prove to be useful through a
discussion of general principles. While some
of the protective devices mentioned are of
universal application, descriptions generally
will be confined to those in common use on
HV and LV systems only, as defined in
Sub-clause 1.1 of this Chapter. Where some
technical explanation is necessary to simplify
an understanding of the text, reference is
made to a related Appendix.
C
3.1 protection against electric shocks and overvoltages (continued)
Direct-contact protection protection against overvoltages
The main form of protection against direct The situation mentioned immediately above,
contact hazards is to contain all live parts in describing an indirect-contact hazard
housings of insulating material, by placing out resulting from faulty HV insulation, is one
of reach (behind insulated barriers or at the of a number of ways in which an abnormal
top of poles) or by means of obstacles. overvoltage condition can occur.
Where insulated live parts are housed in a Methods of eliminating danger to personnel in
metal envelope, for example transformers, such a case are described in Sub-clause 1.1.
electric motors and many domestic Other situations which can cause
appliances, the metal envelope is connected overvoltages to occur on HV and LV systems
to the installation protective earthing system. include:
For LV appliances this is achieved through c surges of atmospheric origin,
the third pin of a 3-pin plug and socket. Total c a short-circuit earth fault on an unearthed
or even partial failure of insulation to the (or high-impedance earthed) 3-phase system,
metal, can (depending on the ratio of the c ferro-resonance,
resistance of the leakage path through the c energization of capacitor banks,
insulation, to the resistance from the metal c circuit breaker opening or fuse melting to
envelope to earth) raise the voltage of the break short-circuit current.
envelope to a dangerous level. Overvoltages created by the causes listed
above can be divided according to
Indirect-contact protection
in the case of a HV fault to a metallic characteristies such as:
A person touching the metal envelope of an c duration: permanent, temporary, transient,
enclosure, it may not be possible to apparatus of which the insulation is faulty, as c frequency: industrial frequency, harmonics
limit the touch voltage to the safe described above, is said to be making an of industrial frequency, high frequency,
value of 50 V*. The solution is to indirect contact. unidirectional surges.
create an equipotent-situation as An indirect contact is characterized by the
fact that a current path to earth exists Overvoltages of atmospheric origin
described in Sub-clause 1.1 (through the protective earthing (PE)
"Earthing connections". Protection against this kind of danger must be
conductor) in parallel with the shock current provided when a substation is supplied
through the person concerned. directly from an overhead-line system. The
c case of fault on L.V. system. most common protective device used at
Extensive tests have shown that, providing present is a non-linear resistor-type of
the potential of the metal envelope is not lightning arrester, which is connected (one for
greater than 50 V* with respect to earth, or to each phase) between a phase conductor and
any conductive material within reaching the substation earthing system, as close to
distance, no danger exists. the point of entry into the substation as
c indirect-contact hazard in the case of a HV possible.
fault. For consumers' substations, this protection is
If the insulation failure in an apparatus is achieved by:
between a HV conductor and the metal c lightning arresters (one per phase
envelope, it is not generally possible to limit conductor, which are sometimes connected in
the rise of voltage of the envelope to 50 V series with a device for automatic tripping of a
or less, simply by reducing the earthing circuit breaker) (see Chapter L) and/or by
resistance to a low value. c the reduction of the substation-earthing
The solution in this case is to create an resistance to the lowest possible value to
equipotential situation, as described in avoid (as far as possible) a breakdown of LV
Sub-clause 1.1 “Earthing connections”. insulation due to the rise in potential of the
earthing system when discharging the surge
* in dry locations, 25 V in wet locations current.
(bathrooms, etc.). Where it is advisable to protect a substation
against direct strokes, lightning-discharge
electrodes (Franklin type) and shield wires
should be installed and connected to the
substation earthing system.
It may be noted that, at the voltage levels
being considered (i 35 kV), switching surges
are generally less severe than lightning
surges, and so devices which are suitable for
satisfactory lightning protection are adequate
to protect against overvoltages due
to switching surges.
insulation conductor
resistance capacitance
fault current normally restricted to several milli-amps depending on the size of the installation
V1
V1
3 I(C+R)
√3 I(C+R)2
I(C+R)1 I(C+R)2
√3 I(C+R)1
VNE
<90°
V2
V3 I(C+R)3 V2 V3 = 0
normal voltages and capacitive / resistive currents voltage conditions and current flowing in an earth
fault on an IT system
fig. C12: earth fault on IT-earthed systems.
C
3.1 protection against electric shocks and overvoltages (continued)
Ferro-resonance V1E V1N
Ferro-resonance is a spontaneous condition
which occurs due to a complex interaction
between intrinsic power-system capacitances
and the non-linear voltage-dependent N
inductances of transformers or reactors,
V3N V2N
chokes, etc. when their magnetic circuits are
in a highly-saturated state (generally due to
an abnormal system disturbance). V3E V2E
The resonant condition may be at any E
frequency, and can be a parallel or series
fig. C13: vector diagram of a displaced
resonance, not corresponding exactly to the
neutral due to ferro-resonance at 50 Hz.
classical formulae for LC resonant circuits
(which are based on assumed linearity of the
LC components). Moreover, resonance may
occur on one or two phases only of a 3-phase
system.
All types of transformer can be affected,
including instrument voltage transformers;
the capacitor-type VT (not normally used
at the HV levels considered in this guide) is
especially prone to sub-harmonic resonance
(1/3 of the fundamental frequency).
Electro-magnetic VTs (which are very
commonly used at HV levels covered by this
guide) counter the possibility of resonance
by:
c designing the transformer cores to operate
at low levels of flux density,
c incorporating damping resistors in the
transformer secondary or tertiary circuits.
Apart from the obvious problems presented
by false signals given by instrument
transformers, permanent overvoltage
conditions can be established.
Unless the precautions mentioned above are
taken, the following situation may arise (and
often did in the past, before the phenomenon
was identified). The problem concerns
IT-earthed systems, in which the potential of
the neutral point becomes displaced (from
approx. earth potential) with the result that
excessive values of phase voltage with
respect to earth occur on two phases, as
shown in the vector diagram of figure C13.
The condition is due to the saturation of two
(of the three) single-phase cores of a voltage
transformer, the windings of which are
connected between phase and earth, as
shown in figure C14, and may be provoked
by a transitory* overvoltage condition such as
that described above and shown in figure
C12.
The overvoltage saturates the two single-
phase VT cores, which then present a (non-
linear, but average) inductance which is much
lower than its normal value. The parallel
combination of phase-to-earth capacitance
and phase-to-earth inductance which, under
normal conditions, behaves overall as a
capacitance K (because the capacitive
reactance < inductive reactance) suddenly
changes character to that of an inductance.
The two states, viz: before saturation and
during saturation are shown in figure C14 (a)
and (b) respectively.
In C14 (a1) the three capacitances and the
three inductances each form an independent
balanced 3-phase star-connected group, i.e.
there is no exchange of current between
them.
* for example, a bird causing a brief short-circuit to earth,
and falling clear of the line, or wind-blown debris, etc.
1
=
=
(a1) (a2)
N
3 2
source
L L L C C C K K K
K<C
(a) circuits in normal operation at normal system frequency
= (b2)
(b1) N
source
C
3.2 electrical protection
overcurrents due to overloading or general
to short-circuit faults (between The circuits and equipment in a substation
must be protected so that excessive currents
phases and/or to earth) are detected and/or voltages are rapidly removed from the
by protective devices up-stream and system before causing danger, damage or
down-stream of the power destruction. All equipments normally used in
transformer(s). These devices power-system installations have
cause the faulty circuit to be cut-off (standardized) short-time withstand ratings for
overcurrent and overvoltage conditions, and
electrically from the power supply. the role of protective schemes is to ensure
The devices may be: that these withstand limits can never be
c fuses which clear the faulty circuit exceeded. In general, this means that fault
directly, or together with a conditions must be cleared as fast as
possible within the limits set by
mechanical tripping attachment, considerations of the highest attainable
which opens an associated three- reliability.
phase load-break switch, Overcurrents due to overloading can normally
c direct-acting tripping coils which be tolerated for longer periods than those of
form part of a LV circuit breaker, and short-circuits and some protective devices
are designed to operate with increasing
are operated by the fault (or speed as the degree of overloading increases
overload) current passing through (i.e. an inverse-time/current characteristic).
them, In addition to the protection against
c relays which act indirectly such as: overvoltages mentioned in section 3.1,
electrical protection is routinely provided
v electrical relays supplied from against the following abnormal conditions:
current and/or voltage transformers, c overloading (i.e. excessive currents not due
v pressure-operated relays to faults),
(pressostats), c transformer faults,
v temperature-operated relays c short-circuit faults between phases,
c short-circuit faults to earth, and is
(thermostats), commonly realized by:
v gas-detection relays (Buchholz, c a circuit breaker downstream of the
etc.), transformer,
v oil-surge operated relays. c detection and trip-initiating devices which
are integral parts of the transformer,
c a circuit breaker or fuses (with or without an
associated load-break switch) upstream of
the transformer.
The choice and sophistication of the
protective schemes will depend on the
characteristics of the substation, and are
discussed later.
Protective devices upstream of the
transformer must be co-ordinated with
downstream devices, as noted in Chapter H2,
Sub-clause 4.6.
overload protection
Overloading is frequently due to the co-
incidental demand of a number of small
loads, or to an increase in the apparent
power (kVA) demand of an installation, due to
expansion of an enterprise, with consequent
building extensions, and so on.-Load
increases raise the temperature of the circuit
conductors concerned, together with that of
the transformer.
When the temperature exceeds the normal
design limits of the equipment involved, the
deterioration rate (ageing) of the insulation
materials is increased, and the working life of
the equipment is correspondingly reduced.
Overload protection devices are usually
located downstream of the transformer in
consumer-type substations, but are
commonly provided on the upstream side in
public-supply substations.
C
3.2 electrical protection (continued)
protection against short-circuits choice of protective devices
Short-circuits may occur between phase on the upstream side of the
conductors, between a phase conductor and transformer in a consumer-type
earth, or in any combination of these substation
conditions on the three phases. The
(extremely unlikely) occurrence of a short- In certain national standards*, the choice is
circuit fault between the high-voltage made according to two current values:
windings and the low-voltage windings will c the reference current Ib, the value of which
constitute a short-circuit-to-earth fault on the will be:
HV winding if the secondary winding is v in the case of metering at low voltage: the
earthed, which is generally the case. nominal rated current of the transformer,
Unearthed star-connected LV secondary v in the case of metering at high voltage: the
windings of IT-system transformers have an sum of the nominal rated currents of
overvoltage device which will operate in these transformers and other HV plant (e.g. motors,
circumstances to connect the LV neutral point etc.),
of the transformer directly to earth. c the minimum value of HV 3-phase short-
Earth faults on the HV winding present a circuit current at the installation.
particular danger to personnel, due to the * There is no equivalent IEC standard.
Transferred Potential hazard mentioned in
HV LV
Sub-clause 1.1: “Earthing connections”.
1 1
For this reason, high-speed sensitive earth-
fault protection is standard on the HV side of
2 2
power transformers in many public-supply
distribution and consumer-type substations. 3 3
The scheme is shown below in figure C17
and can be applied to transformers having N
delta or unearthed-star primary windings.
This arrangement is called a “Restricted
E/F relay
Earth-Fault" (REF) protection because it will
detect earth faults only on the HV windings or
on the circuit downstream of the CTs (current
transformers) to the winding terminals. fig. C17: protection against earth fault on
The advantages of the scheme include: the HV winding.
c simplicity and low cost,
c instantaneous operation,
c high sensitivity,
c virtual elimination of the dangers of
Transferred Potential (because of its
instantaneous operation),
c no problems of coordination with
downstream protection; LV earth faults
appear as phase/phase faults on the HV side
of the transformer, thereby being undetected
by the REF relay (see fig. AC1-2(c) of
Appendix C1).
Again, in public-supply systems in general,
there is no CB on the LV side, simply a load-
break switch. Overcurrent protective relays
(2 only) are connected in series with the REF
current transformers, as shown dotted in
figure C17 (see note). These overcurrent
relays afford protection against overloading
and short-circuit faults downstream of the
CTs, but must be carefully co-ordinated with
LV overcurrent protective devices.
C
3.2 electrical protection (continued)
supply voltages nominal transformer ratings
(kV) (kVA)
rated nominal 25 50 100 125 160 200 250 315 400 500 630 800 1,000 1,250 1,600 2,000 2,500
3.6 3 16 25 40 50 50 63 80 80 100 125 160 200 250
3.3 16 25 40 50 50 63 80 80 100 125 160 200 250
7.2 4.16 10 25 31.5 40 50 50 63 80 80 100 125 160 200 250
5.5 10 16 25 31.5 40 40 50 63 63 80 100 125 160 200 250
6 10 16 25 31.5 31.5 40 50 50 63 80 80 100 125 160 200 250
6.6 10 16 25 25 31.5 40 40 50 63 80 80 100 125 160 200 250
12 10 6.3 10 16 25 25 31.5 31.5 40 50 50 63 80 80 100 125 160 200
11 6.3 10 16 25 25 25 31.5 31.5 40 50 63 63 80 100 125 160 200
17.5 13.8 6.3 6.3 10 16 25 25 25 31.5 31.5 40 50 63 63 80 100 160 160
15 6.3 6.3 10 16 16 25 25 31.5 31.5 40 50 50 63 80 80 100 160
24 20 6.3 6.3 10 10 16 16 25 25 31.5 31.5 40 50 50 63 80 80 160
22 6.3 6.3 10 10 10 16 25 25 25 31.5 31.5 40 50 50 63 80 160
36 33 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 16 16 16 16 16 31.5 31.5 40 50 63 80
40.5 36.5 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 16 16 16 16 16 25 25 31.5 40 50 63
table C19: rated current (A) of HV fuses for transformer protection according to IEC 282-1.
It is strongly recommended that, following the the transformer can also be achieved very
operation of a fuse (or fuses) to clear a fault simply by devices which are sometimes
or overload condition, all three fuses be referred to as “high-set” relays.
replaced, since it is possible that the fuse (or The “high-set” principle depends on the fact
fuses) that had not operated may have that, if the current is sufficiently high to
deteriorated, due to the passage of excessive operate the relay, then the short-circuit must
current during the disturbance. be on the HV side of the transformer,
because a short-circuit on the LV terminals or
c protection by circuit breaker windings of the transformer will not produce
no disturbance occurring within the When the substation is supplied through a sufficient current on the HV side to cause the
installation shall cause the operation HV circuit breaker, it will be a contractual relay to operate.
of any protective relaying in the condition that no disturbance occurring within The high-set relays (2 or 3 as noted in Sub-
power-supply network. the installation shall cause the operation of clause "protection against short-circuits") will
any protective relaying in the power-supply each be connected in series with one of the
network. inverse-time/overcurrent relays, shown dotted
To ensure that this condition can be complied in figure C17, and for distribution-type
with, the supply authority must specify the transformers are generally set to operate at
longest times permissible for clearing the 25 times the full-load current of the
following faults on the installation: transformer. By these simple means
c short-circuit fault between all 3 phases, therefore, instantaneous clearance of short-
c short-circuit fault between any 2 phases, circuit faults on the HV side of a transformer
c short-circuit fault of one phase to earth, can be achieved, without affecting the co-
c short-circuit fault of any 2 phases to earth. ordination scheme for downstream protection.
The maximum level of a 3-phase short-circuit At periods of the lowest levels of short-circuit
at the installation was known at the outset of fault current, however, the high-set scheme
the project, in order to purchase adequately- may not be sufficiently sensitive, i.e. the
rated equipment. To ensure correct operation current may not be high enough to operate
of the protective devices, the minimum value the relay (there is no similar problem with
of 3-phase short-circuit current must also be earth faults, the REF scheme being very
stated by the supply authority. sensitive).
When planning the protection scheme for the In extreme cases, where the difference
installation, the general principle of co- between maximum and minimum fault levels
ordination is that the circuit breaker closest to is very large, it may be necessary to provide a
the power source will have the longest differential-protection scheme for the
tripping time. In the present case, this is the transformer.
HV circuit breaker. Differential-protection schemes compare the
This longest tripping time must not, however, currents entering the primary windings with
exceed that given by the supply authority; a those leaving the secondary windings (after
constraint which generally is satisfied only by correction for current-level and phase
protective relays at the HV circuit breaker, to changes) and any significant difference will
supplement the transformer-mounted operate the relay, which trips the circuit
protective devices previously mentioned. breakers controlling the transformer.
As far as earth faults are concerned, there is Such protection will provide adequate
no co-ordination problem, provided that the sensitivity with high-speed tripping, and will
transformer HV winding is a delta- or not affect co-ordination of downstream
unearthed-star connection, since, as already protection.
mentioned, earth faults on the LV system will It may be noted that the high-speed relays
then appear as phase-to-phase faults on the used for the REF, high-set and differential
HV system. HV earth faults occurring in the protection schemes are stabilized against
substation can therefore be cleared false operation due to CT saturation (for
instantaneously by a REF scheme. example, when energizing the transformer).
Instantaneous tripping for phase-to-phase Overcurrent, REF, and high-set relays are
short-circuit faults occurring on the HV side of commonly contained in a single relay case.
transformer rated power (kVA) 50 100 160 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500
transformer current Ir (A) 69 137 220 344 433 550 687 866 1100 1375 1718 2199 2749 3437
oil-immersed transformer Isc (kA) Psc = 250 MVA 1.71 3.40 5.41 8.38 10.5 13.2 16.4 20.4 17.4 21.5 26.4 33.1 40.4 49.1
Psc = 500 MVA 1.71 3.42 5.45 8.49 10.7 13.5 16.8 21.0 17.9 22.2 27.5 34.8 43.0 52.9
cast-resin transformer Isc (kA) Psc = 250 MVA 1.14 2.28 3.63 5.63 7.07 8.93 11.1 13.9 17.4 21.5 26.4 33.1 40.4 49.1
Psc = 500 MVA 1.14 2.28 3.65 5.68 7.14 9.04 11.3 14.1 17.9 22.2 27.5 34.8 43.0 52.9
table C20: 3-phase short-circuit currents of typical distribution transformers.
discrimination (selectivity)
between the protective devices
on the upstream and
downstream sides of the
transformer
The consumer-type substation with LV HV fuses and LV circuit breakers.*
metering requires discriminative operation In order to compare the two curves, the HV
between the HV fuses and the LV circuit currents must be converted to the equivalent
breaker or fuses. The calibre of the HV fuses LV currents, or vice-versa.
will have been chosen according to the Figure C21 illustrates these requirements.
characteristics of the transformer. Where an LV fuse-switch is used, similar
The tripping characteristics of the LV circuit separation of the characteristic curves of the
breaker must be such, that for an overload or HV and LV fuses must be respected. This
short-circuit condition downstream of its question is considered in Appendix C1
location, the breaker will trip sufficiently (figure AC1-3).
quickly to ensure that the HV fuses will not be
adversely affected by the passage of time minimum pre-arcing
overcurrent through them. time of HV fuse
The tripping performance curves for HV fuses B/A u 1.35 at any
and LV circuit breakers are given by graphs moment in time
of time-to-operate against current passing D/C u 2 at any
through them. Both curves have the general current value
inverse-time/current form (with an abrupt
discontinuity in the CB curve at the current
value above which “instantaneous” tripping
occurs). D
circuit breaker
These curves are shown typically in
tripping
figure C21. C
characteristic
c in order to achieve discrimination:
v all parts of the fuse curve must be above
and to the right of the CB curve, current
A
c in order to leave the fuses unaffected (i.e.
B
undamaged):
v all parts of the minimum pre-arcing fuse fig. C21: discrimination between HV fuse
curve must be located to the right of the CB operation and LV circuit breaker tripping,
curve by a factor of 1.35 or more (e.g. where, for transformer protection.
at time T, the CB curve passes through a
point corresponding to 100 A, the fuse curve Note: In the simple and widely used case,
at the same time T must pass through a point where a HV circuit breaker incorporates REF,
corresponding to 135 A, or more, and so high-set and inverse-time/overcurrent relays
on...) and, as previously described, the only electrical
v all parts of the fuse curve must be above protection of the LV windings and the LV
the CB curve by a factor of 2 or more (e.g. connections from the transformer terminals to
where, at a current level I the CB curve the upstream terminals of the LV circuit
passes through a point corresponding to breaker is that provided by the HV inverse-
1.5 seconds, the fuse curve at the same time/overcurrent relays.
current level I must pass through a point * Merlin Gerin “catalogue distribution HT/MT 96” page G29.
corresponding to 3 seconds, or more, etc.).
The factors 1.35 and 2 are based on standard
maximum manufacturing tolerances for
C
3.2 electrical protection (continued)
There is no compelling need for current on the HV side of the transformer and
discrimination between these HV relays and will flow in two lines only. The tripping time of
the LV circuit breaker protection, since a the inverse-time/overcurrent relays may, in
short-circuit on the upstream or downstream this case, be unacceptably long.
side of the LV breaker would result in a total The conventional solution to the problem is to
loss of supply, in either case. make these LV connections “fault-free” by
In general, a 3-phase short-circuit at the LV enclosing the (generously-insulated)
terminals of a distribution transformer will conductors in vermin-proof metal bus-ducts, a
cause a current of 14-25 times the method which, in view of the location (in an
transformer full-load current to flow in the LV area prohibited to all except authorized
and HV circuits (at times of maximum short- personnel) is generally considered to be
circuit fault levels on the system). satisfactory. A 100 % solution would be to
If the fault is a short-circuit of one phase to install overall protection from the HV circuit
earth, immediately upstream of the LV circuit breaker to the LV circuit breaker, as provided
breaker however, then this value will be by the differential protective scheme
reduced to approximately 8-14 times full-load previously described.
3
0 V3 0
3ICA
B eIC1B
1
eIC2B
2
3
IF 0 V3 0
IF
IF
3ICB
power
supply
source
C I’F
IF
eIC1C
1
eIC2C
2
3
0 V3 0
3ICC
eIc2
IF
IF
I’F
I’F
3IC V1
V1 V1
V1
3IC
IC2 √3IC2
√3IC2 I'F
IC1 VNE
VNE
√3IC1
V3 = 0 V2 √3IC1 V2
V3 IC3 V2
V3 = 0 V2 fault current IF is the vector sum of
voltages during the neutral resistor current I’F and
normal voltages
short-circuit to residual current on healthy the residual capacitive currents of
and capacitive
earth on phase 3 circuits during fault the system 3IC
currents
C
3.2 electrical protection (continued)
power supply eIc1
eIc2
Petersen coil L
IF = 0
0 0
I’F
I’F = 3IC
3IC V1
eIC2
VNE
eIC1
E V2
I’F
vector diagram for condition I’F = 3 IC
V1 V1
V1
3IC
IC2
eIC2
IC1 VNE
V3 = 0 V2 √3IC1
V3 IC3 V2
V3 = 0 V2
voltages during
normal voltages
short-circuit to residual current on healthy
and capacitive
earth on phase 3 circuits during fault
currents
fig. C23: earth fault diagram (with Petersen coil).
C30 - HV/LV distribution substations
C
3.3 protection against thermal effects
The risk and consequences of a fire are
particularly serious.
The prefabricated equipments are conceived
and manufactured in a way that avoids
excessive temperature rise in normal use.
Where an installation includes one or several
liquid-insulated transformers, the regulations
and arrangements relative to the protection
and construction details must be fully
respected, and are described in Sub-
clause 4.3: “choice of HV/LV transformers”.
C
3.4 interlocks and conditioned manœuvres (continued)
practical example
In a consumer-type substation with LV
metering, the interlocking scheme most
commonly used is HV/LV/TR (high voltage/
low voltage/transformer).
The aim of the interlocking is:
c to prevent access to the transformer
compartment if the earthing switch has not
been previously closed,
c to prevent the closure of the earthing switch
in a transformer switchgear-and-protection
panel, if the LV circuit breaker of the
transformer has not been previously locked
“open” or “withdrawn”.
Access to the HV or LV terminals of a
transformer, protected upstream by a HV
switchgear-and-protection panel, containing a
HV load-break / isolating switch, HV fuses,
and a HV earthing switch) must comply with
the strict procedure described below, and is
illustrated by the diagrams of figure C24.
Note: The transformer in this example is
provided with plug-on type HV terminal
connectors which can only be removed by
unlocking a retaining device common to all
three phase connectors*.
S
The HV load-break / isolating switch is
mechanically linked with the HV earthing
switch such that only one of the switches can
be closed, i.e. closure of one switch
automatically blocks the closure of the other.
* or may be provided with a common protective cover over S
the three terminals.
C
4.1 general
A consumer substation with LV metering is an
electrical installation connected to a public-
supply system at a nominal voltage
of 1 kV - 35 kV, and includes a single HV/LV
transformer generally not exceeding
1,250 kVA.
functions
The substation Metering
All component parts of the substation are Metering at low voltage allows the use of
located in one chamber, either in an existing small metering transformers at modest cost.
building, or in the form of a prefabricated Most tariff structures take account of
housing exterior to the building. transformer losses.
Connection to the HV network LV installation circuits
Connection at HV can be: A low-voltage circuit breaker, suitable for
c either by a single service cable or over- isolation duty with visible contacts and locking
head line, or, off facilities, to:
c via two mechanically interlocked load-break c supply a distribution board,
switches with two service cables from c protect the transformer against overloading
duplicate supply feeders, or, and the downstream circuits against short-
c via two load-break switches of a ring-main circuit faults.
unit.
The transformer
Since the use of PCB*-filled transformers is
prohibited in most countries, the preferred
available technologies are:
c oil-immersed transformers for substations
located outside premises,
c dry-type, vacuum-cast-resin transformers
for locations inside premises, e.g. multi-
storeyed buildings, buildings receiving the
public, and so on...
* polychlorinated biphenyl.
one-line diagrams
The diagrams on the following page
(figure C25) represent:
c the different methods of HV service
connection, which may be one of four types:
v single-circuit service,
v single-circuit (for later change to ring-main
service),
v duplicate service (interlocked
mechanically),
v ring-main service,
c HV protective functions and HV/LV
transformation,
c LV metering and general isolation functions,
c LV protective and distribution functions,
c zones of access for interested parties.
protection protection
single-line service
protection
duplicate-
supply
service
(permitted if IHV nominal
i 45 A and one transformer )
protection
+
auto-changeover
switch
ring-main
service
protection automatic LV
standby
source
(always permitted)
authorized
access limits consumer consumer
testing authority
power-supply authority
C
4.2 choice of panels
standards and specifications
The SF6 switchgear and equipments
described below are rated for 1 kV - 24 kV
systems and conform to the following
international and national standards:
c international:
IEC 56-1, 129, 265-1, 298, 694,
c national: French: UTE, EDF,
British: BS,
German: VDE,
American: ANSI.
type of material
All kinds of switchgear arrangements are
possible when using modular compartmented
panels, and provisions for later extensions
are easily realized.
Compact substations of modular panels are
particularly applicable in the following cases:
c ring-main substations (a 3-function
monobloc assembly),
c severe climatic or heavily-polluted
conditions (integral insulation),
c insufficient space for “classical”
switchboards.
This “all - SF6” equipment is distinguished by
its reduced dimensions, its integrated
functions and by its operational flexibility.
operational safety of
compartmented metalclad panels
Description
The following notes describe a “state-of-the-
art” load-break / isolating-switch panel (see
figure C26) incorporating the most modern
developments for ensuring:
c operational safety,
c minimum space requirements,
c extendibility and flexibility,
c minimum maintenance requirements.
Each panel includes 4 compartments:
c switchgear: the load-break switch is
incorporated in an SF6-filled hermetically
sealed (for life) molded epoxy-resin unit,
c connections: by cable at terminals located
on the molded load-break switch unit,
c busbars: modular, such that any number of
panels may be assembled side-by-side to
form a continuous switchboard,
c control and indication: a control and
instrument compartment which can
accommodate automatic control and relaying
equipment. An additional compartment may
be mounted above the existing one if
required.
Cable connections
Cable connections are provided inside a
cable-terminating compartment at the front of
the unit, to which access is gained by
removal of the front panel of the
compartment.
The units are connected electrically by
means of prefabricated sections of busbars.
Site erection is effected by following the
assembly instructions.
Operation of the switchgear is simplified by
the grouping of all controls and indications on
a control panel at the front of each unit.
The technology of these switchgear units is
essentially based on operational safety, ease
of installation and low maintenance fig. C26: compartmented SF6 HV
requirements. load-break isolating switch.
C
4.3 choice of HV switchgear panel for a transformer circuit
Three types of HV switchgear panel are to the load centre,
generally available: c the kVA rating of the transformer,
c load-break switch and separate HV fuses in c the distance from switchgear to the
the panel, transformer,
c load-break switch/HV fuses combination, c the use of separate protection relays (as
c circuit breaker. opposed to direct-acting trip coils).
Seven parameters influence the optimum
choice: Note: the fuses used in the load-break/fuse-
c the primary current of the transformer, switch combination have striker-pins which
c the insulating medium of the transformer, ensure tripping of the 3-pole switch on the
c the position of the substation with respect operation of one (or more) fuse(s).
C
4.4 choice of HV/LV transformer (continued)
There are two ways in which this pressure
limitation is commonly achieved:
c hermetically-sealed totally-filled tank
(up to 10 MVA at the present time)
Developed by a leading French manufacturer
in 1963, this method was adopted by the
national power authority in 1972, and is now
in world-wide service.
Expansion of the liquid is compensated by
the elastic deformation of the oil-cooling
passages attached to the tank.
The “total-fill” technique has many important
advantages over other methods:
v oxydation of the dielectric liquid (with
atmospheric oxygen) is entirely precluded,
v no need for an air-drying device, and so no
consequent maintenance (inspection
and changing of saturated dessicant),
v no need for dielectric-strength test
of the liquid for at least 10 years,
v simplified protection against internal faults
by means of a DGPT device is possible, fig. C29: hermetically-sealed totally-filled
v simplicity of installation: lighter and lower tank.
profile (than tanks with a conservator) and
access to the HV and LV terminals is
unobstructed,
v immediate detection of (even small) oil
leaks; water cannot enter the tank.
c air-breathing conservator-type tank at
atmospheric pressure
Expansion of the insulating liquid is taken up
by a change in the level of liquid in an
expansion (conservator) tank, mounted
above the transformer main tank, as shown is
figure C30. The space above the liquid in the
conservator may be filled with air which is
drawn in when the level of liquid falls, and is
partially expelled when the level rises. When
the air is drawn in from the surrounding
atmosphere it is admitted through an oil seal,
before passing through a dessicating device
(generally containing silica-gel crystals)
before entering the conservator. In some
designs of larger transformers the space
above the oil is occupied by an impermeable
air bag so that the insulation liquid is never in
contact with the atmosphere. The air enters
and exits from the deformable bag through an
oil seal and dessicator, as previously
described. A conservator expansion tank is fig. C30: air-breathing conservator-type
obligatory for transformers rated above tank at atmosphere pressure.
10 MVA (which is presently the upper limit
for “total-fill” type transformers).
C
4.4 choice of HV/LV transformer (continued)
class no. of locations
of litres chamber or enclosed area reserved to qualified reserved to trained personnel other chambers
dielec- above and authorized personnel, and separated from any and isolated from work areas or locations
tric which other building by a distance D by fire-proof walls (2 hours rating) (b)
fluid measures D>8m 4m<D<8m D < 4 m (a) in the direc- no openings with opening(s)
must be tion of occupied areas
taken
O1 25 no special interposition of fire-proof wall measures (1 + 2) measures (1 + 2 + 5) measures
K1 measures a fire-proof screen (2 hour rating) or 3 or 3 (1A + 2 + 4)(c)
(1 hour rating) against adjoining or 4 or (4 + 5) or 3
building
K2 50 no special measures interposition of a no special measures 1A measures 1
K3 fire-proof screen measures or 3 or 3
(1 hour rating) or 4 or 4
L3 no special measures
table C32: safety measures recommended in electrical installations using dielectric liquids of classes 01, K1, K2 or K3.
Measure 1: arrangements such that if the
dielectric escapes from the transformer, it will
be completely contained (in a sump, by sills
around the transformer, and by blocking of
cable trenches, ducts and so on, during
construction).
Measure 1A: in addition to measure 1,
arrange that, in the event of liquid ignition
there is no possibility of the fire spreading
(any combustible material must be moved
to a distance of at least 4 metres from
the transformer, or at least 2 metres from
it if a fire-proof screen [of 1 hour rating] is
interposed).
Measure 2: arrange that burning liquid will
extinguish rapidly and naturally (by providing
a pebble bed in the containment sump).
Measure 3: an automatic device (DGPT
or Buchholz) for cutting off the primary power
supply, and giving an alarm, if gas appears in
the transformer tank.
Measure 4: automatic fire-detection devices
in close proximity to the transformer, for
cutting off primary power supply, and giving
an alarm.
Measure 5: automatic closure by fire-proof
panels (1/2 hour minimum rating) of all
openings (ventilation louvres, etc.) in the
walls and ceiling of the substation chamber.
Notes:
(a) a fire-proof door (rated at 2 hours)
is not considered to be an opening.
(b) - transformer chamber adjoining a
workshop and separated from it by walls,
the fire-proof characteristics of which are
not rated for 2 hours,
- areas situated in the middle of workshops
the material being placed (or not) in a
protective container.
(c) it is indispensable that the equipment be
enclosed in a chamber, the walls of which are
solid, the only orifices being those necessary
for ventilation purposes.
C
5.1 general
A consumer substation with HV metering is
an electrical installation connected to a public
supply system at a nominal voltage of 1 kV -
35 kV and generally includes a single HV/LV
transformer which exceeds 1,250 kVA, or
several smaller transformers.
The rated current of the HV switchgear does
not normally exceed 400 A.
functions
The substation Transformer rooms
According to the complexity of the installation If the installation includes a number of
and the manner in which the load is divided, transformer rooms, HV supplies from the
the substation: main substation may be by simple radial
c might include one room containing the HV feeders connected directly to the
switchboard and metering panel(s), together transformers, or by duplicate feeders to each
with the transformer(s) and low-voltage main room, or again, by a ring-main, according to
distribution board(s), the degree of supply security desired.
c or might supply one or more transformer In the two latter cases, 3-panel ring-main
rooms, which include local LV distribution units will be required at each transformer
boards, supplied at HV from switchgear in a room.
main substation, similar to that described Local emergency generators
above. Emergency standby generators are intended
These substations may be installed, either: to maintain a power supply to essential loads,
c inside a building, or in the event of failure of the power supply
c outdoors in prefabricated housings. system.
Connection to the HV network Capacitors
Connection at HV can be: Capacitors will be installed, according to
c either by a single service cable or overhead requirements:
line, or c in stepped HV banks at the main
c via two mechanically interlocked load-break substation, or
switches with two service cables from c at LV in transformer rooms.
duplicate supply feeders, or
c via two load-break switches of a ring-main Transformers
unit. For additional supply-security reasons,
transformers may be arranged for automatic
Metering changeover operation, or for parallel
Before the installation project begins, the operation.
agreement of the power-supply authority
regarding metering arrangements must be
obtained.
A metering panel will be incorporated in the
HV switchboard. Voltage transformers and
current transformers, having the necessary
metering accuracy, may be included in the
main incoming circuit breaker panel or (in the
case of the voltage transformer) may be
installed separately in the metering panel.
one-line diagrams
The diagrams shown in figure C34 represent:
c the different methods of HV service
connection, which may be one of four types:
v single-circuit service,
v single-circuit (for later change to ring-main
service),
v duplicate service (interlocked
mechanically),
v ring-main service,
c general protection at HV, and HV metering
functions,
c protection of outgoing HV circuits,
c protection of LV distribution circuits.
single-line
service protection
LV
I nominal of transformer u 45 A
single-line service
(equipped for extension a single transformer
to form a ring main)
HV LV
automatic LV/HV
standby source
duplicate-
supply
service
protection
+
automatic
changeover
feature
protection
ring-main
service
automatic LV
standby source
authorized
access consumer
limits
testing authority
power-supply authority
C
5.2 choice of panels
A substation with HV metering includes, in
addition to the panels described in 4.2,
panels specifically designed for metering and,
if required, for automatic or manual
changeover from one source to another.
power-supply network
power-supply changeover
schemes
Some national standards recommend a In the second case, the tripping command to
supplementary protection when an the decoupling circuit breaker must operate
installation includes an emergency automatic reliably on undervoltage and reverse-power
changeover to a local generator. The protection. Setting of protection relays is
standard states that operation of the standby carried out by the power-supply authority
plant must not, in any circumstances, result in and made inaccessible to the consumer
perturbations on the power-supply network. by sealing, or some equivalent means.
This means that, apart from protective The tripping supply and switchgear-control
devices intended to protect the generator: switch(es) must also be inaccessible to the
c either a scheme of interlocking must consumer.
preclude any possibility of parallel operation
of the generator with the power system, or
c a suitable automatic de-coupling scheme
agreed with the power-supply authority, which
will trip the paralleling circuit breaker in the
event of a short-circuit, or other anomaly,
occurring on the power supply system, or on
the installation.
HV distribution
panels for which automatic busbar
standby supply is changeover transition
required panel panel
to remainder
of the HV
switchboard
C
5.3 parallel operation of transformers
The need for operation of two or more
transformers in parallel often arises due to:
c load growth, which exceeds the capactiy
of an existing transformer,
c lack of space (height) for one large
transformer,
c a measure of security (the probability
of two transformers failing at the same time
is very small),
c the adoption of a standard size
of transformer throughout an installation.
C
HV/LV substations are constructed according
to the magnitude of the load and the kind of
power system in question.
Substations may be built in public places,
such as parks, residential districts, etc. or on
private premises, in which case the power
supply authority must have unrestricted
access. This is normally assured by locating
the substation, such that one of its walls,
which includes an access door, coincides
with the boundary of the consumers premises
and the public way.
LV switchgear
HV switching
2 incoming and protection
HV panels panel
current
transformers
provided by
power-supply
authority
C
6.2 indoor substations equipped with metal-enclosed switchgear (continued)
service connections and
equipment interconnections
At high voltage
c connections to the HV system are made by,
and are the responsibility of the power-supply
authority,
c connections between the HV switchgear
and the transformers may be:
v by short copper bars where the transformer
is housed in a panel forming part of the HV
switchboard,
v by single-core unarmoured cables with
synthetic insulation,
v single-core unarmoured cables to 250 A
(or more) plug-in type terminals at the
transformer.
At low voltage
c connections between the LV terminals of
the transformer and the LV switchgear may
be:
v single-core unarmoured cables,
v solid copper bars (circular or rectangular
section) with heat-shrinkable insulation.
Metering
c metering current transformers are generally
installed in the protective cover of the power
transformer LV terminals, the cover being
sealed by the supply authority,
c alternatively, the current transformers are
installed in a sealed compartment within the
main LV distribution cabinet,
c the meters are mounted on a panel which is
completely free from vibrations,
c placed as close to the current transformers
as possible, and
c are accessible only to the power-supply
authority.
The dials and graduations of the meters
should be at a height of approximately
1.65 m. above floor level, not lower than
0.7 m, and not higher than 1.8 m.
100
800 mini
common earth busbar for the
substation safety accessories meters
substation lighting
Supply to the lighting circuits can be taken
from a point upstream or downstream of the
main incoming LV circuit breaker. In either
case, appropriate overcurrent protection must
be provided. A separate automatic circuit (or
circuits) is (are) recommended for emergency
lighting purposes.
Operating switches, pushbuttons, etc. are
normally located immediately adjacent to
entrances.
Lighting fittings are arranged such that:
c switchgear operating handles and position-
indication markings are adequately
illuminated,
c all metering dials and instruction plaques
and so on, can be easily read.
C
6.3 outdoor substations
pole-top public distribution lightning
arresters
substations
Field of application
These substations are mainly used to supply
isolated rural consumers from HV overhead
line distribution systems:
c at voltage levels between 1 - 24 kV,
c from a single transformer not exceeding
160 kVA and at a preferred LV voltage level of
230/400 V (3-phase 4-wires),
c with low-voltage metering.
Constitution
These substations are commonly supplied by
a single 3-wire line, with no local switchgear
or fuses at the HV side of the transformer.
Lightning arresters are provided, however, to
protect the transformer and consumers as
shown in figure C40.
Protection of the LV circuit is generally LV circuit
provided by two LV circuit breakers (D1) and breaker
D1
(D2), shown in figure C41:
c circuit breaker D1 protects the transformer
earthing conductor
against overloading and the LV service 25 mm2 copper
connection against short-circuit faults. This
circuit breaker is mounted on the pole and
has inverse-time/current-relay tripping
characteristics, or may be tripped by a protective
conductor cover
thermal-image relay monitoring the
transformer-windings temperature,
c circuit breaker D2 is the main LV circuit safety
earth
breaker for the installation. mat
Tripping discrimination between these two
circuit breakers must be established, the
settings to be made by the power-supply
authority, and sealed.
fig. C40: pole-mounted transformer
substation.
remote metering
pole-mounted pole-mounted
load-break/ transformer
isolating switch
lightning arresters
fig. C41: diagram showing the principles of a pole-mounted transformer substation.
General arrangement of equipment
As previously noted the location of the
substation must allow easy access, not only
for personnel but for equipment handling
(raising the transformer, for example) and the
installation
manœuvring of heavy vehicles. Earthing
electrodes are commonly separated as
discussed in Sub-clause 1.1 of this Chapter.
See figure C42.
Rp RB RA
fig. C43: cut-away view of typical HV/LV substation using a prefabricated housing.
C
6.3 outdoor substations (continued)
Other kinds of outdoor substation are
common in some countries, based on
weatherproof equipment exposed to the
elements.
These comprise a fenced area in which three
or more concrete plinths are installed:
c for a ring-main unit, or one or more switch-
fuse or circuit breaker unit(s),
c for one or more transformer(s), and
c for one or more LV distribution pillar(s).
The simplicity of this arrangement is
countered by the high cost of weatherproof
switchgear, cable boxes, etc. and by an
adverse visual impact.
This class of substation is not favoured in
residential areas or in other locations where
visual amenities are important, and for these
reasons have been largely supplanted by
prefabricated housings and indoor-type
equipment in many countries.
Appendix C1 - 1
C
7.1 transfer current and take-over current
transfer current Figure AC1-1 is intended only to show the
The transfer current of a combination basic principles involved, and takes no
depends on both the fuse-initiated (striker) account of maximum and minimum
opening time of the switch, and the time- tolerances in the fuse pre-arcing curves, etc.
current characteristic of the fuse. For greater detail, reference should be made
Near the transfer-current level, during a to IEC 420.
LV 3-phase short-circuit (at the transformer 430 A 10.7 kA
terminals), the fastest fuse to melt clears one
pole and operates its striker pin.
430 A
The two remaining poles are then passing a
reduced current (87%), which will be 10.7 kA
interrupted by the switch or by the fuses.
The transfer point is that at which the switch 430 A 10.7 kA
opens and one or both remaining fuses melt
simultaneously. (a) 3 - phase S.C.
For this to occur, the second fuse must melt 430 A
at the instant of switch opening (by striker
action of the first fuse to operate).
215 A
By calculation (demonstrated in Appendix B
of IEC 420) it is shown that the level of 9.3 kA
3-phase fault current* which will cause the
second fuse to melt at a time (equal to the 215 A
switch-opening time) after the operation of
the first fuse, is that corresponding to a period (b) phase-to-phase S.C.
of 0.045 seconds after fault initiation, as 0 10.7 kA
shown on the time-current fuse-characteristic
curve. 248 A
* this is the transfer-current value. Its reduction to 87%,
following operation of the first fuse, is taken into account
when calculating the operating time of the second fuse.
248 A
take-over current
The take-over current of the combination is (c) 1 - phase-to-earth S.C.
the level of overcurrent at which the fuses fig. AC1-2: short-circuit currents for the
take over the duty of protection from overload transformer of the example, assuming a
relays, i.e. from the take-over current level up 242-420 V secondary winding.
to and beyond the transfer current level, the
switch will be tripped by striker-pin action.
time (secs.) not to scale
10 minimum rated
breaking current
full-load of fuse
current
50% take-over
overload current level
current
1.0
overload relay
characteristic
40 A fuse
characteristic
transfer current level
0.1
0.045 secs.
2 - Appendix C1
C
7.2 types of faults involved in the transfer region
Primary-side protective devices are
particularly concerned with faults in the
secondary-terminals zone of the transformer,
upstream of the LV protection devices.
The primary short-circuit currents arising from
solid short-circuits at the transformer
secondary terminals are shown in
figure AC1-2.
The breaking of solid (i.e. non-arcing)
3-phase faults is associated with severe TRV
values which the switch in the combination is
not designed to interrupt. This type of fault
therefore must be cleared by the fuses only,
i.e. before the striker-operated switch opens
its contacts.
It is necessary therefore, that the transfer-
current limit (280 A in the example) shall
always be lower than that of a 3-phase
LV-terminals short-circuit (430 A at HV), as
shown in figure AC1-1.
This condition being fulfilled, then 3-phase
short-circuit transfer currents correspond to
faults for which LV arc impedance reduces
the magnitude of both the current and TRV
values, as well as improving the power factor
of the fault current.
For a phase-to-phase LV terminal fault, the
diagram (b) of figure AC1-2 shows that the
HV fault current of one phase is equal to that
of a 3-phase LV short-circuit. The fuse of that
phase will clear rapidly; the current in the two
remaining phases will then reduce to
practically zero*, and be cleared in the
transfer-current region by two of the switch
contacts acting in series. This feature
improves the switch performance for breaking
current which is (in the present case) mainly
transformer-magnetizing current.
minimum time-current
characteristic of HV fuse
maximum fault
current at LV
(referred to HV side)
maximum operating
time of LV fuse
(referred to HV side)
Appendix C1 - 3
8. ground-surface potential gradients due to earth-fault
currents
C
When earth-fault current flows between an 0.9 0.8
ground surface
earthing electrode and the surrounding soil, 0.7 0.6 0.5
potential gradients exist in the soil and on
the ground surface.
Close to the location of the buried electrode,
the potential gradients, both in the soil and
on the ground surface, are generally at their
maximum values and are therefore (for the 0.4
ground-surface gradients) the most
dangerous.
2 - Appendix C2
C
voltage gradients associated with (a)
earthing grids
The purpose of an earthing grid (or mat) is to
provide a close approximation to an α
equipotential condition at the ground surface long rod
over a large area, generally that of a short rod
switchyard or substation. β
In practice, potential gradients will always
occur when earth-fault currents are flowing,
but providing the grid meshes are
appropriately dimensioned (i.e. not too large),
the permissible maximum values of gradient
at the highest anticipated levels of earth-fault
current will not be exceeded.
During an earth fault, the whole of the
earthing grid and all metallic parts connected
The resistance of a rod electrode is approximately inversely
to it (together with any personal present) may proportional to its length.
be raised to several hundreds (or thousands)
of volts. (b)
Potential gradients in the grid meshes will α gradient α with
have the general form shown in figure AC2-4. original soil
This figure also shows that connecting a
metallic boundary fence to the earthing grid β
can be dangerous, unless adequate gradient β with
precautions are taken. special earth fill
insulation
ground surface
touch
voltage
grid voltage with step voltage
respect to local-earth
Note: the connection at the top of the rod, as well as the
connecting lead, must also be insulated. An alternative
zero potential method is to bury the rod completely with the top of the rod
below ground level, and connected to an insulated
fig. AC2-4: voltage profile and potential gradients of an earthing grid. connecting lead.
Appendix C2 - 3
C
other methods of reducing
the dangers of ground-surface
potential gradients
The easiest method (but wasteful in terms of
space) is simply to fence off the area around
the electrode(s) with warning notices. More
commonly, measures are taken to reduce the
current passing through a person's feet by
providing an insulated floor covering indoors,
such as plastic tiles, rubber mats, etc., while
for outdoor locations, highly-resistive
surfaces, such as crushed rock, thick layers
of asphalt, or clean gravel or pebbles are
frequently used.
Gravel or pebbles provide a very effective
high-resistance surface, even when wet,
providing the stones are clean. Leaf mould, or
mud etc. between the stones greatly reduces
the insulating performance of such surfaces.
4 - Appendix C2
9. vector diagram of ferro-resonance at 50 Hz (or 60 Hz)
C
Figure C13 of Sub-clause 3.1 Chapter C calculation of IN
shows how the neutral of an unearthed In figure C14 of Chapter C it was stated that,
3-phase source can be displaced from its in the resonant condition, XL > XC. In these
normal near-zero potential, as a result of the calculations XC = -j 1 pu impedance, and
particular ferro-resonant condition XL = j 10 pu.
described. 1 90°
The vector diagram can be constructed as I1 = = 0.1 0° = 0.1 + j 0
10 90°
follows.
Per-unit notation is used to generalize and 1 -30°
I2 = = 0.1 -120° = -0.05 - j 0.0866
simplify the calculations: 10 90°
c 1 pu voltage is the nominal phase-to- 1 210°
I3 = = 1 300° = 0.5 - j 0.866
neutral system voltage, 1 -90°
c 1 pu impedance is equal to the normal IN = 0.55 - j 0.953 = 1.1 -60°
capacitive reactance of one phase-to-earth
at power frequency (i.e. K in figure C14 of
Chapter C), calculation of ZNE
c the source impedance is assumed to be ZNE is the parallel combination of XL1, XL2 and
negligible. Xc.
1 XL1 in parallel with XL2 = j 5
j 5 in parallel with XC3 =
L1
imaginary neutral j 5 x (-j 1) 5
E = = -j 1.25
L2 j5-j1 j4
N C3
3 2 ZNE = - j 1.25 pu ohms.
not to scale
complete vector diagram
Other values shown in the vector diagram are
easily obtained from the above calculations.
N ➀, ≠ and ➂ are the power-supply terminals.
I1
V3 1
VNE = 1.375 pu
I2 V2
VNE V 3 E = 0.375 pu
2.066 pu
I1 + I2 IC3
N not to scale
I1 + I2 + I3 = IN 1 1
fig. AC3-1: calculation of VNE - circuit and 3 2
vector diagrams. E 2.066 pu
IL1
The procedure is as follows:
c compute the current IN in an imaginary IL2
neutral of negligible impedance (i.e. ZN = 0) IL1 + IL2 = 0.375 pu
by summating the individual phase currents, fig. AC3-2: vector diagram for the
as shown in figure AC3-1. resonant condition.
According to Thévenin's theorem IN also
equals
VNE
where
ZNE + Z
VNE is the voltage between N and E when no
neutral connection exists,
ZNE is the impedance of the network
measured between terminals N and E when
no neutral connection exists,
ZN is the impedance of the neutral conductor
(zero in the present case).
This means that VNE = IN ZNE
Appendix C3 - 1
1. low-voltage public distribution networks
D
1.1 low-voltage consumers
Low-voltage consumers are, by definition, Loads up to 250 kVA can be supplied at LV,
the most-common LV supplies are
those consumers whose loads can be but power-supply organizations generally
within the range 120 V single phase satisfactorily supplied from the low-voltage propose a HV service at load levels for which
to 240/415 V 3-phase 4-wires. system in their locality. their LV networks are marginally adequate.
Loads up to 250 kVA can be supplied The voltage of the local LV network may be
at LV, but power-supply organizations 120/208 V or 240/415 V, i.e. the lower or
upper extremes of the most common 3-phase
generally propose a HV service at levels in general use, or at some intermediate
load levels for which their LV level, as shown in table D1.
networks are marginally adequate. An international voltage standard for 3-phase
An international voltage standard for 4-wire LV systems is recommended by the
IEC to be 230/400 V.*
3-phase 4-wire LV systems is
recommended by the IEC to be country frequency domestic commercial industrial low-voltage
& tolerance tolerance
230/400 V.* Hz & % %
Australia 50 ± 0.1 240/415 (A) (E) 240/415 (A) 22 kV ±6
240 (L) 250/440 (A) 11 kV
440 (N) (6) 6.6 kV
240/415 (A)
250/440 (A)
the adjoining table is extracted from Western 50 250/440 (A) (9) (9) ± 6 (10)
the document "World Electricity Algeria 50 ± 1.5 127/220 (E) 220/380 (A) 10 kV + 5 and + 10
220 (L) (1) 127/220 (A) 5.5 kV
Supplies", fourth edition. 6.6 kV
220/380 (A)
Argentina 50 ± 1.0 225 (L) (1) 225/390 (A) 13.2 kV
220 (L) (1) 220/380 (A) 6.88 kV
220 (L) 225/390 (A)
220/380 (A) ± 10
Brazil 60 220 (L) (1) 220/380 (A) 13.8 kV (9)
127 (L) (1) 127/220 (A) 11.2 kV
220/380 (A)
127/220 (A)
Belgium 50 ± 3 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 15 kV + 5 (day)
127/220 (A) 127/220 (A) 6 kV ± 10 (night)
220 (F) 220 (F) 220/380 (A)
127/220 (A)
220 (F)
Bolivia 50 ± 1 115/230 (H) 115/230 (H) 115/230 (H) (3) ±5
Cambodia 50 120/208 (A) 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) (3) (9)
120 (L) 120/208 (A) 120/208 (A)
Canada 60 ± 0.02 120/240 (K) 347/600 (A) 7.2/12.5 kV ±4
480 (F) 347/600 (A) - 8.3
240 (F) 120/208
120/240 (K) 600 (F)
120/208 (A) 480 (F)
240 (F)
Chile 50 220 (L) (1) 220/380 (A) (1) 220/380 (A) (3) (9)
China 50 220 (L) (1) 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) (3) ±7
Colombia 60 ± 1 120/240 (G) 120/240 (G) 13.2 kV ± 10
120 (L) 120 (L) 120/240 (G)
Costa Rica 60 120 (L) (1) 120/240 (K) 120/240 (G) (3) (9)
120 (L) (1)
Czechoslovakia 50 ± 0.1 230/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 22 kV ± 10
220 (L) 220 (L) 15 kV
6 kV
3 kV
220/380 (A)
Denmark 50 ± 0.4 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 30 kV ± 10
220 (L) 220 (L) 10 kV
220/380 (A)
Egypt (AR) 50 ± 1 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 11 kV + 10
220 (L) 220 (L) 6.6 kV
220/380 (A)
Finland 50 ± 0.1 220 (L) (1) 220/380 (A) 380/660 (A) ± 10
500 (B)
220/380 (A) (D)
France 50 ± 1 230/400 (A) 230/400 (A) ± 10
220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 20 kV
220 (L) 220/380 (D) 15 kV
230/400
127/220 (E) 380 (B) 380 (B)
127 (L) 220/380 (A) (D)
Germany 50 ± 0.3 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 20 kV ± 10
Ex-DRG 220 (L) 220 (L) 10 kV
220/380 (A)
* IEC 38 (1983).
D
1.1 low-voltage consumers (continued)
country frequency domestic commercial industrial low-voltage
& tolerance tolerance
Hz & % %
Hungary 50 ± 2 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 20 kV + 5 - 10
220 (L) 220 (L)
10 kV
220/380 (A)
Iceland 50 ± 0.1 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) (3) (9)
220 (L) 220 (L)
India (4)
Bombay 50 ± 1 250/440 (A) 250/440 (A) 11 kW +4
230 (L) 230 (L) 250/440 (A)
table D1: survey of electricity supplies in Portland 60 120/240 (K) 227/480 (A) 19.9 kV (9)
(Oregon) 120/240 (K) 12 kV
various countries around the world. 120/208 (A) 7.2 kV
Bracketed letters relate to the circuit 480 (F) 2.4 kV
240 (F) 277/480 (A)
diagrams at the end of the table, while 120/208 (A)
bracketed numbers refer to the notes 480 (F)
which follow the diagrams (continued). 240 (F)
D
1.1 low-voltage consumers (continued)
country frequency domestic commercial industrial low-voltage
& tolerance tolerance
Hz & % %
San Francisco 60 ± 0.08 120/240 (K) 277/480 (A) 20.8 kV ±5
(California) 120/240 (K) 12 kV
4.16 kV
277/480 (A)
120/240 (G)
(g) three-phase delta; (h) three-phase open delta; (j) three-phase open delta:
four-wire: four-wire: earthed junction of phases
earthed mid point of one phase earthed mid point of one phase
V kV
D
1.1 low-voltage consumers (continued)
residential and commercial These constraints mean that the magnitude
consumers of loads which power-supply organizations
The function of a LV "mains" distributor are willing to connect to their LV distribution
(underground cable or overhead line) is to mains, is necessarily restricted.
provide service connections to a number of For the range of LV systems mentioned in the
consumers along its route. second paragraph of this sub-clause (1.1) viz:
The current-rating requirements of 120 V single phase to 240/415 V 3-phase,
distributors are estimated from the number of typical maximum permitted loads connected
consumers to be connected and an average to a LV distributor might* be:
demand per consumer.
The two principal limiting parameters of a
distributor are:
c the maximum current which it is capable of
carrying indefinitely, and
c the maximum length of cable which, when
carrying its maximum current, will not exceed
the statutory voltage-drop limit.
Practices vary considerably from one power- In short, each case must be examined
supply organization to another, and no individually.
"standardized" values can be given. The load levels listed above are adequate for
Factors to be considered include: all normal domestic consumers, and will be
c the size of an existing distributor to which sufficient for the installations of many
the new load is to be connected, administrative, commercial and similar
c the total load already connected to the buildings.
distributor,
c the location along the distributor of the
proposed new load, i.e. close to the
substation, or near the remote end of the
distributor, etc.
medium-size and small industrial For these reasons, dedicated supply lines at
consumers (with dedicated LV LV are generally applied (at 220/380 V to
lines direct from a public-supply 240/415 V) to a load range of 80 kVA to
HV/LV substation) 250 kVA.
Consumers normally supplied at low voltage
Medium and small industrial consumers can include:
also be satisfactorily supplied at low-voltage. c domestic dwellings,
For loads which exceed the maximum c shops and commercial buildings,
permitted limit for a service from a distributor, c small factories, workshops and filling
a dedicated cable can usually be provided stations,
from the LV distribution fuse- (or switch-) c restaurants,
board from which the mains distributors c farms, etc.
emanate, in the power-supply authority
substation.
In principle, the upper load limit which can be
supplied by this means is restricted only by
the available spare transformer capacity in
the substation.
In practice, however:
c large loads (e.g. > 300 kVA) require
correspondingly large cables, so that, unless
the load centre is close to the substation,
this method can be economically
unfavourable,
c many power-supply organizations prefer to
supply loads exceeding 200 kVA (this figure
varies with different suppliers) at high voltage.
4-way
link box
HV/LV
substation
service
cable
phase links
removed
fig. D3: showing one of several ways in which a LV distribution network may be arranged
for radial branched-distributor operation, by removing (phase) links.
low-voltage service connections - D7
1. low-voltage public distribution networks (continued)
D
1.2 LV distribution networks (continued)
in less-densely loaded urban areas a Where the load density requires it, the
substations are more closely spaced, and
more-economic system of tapered transformers up to 1.500 kVA are sometimes
radial distribution is commonly used, necessary.
in which conductors of reduced size Other forms of urban LV network, based on
are installed as the distance from a free-standing LV distribution pillars, placed
above ground at strategic points in the
substation increases. network, are widely used in areas of lower
load density. This scheme exploits the
principle of tapered radial distributors in which
the distribution cable conductor size is
reduced as the number of consumers
downstream diminish with distance from the
substation.
In this scheme a number of large-sectioned
LV radial feeders from the distribution board
in the substation each supply the busbars of
a distribution pillar, from which smaller
distributors supply consumers immediately
surrounding the pillar.
Distribution in market towns, villages and
rural areas generally has, for many years,
been based on bare copper conductors
supported on wooden, concrete or steel
poles, and supplied from pole-mounted or
ground-mounted transformers.
N
2 2
N
3 ph
HV / 230/400 V
4-wire distribution
transformer
1 2 3 N N
main 3 ph and neutral
HV distributor N 1 2 3
LV distribution network
D
1.3 the consumer-service connection
In the past, an underground cable service or
service components and metering
the wall-mounted insulated conductors from
equipment were formerly installed an overhead line service, invariably
inside a consumer's building. The terminated inside the consumer's premises,
modern tendency is to locate these where the cable-end sealing box, the supply-
items outside in a weatherproof authority fuses (inaccessible to the
consumer) and meters were installed.
cabinet. A more recent trend is (as far as possible) to
locate these service components in a
weatherproof housing outside the building.
The supply-authority/consumer interface is
often at the outgoing terminals of the meter(s)
or, in some cases, at the outgoing terminals
of the installation main circuit breaker
(depending on local practices) to which
connection is made by supply-authority
personnel, following a satisfactory test and
inspection of the installation.
A typical arrangement is shown in figure D5.
LV consumers are normally supplied A MCCB which incorporates a sensitive In view of the inconvenience to both the
residual-current earth-fault protective feature meter reader and consumer, the location of
according to the TN or TT system, as is mandatory at the origin of any LV meters is nowadays generally outside the
described in chapters F and G. The installation forming part of a TT earthing premises, either:
installation main circuit breaker for a system. The reason for this feature and c in a free-standing pillar-type housing as
TT supply must include a residual- related leakage-current tripping levels are shown in figures D6 and D7,
discussed in Clause 3 of Chapter G. c in a space inside a building, but with cable
current earth-leakage protective A further reason for this MCCB is that the termination and supply authority’s fuses
device. For a TN service, overcurrent consumer cannot exceed his (contractual) located in a flush-mounted weatherproof
protection by circuit breaker or declared maximum load, since the overload cabinet accessible from the public way, as
switch-fuse is required. trip setting, which is sealed by the supply shown in figure D8.
authority, will cut off supply above the
declared value. Closing and tripping of the
MCCB is freely available to the consumer, so
that if the MCCB is inadvertently tripped on
overload, or due to an appliance fault,
supplies can be quickly restored following
correction of the anomaly.
D
1.3 the consumer-service connection (continued)
c for private domestic consumers, the
equipment shown in the cabinet in figure D5
is installed in a weatherproof cabinet
mounted vertically on a metal frame in the
front garden, or flush-mounted in the
boundary wall, and accessible to authorized
personnel from the pavement. Figure D9
shows the general arrangement, in which
removable fuse links provide the means of
isolation.
Experiments are now well-advanced in the
field of electronic metering; reading, and
recording on magnetic cards is now possible,
using information technology (IT) techniques,
and it is confidently predicted that, in addition
to remote reading and recording, the
modification of tariff structures for a given
meter will be possible from a central control
location, in areas where it is economically
justified.
supply authority/
consumer interface
overhead line LV distributor
service cable
meter
main
installation
circuit
meter cabinet breaker
practical application
With the HV/LV transformer correctly
selected at its off-circuit tapping switch, an
unloaded transformer output voltage will be
held within a band of
± 2% of its no-load voltage output.
To ensure that the transformer can maintain
the necessary voltage level when fully
loaded, the output voltage at no-load must
be as high as possible without exceeding
the upper + 5% limit (adopted for this
example).
In present-day practice, the winding ratios
generally give an output voltage of about
D
tariffs and metering
No attempt will be made in this guide to meters
discuss particular tariffs, since there appears It will be appreciated that high-quality
to be as many different tariff structures instruments and devices are necessary to
around the world as there are distribution implement this kind of metering, when using
authorities. classical electro-mechanical equipment.
Some tariffs are very complicated in detail but Recent developments in electronic metering
certain elements are basic to all of them and and micro-processors, together with remote
are aimed at encouraging consumers to ripple-control* from a supply-authority control
manage their power consumption in a way centre (to change peak-period timing
which reduces the cost to the supply authority throughout the year, etc.) are now
of generation, transmission and distribution. operational, and facilitate considerably the
The two predominant ways in which the cost application of the principles discussed.
of supplying power to consumers can be * Ripple control is a system of signalling in which a voice-
reduced, are: frequency current (commonly at 175 Hz) is injected into the
c reduction of power losses in the generation, LV mains at appropriate substations. The signal is injected
as coded impulses, and relays which are tuned to the signal
transmission and distribution of electrical frequency and which recognize the particular code will
energy. In principle the lowest losses in a operate to initiate a required function. In this way, up to 960
discrete control signals are available.
power system are attained when all parts of
the system operate at unity power factor,
c reduction of the peak power demand, while
increasing the demand at low-load periods,
thereby exploiting the generating plant more
fully, and minimizing plant redundancy.
reduction of losses
Although the ideal condition noted in the first
possibility mentioned above cannot be
realized in practice, many tariff structures are
based partly on kVA demand, as well as on
kWh consumed.
Since, for a given kW loading, the minimum
value of kVA occurs at unity power factor, the
consumer can minimize billing costs by taking
steps to improve the power factor of the load
(as discussed in Chapter E).
The kVA demand generally used for tariff
purposes is the maximum average kVA
demand occurring during each billing period,
and is based on average kVA demands, over
fixed periods (generally 10, 30 or 60 minute
periods) and selecting the highest of these
values.
The principle is described below in "principle
of kVA maximum-demand metering".
0 1 time 2 hrs
fig. D10: maximum average value of kVA
over an interval of 2 hours.
principle of kVA maximum- At the end of the billing period, the red
demand metering indicator will be at the maximum of all the
A kVAh meter is similar in all essentials to a average values occurring in the billing period.
kWh meter but the current and voltage phase The red indicator will be reset to zero at the
relationship has been modified so that it beginning of each billing period.
effectively measures kVAh (kilo-volt-amp- Electro-mechanical meters of the kind
hours). described are rapidly being replaced by
Furthermore, instead of having a set of electronic instruments. The basic measuring
decade counter dials, as in the case of a principles on which these electronic meters
conventional kWh meter, this instrument has depend however, are the same as those
a rotating pointer. described above.
When the pointer turns it is measuring kVAh
and pushing a red indicator before it.
At the end of 10 minutes the pointer will have
moved part way round the dial (it is designed
so that it can never complete one revolution
in 10 minutes) and is then electrically reset to
the zero position, to start another 10 minute
period.
The red indicator remains at the position
reached by the measuring pointer, and that
position, corresponds to the number of kVAh
(kilo-volt-ampere-hours) taken by the load in
10 minutes.
Instead of the dial being marked in kilo-VA-
hours at that point however it can be marked
in units of average kVA.
The following figures will clarify the matter.
Supposing the point at which the red indicator
reached corresponds to 5 kVAh. It is known
that a varying amount of kVA of apparent
power has been flowing for 10 minutes, i.e.
1/6 hour.
If now, the 5 kVAh is divided by the number of
hours, then the average kVA for the period is
obtained.
In this case the average kVA for the period
will be:
1
5x = 5 x 6 = 30 kVA
1/6
Every point around the dial will be similarly
marked i.e. the figure for average kVA will be
6 times greater than the kVAh value at any
given point.
Similar reasoning can be applied to any other
reset-time interval.
E
1.1 the nature of reactive energy
All inductive (i.e. electromagnetic) machines For these reasons, viz:
alternating current systems supply
and devices that operate on a.c. systems c transmission power losses and
two forms of energy: convert electrical energy from the power- c voltage drop.
c "active" energy measured in system generators into mechanical work and The power-supply authorities reduce the
kilowatt hours (kWh) which is heat. This energy is measured by kWh amount of wattless (inductive) current as
converted into mechanical work, meters, and is referred to as "active" or much as possible.
"wattful" energy. In order to perform this Wattless (capacitive) currents have the
heat, light, etc. conversion, magnetic fields have to be reverse effect on voltage levels and produce
c "reactive" energy, which again established in the machines, and these fields voltage-rises in power systems.
takes two forms: are associated with another form of energy to The power (kW) associated with "active"
v "reactive" energy required by be supplied from the power system, known energy is usually represented by the letter P.
as "reactive" or "wattless" energy. The reactive power (kvar) is represented
inductive circuits (transformers,
The reason for this is that inductive plant by Q. Inductively-reactive power is
motors, etc.), conventionally positive (+ Q) while
cyclically absorbs energy from the system
v "reactive" energy required by (during the build-up of the magnetic fields) capacitively-reactive power is shown as a
capacitive circuits (cable and re-injects that energy into the system negative quantity (- Q).
capacitance, power capacitors, etc). (during the collapse of the magnetic fields) Sub-clause 1.3 shows the relationship
twice in every power-frequency cycle. The between P, Q, and S.
effect on generator rotors is to (tend to) slow S represents kVA of "apparent" power.
them during one part of the cycle and to Figure E1 shows that the kVA of apparent
accelerate them during another part of the power is the vector sum of the kW of active
cycle. The pulsating torque is stricly true only power plus the kvar of reactive power.
for single-phase alternators. In three-phase
alternators the effect is mutually cancelled in S
the three phases, since, at any instant, the (kVA)
reactive energy supplied on one (or two)
phase(s) is equal to the reactive energy being
returned on the other two (or one) phase(s) of
a balanced system. The nett result is zero
average load on the generators, i.e. the Q P
reactive current is "wattless".
(kvar) (kW)
An exactly similar phenomenon occurs with
shunt capacitive elements in a power system,
such as cable capacitance or banks of power
capacitors, etc. In this case, energy is stored
electrostatically. The cyclic charging and
discharging of capacitive plant reacts on the
generators of the system in the same manner fig. E1: an electric motor requires active
as that described above for inductive plant, power P and reactive power Q from the
but the current flow to and from capacitive power system.
plant is in exact phase opposition to that of
the inductive plant.
This feature is the basis on which power-
factor improvement schemes depend.
It should be noted that while this "wattless"
current (more accurately, the wattless
component of a load current) does not draw
power from the system, it does cause power
losses in transmission and distribution
systems by heating the conductors.
In practical power systems, wattless
components of load currents are invariably
inductive, while the impedances of
transmission and distribution systems are
predominantly inductively reactive. The
combination of inductive current passing
through an inductive reactance produces the
worst possible conditions of voltage drop
(i.e. in direct phase opposition to the system
voltage).
E
1.2 plant and appliances requiring reactive current
All a.c. plant and appliances that include
items of plant which require reactive
electromagnetic devices, or depend on
energy. magnetically-coupled windings, require some
degree of reactive current to create magnetic
flux.
The most common items in this class are
transformers and reactors, motors and
discharge lamps (i.e. the ballasts of).
The proportion of reactive power (kvar) with
respect to active power (kW) when an item of
plant is fully loaded varies according to the
item concerned being:
c 65-75% for asynchronous motors,
c 5-10% for transformers.
The power factor at which a synchronous
motor operates may be changed, by
adjustment of the excitation current. These
machines can be made to operate at lagging
(underexcited) or leading (overexcited) power
factors. In the latter condition, a synchronous
motor is sometimes referred to as a
"synchronous condenser".
Before capacitor technology had developed
sufficiently to guarantee the high standard of
reliability of modern capacitors, synchronous
condensers were widely used on
transmission systems to provide reactive-
power compensation, for optimum
transmission-line performance under
changing load conditions.
1.4 tan ϕ
Some electricity tariffs are partly based on
tan ϕ = Q (kvar) this factor, which shows the amount of
P (kW) reactive power supplied per kW. A low value
of tan ϕ corresponds to a high power factor
and to a favourable consumer bill.
E
1.5 practical measurement of power factor
The power factor (or cos ϕ) can be
measured, either:
c by a direct-reading cos ϕ meter for an
instantaneous value, or
c a recording var meter, which allows a
record over a period of time to be obtained, of
current, voltage and power factor. Readings
taken over an extended period provide a
useful means of estimating an average value
of power factor for an installation.
E
2.1 reduction in the cost of electricity
Good management in the consumption of Thus, the quantity of reactive energy billed in
an improvement of the power factor
reactive energy brings with it the following these periods will be:
of an installation presents several economic advantages. kvarh (to be billed) = kWh (tan ϕ - 0.4) where
technical and economic advantages, These notes are based on an actual tariff kWh is the active energy consumed during
notably in the reduction of electricity structure of a kind commonly applied in the periods of limitation, and kWh tan ϕ is the
bills. Europe, designed to encourage consumers to total reactive energy during a period of
minimize their consumption of reactive limitation, and 0.4 kWh is the amount of
energy. reactive energy delivered free during a period
The installation of power-factor correcting of limitation.
capacitors on installations permits the tan ϕ = 0.4 corresponds to a PF of 0.93 so
consumer to reduce his electricity bill by that, if steps are taken to ensure that during
maintaining the level of reactive-power the limitation periods the PF never falls below
consumption below a value contractually 0.93, the consumer will have nothing to pay
agreed with the power-supply authority. for the reactive power consumed.
In this particular tariff, reactive energy is billed Against the financial advantages of reduced
according to the tan ϕ criterion. As previously billing, the consumer must balance the cost of
noted: purchasing, installing and maintaining the
Q (kvarh) power-factor-improvement capacitors and
tan ϕ =
P (kWh) controlling switchgear, automatic control
At the supply service position, the power equipment (where stepped levels of
supply distributor delivers reactive energy compensation are required) together with the
free, until: additional kWh consumed by the dielectric
c the point at which it reaches 40% of the losses of the capacitors, etc.
active energy (tan ϕ = 0.4) for a maximum It may be found that it is more economic to
period of 16 hours each day (from 06-00 h to provide partial compensation only, and that
22-00 h) during the most-heavily loaded paying for some of the reactive energy
period (often in winter); consumed is less expensive than providing
c without limitation during light-load periods in 100% compensation.
winter, and in spring and summer. The question of power-factor correction is a
During the periods of limitation, reactive- matter of optimization, except in very simple
energy consumption exceeding 40% of the cases.
active energy (i.e. tan ϕ > 0.4) is billed
monthly at the current rates.
E
3.1 theoretical principles
An inductive load having a low power factor Figure E10 uses the power diagram
improving the power factor of an requires the generators and discussed in sub-clause 1.3 (figure E3) to
installation requires a bank of transmission/distribution systems to pass illustrate the principle of compensation by
capacitors which acts as a source of reactive current (lagging the system voltage reducing a large reactive power Q to a
reactive energy. This arrangement is by 90 degrees) with associated power losses smaller value Q' by means of a bank of
said to provide reactive energy and exaggerated voltage drops, as noted in capacitors having a reactive power Qc.
sub-clause 1.1. In doing so, the magnitude of the apparent
compensation. If a bank of shunt capacitors is added to the power S is seen to reduce to S'.
load, its (capacitive) reactive current will take
P
the same path through the power system as
ϕ ϕ'
that of the load reactive current.
Since, as pointed out in sub-clause 1.1, this Q'
capacitive current Ic (which leads the system
S'
voltage by 90 degrees) is in direct phase
opposition to the load reactive current (IL), the Q
two components flowing through the same
path will cancel each other, such that S
Qc
if the capacitor bank is sufficiently large and
Ic = IL there will be no reactive current flow in
the system upstream of the capacitors.
This is indicated in figure E9 (a) and (b) which fig. E10: diagram showing the principle of
show the flow of the reactive components of compensation: Qc = P (tan ϕ - tan ϕ').
current only.
In this figure: Example:
R represents the active-power elements of A motor consumes 100 kW at a PF of 0.75
the load (i.e. tan ϕ = 0.88).
L represents the (inductive) reactive-power To improve the PF to 0.93 (i.e. tan ϕ = 0.4),
elements of the load the reactive power of the capacitor bank must
C represents the (capacitive) reactive-power be : Qc = 100 (0.88 - 0.4) = 48 kvar
elements of the power-factor correction The selected level of compensation and the
equipment (i.e. capacitors). calculation of rating for the capacitor bank
depend on the particular installation. The
IL - IC IC IL IL factors requiring attention are explained in a
L R general way in clause 5, and in clauses 6 and
C
7 for transformers and motors.
load Note:
a) reactive current components only flow pattern Before embarking on a compensation project,
a number of precautions should be observed.
In particular, oversizing of motors should be
IL - IC = 0 IL = IC IL
IC
R
avoided, as well as the operation of the
C L motors in an unloaded condition. In this latter
condition, the reactive energy consumed by
load a motor results in a very low power factor
b) when IC = IL, all reactive power is supplied from (≈ 0.17); this is because the kW taken by the
the capacitor bank motor (when it is unloaded) are very small.
IR IC IR + IL IL IR
L R
C
load
c) with load current added to case (b)
fig. E9: showing the essential features of
power-factor correction.
It will be seen from diagram (b) of figure E9,
that the capacitor bank C appears to be
supplying all the reactive current of the load.
For this reason, capacitors are sometimes
referred to as "generators of lagging vars".
In diagram (c) of figure E9, the active-power
current component has been added, and
shows that the (fully-compensated) load
appears to the power system as having a
power factor of 1.
In general, it is not economical to fully
compensate an installation.
E
3.2 by using what equipment? (continued)
automatically-regulated banks of the principles of, and reasons,
capacitors allow an immediate for using automatic
adaptation of compensation to match compensation
the level of load. A bank of capacitors is divided into a number must evidently be placed on one phase of the
of sections, each of which is controlled by a incoming cable which supplies the circuit(s)
contactor. Closure of a contactor switches its being controlled, as shown in figure E13.
section into parallel operation with other By closely matching compensation to that
sections already in service. The size of the required by the load, the possibility of
bank can therefore be increased or producing overvoltages at times of low load
decreased in steps, by the closure and will be avoided, thereby preventing an
opening of the controlling contactors. overvoltage condition, and possible damage
A control relay monitors the power factor of to appliances and equipment.
the controlled circuit(s) and is arranged to Overvoltages due to excessive reactive
close and open appropriate contactors to compensation depend partly on the value of
maintain a reasonably constant system source impedance.
power factor (within the tolerance imposed by
the size of each step of compensation). The
current transformer for the monitoring relay
CT In / 5 A cl 1
varmetric
relay
E
4.1 global compensation
where a load is continuous and principle
stable, global compensation can be The capacitor bank is connected to the
busbars of the main LV distribution board for
applied. the installation, and remains in service during
the period of normal load.
advantages
The global type of compensation:
c reduces the tariff penalties for excessive n°1
consumption of kvars,
c reduces the apparent power kVA demand,
on which standing charges are usually based,
c relieves the supply transformer, which is
then able to accept more load if necessary.
comments
c reactive current still flows in all conductors
of cables leaving (i.e. downstream of) the
main LV distribution board,
c for the above reason, the sizing of these
cables, and power losses in them, are not M M M M
improved by the global mode of
compensation. fig. E14: global compensation.
advantages
The compensation by sector:
c reduces the tariff penalties for excessive n°2 n°2
consumption of kvars,
c reduces the apparent power kva demand,
on which standing charges are usually based,
c relieves the supply transformer, which is
then able to accept more load if necessary,
c the size of the cables supplying the local M M M M
distribution boards may be reduced, or will
fig. E15: compensation by sector.
have additional capacity for possible load
increases, kW
c losses in the same cables will be reduced. kvar
comments conductors
c reactive current still flows in all cables
downstream of the local distribution boards,
c for the above reason, the sizing of these
cables, and the power losses in them, are not
improved by compensation by sector,
c where large changes in loads occur, there
is always a risk of overcompensation and
consequent overvoltage problems.
E
4.3 individual compensation
individual compensation should be principle
considered when the power of motor Capacitors are connected directly to the
terminals of inductive plant (notably motors,
is significant with respect to power of see further in Clause 7). Individual
the installation. compensation should be considered when
the power of the motor is significant with
respect to the declared power requirement
(kVA) of the installation.
The kvar rating of the capacitor bank is in the n°1
order of 25% of the kW rating of the motor.
Complementary compensation at the origin of
the installation (transformer) may also be
beneficial.
E
5.1 general method
listing of reactive power technical-economic optimization
demands at the design stage for an existing installation
This listing can be made in the same way The optimum rating of compensation
(and at the same time) as that for the power capacitors for an existing installation can be
loading described in chapter B. determined from the following principal
The levels of active and reactive power considerations:
loading, at each level of the installation c electricity bills prior to the installation of
(generally at points of distribution and capacitors,
sub-distribution of circuits) can then be c future electricity bills anticipated following
determined. the installation of capacitors,
c costs of:
v purchase of capacitors and control
equipment (contactors, relaying, cabinets,
etc.),
v installation and maintenance costs,
v cost of dielectric heating losses in the
capacitors, versus reduced losses in cables,
transformer, etc., following the installation of
capacitors.
Several simplified methods applied to typical
tariffs (common in Europe) are shown in
sub-clauses 5.3 and 5.4.
E
before kvar rating of capacitor bank to install per kW of load, to improve cos ϕ (the power factor) or tan ϕ,
compensation to a given value
tan ϕ 0,75 0.59 0.48 0.46 0.43 0.40 0.36 0.33 0.29 0.25 0.20 0.14 0.0
tan ϕ cos ϕ cos ϕ 0.80 0.86 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1
2.29 0.40 1.557 1.691 1.805 1.832 1.861 1.895 1.924 1.959 1.998 2.037 2.085 2.146 2.288
2.22 0.41 1.474 1.625 1.742 1.769 1.798 1.831 1.840 1.896 1.935 1.973 2.021 2.082 2.225
2.16 0.42 1.413 1.561 1.681 1.709 1.738 1.771 1.800 1.836 1.874 1.913 1.961 2.022 2.164
2.10 0.43 1.356 1.499 1.624 1.651 1.680 1.713 1.742 1.778 1.816 1.855 1.903 1.964 2.107
2.04 0.44 1.290 1.441 1.558 1.585 1.614 1.647 1.677 1.712 1.751 1.790 1.837 1.899 2.041
1.98 0.45 1.230 1.384 1.501 1.532 1.561 1.592 1.628 1.659 1.695 1.737 1.784 1.846 1.988
1.93 0.46 1.179 1.330 1.446 1.473 1.502 1.533 1.567 1.600 1.636 1.677 1.725 1.786 1.929
1.88 0.47 1.130 1.278 1.397 1.425 1.454 1.485 1.519 1.532 1.588 1.629 1.677 1.758 1.881
1.83 0.48 1.076 1.228 1.343 1.370 1.400 1.430 1.464 1.497 1.534 1.575 1.623 1.684 1.826
1.78 0.49 1.030 1.179 1.297 1.326 1.355 1.386 1.420 1.453 1.489 1.530 1.578 1.639 1.782
1.73 0.50 0.982 1.232 1.248 1.276 1.303 1.337 1.369 1.403 1.441 1.481 1.529 1.590 1.732
1.69 0.51 0.936 1.087 1.202 1.230 1.257 1.291 1.323 1.357 1.395 1.435 1.483 1.544 1.686
1.64 0.52 0.894 1.043 1.160 1.188 1.215 1.249 1.281 1.315 1.353 1.393 1.441 1.502 1.644
1.60 0.53 0.850 1.000 1.116 1.144 1.171 1.205 1.237 1.271 1.309 1.349 1.397 1.458 1.600
1.56 0.54 0.809 0.959 1.075 1.103 1.130 1.164 1.196 1.230 1.268 1.308 1.356 1.417 1.559
1.52 0.55 0.769 0.918 1.035 1.063 1.090 1.124 1.156 1.190 1.228 1.268 1.316 1.377 1.519
1.48 0.56 0.730 0.879 0.996 1.024 1.051 1.085 1.117 1.151 1.189 1.229 1.277 1.338 1.480
1.44 0.57 0.692 0.841 0.958 0.986 1.013 1.047 1.079 1.113 1.151 1.191 1.239 1.300 1.442
1.40 0.58 0.665 0.805 0.921 0.949 0.976 1.010 1.042 1.076 1.114 1.154 1.202 1.263 1.405
1.37 0.59 0.618 0.768 0.884 0.912 0.939 0.973 1.005 1.039 1.077 1.117 1.165 1.226 1.368
1.33 0.60 0.584 0.733 0.849 0.878 0.905 0.939 0.971 1.005 1.043 1.083 1.131 1.192 1.334
1.30 0.61 0.549 0.699 0.815 0.843 0.870 0.904 0.936 0.970 1.008 1.048 1.096 1.157 1.299
1.27 0.62 0.515 0.665 0.781 0.809 0.836 0.870 0.902 0.936 0.974 1.014 1.062 1.123 1.265
1.23 0.63 0.483 0.633 0.749 0.777 0.804 0.838 0.870 0.904 0.942 0.982 1.030 1.091 1.233
1.20 0.64 0.450 0.601 0.716 0.744 0.771 0.805 0.837 0.871 0.909 0.949 0.997 1.058 1.200
1.17 0.65 0.419 0.569 0.685 0.713 0.740 0.774 0.806 0.840 0.878 0.918 0.966 1.007 1.169
1.14 0.66 0.388 0.538 0.654 0.682 0.709 0.743 0.775 0.809 0.847 0.887 0.935 0.996 1.138
1.11 0.67 0.358 0.508 0.624 0.652 0.679 0.713 0.745 0.779 0.817 0.857 0.905 0.966 1.108
1.08 0.68 0.329 0.478 0.595 0.623 0.650 0.684 0.716 0.750 0.788 0.828 0.876 0.937 1.079
1.05 0.69 0.299 0.449 0.565 0.593 0.620 0.654 0.686 0.720 0.758 0.798 0.840 0.907 1.049
1.02 0.70 0.270 0.420 0.536 0.564 0.591 0.625 0.657 0.691 0.729 0.769 0.811 0.878 1.020
0.99 0.71 0.242 0.392 0.508 0.536 0.563 0.597 0.629 0.663 0.701 0.741 0.783 0.850 0.992
0.96 0.72 0.213 0.364 0.479 0.507 0.534 0.568 0.600 0.634 0.672 0.712 0.754 0.821 0.963
0.94 0.73 0.186 0.336 0.452 0.480 0.507 0.541 0.573 0.607 0.645 0.685 0.727 0.794 0.936
0.91 0.74 0.159 0.309 0.425 0.453 0.480 0.514 0.546 0.580 0.618 0.658 0.700 0.767 0.909
0.88 0.75 0.132 0.82 0.398 0.426 0.453 0.487 0.519 0.553 0.591 0.631 0.673 0.740 0.882
0.86 0.76 0.105 0.255 0.371 0.399 0.426 0.460 0.492 0.526 0.564 0.604 0.652 0.713 0.855
0.83 0.77 0.079 0.229 0.345 0.373 0.400 0.434 0.466 0.500 0.538 0.578 0.620 0.687 0.829
0.80 0.78 0.053 0.202 0.319 0.347 0.374 0.408 0.440 0.474 0.512 0.552 0.594 0.661 0.803
0.78 0.79 0.026 0.176 0.292 0.320 0.347 0.381 0.413 0.447 0.485 0.525 0.567 0.634 0.776
0.75 0.80 0.150 0.266 0.294 0.321 0.355 0.387 0.421 0.459 0.499 0.541 0.608 0.750
0.72 0.81 0.124 0.240 0.268 0.295 0.329 0.361 0.395 0.433 0.473 0.515 0.582 0.724
0.70 0.82 0.098 0.214 0.242 0.269 0.303 0.335 0.369 0.407 0.447 0.489 0.556 0.698
0.67 0.83 0.072 0.188 0.216 0.243 0.277 0.309 0.343 0.381 0.421 0.463 0.530 0.672
0.65 0.84 0.046 0.162 0.190 0.217 0.251 0.283 0.317 0.355 0.395 0.437 0.504 0.645
0.62 0.85 0.020 0.136 0.164 0.191 0.225 0.257 0.291 0.329 0.369 0.417 0.478 0.620
0.59 0.86 0.109 0.140 0.167 0.198 0.230 0.264 0.301 0.343 0.390 0.450 0.593
0.57 0.87 0.083 0.114 0.141 0.172 0.204 0.238 0.275 0.317 0.364 0.424 0.567
0.54 0.88 0.054 0.085 0.112 0.143 0.175 0.209 0.246 0.288 0.335 0.395 0.538
0.51 0.89 0.028 0.059 0.086 0.117 0.149 0.183 0.230 0.262 0.309 0.369 0.512
0.48 0.90 0.031 0.058 0.089 0.121 0.155 0.192 0.234 0.281 0.341 0.484
table E17: kvar to be installed per kW of load, to improve the power factor of an installation.
Q'
S'
cos ϕ = 0.7
cos ϕ' = 0.95 Q
S = 122 kVA
S' = 90 kVA
Q = 87.1 kvar S
Qc
Qc = 59 kvar
Q' = 28.1 kvar
E
6.1 compensation to increase the available active power output
Steps similar to those taken to reduce the Total reactive power required by the
the installation of a bank of
declared maximum kVA, i.e. improvement of installation before compensation:
capacitors can avoid the need to the load power factor, as discussed in sub- Q1 + Q2 = 337 + 102 = 439 kvar.
change a transformer in the event of clause 5.4, will maximise the available So that the minimum size of capacitor bank to
a load increase. transformer capacity, i.e. to supply more instal:
active power. Qkvar = 439 - 307 = 132 kvar.
Cases can arise where the replacement of a It should be noted that this calculation has not
transformer by a larger unit, to cater for load taken account of peak loads and their
growth, may be avoided by this means. duration.
Table E20 shows directly the power (kW) The best possible improvement, i.e.
capability of fully-loaded transformers at correction which attains a PF of 1 would
different load power factors, from which the permit a power reserve for the transformer of
increase of active-power output, as the value 630 - 550 = 80 kW. The capacitor bank would
of power factor increases, can be obtained. then have to be rated at 439 kvar.
Example:
Refer to figure E19. Q
An installation is supplied from a 630 kVA
transformer loaded at 450 kW (P1) with a
mean power factor of 0.8 lagging.
The apparent power S1 = 450 = 562 kVA S2
Q2
0.8
Q
The corresponding reactive power
Q1= S12 − P12 = 337 kvar S1
P2
E
6.2 compensation of reactive energy absorbed by the transformer (continued)
E (input voltage)
IXL
I
ϕ
V (load voltage)
I0 compensation current
load current
fig. E23: overcompensation of load to
completely compensate transformer
reactive-power losses.
In practical terms, therefore, compensation
for transformer-absorbed kvar is included in
the capacitors primarily intended for power-
factor correction of the load, either globally,
partially, or in the individual mode.
Unlike most other kvar-absorbing items, the
transformer absorption (i.e. the part due to
the leakage reactance) changes significantly
with variations of load level, so that, if
individual compensation is applied to the
transformer, then an average level of loading
will have to be assumed.
Fortunately, this kvar consumption generally
forms only a relatively small part of the total
reactive power of an installation, and so
mismatching of compensation at times of
load change is not likely to be a problem.
Table E24 indicates typical kvar loss values
for the magnetizing circuit (“no-load kvar”
columns), as well as for the total losses at full
load, for a standard range of distribution
transformers supplied at 20 kV (which include
the losses due to the leakage reactance).
E
7.1 connection of a capacitor bank and protection settings
individual motor compensation is general precautions
recommended where the motor Because of the small kW consumption, the
power factor of a motor is very low at no-load
power (kVA) is large with respect to or on light load. The reactive current of the
the declared power of the installation. motor remains practically constant at all
loads, so that a number of unloaded motors
constitute a consumption of reactive power
which is generally detrimental to an
installation, for reasons explained in
preceding sections.
Two good general rules therefore are that
unloaded motors should be switched off, and
motors should not be oversized (since they
will then be lightly loaded).
connection
The bank of capacitors should be connected
directly to the terminals of the motor.
special motors
It is recommended that special motors
(stepping, plugging, inching, reversing
motors, etc.) should not be compensated.
transformer
power
made
available
active
power
motor reactive
M M power
supplied
by capacitor
E
7.2 how self-excitation of an induction motor can be avoided
When a motor is driving a high-inertia load, Notes
when a capacitor bank is connected
the motor will continue to rotate (unless 1. The characteristics of a motor being driven
to the terminals of an induction deliberately braked) after the motor supply by the inertia of the load are not rigorously
motor, it is important to check that the has been switched off. identical to its no-load characteristics. This
size of the bank is less than that at The "magnetic inertia" of the rotor circuit assumption, however, is sufficiently accurate
which self-excitation can occur. means that an emf will be generated in the for practical purposes.
stator windings for a short period after 2. With the motor acting as a generator, the
switching off, and would normally reduce to currents circulating are largely reactive, so
zero after 1 or 2 cycles, in the case of an that the braking (retarding) effect on the
uncompensated motor. motor is mainly due only to the load
Compensation capacitors however, constitute represented by the cooling fan in the motor.
a 3-phase "wattless" load for this decaying 3. The (almost 90° lagging) current taken
emf, which causes capacitive currents to flow from the supply in normal circumstances by
through the stator windings. These stator the unloaded motor, and the (almost 90°
currents will produce a rotating magnetic field leading) current supplied to the capacitors by
in the rotor which acts exactly along the same the motor acting as a generator, both have
axis and in the same direction as that of the the same phase relationship to the terminal
decaying magnetic field. voltage. It is for this reason that the two
The rotor flux consequently increases; the characteristics may be superimposed on the
stator currents increase; and the voltage at graph.
the terminals of the motor increases; In order to avoid self-excitation as described
sometimes to dangerously-high levels. above, the kvar rating of the capacitor bank
This phenomenon is known as self-excitation must be limited to the following maximum
and is one reason why a.c. generators are value:
not normally operated at leading power Qc i 0,9 Io Un e where Io = the no-load
factors, i.e. there is a tendency to current of the motor and Un = phase-to-
spontaneously (and uncontrollably) self- phase nominal voltage of the motor in kV.
excite. Table E28 gives appropriate values of Qc
corresponding to this criterion.
Example
A 75 kW, 3 000 Rpm, 400 V, 3-phase motor
may have a capacitor bank no larger than
17 kvar according to Table E28. The table
values are, in general, too small to
adequately compensate the motor to the level
of cos ϕ normally required. Additional
compensation can, however, be applied to
the system, for example an overall bank,
installed for global compensation of a number
of smaller appliances.
High-inertia motors and/or loads
In any installation where high-inertia motor-
driven loads exist, the circuit breakers or
contactors controlling such motors should, in
the event of total loss of power supply, be
rapidly tripped.
If this precaution is not taken, then self-
excitation to very high voltages is likely to
occur, since all other banks of capacitors in
the installation will effectively be in parallel
with those of the high-inertia motors.
E
installation before P.F. correction installation after P.F. correction
*→→→ c kvarh are billed heavily above the declared →→→
kVA=kW+kvar kVA=kW+kvar c the consumption of kvarh is
level, v eliminated, or
c apparent power kVA is significantly greater v reduced, according to the cos ϕ required,
kVA than the kW demand, kVA c the tariff penalties
c the corresponding excess current causes v for reactive energy where applicable
kW kvar kW
losses (kWh) which are billed, v for the entire bill in some cases are
c the installation must be over-dimensioned. eliminated,
* the arrows denote vector quantities. c the fixed charge based on kVA demand is
adjusted to be close to the active power kW
demand.
c the current flowing into the installation c the current flowing into the installation
downstream of the circuit breaker is through the circuit breaker is 778 A.
I= P = 960 A
eU cos ϕ
E
9.1 problems arising from power-system harmonics
Equipment which uses power electronics greater the harmonic content, the greater the
components (variable-speed motor degree of distortion .
controllers, thyristor-controlled rectifiers, etc.) If the natural frequency of the capacitor bank/
have, in recent years, considerably increased power-system reactance combination is close
the problems caused by harmonics in power- to a particular harmonic, then partial
supply systems. resonance will occur, with amplified values of
Harmonics have existed from the earliest voltage and current at the harmonic
days of the industry and were (and still are) frequency concerned.
caused by the non-linear magnetizing In this particular case, the elevated current
impedances of transformers, reactors, will cause overheating of the capacitor, with
fluorescent lamp ballasts, etc. degradation of the dielectric, which may result
Harmonics on symmetrical 3-phase power in its eventual failure.
systems are generally* odd-numbered: 3rd,
5th, 7th, 9th..., and the magnitude decreases Several solutions to these problems are
as the order of the harmonic increases. available, which aim basically at reducing the
distortion of the supply-voltage wave form,
All of these features may be used in various between the equipment causing the
ways to reduce specific harmonics to distortion, and the bank of capacitors in
negligible values - total elimination is not question. This is generally accomplished by
possible. In this section, practical means of shunt connected harmonic filter and/or
reducing the influence of harmonics are harmonic-suppression reactors.
recommended, with particular reference to
capacitor banks. * With the advent of power electronics devices, and
Capacitors are especially sensitive to associated non-linear components, even-numbered
harmonic components of the supply voltage harmonics are now sometimes encountered.
due to the fact that capacitive reactance
decreases as the frequency increases. In
practice, this means that a relatively small
percentage of harmonic voltage can cause a
significant current to flow in the capacitor
circuit.
The presence of harmonic components
causes the (normally sinusoidal) wave form
of voltage or current to be distorted; the
countering the effects For example: SSC / Q may give a value for
of resonance ho of 2.93 which shows that the natural
Capacitors are linear reactive devices, and frequency of the capacitor/system-inductance
consequently do not generate harmonics. combination is close to the 3rd harmonic
The installation of capacitors in a power frequency of the system.
system (in which the impedances are From ho = fo/50 it can be seen that
predominantly inductive) can, however, result fo = 50 ho = 50 x 2.93 = 146.5 Hz
in total or partial resonance occurring at one The closer a natural frequency approaches
of the harmonic frequencies. one of the harmonics present on the system,
The harmonic order ho of the natural the greater will be the (undesirable) effect.
resonant frequency between the system In the above example, strong resonant
inductance and the capacitor bank is given by conditions with the 3rd harmonic component
SSC / Q where of a distorted wave would certainly occur.
Ssc = the level of system short-circuit kVA at
the point of connection of the capacitor
Q = capacitor bank rating in kvar; and ho =
the harmonic order of the natural frequency fo
i.e. fo/50 for a 50 Hz system, or fo/60 for a
60 Hz system.
E
9.2 possible solutions (continued)
countering the effects In this arrangement, the presence of the
of resonance (continued) reactor increases the fundamental-frequency
(50 Hz or 60 Hz) current by a small amount
In such cases, steps are taken to change the (7-8%) and therefore the voltage across the
natural frequency to a value which will not capacitor in the same proportion.
resonate with any of the harmonics known to This feature is taken into account, for
be present. This is achieved by the addition example, by using capacitors which are
of a harmonic-suppression inductor designed for 440 V operation on 400 V
connected in series with the capacitor bank. systems.
On 50 Hz systems, these reactors are often
adjusted to bring the resonant frequency of
the combination, i.e. the capacitor bank +
reactors to 190 Hz. The reactors are adjusted
to 228 Hz for a 60 Hz system.
These frequencies correspond to a value for
ho of 3.8 for a 50 Hz system, i.e.
approximately mid-way between the 3rd and
5th harmonics.
E
10.1 capacitor elements
technology
fuse
The capacitors are dry-type units (i.e. are not
impregnated by liquid dielectric) comprising discharge
metallized polypropylene self-healing film in resistor
the form of a two-film roll. short-circuiting
contacts
They are protected by a high-quality system
(overpressure disconnector used with an overpressure
HPC fuse) which switches off the capacitor if device
an internal fault occurs.
The protection scheme operates as follows:
c a short-circuit through the dielectric will
blow the fuse,
c current levels greater than normal, but
insufficient to blow the fuse sometimes occur,
e.g. due to a microscopic flow in the dielectric
film. Such "faults" often re-seal due to local
heating caused by the leakage current, i.e.
the units are said to be "self-healing";
v if the leakage current persists, the defect
may develop into a short-circuit, and the fuse fig. E31: cross-section of a capacitor
will blow, element.
v gas produced by vaporizing of the
metallisation at the faulty location will
gradually build up a pressure within the
plastic container, and will eventually operate
a pressure-sensitive device to short-circuit
the unit, thereby causing the fuse to blow.
Capacitors are made of insulating material
providing them with double insulation and
avoiding the need for a ground connection.
electrical characteristics
standards IEC 831, NF C 54-104, VDE 0560
CSA standards, UL tests
operating rated voltage 400 V
range rated frequency 50 Hz
capacitance tolerance 0 to + 5%
temperature maximum temperature 55 °C
range average temperature over 24 h 45 °C
average annual temperature 35 °C
minimum temperature -25 °C
insulation level 50 Hz 1 mn withstand voltage: 6 kV
1.2/50 µs impulse withstand voltage: 25 kV
permissible current overload standard range H range
30% 50%
permissible voltage overload 10% 20%
current on 400 V - 50 Hz supply 2 A/kvar 2.2 A/kvar
consumption on 230 V - 50 Hz supply 3.5 A/kvar
protection
At the instant of closing a switch to energize a c for a single capacitor bank, the upstream
capacitor, the current is limited only by the cables and transformers constitute the
impedances of the network upstream of the predominant part of Lo (the system
capacitor, so that high peak values of current inductance),
will occur for a brief period, rapidly falling to c where a bank of capacitors is automatically
normal operating values. switched in steps, however, those units which
This transient overcurrent however, is are already in service will initially discharge
generally a high-frequency phenomenon, into an uncharged capacitor group at the
which is superimposed on the 50 Hz instant of switching it into service. The
(or 60 Hz) current wave. transient in-rush current from the previously-
The first peak of transient high-frequency or charged units will then amount to an initial
(sometimes) unidirectional* current has the peak of
greatest magnitude. The maximum value
2C n
attainable, when charging an initially I' P = U ( )A
uncharged capacitor, will occur if the closing 3 L n +1
switch contacts touch at the instant of peak where L = the supply cable inductance in
power-supply voltage. series with each capacitor
For this condition, the maximum high- n = the number of capacitor steps already
frequency peak current is given by: energized before closure of the switch
C = capacitance of each group forming 1 step
2C
Ip = U A (all steps are electrically identical).
3 Lo The frequency f'o of the current from the
Where U = system phase-to-phase voltage in energized capacitors is given by
Volts 1
C = capacitance of capacitor in Farads fo' = Hz
Lo = inductance of system impedance in 2Π LC
Henrys (system resistance is ignored). The total inrush current is the sum of the two
The frequency fo of the transient current infeeds, i.e. from the system and from the
surge is given by: previously-charged bank.
1 Generally, the frequencies of the two infeeds
fo = Hz will not be equal.
2Π LoC
* In general, peak unidirectional currents are
lower than the first peaks of high-frequency
currents.
E
10.2 choice of protection, control devices, and connecting cables (continued)
The peak value of this transient current must
not exceed 100 times the rated current of the
capacitors in one step of a multi-step bank
(IEC 831-1). This maximum transient current
peak occurs when the last step is energized.
It is sometimes necessary to install small
series inductors to achieve this limitation, in
which case the manufacturer of the
capacitors should be consulted.
In order to avoid undesirable nuisance
tripping of controlling circuit breakers at the
instant of energizing a capacitor bank, the
instantaneous elements of overcurrent
tripping relays should be given a suitably high
setting.
Note: The short-circuit current-breaking rating of the circuit
breaker must be adequate to match the short-circuit level
existing at the point of connection of the capacitor bank.
E
For this appendix, the more commonly- An exact analysis of the combination is not
occurring odd-numbered harmonics are simple, since each filter is affected by those
shown in the diagrams. in parallel with it, as well as by the power-
Before the advent of power-electronics, system source reactance shunting the filter
even-numbered harmonics were rarely bank (shown dotted in figure AE3-3).
encountered, so that the 100 Hz (on 50 Hz When all factors have been taken into
systems) separating one harmonic account, including a degree of damping
frequency from the next made the task of caused by the load impedance, the
filters (despite manufacturing tolerances, response of the filter bank in terms of its
and impedance changes with temperature, impedance at different frequencies is shown
etc.) relatively straightforward, so that in figure AE3-2.
satisfactory results were achieved (and still
IZI Ω
are in all but exceptional cases) by the
methods described below.
If it is required to eliminate (almost) a
harmonic voltage existing across two points
A and B in a network, a series-connected
LCR circuit (figure AE3-1(a)) tuned to fh/f50
resonate at the harmonic frequency
concerned, will constitute a virtual short- 1 5 7 11 13 (harmonic
circuit to the current of that harmonic order)
frequency, thereby reducing VAB(h) to fig. AE3-2.
practically zero.
It will be seen that, at each harmonic
The same procedure can be adopted for any
frequency for which a filter has been
number harmonic frequencies known to be
provided, the impedance is very low, while at
present, the individual filters being connected
intermediate frequencies, high-impedance
in parallel across the points A-B
values occur.
(figure AE3-1(b)).
Care should be taken to ensure that
(a) A frequencies corresponding to the low-
C impedance point are not close to control
frequencies (such as those of ripple-control
1 schemes used by many power companies
L f= for remote control of power-network devices).
2 π v LC
R Otherwise, the control signals will be virtually
short-circuited.
B Harmonic-producing equipment must create
the harmonic e.m.f.s. and resulting currents
(b) A in order to function correctly. The role of a
filter bank, as described, is to allow a free
flow of harmonic currents to circulate
protected between the harmonic source and the filter
harmonic bank, while practically eliminating these
source network and
power source currents and voltages from the rest of the
network.
B
fig. AE3-1.
Appendix E3 - 1
E
A
Zh
a loads X source
Vh
harmonic
source
5 7 11 13 B
filter bank
fig. AE3-3.
In figure AE3-3, it will be seen that since the
filters are practically short-circuits to
harmonics, most of the harmonic voltage Vh
will be dropped across the internal
impedance Zh of the harmonic source and
that small harmonic-current components only
will pass through the power-system source
impedance Xs and the loads (the latter having
relatively high impedance).
Since at fundamental frequency the
capacitive reactance of each filter is much
greater than its inductive reactance, most of
the power-frequency voltage will appear
across the capacitors, so that a useful
contribution to any power-factor correction
requirement is fortuitously available.
R L
C R
r
Hz
fo
fig. AE3-4: damped filter circuit and
characteristic impedance/frequency
curve.
There are several variations of damped
filters and many combinations of band-pass
and undamped filters in service, according
to particular requirements.
In fact, the successful application of power
electronics devices is largely due to the
development of effective filtering techniques
which are, however, beyond the scope of
these brief notes.
2 - Appendix E3
12. harmonic suppression reactor for a single
(power factor correction) capacitor bank
E
As shown in Appendix E2, the crux of the stepped banks of capacitors
problem for capacitor banks is that a fraction Power-factor correction capacitor banks are
of the total component of a given harmonic frequently made up of a number of switched
current can be magnified to dangerous levels sections, so that the amount of compensation
in a parallel LCR circuit if that circuit can be adjusted to suit the requirements of a
resonates at the harmonic frequency changing load.
concerned. If all switched steps have the same kvar
By connecting a reactor L in series with the rating, then the series resonant frequency of
capacitor bank, the parallel resonant each step must be the same, i.e. the first step
condition is moved away from the harmonic in service must fulfill the conditions of series
frequency towards a lower frequency, as resonance already mentioned and shown in
shown in figure AE4-1 (b). figure AE4-1 (b). The addition of further
In fact, the circuit now resonates at two identical steps in parallel will not affect the
different frequencies; the lower frequency is two resonant frequencies fp and fs.
due to the parallel Ls//LCR combination, and This is because, although the capacitance
the upper due to the series LCR circuit. has increased n times (for n steps in service),
the inductance has reduced to 1/n times its
C
original value, so that the product LC, on
which the series resonant frequency
L (a) LS depends, remains constant.
By similar reasoning, it follows that mixed
R
steps of any kvar rating may be paralleled,
providing that every step is tuned to the same
series resonant frequency.
IZI Ω series
parallel resonance fS
resonance power source
fP impedance
(b)
f (Hz)
f1 fp fS range of
unwanted
harmonic
frequencies
fig. AE4-1.
It is sufficient that the two resonant
frequencies be lower than those of the
harmonics to be protected against, to ensure
complete immunity from resonance. The
reason for this is that for frequencies higher
than the series-resonant frequency XL > XC so
that the LCR branch behaves as an
inductance + resistance series circuit. This
branch being in parallel with LS, the power-
system source inductance, no resonant
condition is possible.
Furthermore, the addition of reactor L means
that changes in the power-system source
reactance will have much less influence (than
formerly) on the parallel-resonant frequency,
since L generally has a much greater value
than LS (e.g. 2 to 9 times) and the parallel-
resonant frequency depends on L + LS.
It may be noted that, although a harmonic-
suppression reactor protects the capacitor
bank against the problem of resonance with
the source reactance, it does not reduce the
amount of harmonic current which passes
through the HV/LV transformer to the source.
Such currents must be eliminated by shunt-
connected series filters, as described in
Appendix E3.
Appendix E4 - 1
1. general
F
1.1 the principal schemes of LV distribution
In a typical LV installation, distribution circuits
originate at a main general-distribution board
(MGDB) from which cables are installed in
various kinds of cables-ways, conduits, etc.
to supply local distribution and sub-
distribution boards.
The arrangement of groups of insulated
conductors and the means of fixing them and
of protecting them from mechanical damage,
while respecting aesthetic considerations,
constitute the practical realization of an
electrical installation.
Circuit arrangements
The creation of independent circuits to
different parts of an installation allows:
c the limitation of consequences, on the
failure of a circuit;
c simplification in locating a defective circuit;
c maintenance work on, or extension of a
circuit may be effected without disturbing the
greater part of the installation.
Division of circuits falls logically into several
categories, each requiring an individual circuit
or group of circuits, and, in some cases,
particular kinds of cable (e.g. for fire-alarm
and protection circuits).
In general, the following circuit groups are
required:
c lighting circuits (the circuits on which the
majority of insulation failures occur);
c socket-outlet circuits;
c heating and/or air-conditioning appliances
circuits;
c power circuits for motor-driven fixed plant;
c power-supply circuits for auxiliary services
(indication and control);
c circuits for safety systems (emergency
lighting, fire-protection systems and
uninterruptible-power-supplies (UPS) circuits
for computer systems, etc.), the installation of
which is normally subject to strict national
regulations and codes of practice.
The most common distribution arrangements
for low-voltage installations are described in
the following pages.
* IEC 38 (1983).
F
1.1 the principal schemes of LV distribution (continued)
radial branched distribution schemes, radial branched distribution Maintenance or extensions to the circuit
This scheme of distribution is practically leaves the remainder of the installation in
in which conductor sizes are service. Conductor sizes can be tapered to
universal, and its realization generally follows
progressively reduced at each point arrangements similar to those illustrated suit the decreasing current levels towards
of circuit sub-division are the most below: the final sub-circuits.
commonly used systems in most
Advantages Disadvantages
countries. A fault occurring on one of the cables from
For socket-outlet circuits in certain One sub-divided circuit only will be isolated
(by fuses or MCCB) in case of a fault. the main distribution board will cut off supply
countries, a ring-main circuit is Location of the defect is simplified. to all circuits of related downstream
standard, in which the conductor size distribution boards and sub-distribution
boards.
is the same throughout the circuit.
Circuit wires drawn through conduits, Conventional wiring installation (fig. F1) Advantages
as well as prefabricated bus in buildings intended for specific use: Virtually unrestricted passage for cable
channels, are commonly used. dwellings, hotels, agricultural activities, ways, conduits, trays, ducts, etc.
schools, etc.
main distribution
board
distribution board
"A" worhshop
M M
process
MGDB
(main
general
distribution
board)
D1 D2 D3 D4
to lighting
and heating
distribution
board
M M M
process
fig. F2: radial branched distribution using prefabricated bus channels at the second
level of distribution.
F2 - distribution within a low-voltage installation
F
With prefabricated bus-rail and pre-wired Advantages
channels at final-circuits level (fig. F3): Aesthetically acceptable; flexible in locations
for offices, laboratories, etc. where partitioning may change according to
consumers requirements; easy exploitation.
main distribution
board
A B C
distribution
board
office C
to heating
control
board
prefabricated
pre-wired
columns,
skirting-board
channels,
etc...
bus rails
for
luminaires
fig. F3: radial branched distribution using prefabricated pre-wired channels and lighting
rails at final-circuits level.
main distribution
board
M M M M
F
1.2 the main LV distribution board
The starting point for the design of an Many other factors must be considered
electrical installation, and the physical however, and in particular, the agreement of
location of distribution and sub-distribution the power-supply authority concerning the
boards, is the geographical division of the HV/LV substation, and its related civil
loads, shown on plans of the building(s) engineering works. In fact, very often only the
concerned. main LV distribution board can be located at
The HV/LV substation, standby-supply plant, the load centre, the HV/LV substation being
and the main LV distribution board, should, on the building line with the public way.
for both technical and economic reasons, be
placed as near to the electrical centre of the
load area as possible.
PE PE
protective protective
earthing earthing
conductor conductor
Note: in this scheme of
delta-connected loads, it
is essential that balanced
loading is maintained in
all three phases.
fig. F6: use of a LV/LV transformer to provide a 3-phase 3-wire TN system from a 3-phase
3-wire IT network.
F
In order to achieve the highest possible plant
performance, it is necessary that the
continuity and quality of the electric-power
supply be assured.
HV
LV
non-essential loads
essential loads
inverter
sensitive load
(computer, etc.)
fig. F7: essential and non-essential loads are separated, with automatic standby supplies
provided for essential loads.
F
2.1 continuity of electric-power supply (continued)
A sub-group of the essential loads, namely selective discrimination
computer and information technology by protection relays and/or fuses
equipment (ITE), requires the highest degree
of continuity, stable voltage level, and quality The prime objective in any scheme of
of wave form. These requirements are met by automatic protection against insulation faults,
a static UPS inverter system. over-loading, etc., is to trip the circuit breaker
or blow the fuse(s) which control(s) the
Supply from HV from a private power plant or faulted circuit only, leaving all other circuit
a HV substation from a different HV substation
breakers and fuses unaffected.
In radial branched installations, this means
the nearest upstream circuit breaker or
HV HV
fuse(s) to the fault position. All downstream
LV LV loads then being inevitably deprived of
supply.
The short-circuit (or overload) current will
generally pass through one or more circuit
breaker(s) or fuse(s) upstream of the circuit
breaker (or fuses) controlling the faulted
cable.
By "discrimination" is meant that none of the
upstream protective devices through which
the fault (or overload) current flows will
operate before the protective device
essential non-essential essential non-essential controlling the faulted circuit has operated.
loads loads loads loads In general, discrimination is achieved by
fig. F8: an example of HV standby power increasing the operating time of relays as
supply. their location in a network becomes closer to
the power source. In this way, the failure to
choice of earthing system operate of the relay closest to the fault means
Where considerations of supply continuity are that the next relay upstream will operate in a
paramount, e.g. in continuous-process slightly longer time.
manufacturing, hospital operating theatres,
etc., the IT scheme* of earthing is generally
adopted. closed
This scheme allows normal (and safe)
system operation to continue in the event of
an earth-fault (by far the most common type
of insulation failure). A shutdown to trace the
fault manually or automatically (see G 6.2)
and effect repairs can then be carried out closed open
later, at any convenient time (e.g. at the end
of a manufacturing process, etc.).
A second earth fault (if it occurs on a different
phase or on a neutral conductor) will,
however, constitute a short-circuit fault, which fig. F9: the principle of selective
will cause overcurrent relays to trip the discrimination.
circuit(s).
* Chapter F Sub-clause 4-5 discusses the
matter of earthing schemes in more detail.
F
2.2 quality of electric-power supply (continued)
c measures against transient impulse-type The basic test applies a standardized
overvoltage surges. lightning voltage impulse of the form shown in
These measures depend, in addition to a figure F11, characterized by the values
basic impulse-voltage withstand capability of 1.2/50 µs. These two values (in micro
the insulating materials, on the application of seconds) indicate the time interval for the
lightning arresters at the origin of the wave to attain its peak value from the
installation, together with voltage-surge (defined) instant of impulse initiation (i.e.
suppression devices at sensitive points in the 1.2 µs) and the time for the impulse to fall to
installation (e.g. at terminals of large motors). 50% of its peak value (50 µs). These values
Such schemes require careful study and are are called "front time" and "time to half value"
best carried out in cooperation with the respectively.
relevant manufacturers. The peak value is designated by Uimp
For LV installations, the transference of surge (imp = impulse).
voltages through the interwinding Other impulse test wave-forms, notably for
capacitances of the HV/LV transformer representing switching overvoltages, are
reduces considerably the severity of the used for test purposes, but these tests are
overvoltage on the LV side, compared to that relevant only for very high system voltages,
on the HV side. beyond the ranges used for distribution.
Transformers with earthed screens between Table F10 shows maximum values of peak
HV and LV windings may also be used to overvoltage assumed to be possible at
provide a costly but effective method of different points in a typical LV installation.
eliminating the problem. Note: Materials tested to IEC standards have
v impulse voltage withstand capability of an impulse withstand capability of 123% of
insulating materials. the values shown in Table F10, for altitudes of
0-2,000 metres.
Publication 947 takes account of abstracted from IEC Publication 947. During
the rules governing insulation the several impulse-voltage tests, no break
coordination and requires that down of insulation must occur between 9,8kV
LV switchgear be impulse tested phases between open contacts or between
any phase and earth.
according to the withstand values Table F12 also includes a test for switchgear,
50%
shown in the relevant tables. the front face of which is insulated to class II
level, but at the same time including an
accessible manual-operating handle. This
1,2 50 µs
feature provides additional safety for
operating personnel. fig. F11: standardized impulse voltage
Note: all Compact* and Masterpact* circuit wave-form 1.2/50 µs.
breakers have the class II front face feature.
* Merlin Gerin brand names.
F
2.2 quality of electric-power supply (continued)
the undesirable effects of inductive electromagnetic compatibility
(electric or magnetic) or common- (EMC)
impedance coupling between This subject concerns all cases of coupling, other circuits minute currents and voltages
by common impedance and induction are normal and the circuit components are
adjacent circuits at power-system (electric or magnetic) at fundamental correspondingly fragile.
frequency (with its harmonics and frequency and harmonic frequencies,
superimposed high-frequency together with unidirectional and H.F. surges, equipment
disturbances) together with high- and radiated electromagnetic waves, It is for the foregoing reasons that electronic
frequency radiated electromagnetic provoked by normal (switching, etc.) and equipment requires special care, and full
abnormal (system faults, lightning, etc.) protection against interference from any
waves, are minimized by: operating conditions. propagated or direct-coupled source.
c the selection of appropriate The unifying feature of all inductive Other sources, commonly causing problems,
materials, phenomena is that electric, magnetic, or include:
c specific studies. radiated electromagnetic fields, or different c "white-noise" from fluorescent and other
combinations of any number of them, result in types of discharge lamps;
producing emfs in any conducting medium in c radiation from ignition systems of internal
their paths. combustion engines;
Essential differences are as follows: c commercial and amateur radio transmitters,
c electric or magnetic fields at power-system radio-directed taxis, walkie-talkies, etc.;
frequency and its harmonics do not, for all c mains-borne interference through
practical purposes, leave the space conductors in the installation, for example:
immediately surrounding their point of origin, the opening of contactor coils or circuit
namely a charged conductor (electric field) or breaker tripping coils.
a current-carrying conductor (magnetic field). The European Directive of 3rd March 1989,
Moreover, the field strength in both cases concerning electromagnetic compatibility,
varies inversely with the distance squared imposes a maximum level of permitted
from the conductor*, i.e. their zone of radiation from electrical installations and their
influence rapidly diminishes with distance component parts (the practical application of
from the conductor. the methods to adopt is still being studied at
c the amount of energy leaving a conductor the time of publication of this guide).
in the form of an electromagnetic wave
depends on the acceleration of electrons. earthing arrangements and
This is why, for example, at the instant of
switching on a lamp, the radiation due to the
equipotential bonding-guidance
initial acceleration of electrons can be heard for installation contractors
in a radio receiver (i.e. the switching-transient The following notes have been abstracted
current). All disturbances on power systems from November 1993 IEC draft proposal
which cause electrons to accelerate, whether documents.
in a unidirectional or oscillatory manner, will Protection against electromagnetic
cause a radiated wave to leave the conductor interference (EMI)
and propagate through space. Lightning currents in a lightning protection
The higher the frequency, the greater the system (LPS) or in the vicinity of a building
acceleration of electrons, and the greater the can cause overvoltages in electrical
portion of energy leaving the circuit as installations of buildings by induction. This is
radiation. the case if large metal loops exist, where
The field strength of a propagated wave different electrical wiring systems for the
varies inversely as the distance from the supply of different electrical equipment, e.g.
conductor, i.e. its zone of influence is much for power supply and for information
greater than that of the electric or magnetic technology, are installed on different routes.
fields noted above. In practice, a very common example is the
c a further difference between the above connection of earthed conductors of power
cases is that a non-radiating electric field can supply cables and of cables for information
be much stronger than its associated technology systems in a wide (extensive)
magnetic field, for example, in a high-voltage mesh.
high-impedance (low current) circuit, and Furthermore, equipotential bonding systems,
vice-versa, i.e. in a low-voltage low- building constructions or pipe systems for
impedance (high current) circuit. non-electrical supplies, e.g. for water, gas,
Whereas in a radiated wave the energy in the heating or air conditioning, can also present
electric field is exactly equal to that of the such induction loops.
magnetic field, the circuit of origin generally When non-electrical pipe-systems or metal
being a capacitive/inductive combination parts of the building construction are
where XC = XL at the frequency of natural connected with the equipotential bonding
resonance. It may be noted that in the context system of the building, these metal parts may
of the present discussion, the effects of a contribute to a screening effect which
radiated wave have not, until recently, been reduces the induction and contributes to the
very important. With the increasing use of protection against electromagnetic
walkie-talkies, mobile transmitters and interference.
cordless telephones, etc., however, this The value of the induced voltage depends on
aspect of EMC will require closer attention the rate of rise (di/dt) of the lightning current,
than hitherto. and on the size of the loop.
The emfs induced by one or more of the * except in very close proximity to the conductor, where it
three possible modes are generally of the varies inversely as the distance cubed.
order of milli- or micro-volts. However, certain
modern electronic circuits have enormous
amplifying power, while at the same time in
F
2.2 quality of electric-power supply (continued)
12. Cables and pipes (e.g. for water, gas or b) to separate the Information Technology
heating) for feeding the building should enter equipment from the sources of disturbance,
the building at the same place. c) to provide equipotential bonding between
Bonding of metal sheaths, screens and metal equipment for the relevant range of
pipes and connections of these parts with the frequencies,
main equipotential bonding (MEB) of the d) to provide a low impedance earth
building (see figure F15). reference plane to minimize earth potential
13. Avoidance of potential differences differential voltages and provide shielding.
between different areas of equipotential There is a continuous range of earthing and
bonding should be achieved by the use of equipotential bonding methods to achieve
metal-free fibre optic cable or other non- electromagnetic compatibility. The following
conducting interconnecting systems such as methods exemplify this range.
microwave or laser links.
Note: the problem of earth differential Method 1: radially connected protective
voltages on large public telecommunication conductors (see figure F16)
networks are the responsibility of the network This uses the normal protective conductors
operator, who may employ other methods. associated with the supply conductors. The
protective conductor at each equipment
Provisions for electromagnetic provides a relatively high impedance path for
compatibility (EMC) electromagnetic disturbances (other than
Signal connections mains-borne transients) such that inter-unit
In buildings which include a PEN conductor, signal cables are subject to a large proportion
or where there are EMC problems on signal of the incident noise. Equipment must
cables due to inadequate EMC provisions in therefore have a high immunity to function
the electrical installations, the following satisfactorily.
methods may be considered to avoid or By providing a dedicated supply circuit and
minimise the problem. earthing system serving the Information
14. Use of fibre optic links for signal Technology equipment, incident disturbances
connections. can be much reduced. In some cases, the
15. Use of Class II equipment. star earthing point (e.g. the PE bar in the
16. Use of local transformers with separate relevant distribution board) of the radially
windings (double wound transformers) for the connected protective and functional earthing
supply of the information technology conductors for the Information Technology
equipment, taking into account the equipment may be earthed by a separate
requirements of IEC 364-3, sub-clause dedicated insulated conductor connected to
312.2.3 and IEC 364-4, sub-clause 413.1.5, the main earthing terminal.
for IT* systems (local IT* systems), or of
clause 413-5, for protection by electrical Method 2: use of a local horizontal
separation (e.g. transformers according to equipotential bonding system (mesh)
IEC 742). (see figure F17)
17. Use of suitable wiring (cabling) routing in The normal protective conductors are
order to minimise the enclosed area of supplemented by equipotential bonding of the
common loops formed by the supply cables components of the Information Technology
and signal cables. system to a local mesh (bonding mat).
* not to be confused with Information Technology. IT Depending on the frequency and the mesh
earthing systems are defined in sub-clause F 4.2. spacing, this can provide a low impedance
earth reference plane for signal
Information Technology equipment may be interconnections between those system
subject to malfunction due to currents and components in close proximity to the mesh.
voltages induced in equipment or between As with Method 1, additional immunity may
interconnected equipment. be provided by a separate dedicated
Further examples of basic techniques used to Information Technology supply circuit and
achieve immunity to incoming earthing system, including the bonding mesh,
electromagnetic disturbances are: from other supply circuits and earthing
a) to provide inherent immunity in the systems and extraneous conductive parts
Information Technology equipment, either such as building metalwork.
electrically or by use of error correction,
telephone earth electrode telephone
power supply embedded in power supply
the foundation
MEB
I I
V U=0 V
cable cable
from the from the U≠0
antenna I antenna
water water I
district heating district heating
gas gas
waste water waste water
fig. F15: introduction of armoured cables and metal pipes into buildings (examples).
a) a common introduction is suitable, U = 0
b) introduction at different places is not suitable, U ≠ 0.
PE PE PE
signal cables signal cables
ITE ITE ITE
PE PE PE
signal cables signal cables
ITE ITE ITE
distribution board
F
2.2 quality of electric-power supply (continued)
it is possible, within a low-voltage High Quality Supplies HV Diesel
installation, to provide a supply of The objective is to supply sensitive LV generator
equipment (information-technology devices,
High Quality (free from disturbances) cash registers, micro-processors, etc.) from a
for dedicated circuits specifically source which is free from the pollution
intended to supply highly sensitive discussed above, at a reasonable cost.
equipments, such as computer- The diagram of figure F19 represents a
based appliances, etc. scheme at the level of the main general
distribution board.
The High Quality supply is achieved by
means of an inverter and its associated
UPS
battery of storage cells and rectifier (charger),
which is supplied, in normal circumstances,
from one outgoing-way of the main general
distribution board. Continuity of supply is
assured by means of a diesel-generator set
and automatic changeover switch, so that an
uninterrupted power supply can be
maintained indefinitely (if personnel are fig. F19: example of the production of
available to top up the fuel tank) or for several High Quality power supply.
hours if the substation is unattended.
F
3.1 safety installations
Safety and emergency-services installations c air compressors for the pressure-operated
the provision of safety and
are governed by statutory regulations, fire-extinguishing system;
emergency installations is a legal concerning: c water pumps for re-filling the fire-
obligation. c establishments receiving the public; extinguishing system.
c high-rise apartment blocks; Apart from the general rules noted above,
c establishments in which people are there are certain projects for which the safety
employed (offices, shops, factories, etc.). regulations are related to a particular process
They must be provided with the means for (petro-chemical, cement works...) or services
ensuring the safe evacuation of personnel, (tunnel lighting, airport runway lighting...).
notably:
c security and safety lighting; Note: power supplies for security lighting are
c alarms and warning systems; described in Chapter J, Sub-clause 4.6.
c automatic fire detection;
c fire-extinguishing systems;
c smoke evacuation;
fig. F20: examples of reserve power supplies: central storage battery (left) and diesel-generator sets (right).
F
3.3. choice and characteristics of reserve-power supplies
Apart from perceptible (albeit very brief) cuts
in power supply, imperceptible interruptions
of several milli-seconds are sufficient to
interfere with certain equipments. As
previously noted, UPS systems are essential
in these cases, and are used together with
the reserve-power source, to ensure the
utmost security.
principal specifications
In order to satisfy the requirement of Specifications particular to safety
economical exploitation, the following installations
features are imperative: Regulations covering safety installations
c supply interruption is not tolerated: contain a number of conditions to be
v in information technology (IT) systems, respected concerning their electric-power
v in continuous-process operations, except sources:
for loads of high inertia which can tolerate an c duration time of an interruption: according
interruption in the order of 1 second; to the case, the following choices are
c period for conserving data in information imposed:
technology (IT) systems: 10 minutes; v no break,
c autonomy is desirable for reserve-power v a break of less than 1 second,
supplies installations; it is a function of the v a break of less than 15 seconds;
economics related to exploitation beyond the c autonomy demanded for the reserve-power
minimum demanded for the safety (only) of source: in general it corresponds to the time
personnel. necessary to complete all safety operations
for persons: for example, the time to
evacuate an ERP (Establishments for
Receiving the Public): 1 hour minimum.
In large apartment blocks, the autonomy of
the source must be 36 hours, or more.
requirement
programmable controllers interruptible continuous
IT equipment sequential process
telecommunications process
applications
applications - data banks - cold-working - indications and
types - process control and sequence control of the process
monitoring parameters
examples - IT - light - nuclear
of installations services machining - chemical
banking - packaging - biological
insurance assembly - thermal
administration, chain - heavy mechanical
- management (high inertia)
systems for
production processes
conditions
allowable zero c c
duration i1s c
of break i 15 s c (1)
i 15 mn c (1)
autonomy 10 mn c (2)
of source 20 mn c c
minimum 1h c c c
and preferred permanent if economical
solutions
technique inverter with or without no-break generator permanent
employed a generator to take over or start-up generation
load of the inverter and take over set
load from
an inverter
(1) according to economic circumstances.
(2) data-storage time limit.
table F21: table showing the choice of reserve-power supply types according to
application requirements and acceptable supply-interruption times.
emergency and/or
M G
reserve power
supply
battery inverter cold-start diesel load generators in
generator pick-up (1) permanent service
time required to supply load
zero time (no break) c c c
1 second c
1 to 10 minutes (5) c
total time for a changeover operation
zero c c c
related to the automatic c c c
changeover scheme
adopted for each source
installation constraints
Special location None. Unless Special location (vibrations noise nuisance, access required for
(type of battery). batteries are open maintenance, fire protection).
Special d.c. type. Fuel tanks.
network.
additional equipment (apart from protection and changeover devices)
Charger. None. Unless Starter, Inertial fly wheel Automatic
Regulator, additional batteries by batteries or and clutch. synchronizing
indications and are required. compressed air. equipment.
meters.
operational mode and constraints
Special network. Automatic. Manual or Automatic. Permanent operating
System losses. automatic. Fixed maximum staff.
Frequent checking. Periodic startups load.
other parameters
maintenance Periodic shut-downs None. Unless open- Periodic checks, but Minor mechanical Periodic checks, but
for checking and type batteries. minimal wear and very constraints only except on minimal wear and very
maintenance work. little upkeep required. clutch and coupling shaft little upkeep required.
life expectancy (3) 4 to 5 years (2). 4 to 5 years (for 1.000 to 10.000 hrs 5 to 10 years. 10.000 hrs or 1 year.
sealed batteries). and 5 to 10 years.
necessary x 2 if installation is typically 2 for 1 batteries x 2. x 2 where security x 2 if the installation
redundance (4) permanent. and 3 for 2. is important. is permanent.
reliability (4) constant checking Integrated checks. Mechanical and Mechanical particularly Mechanical and
is important (numerous starter clutch assembly and system of
human errors). batteries. coupling shaft. synchronization.
(1) A motor-generator set permanently running and equipped with a heavy flywheel.
On the loss of normal supply, the pick-up of load generally requires less than 1 second.
(2) Longer if the battery is of the open type.
(3) Before requiring an important overhaul.
(4) A study of safety requirements allows the definition of an optimal scheme.
(5) According to whether the set is pre-heated or not.
table F22: table of characteristics of different sources.
F
3.5 local generating sets
In certain installations a power supply, one source to the other depends on the
the association of an inverter and
independent of the normal public service, is characteristics of the particular installation,
local generating set is the optimum needed so that a local generator (usually such as: start-up sequence for the engine,
solution for ensuring a long driven by a diesel engine) is provided, and is possible shedding of inessential loads...
autonomy. associated with an inverter. The coupling is generally carried out at the LV
In this case the autonomy of the inverter, i.e. main general distribution board, by means of
of the battery must be sufficient to cover the an automatic changeover panel, an example
period of starting the diesel and coupling the of which is shown diagrammatically in
generator to the load. fig. F23.
The time required to effect a changeover from
possible
transformater *
network 1
network 2
battery static
charger changeover
switch
manual by-pass
inverter maintenance switch
battery
protection protection and
box distribution equipment
(complementary)
F
4.1 earthing connections
definitions c protective conductor (3): a conductor
in a building, the connection to an
The following terms are commonly used in used for some measures of protection
earth electrode and the against electric shock and intended for
industry and in the literature. Bracketed
interconnection (bonding) of all metal numbers refer to fig. F24. connecting together any of the following
parts of the building and all exposed c earth electrode (1): a conductor or group parts:
conductive parts of electrical of conductors in intimate contact with, and v exposed-conductive-parts,
providing an electrical connection with Earth v extraneous-conductive-parts,
equipment prevents the appearance v the main earthing terminal,
of dangerously high voltages (see F4.6);
c earth: the conductive mass of the Earth, v earth electrode(s),
between any two simultaneously whose electric potential at any point is v the earthed point of the source or an
accessible metal parts. conventionally taken as zero; artificial neutral;
c electrically independent earth c extraneous-conductive-part (see table
electrodes: earth electrodes located at such F25): a conductive part liable to introduce a
a distance from one another that the potential, generally earth potential, and not
maximum current likely to flow through one of forming part of the electrical installation (4).
them does not significantly affect the potential For example:
of the other(s); v non-insulated floors or walls, metal
c earth electrode resistance: the contact framework of buildings,
resistance of an earth electrode with the v metal conduits and pipework (not part of the
Earth; electrical installation) for water, gas, heating,
c earthing conductor (2): a protective compressed-air, etc. and metal materials
conductor connecting the main earthing associated with them;
terminal (6) of an installation to an earth c bonding conductor (5): a protective
electrode (1) or to other means of earthing conductor providing equipotential bonding;
(e.g. TN systems); c main earthing terminal (6): the terminal or
c exposed-conductive-part (see table F25): bar provided for the connection of protective
a conductive part of equipment which can be conductors, including equipotential bonding
touched and which is not a live part, but conductors, and conductors for functional
which may become live under fault earthing, if any, to the means of earthing.
conditions,
connections
The main equipotential bonding system
The bonding is carried out by protective
conductors and the aim is to ensure that, in
the event of an incoming extraneous branched 3
protective
conductor (such as a gas pipe, etc.) being conductors 3
raised to some potential due to a fault to individual
external to the building, no difference of consumers (3) 3
potential can occur between extraneous- extraneous
conductive main
conductive-parts within the installation. The parts (4) protective
bonding must be effected as close as conductor
4
possible to the point(s) of entry into the
building, and be connected to the main
earthing terminal (6).
heating 5
However, connections to earth of metallic
sheaths of communications cables require water 5
the authorization of the owners of the cables.
4
Supplementary equipotential connections gas 5
These connections are intended to connect
all exposed-conductive-parts and all
extraneous-conductive-parts simultaneously 6
accessible, when correct conditions for
protection have not been met, i.e. the original possible TN 7
bonding conductors present an unacceptably connection 2
high resistance.
Connection of exposed-conductive-parts 1
to the earth electrode(s)
The connection is made by protective fig. F24: an example of a block of flats in
conductors with the object of providing a low- which the main earthing terminal (6)
resistance path for fault currents flowing to provides the main equipotential
earth. connection. The removable link (7) allows
an earth-electrode-resistance check.
F
4.1 earthing connections (continued)
the efficient bonding and connecting component parts
to earth of all accessible metal component parts to consider component parts to consider
fixtures, and all exposed-conductive- as exposed-conductive-parts as extraneous-conductive-parts
parts of electrical appliances and 1. cable ways 1. elements used in building construction
c conduits c metal or re-inforced concrete (RC):
equipment, is essential for effective c impregnated-paper-insulated lead-covered v steel-framed structure,
protection against electric shocks. cable, armoured or unarmoured v re-inforcement rods,
c mineral insulated metal-sheathed cable v prefabricated RC panels,
(pyrotenax, etc.) c surface finishes:
2. switchgear v floors and walls in re-inforced concrete
c withdrawable section without further surface treatment,
3. appliances v tiled surface,
c exposed metal parts of class 1 insulated c metallic covering,
appliances v metallic wall covering,
4. non-electrical elements 2. building services elements other than
v metallic fittings associated with cable ways electrical
(cable trays, cable ladders, etc.) c metal pipes, conduits, trunking, etc. for gas,
c metal objects: water and heating systems, etc.,
v close to aerial conductors or to busbars c related metal components (furnaces, tanks,
v in contact with electrical equipment. reservoirs, radiators),
c metallic fittings in wash rooms, bathrooms,
toilets, etc.,
c metallized papers.
component parts not to be consider component parts not to be consider
as exposed-conductive-parts as extraneous-conductive-parts
1. diverse service channels, ducts, etc. c wooden-block floors,
c conduits of insulating material, c rubber-covered or linoleum-covered floors,
c mouldings in wood or other insulating c dry plaster-block partition,
material, c brick walls,
c conductors and cables without metallic c carpets and wall-to-wall carpeting.
sheaths.
2. switchgear
c enclosures made of insulating material.
3. appliances
c all appliances having class II insulation,
regardless of the type of exterior envelope.
table F25: list of exposed-conductive-parts and extraneous-conductive-parts.
TN-C scheme L1
L2
The neutral conductor is also used as a L3
protective conductor and is referred to as a PEN
PEN (Protective Earth and Neutral)
conductor. This scheme is not permitted for
conductors of less than 10 mm2 and for
portable equipment. Rn
The TN-C scheme requires the establishment fig. F27: TN-C scheme.
of an efficient equipotential environment
within the installation with dispersed earth
electrodes spaced as regularly as possible.
TN-S scheme L1
the TN-S (5 wires) system is L2
The protective conductor and the neutral L3
obligatory for circuits of cross- conductor are separate. On underground cable N
sectional-area of less than 10 mm2 systems where lead-sheathed cables exist, the PE
for copper and 16 mm2 for aluminium protective conductor is generally the lead
on mobile equipment. sheath. The use of separate PE and N
conductors (5 wires) is obligatory for circuits of Rn
cross-sectional area of less than 10 mm2 for
fig. F28: TN-S scheme.
copper and 16 mm2 for aluminium on mobile
equipment.
PEN
bad bad
TN-C scheme
not permitted downstream of TN-S scheme
fig F29: TN-C-S scheme.
distribution within a low-voltage installation - F21
4. earthing schemes (continued)
F
4.2 definition of standardized earthing schemes (continued)
TNC 4 x 95 mm2
important: in the TN-C scheme the L1
L2
protective conductor function of the L3
PEN conductor takes priority. In PEN
16 mm2 10 mm2 6 mm2 6 mm2
particular, the PEN conductor must
be connected directly to the earth PEN PEN
terminal of an applicance, and the N
R1 R2 R3
C1 C2 C3
Zct
Ω Rm
PE
Rd Rc
TN-C scheme
Characteristics Consequences
c earthing method: c earthing method:
v the neutral point of the transformer is v the neutral point of the transformer is
connected directly to earth and the neutral connected directly to earth and the neutral
conductor is earthed at as many points as conductor is earthed at as many points as
possible, possible;
v exposed conductive parts of equipment and v exposed conductive parts of equipment and
extraneous conductive parts are connected to extraneous conductive parts are connected to
the neutral conductor; the neutral conductor;
c arrangement of PE protective conductors. c overvoltages:
The PE and neutral conductors are combined v under normal conditions, the neutral,
in a single PEN conductor; exposed conductive parts and earth are at
c arrangement of protection against indirect virtually the same potential;
contact. v given the localised effect of earth
Given the high fault currents and touch electrodes, the potential may vary with the
voltages: distance from the electrode. Therefore, during
v automatic disconnection is mandatory in a HV insulation fault, a current will flow
the event of an insulation fault, through the earth electrode of the LV neutral
v this disconnection must be provided by and a power frequency voltage will appear
circuit breakers or fuses. On installations with between the exposed conductive parts of LV
a combined neutral and protective conductor, equipment and the distant earth;
residual current devices cannot be used for c power supply continuity, electromagnetic
this purpose since an insulation fault to earth compatibility and fire: the current of insulation
also constitutes a phase-neutral short-circuit. faults is not limited by any earth electrode
impedance and is therefore high (several kA).
L1
L2 During a LV insulation fault, the supply
L3 voltage drop, electromagnetic disturbances
PEN
and the risk of damage (fire, motor windings
and magnetic frames) is high;
c overvoltages: during a LV insulation fault,
the neutral point of the triangle representing
Rn
the 3-phase voltage system is displaced and
fig. F36: any insulation fault occurring the voltage between phase and the exposed
outside a building creates a rapid rise in conductive parts of the installation exceed the
the potential difference outside the phase-to-neutral voltage. In practice, a value
building. The result of a high voltage of 1.45 Un provides a rough approximation;
insulation fault is shown here for a TN c protective conductors. The PE and neutral
system, all earth electrodes considered conductors are combined in a single PEN
together. conductor.
F
4.3 earthing schemes characteristics (continued)
The PEN conductor must satisfy the v in a less apparent manner, these circulating
requirements of both its functions. In the currents correspond to an imbalance of the
event of a conflict, the PE function has currents in the distribution circuit and
priority. therefore the creation of a magnetic field that
The TN-C scheme is prohibited for all circuits can disturb cathode-ray tubes, monitors,
with cross-sectional areas less than 10 mm2 certain medical equipment, etc. at levels as
for copper conductors or 16 mm2 for low as 0.7 A/m (i.e. 5 A passing one metre
aluminium conductors. It is also prohibited from a sensitive device). This phenomenon is
for flexible conductors. amplified in the event of an insulation fault;
c corrosion: corrosion has two sources, first
c fire protection the DC component that the PEN conductor
The TN-C scheme is prohibited in premises can carry and second, the telluric currents
where there is a high risk of fire or explosion, that corrode the earth electrodes and metal
for example in class BE2 and BE3 premises structures in the case of multiple earthing;
respectively for standard NFC 15-100. c arrangement of protection against indirect
The reason is that the connection of the contact.
extraneous conductive parts of the building to Given the high fault currents and touch
the PEN conductor creates a flow of current voltages:
in the structures, resulting in a risk of fire and v automatic disconnection is mandatory in
electromagnetic disturbances. During the event of an insulation fault,
insulation faults, these circulating currents are v this disconnection must be provided by
considerably increased. These phenomena circuit breakers or fuses. On installations with
are the reason for prohibiting the use of the a combined neutral and protective conductor,
TN-S scheme in premises where the risk of residual current devices cannot be used for
fire is high. this purpose since an insulation fault to earth
also constitutes a phase-neutral short-circuit;
L1
L2 c fire: protection is not provided for certain
L3 types of faults (impedant faults) that are not
N
PE instantly transformed into solid short-circuits.
Only residual current devices offer this type of
protection. This situation therefore presents a
risk of fire;
Rn c design and operation
fig. F37: the presence of any length of v when using circuit breakers or fuses to
PEN conductor in a building leads to the protect against indirect contact, the
flow of currents in the exposed impedance of the source, upstream circuits
conductive parts and the shielding of and downstream circuits (the ones to be
equipment supplied by a TN-S scheme. protected) must be known at the design
phase and subsequently remain unchanged
c electromagnetic compatibility unless the protection is also changed. This
v when a PEN conductor is installed in a impedance must be measured after
building, regardless of its length, it leads to a installation and then at regular intervals
power frequency voltage drop under normal (depending on the type of premises
operating conditions, creating potential concerned). The characteristics of the
differences and therefore the flow of currents protection devices are determined from these
in any circuit formed by the exposed elements;
conductive parts of the installation, the v when the installation can be supplied from
extraneous conductive parts of the building, two sources (UPS, engine generator set,
coaxial cable and the shielding of computer etc.), the characteristics governing the
or telecommunications systems. opening of the circuit breaker or the blowing
These voltage drops are amplified in modern of the fuse must be determined for each
installations by the proliferation of equipment configuration and source used;
generating 3rd-order harmonics. The
magnitude of this harmonic is tripled in the
neutral conductor instead of being cancelled
out as is the case for the fundamental;
TNC TNS 5 x 50 mm 2
L1
L2
L3
N
PEN PE
PE
PEN
incorrect incorrect
TNC scheme
not permitted downstream of TN-S scheme
fig. F38: to determine the breaking capacity of circuit breaker C, it is necessary to know
the impedance of the normal source, that of the replacement source and the length of
circuit C protected by circuit breaker C.
PEN
fig. F39: with a TN-S scheme, fault currents can be very high, limited only by the
impedance of the live conductors (phase and PE).
TN-S scheme
Characteristics for the TN-C scheme. In particular, the
c earthing method; current of insulation faults is not limited by
v the neutral point of the transformer (or the any earth electrode impedance and is
power supply system if the distribution uses a therefore high (several kA) (see points 2,
TN-C scheme and the installation a TN-S 3 and 4 of the corresponding part for the
scheme) is earthed just once at the upstream TN-C scheme);
end of the installation, c the neutral conductor cannot be earthed.
v exposed conductive parts of equipment and This avoids creating a TN-C scheme with its
extraneous conductive parts are connected to inherent disadvantages, i.e. voltage drop and
the protection conductors which are in turn load currents in the protective conductor
connected to the transformer neutral; under normal operating conditions;
c arrangement of PE protective conductors. c arrangement of PE protective conductors.
The PE conductors are separate from the The PE conductors are separate from the
neutral conductors and are sized for the neutral conductors and are sized for the
highest fault current that can occur; highest fault current that can occur;
c arrangement of protection against indirect c electromagnetic compatibility:
contact. v under normal conditions, the PE conductor,
Given the high fault currents and touch as opposed to the PEN conductor, is not
voltages: subject to voltage drop and all the resulting
v automatic disconnection is mandatory in drawbacks of the TN-C scheme are therefore
the event of an insulation fault, eliminated. The TN-S scheme is similar in
v this disconnection must be provided by this respect to the TT scheme,
circuit breakers, fuses or residual current v in the event of an insulation fault, a high
devices since the protection against indirect impulse voltage appears along the PE
contact can be separated from the protection conductor, creating the same transient
against phase-phase or phase-neutral short- problems as for the TN-C scheme;
circuits. c arrangement of protection against indirect
contact.
Consequences Given the high fault currents and touch
c earthing method: voltages:
v the neutral point of the transformer (or the v automatic disconnection is mandatory in
power supply system if the distribution uses a the event of an insulation fault,
TN-C scheme and the installation a TN-S v this disconnection must be provided by
scheme) is earthed just once at the upstream circuit breakers, fuses or residual current
end of the installation, devices since the protection against indirect
v exposed conductive parts of equipment and contact can be separated from the protection
extraneous conductive parts are connected to against phase-phase or phase-neutral short-
the protection conductors which are in turn circuits.
connected to the transformer neutral;
c overvoltages: under normal conditions, the
neutral of the transformer, exposed
conductive parts and earth electrode are at
the same potential, even if transient
phenomena cannot be excluded and can lead
to the use of lightning arrestors on the
phases, neutral and exposed conductive
parts;
c power supply continuity, electromagnetic fig. F40: with a TT scheme, fault currents
compatibility and fire: the effects of HV/LV are limited by the earth electrode
faults, HV insulation faults and LV insulation resistances and the accompanying
faults are similar to those already described voltage drops are very small.
F
4.3 earthing schemes characteristics (continued)
If the protection against indirect contact is If the protection against indirect contact is
provided by overcurrent protection devices: provided by residual current devices: to avoid
the same characteristics apply as for the nuisance tripping, it is often possible to use
TN-C scheme; high residual operating currents in the order
c fire: protection is not provided for impedant of 1 A or more;
faults, leading to a risk of fire; c fire, design and operation:
c design and operation: v the drawbacks already discussed are
v calculation of the impedance of the sources eliminated and we obtain the advantages of
and that of the circuit to be protected, with the TT scheme,
checking by measurements after installation v the use of residual current devices with
and then at regular intervals, operating currents 500 mA helps to prevent
v double determination of the disconnection damage of electrical origin which can occur in
conditions when the installation can be the event of an impedant fault or due to the
supplied from two sources (UPS, engine high level of insulation faults.
generator set, etc.),
v the circuits have a maximum length that
cannot be exceeded,
v any modification to the installation requires
reassessment and checking of the protection
conditions.
TT scheme
Characteristics the accompanying electromagnetic
c earthing method: disturbances and the transient difference in
v the neutral point of the transformer is potential between two devices (e.g. two
connected directly to earth, interconnected PCs) connected by a shielded
v exposed conductive parts of equipment are cable are much easier to withstand than for a
connected by protective conductors to the TN-S scheme;
earth electrode of the installation which is c arrangement of PE protective conductors.
generally independent with respect to the The PE conductors are separate from the
earth electrode of the transformer neutral; neutral conductors and are sized for the
c arrangement of PE protective conductors. highest fault current that can occur;
The PE conductors are separate from the c electromagnetic compatibility: under normal
neutral conductors and are sized for the conditions, the PE conductor is not subject to
highest fault current that can occur; voltage drop and all the resulting drawbacks
c arrangement of protection against indirect of the TN-C scheme are therefore eliminated.
contact. In the event of an insulation fault, the impulse
Automatic disconnection is mandatory in the voltage that appears along the PE conductor
event of an insulation fault. is low and the resulting disturbances are
In practice, this disconnection is carried out negligible;
by residual current devices. Their operating c design and operation: for distribution
currents must be low enough for the devices circuits, the cross-sectional area of the PE
to detect the fault currents, limited by two conductor can be less than for a TN-S
earth electrode resistances in series. scheme;
c earthing method. c arrangement of protection against indirect
contact:
Consequences v automatic disconnection is mandatory in
c the neutral point of the transformer is the event of an insulation fault.
connected directly to earth; In practice, this disconnection is carried out
c exposed conductive parts of equipment are by residual current devices. Their operating
connected by protective conductors to the currents must be low enough for the devices
earth electrode of the installation which is to detect the fault currents, limited by two
generally independent with respect to the earth electrode resistances in series,
earth electrode of the transformer neutral; v residual current devices are added in the
c overvoltages: although, as for the TN form of relays for circuit breakers and in the
scheme, the potential of the exposed form of RCCBs for fuses. They can protect a
conductive parts and the earth electrode is single circuit or a group of circuits and their
the same, this may not be true for the neutral operating currents are chosen according to
conductor which is galvanically connected to the maximum value of the resistance R of the
an earth electrode and the exposed earth electrode for the exposed conductive
conductive parts, different and in some cases parts,
relatively far away (often the case for v the presence of residual current devices
lightning strikes in rural areas). minimises the design and operating
On industrial sites or urban areas, this is not constraints. It is unnecessary to know the
generally the case. The coupling of the two upstream source impedance and there is no
earth earth electrodes is, from an overall limit concerning the length of the circuits
point of view, an acceptable compromise. (except to avoid excessive voltage drop). An
The installation of lightning arrestors provides installation can be modified or extended
the necessary level of protection; without calculations or in-situ measurements,
c electromagnetic compatibility: in the event v the use of a replacement source by the
of an insulation fault, the fault current is distribution utility or the operator is straight
relatively low. For instance, with an earth forward;
electrode resistance of 230V/100A c fire: the use of residual current devices with
z 2.3 Ω, the fault current is only 100 A. As a operating currents i 500 mA helps prevent
result, the voltage drop created by the fault, fires of electrical origin;
R1 R2 R3
C1 C2 C3
IT scheme
Characteristics c power supply continuity and
c earthing method electromagnetic compatibility:
The neutral point of the transformer is v the current of a first insulation fault is low, a
isolated from earth or earthed through an result of the capacitances between the live
impedance and an overvoltage limiter. Under conductors and the expoed conductive parts
normal conditions, its potential is maintained such as those of the load circuits and HF
close to that of the exposed conductive parts filters,
by the earth leakage capacitances of the v a first low voltage insulation fault does not
trunking and equipment. produce any voltage drop on the mains or
Exposed conductive parts of equipment and electromagnetic disturbance over a wide
extraneous conductive parts of the building frequency range corresponding to the
are connected to the building’s earth occurrence of a classical insulation fault
electrode; current.
c arrangement of PE protective conductors. c overvoltages: after a first fault, the
The PE conductors are separate from the equipment continues to be supplied with
neutral conductors and are sized for the power and the phase-to-phase voltage
highest fault current that can occur; gradually appears between the healthy
c arrangement of protection against indirect phases and the exposed conductive parts.
contact. Equipment must be chosen with this
The fault current in the event of a single constraint in mind.
insulation fault is low and does not represent
a hazard. Notes:
The occurrence of a second fault should be c standard IEC 950 (or EN 60950) defines a
made highly improbable by installing an category of information processing equipment
insulation monitoring device that will detect that can be used on IT systems;
and indicate the occurrence of a first fault that c if lightning arrestors are used, the
can then be promptly located and eliminated. standards stipulate that their rated voltages
should be chosen according to the phase-to-
Consequences phase voltage.
c earthing method.
The neutral point of the transformer is c power supply continuity and
isolated from earth or earthed through an electromagnetic compatibility: second
impedance and an overvoltage limiter. Under insulation fault can occur on a different
normal conditions, its potential is held close phase, creating a short-circuit and the
to that of the exposed conductive parts by the associated hazards. The user of an IT
earth leakage capacitances of the trunking system chooses that this situation must never
and equipment. occur, even if the standards allow for this
Exposed conductive parts of equipment and possibility for safety reasons;
extraneous conductive parts of the building c arrangement of PE protective conductors.
are connected to the building’s earth The PE conductors are separate from the
electrode; neutral conductors and are sized for the
c overvoltages: highest fault current that can occur;
v under normal conditions, the neutral c electromagnetic compatibility: under normal
conductor, exposed conductive parts and conditions, and even when a first insulation
earth electrode are at virtually the same fault occurs, the PE conductors show no
potential, voltage drop. A high level of equipotentiality is
v an overvoltage limiter should be installed to maintained between protective conductors,
prevent a rise in potential between the live functional earthing conductors, exposed
parts and the exposed conductive parts that conductive parts and the extraneous
could exceed the withstand voltage of the LV conductive parts of the building to which they
equipment in the event of a fault originating in are connected;
the high voltage installation. The protection c arrangement of protection against indirect
against overvoltages should be implemented contact.
according to the criteria common to all the The fault current in the event of a single
earthing schemes; insulation fault is low and does not represent
a hazard.
F
4.3 earthing schemes characteristics (continued)
The occurrence of a second fault should be
made highly improbable by installing an
insulation monitoring device that will detect
and indicate the occurrence of a first fault that
can then be promptly located and eliminated.
The protective devices are designed to
operate in the event of a double fault. If
circuit breakers or fuses are used, the rules
are similar to those for the TN scheme.
Residual current devices can alos be used. If
the two faults occur downstream of the same
residual current device, the device considers
the fault current as a load current and may
not trip. A separate residual current device is
therefore required for each circuit.
If two sites have the same installation using
an IT scheme, and their earth electrode
systems are not connected, a residual current
device must always be included at the head
of each installation. This measure prevents
one insulation fault on phase 1 of the first site
and another on phase 2 of the second site
from creating a dangerous situation;
c fire: the use of an insulation monitoring
device and possibly residual current devices
with operating currents i 500 mA prevents
fires of electrical origin;
c design and operation:
v trained maintenance personnel must be
available for prompt locating and elimination
of the first insulation fault,
v the installation must be designed with great
care: use of the IT scheme where justified by
requirements related to continuity of supply,
isolation of loads with high leakage currents
(certain furnaces and certain types of
computer hardware), examination of the
influence of leakage currents, in particular
with respect to residual current devices,
division of the installation, etc.,
v if 30 mA residual current devices are used
to protect socket circuits:
- the total capacitive earth leakage current
downstream of such a device must not
exceed 10 mA. The value is estimated using
the phase-to-phase voltage for the phase and
for the phase-to-neutral voltage for the
neutral,
- if the loads powered by such a circuit are
not critical, the residual current device can trip
on a first insulation fault, thereby eliminating it
immediately. Otherwise the use of sockets
should be avoided or other measures taken,
v comment: the earth conductor, if distributed,
must be protected by 4-pole devices including
neutral protection or 2-pole devices. In final
distribution boxes, 1-pole + neutral protection
devices are permitted as long as the ratings
for the phase and neutral are the same or
close, and as long as a residual current
device is present upstream.
F
4.4.2 comparison for each criterion
1 - level of protection against 3) Implement the necessary protection
electric shock (lightning arrestors, etc.) on the lines of the
different incoming and outgoing electrical
All earthing schemes provide equal protection systems.
against electric shock as long as they are Comment:
implemented and used in accordance with c the use of a TN-S scheme does not
applicable standards. eliminate the need for the above measures;
c TT installations generally require lightning
2 - protection against fire of arrestors (rural).
electrical origin Furthermore, for IT schemes, protection
For TT schemes and IT schemes, in the against overvoltages due to HV faults must
event of a single fault, the insulation fault be provided by an overvoltage limiter.
current is respectively low or very low. The
same is true for the risk of fire. 4 - protection against
For TN schemes, protection against electromagnetic disturbances
impedant faults is insufficient unless residual 1) For differential mode disturbances, the
current devices are included: earthing scheme used is of no
c in this case, it is recommended to use importance.
the TN-S scheme together with residual For all common mode or differential mode
current devices rather than the standard disturbances with frequencies greater than
TN scheme. 1 MHz, the earthing scheme used is of no
For TN type schemes, in the event of a importance.
solid fault, the insulation fault current is high
and major damage can result. 2) If correctly implemented, TT, TN-S and IT
The TN-C scheme presents a higher risk schemes can satisfy all electromagnetic
of fire under normal operating conditions compatibility criteria.
than the other schemes. It is therefore Note however that for the TN-S scheme,
prohibited in premises presenting a high risk major disturbances are produced during an
of fire or explosion. A load imbalance current insulation fault.
circulates continuously in the PEN
conductors and the connected parts 3) For TN-C or TN-C-S earthing schemes, a
(e.g. metal frames, exposed conductive parts, load imbalance current circulates
shielding, etc.). continuously in the PEN conductor,
exposed conductive parts of equipment
3 - protection against and cable shielding. The presence of 3rd
overvoltages order harmonics significantly amplifies this
For all neutral schemes, the following current in modern installations. This
steps are necessary: continuous current creates voltage drops
1) Evaluate the disturbances to be taken between the exposed conductive parts of
into account as a function of: sensitive equipment connected to the PEN
c site exposure: conductor.
v overvoltages due to indirect effects of These schemes are therefore not
lightning, recommended for use.
v nearby direct lightning strikes;
c the type of supply system:
v in particular HV insulation faults;
c the type of premises:
v choose the appropriate level of safety.
This evaluation should be carried out at
power frequency and then at higher
frequencies up to several MHz.
example
overvoltage
HV/LV device
PIM
LV/LV
TN
IT system system
arc furnace
fig. F42: a workshop in which supply continuity is paramount (IT) includes an arc furnace.
The most suitable arrangement is an IT scheme for the workshop, and an isolating LV/LV
transformer to supply the arc furnace, in a TN earthing scheme.
HV/LV
overvoltage
LV/LV device
TN system PIM
IT system
fig. F43: a factory with a load consisting mainly of welding machines requiring a TN
system of earthing, and a painting workshop for which supply continuity has top priority.
The latter supply is shown to be provided by an IT Island system, via a LV/LV transformer.
conclusion
The optimization of the performance of the
whole installation governs the choice of
earthing system (see the following
Sub-clause 4.6).
Including:
c initial investments, and
c future operational expenditure that can
arise from insufficient reliability, quality of
materials, safety, continuity of service, etc.
which is difficult to forecast.
An ideal structure would comprise:
v normal power supply source,
v local reserve power supply source (see
Clause 3 of this chapter) and the appropriate
earthing schemes.
F
4.6 installation and measurements of earth electrodes
A low-impedance earth electrode improves c stainless steel cable or multiple strip
considerably the protection of the electrical u 35 mm2;
installation from external electromagnetic c galvanized-steel cable.
influences, and particularly in the case of Copper is the most expensive material, but
overvoltages caused by lightning. Protection is the most suitable from considerations of
of the building against direct lightning strokes, corrosion.
however, requires specialized studies, and is The use of more than one of these materials
not dealt with here. in the same soil is deprecated, since the
The quality of an earth electrode (resistance elementary primary cell (e.g. zinc/copper)
as low as possible) depends essentially on formed in the damp earth "electrolyte" would
two factors: result in problems of corrosion.
c installation method; In the case noted, the zinc would be
c nature of the earth. sacrificial to the copper, eventually leaving an
uncoated (corroding) steel conductor of high
installation methods surface-to-earth contact resistance.
Three common types of installation will be Steel reinforcing rods in concrete, however,
discussed: have approximately the same galvanic
potential, in the electro-chemical series, as
A conductor-type electrode forming a ring
a very effective method of obtaining a copper in soil, so that copper earth electrodes
beneath the perimeter of the building may be connected to steel reinforcing rods
low-resistance earth connection is to which houses the installation concerned with no danger of corrosion*. Steel rods in
bury a conductor in the form of a (fig. F44) soil, on the other hand, will corrode if
closed loop in the soil at the bottom This solution is strongly recommended, connected to steel reinforcing rods in
of the excavation for the building particularly in the case of a new building. concrete. Aluminium and lead are not suitable
The electrode should be buried around the for use as earthing electrodes.
foundations. perimeter of the excavation made for the
The resistance R of such an The approximate resistance R of the
foundations. It is important that the bare electrode in ohms =
electrode (in homogeneous soil) is conductor be in intimate contact with the soil 2ρ
given (approximately) in ohms by: (and not placed in the gravel or aggregate L
hard-core, often forming a base for concrete).
R = 2ρ
where
At least four (widely-spaced) vertically L = length of conductor in metres
L arranged conductors from the electrode ρ = resistivity of the soil in ohm-metres (see
where should be provided for the installation tables F47 and F48).
L = the length of the buried conductor connections, and where possible any re-
in metres inforcing rods in concrete work should be
connected to the electrode.
ρ = soil resistivity in ohm-metres. The conductor forming the earth electrode,
particularly when it is laid in an excavation for
foundations, must be in the earth, at least
care must be taken to avoid the 50 cm below the hard-core or aggregate base
occurrence of corrosion, notably for the concrete foundation. Neither the
where dissimilar metals are buried in electrode nor the vertical rising conductors to
close proximity. the ground floor, should ever be in contact
with the foundation concrete.
For existing buildings, the electrode
conductor should be buried around the
outside wall of the premises to a depth of at
fig. F44: conductor buried below the level
least 1 metre. As a general rule, all vertical
of the foundations, i.e. not in the
connections from an electrode to above-
concrete.
ground level should be insulated for the
* Practical experience has shown that corrosion is not a
nominal LV voltage (600-1,000 V). problem at potential differences of less than 0.3 V.
The conductors may be:
c copper - bare cable or multiple-strip
u 25 mm2;
Earthing rods (fig. F45) c galvanized (see note below) steel pipe
for n rods: Vertically driven earthing rods are often used u 25 mm diameter, or rod u 15 mm diameter,
R = ρ ohms for existing buildings, and for improving (i.e. u 2 metres long in each case. It is often
nL reducing the resistance of) earth electrodes in necessary to use more than one rod, in
cases where upper-strata soil-drying can only which case the spacing between them
be countered by deeper penetration into the should exceed the depth to which they are
earth. driven, by a factor of 2 to 3.
The rods may be: The total resistance (in homogeneous soil) is
c copper or (more commonly) copper-clad then equal to the resistance of one rod,
steel. The latter are generally 1 or 2 metres divided by the number of rods in question.
long and provided with screwed ends and
sockets in order to reach considerable
depths, if necessary (for instance, the water-
table level in areas of high soil resistivity)
F
4.6 installation and measurements of earth electrodes (continued)
measurements and constancy
of the resistance between an
earth electrode and the earth
The resistance of the electrode/earth v galvanic: due to stray d.c. currents in the
interface rarely remains constant earth from traction systems, etc. or due to
Among the principal factors affecting this dissimilar metals forming primary cells;
resistance are the following: different soils acting on sections of the same
c the humidity of the soil: the seasonal conductor can also form cathodic and anodic
changes in the moisture content of the soil areas with consequent loss of surface metal
can be significant at depths of up to 2 meters. from the latter areas. Unfortunately, the most
At a depth of 1 metre the value of resistivity favourable conditions for low earth-electrode
(ρ) can vary in the ratio of 1 to 3 between a resistance (i.e. low soil resistivity) are also
wet Winter and a dry Summer in temperate those in which galvanic currents can most
regions; easily flow.
c frost: frozen earth can increase the c oxidization: brazed and welded joints are
resistivity of the soil by several orders of the locations at which oxidization is most
magnitude. This is one of the reasons, likely to occur. Thorough cleaning of a newly-
together with that noted above, for made joint, and wrapping with a suitable
recommending the installation of deep greased-tape binding is the preventive
electrodes; measure commonly adopted.
c ageing: the materials used for electrodes
will generally deteriorate to some extent for
various reasons, for example:
v chemical reactions (in acidic or alkaline
soils),
Measurement of the earth-electrode The test electrode (C) furthest from the
there must always be a (or a number
resistance electrode (X) under test, passes a current
of) removable link(s) to isolate an There must always be removable links which through the earth and the electrode under
earth electrode, to allow it to be allow the earth electrode to be isolated from test, while the second test electrode (P) picks
tested. the installation, so that periodic check tests of up a voltage. This voltage, measured
the earthing resistance can be carried out. between (X) and (P), is due to the test
To make such tests, two auxiliary electrodes current, and is a measure of the contact
are required, each consisting of a vertically resistance (of the electrode under test) with
driven rod. earth. It is clear that the distance (X) to (P)
c ammeter method (fig. F49) must be carefully chosen to give accurate
UTt1 results. If the distance (X) to (C) is increased,
A = RT + Rt1 =
i1 however, the zones of resistance of
Ut1t2 electrodes (X) and (C) become more remote,
B = Rt1 + Rt2 =
i2 one from the other, and the curve of potential
Ut2T (voltage) becomes more nearly horizontal
C = Rt2 + RT =
i3 about the point (O).
A + C - B = 2RT In practical tests, therefore, the distance (X)
When the source voltage U is constant to (C) is increased until readings taken with
(adjusted to be the same value for each test) electrode (P) at three different points viz: at
then: (P) and at approximately 5 metres on either
U
RT =
2
( i11 + i31 - i2
1
) side of (P) give similar values. The distance
(X) to (P) is generally about 0.68 of the
In order to avoid errors due to stray earth distance (X) to (C).
currents (galvanic (d.c.) or leakage currents
from power and communication networks and
U t1
so on) the test current should be a.c., but at a
A
different frequency to that of the power
system or any of its harmonics. Instruments
using hand-driven generators to make these T
measurements usually produce an a.c. t2
voltage at a frequency of between 85 Hz and
135 Hz.
The distances between the electrodes are not
critical and may be in different directions from
the electrode being tested, according to site
convenience. A number of tests at differ- fig. F49: measurement of the resistance to
spacings and directions are generally made earth of the earth electrode of an
for cross-checking the test results. installation by means of an ammeter.
c use of a direct-reading earthing-
resistance ohmmeter (fig. 50)
These instruments use a hand-driven or
electronic-type of a.c. generator, together with
two auxiliary electrodes, the spacing of which
must be such that the zone of influence of the
electrode being tested should not overlap that
of the test electrode (C).
G
I
V
X P C
voltage-drop due
to the resistance
of electrode (X)
O VG
voltage-drop due
to the resistance
of electrode (C)
X P C
b) showing the effect on the potential gradient when (X) and (C) are widely spaced.
The location of test electrode P is not critical and can be easily determined
fig. F50: measurement of the resistance to the mass of earth of electrode (X) using an
earth-electrode-testing ohmmeter.
Simplified measurement (TT-system)
In a TT-earthed system, a simplified
measurement of the earth-electrode
resistance is possible. It consists in
measuring the impedance between the earth-
electrode and the neutral conductor. It equals
the sum of the consumer earth-electrode
resistance and the distributor earth-electrode
resistance. This value is always pessimistic,
but the distributor earth-electrode resistance
is generally less than 5 Ω. In case of doubt,
use the general method.
F
A main general distribution board is the point sub-distribution boards are sometimes
a distribution board is among the
at which the incoming-power supply divides necessary, thereby creating three levels of
most important elements in an into separate circuits, each of which is distribution.
installation. Its design and controlled and protected by the fuses or Modern practice is to enclose LV distribution
construction must conform with well- switchgear of the board. boards in metal housings, which afford
defined standards. In general, the power supply is connected to double protection:
a set of busbars via a main switch (a circuit c the protection of switchgear, indicating
breaker or switch-fuse). instruments, relays, fusegear... against
Individual circuits, which are usually grouped mechanical shocks, vibrations and other
according to the circuit function (lighting, external influences likely to interfere with
heating, power and so on...), are supplied operational integrity (EMI*, dust, moisture,
from the busbars. Some of the circuits feed vermin, etc.);
directly into the busbars of local distribution c the protection of personnel against the
boards, at which a division of circuits is made, possibility of electric shock.
while in extensive installations, * electromagnetic interference
fig. F51: typical sub-distribution board. fig. F52: local general distribution board.
withdrawable chassis-mounted
functional units (fig. F56)
The switchgear and associated accessories
F
5.3 standards
Certains types of distribution boards (in
conformity with the relevant standards
particular, functional distribution boards) in
is essential in order to ensure an which all component parts are individually
adequate degree of operational safety. subject to IEC 947, also conform to specific
recommendations of IEC 439-1.
F
6.1 description and choice
two types of distribution are possible: types
c by insulated wires and cables, Two types of distribution are possible:
c by prefabricated pre-wired cable Distribution by insulated conductors
channels. and cables
Includes the mechanical protection and fixing
The latter are distinguished by their of conduits, etc. The method of installation
ease of installation, flexibility, and by will affect the maximum current permitted,
the number of connecting points as noted in IEC 439 Parts 1 and 2.
possible. Distribution by prefabricated cable
channels
These channels are distinguished by their
ease of installation, flexibility, and by the
number of connecting points possible.
examples
sub-
distribution
board
local general
distribution
board
heating, etc.
general utilities
distribution board
fig. F58: example 1: radial distribution wiring scheme for a hotel, using conductors
in conduits and cables.
F
6.1 description and choice (continued)
prefabricated pre-wired
transformer bus-duct cable channels
transformer
to MGDB
mainbusbar
trunking
prefabricated distribution
busbar trunking
MGDB
prefabricated
power and light-current
distribution column
local general
distribution board
offices
prefabricated pre-wired
cable channels
fig. F59: example 2: radial distribution with prefabricated bus trunking and cable channels for an entrepot installation.
selection of method-criteria
The main considerations governing the
choice of one method or the other are the first
cost and the likelihood of extensive and
frequent modifications.
In the case of a fixed installation which is
unlikely to be modified, either frequently or
extensively, then the insulated wires-and-
conduit system is the more-economic
solution.
Where flexibility and ease of circuit
modification are important, then the
prefabricated cable channelling system
should be the first choice.
Design information concerning the smallest
allowable (i.e. the most economic) c.s.a. of
wiring conductors and cables, for the case of
a wires-and-conduit installation, is given in
Sub-clauses 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 of Chapter H1.
F
6.2 conduits, conductors and cables (continued)
example description reference
1 2 3
insulated conductors in conduits embedded 1
in thermally insulating walls
room
c on a ceiling 11A
c on unperforated trays 12
c on perforated trays 13
c on ladders 16
F
6.2 conduits, conductors and cables (continued)
Designation of conduits according to the
most recent IEC recommendations
table F63: designation code for conduits according to the most recent IEC publications.
F
6.2 conduits, conductors and cables (continued)
Example of decoding: H07 RN-F 3G 1,5 : non-metallic
Harmonized cable - Nominal voltage protective
core sheath
450/750 V - Rubber insulated - Neoprene
(PCP) sheathed - Flexible-3 conductors: core insulation
1 green/yellow conductor - All conductors are
1.5 mm2. fig. F65: typical 3-core unarmoured cable.
conductors designation designation number of c.s.a.-voltage
and cables according to the according to conductors mm2 V
French national CENELEC code
standards code
cross-linked U 1000 R12N cable standards 1 to 5 1.5 - 630
polyethylene (XLPE) U 1000 R2V not yet
inflexible cables U 1000 RVFV harmonized 1 to 5 1.5 - 300
U 1000 RGPFV 1 to 5 1.5 - 240
inflexible cables FRN 1X1X2 1 to 5 1.5 - 630
with halogen-free FRN 1X1G1 1 to 5 1.5 - 630
insulation (1) FRN 1X1X2Z4X2 1 to 5 1.5 - 300
FRN 1X1G1Z4G1 1 to 5 1.5 - 300
flexible elastomeric- H 07 RN-F 2 to 5 1.5 - 500
insulated cables FRN 07 RN-7 7 to 37 1.5 - 4
PVC-insulated FRN 05VV-U 2 to 5 1.5 - 35
cables FRN 05VV-R 2 to 5 1.5 - 35
H 05VV-F 2 to 5 0.75 - 2.5
H 05VVH2-F 2 0.75
PVC-insulated H 07V-U 1 1.5 - 400
conductors H 07V-R 1 1.5 - 400
H 07VK 1 1.5 - 240
conductors with FRN 0...-U 1 1.5 - xxx
halogen-free FRN 0...-R 1 1.5 - xxx
insulation FRN 0...- 1 1.5 - xxx
table F66: commonly used conductors and cables.
(1) cable of category C1 (non-fire-propagating cable).
F
Every electrical installation occupies an
environment which presents a more-or-less
severe degree of risk
c for persons,
c for the materials constituting the installation.
Consequently, environmental conditions
influence the definition and choice
of appropriate installation materials
and the choice of protective measures
for the safety of persons.
The environmental conditions are referred
to collectively as "external influences".
7.1 classification
Many national standards concerned with Codification
external influences shall be taken external influences include a classification Each condition of external influence is
into account when choosing: scheme which is based on, or which closely designated by a code comprising a group of
c the appropriate measures to resembles, that of the international standard two capital letters and a number as follows:
ensure the safety of persons (in IEC 364-3. The first letter relates to the general category
This standard (IEC 364-3) devotes many of external influence.
particular in special locations or pages to detailed explanations of each class A = environment
electrical installations) of influence, and for such detail the reader is B =utilization
c the characteristics of electrical referred to the standard. Following the IEC C = construction of buildings
equipment, such as IP degree, codification scheme given below, however, a The second letter relates to the nature of the
mechanical withstand, water ingress. concise list of external influences, extracted external influence.
from Appendix A of the IEC document, is The number relates to the class within each
presented in table F67. external influence.
For example the code AC2 signifies:
A = environment
AC = environment-altitude
AC2 = environment-altitude > 2,000 m
Note: the codification given in this chapter is
not intended to be used for marking
equipment.
F
7.1 classification (continued)
A
AA ambient (°C) AE2 small AL fauna
AA1 -60°C +5°C AE3 very small AL1 no hazard
AA2 -40°C +5°C AE4 dust AL2 hazard
AA3 -25°C +5°C AF corrosion AM radiation
AA4 -5°C +40°C AF1 negligible AM1 negligible
AA5 +5°C +40°C AF2 atmospheric AM2 stray currents
AA6 +5°C +60°C AF3 intermittent AM3 electromagnetic
AB humidity AF4 continuous AM4 ionization
AC altitude (m) AG impact AM5 electrostatics
environnement
BE1 no risk
BA4 instructed BD1 (low density/
BE2 fire risk
BA5 skilled easy exit)
BD2 (low density/ BE3 explosion risk
BB resistance BE4 contamination
difficult exit)
BC contact with earth BD3 (high density/ risk
BC1 none easy exit)
C
CA materials CB structure CB3 structure
building
table F67: concise list of important external influences (taken from Appendix A of IEC 364-3).
Code letters
(International Protection)
Where a characteristic numeral is not required to be specified, it shall be replaced by the letter "X"
("XX" if both numerals are omitted).
Additional letters and/or supplementary letters may be omitted without replacement.
fig. F68: IP Code arrangement.
Note: the IP code applies to electrical
equipment for voltages up to and including
72.5 kV.
F
7.2 protection by enclosures: IP code (continued)
Elements of the IP Code and their
meanings
A brief description of the IP Code elements is
given in the following chart.
Element Numerals Meaning for the protection Meaning for the
or letters of equipment protection of persons
Code letters IP - -
Against access to
hazardous parts with
A back of hand
Additional letter
(optional) B - finger
C tool
D wire
F
7.2 protection by enclosures: IP code (continued)
first addit. test
numeral letter access probe
force
1 A sphere 50 mm diameter 50 N ± 10%
approx. 100 4 Ø50
Ø10
80
Ø12
fig. F70: access probes for the tests for protection of persons against access to hazardous parts.
G
1.1 electric shock
when a current exceeding 30 mA electric shock
An electric shock is the pathophysiological Curve C1 (of figure G1) shows that when a
passes through a part of a human effect of an electric current through the current greater than 30 mA passes through a
body, the person concerned is in human body. part of a human being, the person concerned
serious danger if the current is not Its passage affects essentially the circulatory is likely to be killed, unless the current is
interrupted in a very short time. and respiratory functions and sometimes interrupted in a relatively short time.
results in serious burns. The degree of The point 500 ms/100 mA close to the curve
danger for the victim is a function of the C1 corresponds to a probability of heart
magnitude of the current, the parts of the fibrillation of the order of 0.14%.
the protection of persons against body through which the current passes, and The protection of persons against electric
electric shock in LV installations must the duration of current flow. shock in LV installations must be provided in
be provided in conformity with IEC Publication 479-1 defines four zones of conformity with appropriate national
appropriate national standards and current-magnitude/time-duration, in each of standards and statutory regulations, codes of
statutory regulations, codes of which the pathophysiological effects are practice, official guides and circulars, etc.
described (fig. G1). Any person coming into Relevant IEC standards include: IEC 364,
practice, official guides and circulars, contact with live metal risks an electric shock. IEC 479-1, IEC 755, IEC 1008, IEC 1009
etc. and IEC 947-2 appendix B.
Relevant IEC standards include:
duration of current flow t
IEC 364, IEC 479-1, IEC 755, ms 10000
A B C1 C2 C3
IEC 1008, IEC 1009
5000
and IEC 947-2 appendix B. ∂ imperceptible
2000
∑ perceptible
∏ reversible effects:
1000 muscular
contraction
500
π possibility of
1 2 3 4 irreversible
200 effects
C1: no heart fibrillation
100 C2: 5% probability
50
of heart fibrillation
C3: 50% probability
of heart fibrillation
20
10
0,1 0,2 0,5 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10000
mA
current passing through the body Is
fig. G1: curve C1 (of IEC 479-1) defines the current-magnitude/time-duration limits which
must not be exceeded.
busbars
Is Is
G
Two complementary measures are commonly
two measures of protection against
employed as protection against the dangers
direct-contact hazards are often of direct contact:
imposed, since, in practice, the first c the physical prevention of contact with live
measure may not prove to be parts by barriers, insulation, inaccessibility,
infallible. etc.
c additional protection in the event that a
direct contact occurs, despite the above
measures. This protection is based on
residual-current operated high-sensitivity fast-
acting relays, which are highly effective in the
majority of direct contact cases.
particular measures
of protection
Protection by the use of extra-low voltage
SELV (Safety Extra Low Voltage) schemes
This measure is used only in low-power
circuits, and in particular circumstances, as
described in Sub-clause G3.5.
G
Conductive material(1) used in the c special arrangements such as:
national regulations covering LV
manufacture of an electrical appliance, but v the use of class II insulation materials, or an
installations impose, or strongly which is not part of the circuit for the equivalent degree of insulation,
recommend, the provision of devices appliance, is separated from live parts by the v non-conducting location(2) - out-of-reach or
for indirect-contact protection. "basic insulation". Failure of the basic interposition of barriers,
insulation will result in the conductive parts v equipotential locality,
becoming live. v electrical separation by means of isolating
the measures of protection are: Touching a normally-dead part of an electrical transformers.
appliance which has become live due to the (1) Conductive material (usually metal) which may be
c automatic disconnection of supply
failure of its insulation, is referred to as an touched, without dismantling the appliance, is referred to as
(at the first or second fault detection, indirect contact. "exposed conductive parts".
(2) The definition of resistances of the walls, floor and ceiling
depending on the system of earthing) Various measures are adopted to protect of a non-conducting location is given in Sub-clause G3.5
c particular measures according to against this hazard, and include:
circumstances. c automatic disconnection of power supply to
the appliance concerned,
example
The resistance of the substation neutral earth
electrode Rn is 10 ohms.
The resistance of the installation earth
electrode RA is 20 ohms.
The earth-fault current Id = 7.7 A.
The touch-voltage Uc = IdRA = 154 V and
therefore dangerous, but,
I∆n = 50 = 2.5 A so that a standard 300 mA
20
RCD will operate in 30 ms to clear a condition
in which 50 V touch voltage, or more,
appears on an exposed conductive part.
HV/400V
1
2
3
4
installation
substation earth Uc
earth electrode
electrode
Rn : 10 Ω RA : 20 Ω
G
3.2 automatic disconnection for a TT-earthed installation (continued)
the tripping times of RCDs are specified disconnection time x I∆n 1 2 5 >5
generally lower than those RCD is a general term for all devices instantaneous (ms) 300 150 40 40
operating on the residual-current principle. domestic
prescribed in the majority of national RCCB* (residual current circuit breaker) as
standards; this feature facilitates their defined in IEC 1008 is a specific class of type S (ms) 500 200 150 150
use and allows the adoption of an RCD. industrial
effective scheme of discriminative Type G (general) and type S (selective) have setting I** (ms) 150 150 150 150
tripping time/current characteristics as shown
protection. in table G11. These characteristics allow a
* Merlin Gerin
certain degree of selective tripping between table G11: maximum operating times of
the several combinations of rating and type, RCCBs (IEC 1008).
as shown later in Sub-clause 4.3. ** Note : the use of the term "circuit breaker" does not mean
that a RCCB can break short-circuit currents. For such
duties RCDs known as RCBOs ("O" for overcurrent) as
defined in IEC 1009 must be employed.
example
B
A
3
2
F 1
N E PEN
NS160
35 50 m
mm2 35 mm2
D C
RnA
Uc
performance curve. In any case, The value of current which assures the
correct operation of a fuse can be
protection cannot be achieved if the accertained from a current/time performance
loop impedance Zs or Zc exceeds a graph for the fuse concerned. = 0,4 s
certain value. The fault current Uo/Zs or 0.8 Uo/Zc as tc
determined above, must largely exceed that
necessary to ensure positive operation of the
fuse. Ia Uo/Zs I
The condition to observe therefore is that:
Ia < Uo or 0.8 Uo as indicated in figure G15. fig. G15: disconnection by fuses
Zs Zc for a TN-earthed installation.
Example:
The nominal phase-neutral voltage of the
network is 230 V and the maximum
disconnection time given by the graph in
figure G15 is 0.4 seconds. The corresponding
value of Ia can be read from the graph.
Using the voltage (230 V) and the current Ia,
the complete loop impedance or the circuit
loop impedance can be calculated from
Zs = 230/Ia or Zc = 0.8 x 230/Ia.This
impedance value must never be exceeded
and should preferably be substantially less to
ensure satisfactory fuse operation.
G
3.4 automatic disconnection on a second earth fault in an IT-earthed system
In this type of system: c all exposed and extraneous conductive
c the installation is isolated from earth, or the parts are earthed via an installation earth
neutral point of its power-supply source is electrode.
connected to earth through a high
impedance,
Uc
RnA = 5 Ω Id2
fig. G17: fault-current paths for a first (earth) fault on an IT-earthed installation.
Example: The touch voltage Uc is therefore
For a network formed from 1 km of 198 x 5 x 10-3 = 0.99 V, which is evidently
conductors, the leakage (capacitive) harmless.
impedance to earth ZF is of the order of The current through the short-circuit is given
3,500 ohms per phase. In normal (unfaulted) by the vector sum of the neutral-resistor
operation, the capacitive current* to earth is current Id1 (= 153 mA) and the capacitive
therefore current (Id2).
Uo = 230 = 66 mA per phase Since the exposed conductive parts of the
ZF 3,500 installation are connected directly to earth,
During a phase-to-earth fault, as shown in the neutral impedance Zct plays practically no
figure G17, the current passing through the part in the production of touch voltages to
electrode resistance RnA is the vector sum of earth.
the capacitive currents in the two healthy * Resistive leakage current to earth through the insulation is
phases. The voltages of the two healthy assumed to be negligibly small in the example.
phases have (because of the fault) increased
to √3 the normal phase voltage, so that the
capacitive currents increase by the same
amount. These currents are displaced, one
from the other by 60°, so that when added
vectorially, this amounts to 3 x 66 mA =
198 mA i.e. Id2 in the present example.
Rn RA
fig. G19: circuit breaker tripping on second (earth) fault when exposed conductive parts
are connected to a common protective conductor.
The current levels and protective measures So that the resistance of circuit 1 loop FGHJ
depend on the switchgear and fusegear = 2 RHJ = 2 ρ l mΩ
concerned: a
c circuit breakers where: ρ = the resistance in milli-ohm of a
In the case shown in figure G19, the levels of copper rod 1 metre long of c.s.a. 1 mm2
instantaneous and short time-delay l = length of the circuit in metres
overcurrent-trip settings must be decided. a = c.s.a. of the conductor in mm2
The times recommended in table G18 can be = 2 x 22.5 x 50 = 64.3 mΩ
readily complied with. 35
Example: from the case shown in figure G19, and the loop resistance B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J
determine that the short-circuit protection will be 2 x 64.3 = 129 mΩ
provided by the 160 A circuit breaker is The fault current will therefore be:
suitable to clear a phase-to-phase short- 0.8 x ex 230 x 103 = 2.470 A
circuit occurring at the load ends of the 129
circuits concerned. c fuses
Reminder: In an IT system, the two circuits The current Ia for which fuse operation must
involved in a phase-to-phase short circuit are be assured in a time specified according to
assumed to be of equal length, with the same table G18 can be found from fuse operating
sized conductors; the PE conductors being curves, as described in figure G15.
the same size as the phase conductors. The current indicated should be significantly
In such a case, the impedance of the circuit lower than the fault currents calculated for the
loop when using the "conventional method" circuit concerned,
(Sub-clause 5.2 of this chapter) will be twice c RCCBs
that calculated for one of the circuits in the In particular cases, RCCBs are necessary. In
TN case, shown in Sub-clause 3.3. this case, protection against indirect contact
hazards can be achieved by using one RCCB
for each circuit.
G
3.4 automatic disconnection on a second earth fault in an IT-earthed system (continued)
2nd case: concerns exposed conductive electrode contact resistances with the earth,
2nd case: where exposed conductive
parts which are earthed either individually thereby making protection by overcurrent
parts of appliances are earthed (each part having its own earth electrode) or devices unreliable. The more sensitive RCDs
individually or in separate groups, in separate groups (one electrode for each are therefore necessary, but the operating
each appliance or each group must group). current of the RCDs must evidently exceed
(in addition to overcurrent protection) If all exposed conductive parts are not that which occurs for a first fault.
bonded to a common electrode system, then For a second fault occurring within a group
be protected by a RCD. it is possible for the second earth fault to having a common earth-electrode system,
occur in a different group or in a separately- the overcurrent protection operates, as
earthed individual apparatus. Additional described above for case 1.
protection to that described above for case 1, Note 1: see also Chapter H1 Sub-clause 7.2,
is required, and consists of a RCD placed at protection of the neutral conductor.
the circuit breaker controlling each group and Note 2: in 3-phase 4-wire installations
each individually-earthed apparatus. protection against overcurrent in the neutral
The reason for this requirement is that the conductor is sometimes more conveniently
separate-group electrodes are "bonded" achieved by using a ring-type current
through the earth so that the phase-to-phase transformer over the single-core neutral
short-circuit current will generally be limited conductor, as shown in figure G20 (see also
when passing through the earth bond, by the Table H1-65c).
case 1 case 2
HV/LV HV/LV
RCD RCD
N N
RCD RCD
PIM PIM
group 1 group 2
group earth earth
earth
Rn RA Rn RA 1 RA 2
fig. G20: the application of RCDs when exposed conductive parts are earthed individually
or by groups, on IT-earthed systems.
3.5 measures of protection against direct or indirect contact without circuit disconnection
extra-low voltage is used where the the use of SELV (Safety by Extra equipment must not be connected to earth, to
Low Voltage) other exposed conductive parts, or to
risks are great: swimming pools, extraneous conductive parts,
wandering-lead hand lamps, and Safety by extra low voltage SELV is used in c all live parts of SELV circuits and of other
situations where the operation of electrical circuits of higher voltage must be separated
other portable appliances for outdoor equipment presents a serious hazard
use, etc. by a distance at least equal to that between
(swimming pools, amusement parks, etc.). the primary and secondary windings of a
This measure depends on supplying power at safety isolating transformer.
very low voltage from the secondary windings These measures require that:
of isolating transformers especially designed c SELV circuits must use conduits exclusively
according to national or to international provided for them, unless cables which are
(IEC 742) standards. insulated for the highest voltage of the other
The impulse withstand level of insulation circuits are used for the SELV circuits,
between the primary and secondary windings c socket outlets for the SELV system must
is very high, and/or an earthed metal screen not have an earth-pin contact. The SELV
is sometimes incorporated between the circuit plugs and sockets must be special, so
windings. The secondary voltage never that inadvertent connection to a different
exceeds 50 V rms. voltage level is not possible.
Three conditions of exploitation must be Note: In normal conditions, when the SELV
respected in order to provide satisfactory voltage is less than 25 V, there is no need to
protection against indirect contact: provide protection against direct-contact
c no live conductor at SELV must be hazards. Particular requirements are
connected to earth, indicated in Chapter L, Clause 3: "special
c exposed conductive parts of SELV-supplied locations".
the use of PELV (Protection by and the equipment is used in normally dry
Extra Low Voltage) locations only, and large-area contact with the
human body is not expected.
This system is for general use where low In all other cases, 6 V rms is the maximum
voltage is required, or preferred for safety permitted voltage, where no direct-contact
reasons, other than in the high-risk locations protection is provided.
noted above. The conception is similar to that
of the SELV system, but the secondary circuit 230 V / 24 V
is earthed at one point.
IEC 364-4-41 defines precisely the
significance of the reference PELV. Protection
against direct-contact hazards is generally
necessary, except when the equipment is in fig. G21: low-voltage supplies from a safety
the zone of equipotential bonding, and the isolating transformer, as defined in IEC 742.
nominal voltage does not exceed 25 V rms,
G10 - protection against electric shocks
G
FELV system (Functional Extra
Low Voltage)
Where, for functional reasons, a voltage of Note: Such conditions may, for example, be
50 V or less is used, but not all of the encountered when the circuit contains
requirements relating to SELV or PELV are equipment (such as transformers, relays,
fulfilled, appropriate measures described in remote-control switches, contactors)
IEC 364-4-41 must be taken to ensure insufficiently insulated with respect to circuits
protection against both direct and indirect at higher voltages.
contact hazards, according to the location
and use of these circuits.
class II appliances
active part
symbol
basic
These appliances are also referred to as insulation
having "double insulation" since in class II supplementary
appliances a supplementary insulation is insulation
added to the basic insulation. No conductive fig. G23: principle of class II insulation
parts of a class II appliance must be level.
connected to a protective conductor:
c most portable or semi-fixed appliances, Chapter 41) describe in more detail the
certain lamps, and some types of transformer necessary measures to achieve the
are designed to have double insulation. It is supplementary insulation during installation
important to take particular care in the work.
exploitation of class II equipment and to verify A simple example is that of drawing a cable
regularly and often that the class II standard into a PVC conduit. Methods are also
is maintained (no broken outer envelope, described for distribution boards.
etc.). Electronic devices, radio and television c for distribution boards and similar
sets have safety levels equivalent to class II, equipment, IEC 439-1 describes a set of
but are not formally class II appliances, requirements, for what is referred to as "total
c supplementary insulation in an electrical insulation", equivalent to class II,
installation (IEC 364-4-41: Sub-clause 413-2). c some cables are recognized as being
Some national standards such as equivalent to class II by many national
NF C 15-100 (France) (annex to 413.5 standards.
G
3.5 measures of protection against direct or indirect contact without circuit disconnection
(continued)
out-of-reach or interposition must evidently be the same for all tests.
in principle, safety by placing Different instrument suppliers provide
simultaneously-accessible of obstacles.
electrodes specific to their own product, so
conductive parts out-of-reach, or by By these means, the probability of touching a that care should be taken to ensure that the
live exposed conductive part, while at the electrodes used are those supplied with the
interposing obstacles, requires also a same time touching an extraneous instrument. There are no universally
non-conducting floor, and so is not an conductive part at earth potential, is recognized standards established for these
easily applied principle extremely low. In practice, this measure can tests at the time of writing.
only be applied in a dry location, and is c the placing of equipment and obstacles
implemented according to the following must be such that simultaneous contact with
conditions: two exposed conductive parts or with an
c the floor and the walls of the chamber must exposed conductive part and an extraneous
be non-conducting, i.e. the resistance to earth conductive part by an individual person is not
at any point must be: possible.
> 50 kΩ (installation voltages i 500 V), c no exposed protective conductor must be
> 100 kΩ (500 V < installation voltages introduced into the chamber concerned.
i 1000 V). c entrances to the chamber must be
Resistance is measured by means of arranged so that persons entering are not at
"MEGGER" type instruments (hand-operated risk, e.g. a person standing on a conducting
generator or battery-operated electronic floor outside the chamber must not be able to
model) between an electrode placed on the reach through the doorway to touch an
floor or against the wall, and earth (i.e. the exposed conductive part, such as a lighting
nearest protective earth-conductor). switch mounted in an industrial-type cast-iron
The electrode contact area and pressure conduit box, for example.
insulated
insulated walls
obstacles
2.5 m
insulated floor
>2m <2m
fig. G24: protection by out-of-reach arrangements and the interposition of non-conducting
obstacles.
earth-free equipotential chambers earth-free equipotential between a live conductor and the metal
chambers envelope of an appliance will result in the
are associated with particular whole "cage" being raised to phase-to-earth
installations (laboratories, etc.) and In this scheme, all exposed conductive parts, voltage, but no fault current will flow. In such
including the floor (see *Note) are bonded by
give rise to a number of practical suitably large conductors, such that no
conditions, a person entering the chamber
installation difficulties. would be at risk (since he/she would be
significant difference of potential can exist stepping on to a live floor). Suitable
between any two points. A failure of insulation precautions must be taken to protect
personnel from this danger (e.g. non-
conducting floor at entrances, etc.).
Special protective devices are also necessary
to detect insulation failure, in the absence of
significant fault current.
*Note: extraneous conductive parts entering (or leaving) the
equipotential space (such as water pipes, etc.) must be
encased in suitable insulating material and excluded from
the equipotential network, since such parts are likely to be
bonded to protective (earthed) conductors elsewhere in the
installation.
conductive floor
insulating
material
G
4.1 protective measures
the application to living quarters is protection against indirect
covered in Chapter L Clause 1. contact
General case I∆n maximum resistance
Protection against indirect contact is assured of the earth electrode
by RCDs, the sensitivity I∆n of which (50 V) (25 V)
complies with the condition: 3A 16 Ω 8Ω
I∆n i
50 V (1) 1A 50 Ω 25 Ω
RA 500 mA 100 Ω 50 Ω
(1) 25 V for work-site installations, agricultural 300 mA 166 Ω 83 Ω
establishments, etc. 30 mA 1666 Ω 833 Ω
The choice of sensitivity of the differential table G26: the upper limit of resistance for
device is a function of the resistance RA of an installation earthing electrode which
the earth electrode for the installation, and is must not be exceeded, for given
given in table G26. sensitivity levels of RCDs at UL voltage
limits of 50 V and 25 V.
high-sensitivity RCDs
IEC 364-4-471 strongly recommends the use
of a RCD of high sensitivity (i 30 mA) in the
following cases:
c socket-outlet circuits for rated currents
of i 32 A at any location(1),
c socket-outlet circuits in wet locations at all
current ratings(1),
c socket-outlet circuits in temporary
installations(1),
c circuits supplying laundry rooms and fig. G29: circuit supplying socket-outlets.
swimming pools(1),
c supply circuits to work-sites, caravans,
pleasure boats, and travelling fairs(1).
This protection may be for individual circuits
or for groups of circuits,
c strongly recommended for circuits of socket
outlets u 20 A (mandatory if they are
expected to supply portable equipment for
outdoor use),
c in some countries, this requirement is
mandatory for all socket-outlet circuits
rated i 32 A.
(1) these cases are treated in delail in Chapter L Clause 3.
G
4.1 protective measures (continued)
in areas of high fire risk
RCD protection at the circuit breaker
controlling all supplies to the area at risk is
necessary in some locations, and mandatory
in many countries.
The sensitivity of the RCD must be i 500 mA.
fire-risk
area
The incoming-supply circuit breaker can also have time- "Monobloc" type of earth-fault differential circuit breakers
delayed characteristics (type S). designed for the protection of socket-outlet circuits and final
circuit protection.
fig. G33: domestic earth-fault differential circuit breakers.
In addition to the adaptable industrial circuit "monobloc" differential circuit breakers
breakers which comply to industrial and intended for domestic and tertiary sector
domestic standards, there are ranges of applications.
differential switches are covered by
particular national standards
(NF C 61-140 for France).
RCDs with separate toroidal current
transformers are standardized
in IEC 755.
Differential switches (RCCBs) are used for the protection of RCDs with separate toroidal CTs can be used in association
distribution or sub-distribution boards. with circuit breakers or contactors.
fig. G34: differential switches (RCCBs). fig. G35: RCDs with separate toroidal
current transformers.
G
4.3 coordination of differential protective devices (continued)
discrimination between RCDs
Discrimination is achieved by exploiting the
several levels of standardized sensitivity:
30 mA, 100 mA, 300 mA and 1 A and the
corresponding tripping times, as shown below
in figure G36.
time
(ms)
10000
1000
500
300 II 300 mA
250 selective RCDs
200
(i.e. time-delayed)
150 industrial
130
100 (settings I and II)
I domestic S
60 time delayed
40
RCD 30 mA
general domestic
and industrial setting 0
10
current
100
150
300
500
600
1000
15 30 60
(mA)
discrimination at 2 levels A
Protection:
RCD 300 mA
c level A: RCD time-delayed setting 1 (for type S
industrial device) type S (for domestic device)
for protection against indirect contacts, B
RCD
c level B: RCD instantaneous, with high 30 mA
sensitivity on circuits supplying socket-outlets
or appliances at high risk (washing machines,
etc. See also Chapter L Clause 3).
fig. G37.
D
RCCB
30 mA
HV/LV
MERLIN GERIN
differential relay
with separate toroidal
CT setting level ≤ 50/RA
time-delay setting level II
Rp
3
2
1
Rn N
PE
RA NS400 NS80H-MA
MERLIN GERIN
differential
relay with
separate CT
discontactor
N
1 Vigi
MERLIN GERIN
2 compact SM20
3 NS100
IN OUT
PE setting level
300 mA
instantaneous M
300 mA
earth leakage
T T current monitor
300 mA RCD
MCB type S MCB
time-
delayed
RCD
discontactor
distribution
box
N
Ph
PE
DPN Vigi
XC40 30 mA
diff.
30 mA
RCD T
TEST
MCB + RCD
30 mA
remotely-
controlled
actuator
fig. G39: typical 3-level installation, showing the protection of distribution circuits in a TT-earthed system.
One motor is provided with specific protection.
G
5.1 preliminary conditions
At the design stage, the maximum permitted
lengths of cable downstream of a controlling 5
circuit breaker (or set of fuses) must be
2 2
calculated, while during the installation work
5 5
certain rules must be fully respected. PEN PE N
4
imposed conditions 1 3
Certain conditions must be observed, as
listed below and illustrated in figure G40.
TN-C TN-C-S
1. earth electrodes should be provided at
evenly-spaced points (as far as practical
RpnA
conditions allow) along the PE conductor.
Note : This is not normally done for a single fig. G40: implementation of the TN system
domestic installation; one earth electrode only of earthing.
is usually required at the service position.
2. the PE conductor must not pass through note
(1) the TN scheme requires that the LV neutral of the HV/LV
ferro-magnetic conduit, ducts, etc. or be transformer, the exposed conductive parts of the substation
mounted on steel work, since inductive and/ and of the installation, and the extraneous conductive parts
or proximity effects can increase the effective in the sub-station and installation, all be earthed to a
common earthing system.
impedance of the conductor. (2) for a substation in which the metering is at low-voltage, a
3. in the case of a PEN conductor (a neutral means of isolation is required at the origin of the LV
installation, and the isolation must be clearly visible.
conductor which is also used as a protective (3) a PEN conductor must never be interrupted under any
conductor), connection must be made directly circumstances. Control and protective switchgear for the
to the earth terminal of an appliance (see 3 in several TN arrangements will be:
c 3-pole when the circuit includes a PEN conductor,
figure G40) before being looped to the neutral c preferably 4-pole (3 phases + neutral) when the circuit
terminal of the appliance. includes a neutral with a separate PE conductor.
4. where the conductor i 6 mm2 for copper or
10 mm2 for aluminium, or where a cable is
movable, the neutral and protective
conductors should be separated (i.e. a
TN-S scheme should be adopted within the
installation).
5. earth faults should be cleared by
overcurrent-protection devices, i.e. by fuses
and circuit breakers.
The foregoing list indicates the conditions to
be respected in the implementation of a
TN scheme for the protection against indirect
contacts.
method of composition
This method permits the determination of the Note: in this method the individual
short-circuit current at the end of a loop from impedances are added arithmetically* as
the known value of S.C. at the sending end, opposed to the previous "method of
by means of the approximate formula: impedances" procedure.
I= U Isc where
U + Zsc Isc * This results in a calculated current value which is less than
that which would actually flow. If the overcurrent settings are
Isc = upstream short-circuit current based on this calculated value, then operation of the relay,
I = end-of-loop short-circuit current or fuse, is assured.
U = nominal system phase voltage
Zsc = impedance of loop
conventional method
This method is generally considered to be This approximation is considered to be valid
sufficiently accurate to fix the upper limit of for cable sizes up to 120 mm2.
cable lengths. Above that size, the resistance value R is
Principle: increased as follows:
The principle bases the short-circuit current core size (mm2) value of resistance
calculation on the assumption that the S = 150 mm2 R+15%
voltage at the origin of the circuit concerned S = 185 mm2 R+20%
(i.e. at the point at which the circuit protective S = 240 mm2 R+25%
device is located) remains at 80% or more of
the nominal phase to neutral voltage. The * causes proximity and skin effects, i.e. an apparent
increase in resistance.
80% value is used, together with the circuit
loop impedance, to compute the short-circuit
current.
This coefficient takes account of all voltage
drops upstream of the point considered. In LV
cables, when all conductors of a 3-phase
4-wire circuit are in close proximity (which is
the normal case), the inductive reactance
internal to* and between conductors is
negligibly small compared to the cable
resistance.
Example: The maximum length of a circuit in a TN-
the maximum length of any circuit of earthed installation is given by the formula:
a TN-earthed installation is: 0.8 Uo Sph
Lmax = metres, where:
0.8 Uo Sph B ρ (1+m) Ia
Lmax = A
ρ (1+m) Ia PE Lmax = maximum length in metres
Uo = phase volts = 230 V for a 230/400 V
system
Id
ρ = resistivity at normal working temperature
L in ohm-mm2/metre
= 22.5 10-3 for copper
= 36 10-3 for aluminium
SPE Sph
Ia = trip current setting for the instantaneous
operation of a circuit breaker, or
C Ia = the current which assures operation of
the protective fuse concerned, in the
specified time.
m = Sph / SPE
fig. G41: calculation of L max. for a Sph = cross-sectional area of the phase
TN-earthed system, using the conductors of the circuit concerned in mm2
conventional method. SPE = cross-sectional area of the protective
conductor concerned in mm2
G
5.2 protection against indirect contact (continued)
the following tables* give the length tables
of circuit which must not be The following tables, applicable to TN The tables take into account:
systems, have been established according to c the type of protection: circuit breakers or
exceeded, in order that persons be the "conventional method" described above. fuses,
protected against indirect contact The tables give maximum circuit lengths, c operating-current settings,
hazards by protective devices. beyond which the ohmic resistance of the c cross-sectional area of phase conductors
conductors will limit the magnitude of the and protective conductors,
* Based on tables given in the guide UTE C15-105. short-circuit current to a level below that c type of earthing scheme (see fig. G47),
required to trip the circuit breaker (or to blow c type of circuit breaker (i.e. B, C or D).
the fuse) protecting the circuit, with sufficient The tables may be used for 230/400 V
rapidity to ensure safety against indirect systems.
contact. Equivalent tables for protection by Compact
and Multi 9 circuit breakers (Merlin Gerin) are
included in the relevant catalogues.
Correction factor m
Table G42 indicates the correction factor to
apply to the values given in tables G43 to
G46 according to the ratio SPH/SPE, the type
of circuit, and the conductor materials.
table G43: maximum circuit lengths for different sizes of conductor and instantaneous-tripping-current settings for general-purpose
circuit breakers.
table G44: maximum circuit lengths for different sizes of conductor and rated currents for
type B (1) circuit breakers.
* Merlin Gerin products.
(1) For the definition of type B circuit breaker refer to chapter H2 Sub-clause 4.2.
table G46: maximum circuit lengths for different conductor sizes and for rated currents
of circuit breakers of type D or MA Merlin Gerin (1).
(1) For the definition of type D circuit breakers refer to chapter H2 Sub-clause 4.2.
For typical use of an MA circuit breaker, refer to Chapter J figure J5-3.
Example:
A 3-phase 4-wire (230/400 V) installation is
TN-C earthed. A circuit is protected by a
circuit breaker rated at 63 A, and consists of
an aluminium cored cable with 50 mm2 phase
conductors and a neutral conductor (PEN) of
25 mm2.
What is the maximum length of circuit, below
which protection of persons against indirect-
contact hazards is assured by the
instantaneous magnetic tripping relay of the
circuit breaker?
Table G44 gives 617 metres, to which must
be applied a factor of 0.42 (table G42 for
m = SPH/SPE = 2).
The maximum length of circuit is therefore:
617 x 0.42 = 259 metres.
G
5.3 high-sensitivity RCDs
IEC 364-4-471 strongly recommends the use
of a RCD of high sensitivity (i 30 mA) in the
following cases:
c socket-outlet circuits for rated currents
of i 32 A at any location(1),
c socket-outlet circuits in wet locations at all
current ratings(1),
c socket-outlet circuits in temporary
installations(1),
c circuits supplying laundry rooms and
swimming pools(1), fig. G48: circuit supplying socket-outlets.
c supply circuits to work-sites, caravans,
pleasure boats, and travelling fairs(1).
This protection may be for individual circuits
or for groups of circuits,
c strongly recommended for circuits of socket
outlets u 20 A (mandatory if they are
expected to supply portable equipment for
outdoor use),
c in some countries, this requirement is
mandatory for all socket-outlet circuits
rated i 32 A.
(1) these cases are treated in delail in Chapter L Clause 3.
fire-risk
area
Suggestion 1:
install a circuit breaker which has an PE or PEN
instantaneous magnetic tripping element with 2 i Irm i 4In
an operation level which is lower than the
usual setting, for example: unusually
long cable
2In i Irm i 4In
This affords protection for persons on circuits
which are abnormally long. It must be
checked, however, that high transient
fig. G50: a circuit breaker with low-set
currents such as the starting currents of
instantaneous magnetic trip.
motors will not cause nuisance trip-outs.
Suggestion 2: phases
install a RCD on the circuit. The device need neutral
PE
not be highly-sensitive (HS) (several amps to
a few tens of amps). Where socket-outlets
are involved, the particular circuits must, in
any case, be protected by HS (i 30 mA) TN-S
RCDs; generally one RCD for a number of
socket outlets on a common circuit.
phases
PEN
TN-C
Suggestion 3:
increase the size of the PE or PEN
conductors and/or the phase conductors, to
reduce the loop impedance.
Suggestion 4:
add supplementary equipotential conductors.
This will have a similar effect to that of
suggestion 3, i.e. a reduction in the earth-
fault-loop resistance, while at the same time
improving the existing touch-voltage
protection measures. The effectiveness of
this improvement may be checked by a
resistance test between each exposed
conductive part and the local main protective
fig. G52: improved equipotential bonding.
conductor.
For TN-C installations, bonding as shown in
figure G52 is not allowed, and Suggestion 3
should be adopted.
G
The basic feature of the IT scheme of c permanent monitoring of the insulation with
earthing is that, in the event of a short-circuit respect to earth, which must signal (audibly
to earth fault, the system can continue to or visually) the occurrence of the first fault,
function without interruption. c a device for limiting the voltage which the
Such a fault is referred to as a "first fault". In neutral point of the supply transformer can
this scheme, all exposed conductive parts of attain with respect to earth,
an installation are connected via PE c a "first-fault" location routine by an efficient
conductors to an earth electrode at the maintenance staff. Fault location is greatly
installation, while the neutral point of the facilitated by automatic devices which are
supply transformer is isolated from earth or currently available,
connected to earth through a high resistance c automatic high-speed tripping of
(commonly 1,000 ohms or more). appropriate circuit breakers must take place
This means that the current through an earth in the event of a "second fault" occurring
fault will be measured in milli-amps, which will before the first fault is repaired. The second
not cause serious damage at the fault fault (by definition) is an earth fault affecting a
position, or give rise to dangerous touch different phase than that of the first fault or a
voltages, or present a fire hazard. The neutral conductor*.
system may therefore be allowed to function The second fault results in a short-circuit
normally until it is convenient to isolate the through the earth and/or through PE bonding
faulty section for repair work. conductors.
In practice, the scheme requires certain * on systems where the neutral is distributed, as shown in
specific measures for its satisfactory figure G58.
exploitation:
4 4
2 1 3
5
MERLIN GERIN
XM100
XM200
P50 ON/O
FF
P12 P100
XGR
XRM
MERLIN GERIN
XM100
toroidal CTs
XM200 1 to 12 circuits
XD301
G
6.2 protection against indirect contact (continued)
c automatic monitoring, logging, and fault
location.
The Vigilohm System also allows access to a
printer and/or a PC which provides a global
review of the insulation level of an entire
installation, and records the chronological
evolution of the insulation level of each
circuit.
The central monitor XM300C, together with
the localization detectors XL308 and XL316,
associated with toroidal CTs from several
circuits, as shown below in figure G57,
provide the means for this automatic
exploitation.
MERLIN GERIN
XM100
XM300 C
MERLIN GERIN MERLIN GERIN
XL08 XL16
897 678
XL308 XL316
three methods of calculating short- A reasonably accurate assessment of short- at the remote end of a loop, when the level of
circuit current levels must be carried out at short-circuit current at the near end of the
circuit current levels are commonly the design stage of a project. loop is known. Complex impedances are
employed: A rigorous analysis is not necessary, since combined arithmetically in this method,
c method of impedances, which current magnitudes only are important for the c the conventional method, in which the
takes account of complex protective devices concerned (i.e. phase minimum value of voltage at the origin of a
representation of impedances, angles need not be determined) so that faulty circuit is assumed to be 80% of the
c method of composition, is a simplified conservatively approximate nominal circuit voltage, and tables are used
methods are normally used. Three practical based on this assumption, to give direct
conservatively approximate method, methods are: readings of circuit lengths.
which combines impedances c the method of impedances, based on the These methods are reliable only for the cases
arithmetically, vectorial summation of all the (positive- in which wiring and cables which make up the
c conventional method, is a phase-sequence) impedances around a fault- fault-current loop are in close proximity (to
simplified method based on an current loop, each other) and are not separated by ferro-
assumed minimum voltage during c the method of composition, which is an magnetic materials.
approximate estimation of short-circuit current
fault, and the use of tables.
Method of impedances
the software Ecodial 2 (Merlin Gerin)
This method as described in Sub-clause 5.2,
is based on the "method of is identical for both the IT and TN systems of
impedances". earthing.
Method of composition
This method as described in Sub-clause 5.2,
is identical for both the IT and TN systems of
earthing.
G
6.2 protection against indirect contact (continued)
N N
D B
PE C A PE
Id Id
Id Id
fig. G58: calculation of Lmax. for an IT-earthed system, showing fault-current path for a
double-fault condition.
Tables
the following tables* give the length
The following tables have been established
of circuit which must not be according to the "conventional method"
exceeded, in order that persons be described above.
protected against indirect contact The tables give maximum circuit lengths,
hazards by protective devices. beyond which the ohmic resistance of the
conductors will limit the magnitude of the
* The tables are those shown in Sub-clause 5.2 (tables G43 short-circuit current to a level below that
to G46). required to trip the circuit breaker (or to blow
However, the table of correction factors (table G59) which
takes into account the ratio Sph/SPE, and of the type of the fuse) protecting the circuit, with sufficient
circuit (3-ph 3-wire; 3-ph 4-wire; 1-ph 2-wire) as well as rapidity to ensure safety against indirect
conductor material, is specific to the IT system, and differs
from that for TN.
contact. The tables take into account:
c the type of protection: circuit breakers or
fuses,
c operating-current settings,
c cross-sectional area of phase conductors
and protective conductors,
c type of earthing scheme,
c correction factor: table G59 indicates the
correction factor to apply to the lengths given
in tables G43 to G46, when considering an IT
system.
fire-risk
area
G
6.5 when the fault-current-loop impedance is particularly high
When, during the design stage of the Note: this is also the case when one (of two)
installation, it is found that the fault-current earth faults occurs at the end of a long
loop impedance of a circuit will be inevitably flexible lead, for example.
high, so that the overcurrent protection
cannot be relied upon to operate within the
prescribed time, the following possibilities
should be considered:
Suggestion 1:
instal a circuit breaker which has an PE or PEN
instantaneous magnetic tripping element with 2In i Irm i 4In
an operation level which is lower than the
usual setting, for example: 2In i Irm i 4 In. unusually
long cable
This affords protection on circuits which are
abnormally long. It must be checked,
however, that high transient currents such as
the starting currents of motors will not cause
nuisance trip-outs. fig. G62: a circuit breaker with low-set
instantaneous magnetic trip.
Suggestion 2: phases
neutral
instal a RCD on the circuit of low sensitivity PE
(several amps to a few tens of amps, since it
must not operate for a first fault).
If the circuit is supplying socket outlets, it will,
in any case, be protected by a high-sensitivity TN-S
RCD (i 30 mA).
Suggestion 3:
increase the size of the PE conductors and/or
the phase conductors, to reduce the loop
impedance.
Suggestion 4:
add supplementary equipotential conductors.
This will have a similar effect to that of
suggestion 3, i.e. a reduction in the earth-
fault-loop resistance, while at the same time
improving the existing touch-voltage
protection measures. The effectiveness of
this improvement may be checked by a
resistance test between each exposed
conductive part and the local main protective
fig. G64: improved equipotential bonding.
conductor.
For TN-C installations, bonding as shown in
figure G52 is not allowed, and Suggestion 3
should be adopted.
G
7.1 description
principle
The essential features are shown via the earth, or via protective conductors in a
diagrammatically in figure G65 below. A TN-earthed system. The current balance in
magnetic core encompasses all the current- the conductors passing through the magnetic
carrying conductors of an electric circuit and core therefore no longer exists, and the
the magnetic flux generated in the core will difference gives rise to a magnetic flux in the
depend at every instant on the arithmetical core.
sum of the currents; the currents passing in The difference current is known as the
one direction being considered as positive, "residual" current and the principle is referred
while those passing in the opposite direction to as the "differential current" principle.
will be negative. The resultant alternating flux in the core
In a normally healthy circuit (figure G65) induces an e.m.f. in its coil, so that a current
i1 + i2 = 0 and there will be no flux in the i3 flows in the tripping-device operating coil. If
magnetic core, and zero e.m.f. in its coil. An the residual current exceeds the value
earth-fault current id will pass through the required to operate the tripping device, then
core to the fault, but will return to the source the associated circuit breaker will trip.
N
i1
i2
i3
S
id
G
7.2 application of RCDs (continued)
influence of overvoltages U
Electrical power networks are subjected to U max
overvoltages of various origins; atmospheric,
or due to abrupt changes of system operating
conditions (faults, fuse operation, switching,
etc.). These sudden changes often cause
0.5 U
large transient voltages and currents in
system inductive and capacitive circuits,
before a new stable state is reached.
Records have established that, on LV
systems, overvoltages remain generally 1.2 µs 50 µs t
below 6 kV, and that they can be adequately
represented by the conventional 1.2/50 µs fig. G67: standardized voltage-impulse
impulse wave (figure G67). wave 1.2/50 µs.
These overvoltages give rise to transient
I
currents represented by a current impulse
wave of the conventional 8/20 µs form,
having a peak value of several tens of 0.9
amperes (figure G68). The transient currents
flow to earth via the capacitances of the
installation surge arresters or through an
insulation failure. 0.5
electromagnetic compatibility
0.1
The high-frequency (or unidirectional
impulse) transient overvoltages and currents t
mentioned above, together with other 8 µs
electromagnetic disturbance sources 20 µs
(contactor coils, relays, dry contacts),
electrostatic discharges, and radiated fig. G68: standardized current-impulse
electromagnetic waves (radio, ignition wave 8/20 µs.
systems, etc.) are part of the increasingly
important field of EMC (electromagnetic
compatibility). For further details, the
Technical publications nos. 120 and 149, by
Merlin Gerin, may be consulted. fig. G69: standardized symbol used in
It is essential that RCDs be immune to some countries, to indicate proof against
possible malfunction from the effects of incorrect operation due to transients.
electromagnetic-surge disturbances. In
practice, the levels shown in table G70 are current for the choice of the sensitivity of a
complied with in design and manufacturing RCD is: i mA* = 0.072 C at 50 Hz
specifications*. i mA = 0.086 C at 60 Hz
* Merlin Gerin products. where C = capacity (in n F) of one phase to
earth.
implementation Since RCDs complying with IEC and many
national standards may operate within the
c every RCD installed must have a minimum
range 0.5 I∆n - I∆n for a nominal rating of I∆n,
level of immunity to unwanted tripping in
the leakage current downstream of a RCD
conformity with the requirements of table
must not exceed 0.5 I∆n.
G70. RCDs type "S" or time-delay setting
The limitation of permanent leakage current
levels I or II (see figure G36) cover all
to 0.25 I∆n, by sub-division of circuits, will, in
transient leakage currents, including those of
practice, eliminate the influence of all
lightning arresters (see installation layouts in
corresponding current transients.
Chapter L, Sub-clause 1.3) of a duration less
For very particular cases, such as the
than 40 ms,
extension, or partial renovation of extended
c permanent leakage currents downstream of
IT-earthed installations, the manufacturers
a RCD must be studied, particularly in the
must be consulted.
case of large installations and/or where filter
i mA* = 230 V x 1009π x 10 C (n F)
3
circuits are present, or again, in the case of 10
an IT-earthed installation. If the capacitance i mA* = 0.072 C (n F) at 50 Hz
values are known, the equivalent leakage
recommendations concerning
the installation of RCDs with
separate toroidal current
transformers
The detector of residual current is a closed Centralize the cables in the ring core
magnetic circuit (usually circular) of very high
magnetic permeability, on which is wound a
coil of wire, the ensemble constituting a
toroidal (or ring-type) current transformer.
Because of its high permeability, any small
deviation from perfect symmetry of the
conductors encompassed by the core, and Use an oversized magnetic ring core
the proximity of ferrous material (steel
enclosure, chassis members, etc.) can affect
the balance of magnetic forces sufficiently, at
times of large load currents (motor-starting
current, transformer energizing current surge,
etc.) to cause unwanted tripping of the RCD.
Unless particular measures are taken, the
ratio of operating current I∆n to maximum Insert a tubular magnetic screen.
phase current Iph (max.) is generally less
than 1/1,000.
This limit can be increased substantially
(i.e. the response can be desensitized) by
adopting the measures shown in fig. G71,
and summarized in table G72.
L
G
7.3 choice of characteristics of a residual-current circuit breaker (RCCB - IEC 1008)
rated current (a) (b)
The rated current of a RCCB is chosen
according to the maximum sustained load
In1
current it will carry, estimated in accordance
with the methods described in Chapter B In
Sub-clause 4.3.
c if the RCCB is connected in series with, In
and downstream of a circuit breaker, the
rated current of both items will be the same,
i.e. In u In1* (fig. G73 (a)), In1 In2 In3 In4
c if the RCCB is located upstream of a group
of circuits, protected by circuit breakers, as
shown in fig. G73 (b), then the RCCB rated fig. G73: residual current circuit breakers
current will be given by (RCCBs).
In u ku x ks (In1 + In2 + In3 + In4).
* Some national standards include a thermal withstand test
at a current greater than In in order to ensure correct
coordination of protection.
electrodynamic withstand
requirements
Protection against short-circuits must be
provided by an upstream SCPD (Short-Circuit
Protective Device) but it is considered that
where the RCCB is located in the same
distribution box (complying with the
appropriate standards) as the downstream
circuit breakers (or fuses), the short-circuit
protection afforded by these (outgoing-circuit)
SCPDs is an adequate alternative.
Coordination between the RCCB and the
SCPDs is necessary, and manufacturers
generally provide tables associating RCCBs
and circuit breakers or fuses (see table G74).
Coordination of circuit breakers and RCCBs- max. short-circuit current in kA (r.m.s.)
upstream circuit breaker type C60a C60N C60H C60L NC100H NC100L
downstream 2 p 25 A 10 16 20 45 45
RCCB 40 A 10 16 20 40 45
63 A 16 20 30 5 45
80 A 5
4 p 25 A 5 8 10 25 22
40 A 5 8 10 25 22
63 A 8 10 15 5 22
Coordination of fuses and RCCBs- max. short-circuit (not applicable to aM fuses)
upstream fuses gl
(not applicable to aM fuses) 16 A 25 A 32 A 40 A 50 A 63 A 80 A 100 A
downstream 2 p 25 A 100 100 100
RCCB 40 A 100 100 80 10 (1)
63 A 80 50 30 20 10 (1)
80 A 30 20
4 p 25 A 100 100 100 10 (1)
40 A 100 100 80 10 (1)
63 A 80 50 30 20 10 (1)
80 A 30 20 10 (1)
table G74: typical manufacturers coordination table for RCCBs, circuit breakers,
and fuses.
(1) A 100 A fuse with several RCCBs downstream: the thermal withstand of the RCCBs is not certain.
H1
1.1 methodology and definitions
component parts of an electric circuit methodology
Following a preliminary analysis of the power c ensure protection of persons against
and its protection are determined requirements of the installation, as decribed indirect contact hazards, particularly in
such, that all normal and abnormal in Chapter B Clause 4, a study of cabling* TN- and IT- earthed systems, where the
operating constraints are satisfied. and its electrical protection is undertaken, length of circuits may limit the magnitude
starting at the origin of the installation, of short-circuit currents, thereby delaying
through the intermediate stages to the final automatic disconnection (it may be
circuits. remembered that TT- earthed installations are
The cabling and its protection at each level obligatorily protected at the origin by a RCD,
must satisfy several conditions at the same generally rated at 500 mA).
time, in order to ensure a safe and reliable The cross-sectional areas of conductors are
installation, e.g. it must: determined by the general method described
c carry the permanent full load current, and in Sub-clause 1.2 of this Chapter. Apart from
normal short-time overcurrents, this method some national standards may
c not cause voltage drops likely to result in an prescribe a minimum cross-sectional area to
inferior performance of certain loads, for be observed for reasons of mechanical
example: an excessively long acceleration endurance. Particular loads (as noted in
period when starting a motor, etc. Chapter J) require that the cable supplying
Moreover, the protective devices (circuit them be oversized, and that the protection of
breakers or fuses) must: the circuit be likewise modified.
c protect the cabling and busbars for all
* the term "cabling" in this chapter, covers all insulated
levels of overcurrent, up to and including conductors, including multi-core and single-core cables and
short-circuit currents, insulated wires drawn into conduits, etc.
table H1-1: logigram for the selection of cable size and protective-device rating
for a given circuit.
H1
1.1 methodology and definitions (continued)
definitions
Maximum load current: IB main
c at the final circuits level, this current distribution
corresponds to the rated kVA of the load. In board
the case of motor-starting, or other loads
which take an initially-high current,
particularly where frequent starting is combined factors
concerned (e.g. lift motors, resistance-type of simultaneity
spot welding, and so on) the cumulative (or diversity) IB = 290 x 0.69 = 200 A
and utilization
thermal effects of the overcurrents must be ks x ku = 0.69
taken into account. Both cables and thermal-
type relays are affected; sub-distribution
c at all upstream circuit levels this current board
corresponds to the kVA to be supplied, which
takes account of the factors of simultaneity
(diversity) and utilization, ks and ku 80 A 60 A 100 A IB = 50 A
respectively, as shown in figure H1-2.
Maximum permissible current: IZ normal load
This is the maximum value of current that the M motor current
cabling for the circuit can carry indefinitely, 50 A
without reducing its normal life expectancy.
The current depends, for a given cross- fig. H1-2: calculation of maximum load
sectional area of conductors, on several current IB.
parameters:
c constitution of the cable and cable-way
(Cu or Alu conductors; PVC or EPR etc.
insulation; number of active conductors);
c ambient temperature;
c method of installation;
c influence of neighbouring circuits.
overcurrents
An overcurrent occurs each time the value of Short-circuit currents
current exceeds the maximum load current IB These currents result from the failure of
for the load concerned. insulation between live conductors or/and
This current must be cut off with a rapidity between live conductors and earth (on
that depends upon its magnitude, if systems having low-impedance-earthed
permanent damage to the cabling (and neutrals) in any combination, viz:
appliance if the overcurrent is due to a c 3 phases short-circuited (and to neutral
defective load component) is to be avoided. and/or earth, or not);
Overcurrents of relatively short duration can c 2 phases short-circuited (and to neutral
however, occur in normal operation; two and/or earth, or not);
types of overcurrent are distinguished: c 1 phase short-circuited to neutral (and/or to
Overloads earth).
These overcurrents can occur in healthy
electric circuits, for example, due to a number
of small short-duration loads which
occasionally occur co-incidentally; motor-
starting loads, and so on.
If either of these conditions persists however
beyond a given period (depending on
protective-relay settings or fuse ratings) the
circuit will be automatically cut off.
5s
I2t = k2S2
H1
1.3 practical values for a protection scheme
The following methods are based on rules representative of the practices in many
laid down in the IEC standards, and are countries.
e
ax
bl
i
im
Iz iss
um
nt rm
Iz
rre pe
lo
x
a
45
cu m
d
u
cu
1.
m
rre
i
ax
n
m
t IB
1.45 Iz ISC
IB Iz
In I2 ISCB
zone a zone c
zone b
t
en
g
nt or
t
ui atin
I2 urr
Ir
rre In irc ng r
nt rc
cu t
c
rre ve
d en
t - i
or ak
cu l o
te rr
sh t bre
la cu
p na
gu al
tri tio
p n
3- urre
re in
en
its om
nv
-c
ult
n
co
fa
protective device
fig. H1-6: current levels for determining circuit breaker or fuse characteristics.
Protection by fuses
criteria for fuses:
The condition I2 i 1.45 IZ must also be taken For fuses type gl:
IB i In i IZ into account, where I2 is the fusing (melting- In i 10 A k3 = 1.31
k3 level) current, equal to k2 x In (k2 ranges from 10 A < In i 25 A k3 = 1.21
and, 1.6 to 1.9) according to the particular fuse In > 25 A k3 = 1.10
the rated short-circuit current concerned. Moreover, the short-circuit current breaking
A further factor k3 has been introduced (in the capacity of the fuse ISCF must exceed the
breaking capacity of the fuse national standards from which these notes level of 3-phase short-circuit current at the
ISCF u ISC the 3-ph. short-circuit have been abstracted) such that I2 i 1.45 IZ point of installation of the fuse(s).
current level at the point of fuse will be valid if In i IZ/k3.
installation.
Association of different protective devices associated cabling and appliances can
The use of protective devices which have withstand without damage.
fault-current ratings lower than the fault level In pratice this arrangement is generally
existing at their point of installation are exploited in:
permitted by IEC and many national c the association of circuit breakers/fuses;
standards in the following conditions: c the technique known as "cascading" in
c there exists upstream, another protective which the strong current-limiting performance
device which has the necessary short-circuit of certain circuit breakers effectively reduces
rating, and the severity of downstream short-circuits.
c the amount of energy allowed to pass Possible combinations which have been
through the upstream device is less than that tested in laboratories are indicated in certain
which the downstream device and all manufacturers catalogues.
H1-4 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear
H1
1.4 location of protective devices
a protective device is, in general, general rule
required at the origin of each circuit. A protective device is necessary at the origin P
of each circuit where a reduction of
permissible maximum current level occurs.
P2 P3 P4
table H1-7: general rules and exceptions concerning the location of protective devices.
H1
1.6 worked example of cable calculations
installation scheme
The installation is supplied through a Following the one-line diagram of the system
1,000 kVA transformer. The process requires shown in figure H1-8 below, a reproduction of
a high degree of supply continuity and this is the results of a computer study for the circuit
provided by the installation of a 500 kVA C1 and its circuit breaker Q1, and C2 with
400 V standby generator, and by the adoption associated circuit breaker Q2 are presented.
of a 3-phase 3-wire IT-system at the main These studies were carried out with
general distribution board from which the ECODIAL 2.2 software (a Merlin Gerin
processing plant is supplied. The remainder product).
of the installation is isolated by a 315 kVA This is followed by the same calculations
400/400V transformer: the isolated network is carried out by the methods described in this
a TT-earthed 3-phase 4-wire system. guide.
TR1
1000 kVA
5%
400 V
26. 44 kA
C1
8m
.18%
3x (3 x 240)
Q1
M16 N1
STR 38
1600 A
B1 G1
500 kVA
721 A
Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6
C801N
STR35SE
800 A
C2 C3 C4
15m
.7%
3x (1 x 240)
I1 I2
T1
315 kVA
400 V
B2
Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10
NS630N
STR35SE
630 A
H1
1.6 worked example of cable calculations (continued)
Circuit breaker Q 2 input data output
voltage (V) 400
3-ph short-circuit current upstream
of the circuit breaker (kA) 24.53
maximum load current (A) 433
ambient temperature (°C) 40
number of poles 3
circuit breaker NS630
type N
tripping unit type STR23SE
rated current (A) 630
3-phase fault current (A) 13221
protection against indirect contact assured
upstream circuit breaker M16 N1 STR38
absolute discrimination
Cable C 2 input data output
maximum load current (A) 433
type of insulation PRC
conductor material Cu
ambient temperature (°C) 30
single-core or multi-core cable UNI
installation method 13
number of circuits in close proximity
(table H1-14) 1
other coefficient 1
number of phases 3
selected cross-sectional area (mm2) 1 x 240
protective conductor 1 x 70
neutral conductor
length (m) 15
voltage drop ∆U (%) .33
running total of impedance RT (mΩ) 3.93
running total of impedance XT (mΩ) 10.75
voltage drop ∆U total (%) .67
3-phase short-circuit current (kA) 21.18
1-phase-to-earth fault current (A) 13221
resistance of protective conductor RPE (mΩ) 5.57
touch voltage (V) 73
table H1-9: calculations carried out with ECODIAL software (M.G).
the same calculations using The resistances and the inductive reactances
the methods recommended in for the three conductors in parallel are, for a
length of 8 metres (see H1-4.2):
this guide 22.5 x 8
Dimensioning circuit C 1 R= = 0.25 mΩ per phase
240 x 3
The HV/LV 1,000 kVA transformer has a rated 0.12 x 8
no-load voltage of 420 V. Circuit C 1 must be X= = 0.32 mΩ per phase
3
suitable for a current of (0.12 mΩ/metre was advised by the cable
In = 1,000 = In = 1,374 A per phase maker).
ex 0.42
Dimensioning circuit C 2
Three single-core XLPE-insulated copper
Circuit C 2 supplies a 315 kVA 3-phase
cables in parallel will be used for each phase;
400/400 V isolating transformer
these cables will be laid on cable trays
corresponding with reference F (see tables in Ib = 315 = 433 A.
0.42 x e
Clause H1 2.2). The "K" correction factors are
A multi-core XLPE cable laid on a cable tray
as follows:
(together with two other cables) in an ambient
K1=1
air temperature of 30 °C is proposed.
K 2 = 0.82 ( 3 three-phase groups in a single
The circuit breaker is regulated to 433 A.
layer)
Iz = 433 A
K 3 = 1 (temperature 30 °C).
The method of installation is characterized by
If the circuit breaker is a withdrawable or
the reference letter E, and the "K" correcting
unpluggable* type, which can be regulated,
factors are:
one might choose:
K1=1
Iz = 1,374 A applying H1.2.1
K 2 = 0.82
Iz
I’z = = 1,676 A. K 3 = 1.
K1xK2xK3
433
Each conductor will therefore carry 558 A. I’z = = 528 A so that
1 x 0.82 x 1
Table H1-17 indicates that the c.s.a. is
a c.s.a. of 240 mm2 is appropriate.
240 mm2.
The resistance and inductive reactance are
* Withdrawable, CBs are generally mounted in drawers for
maintenance purposes. Plug-in type CBs are generally
respectively:
moulded-case units, which may be completely removed 22.5 x 15
from the fixed-base sockets. R= = 1.4 mΩ per phase
240
X = 0.08 x 15 = 1.2 mΩ per phase.
H1
2.1 general
installation maximum load current IB
conditions IB
for the conductors
rated current In of the protective device must
be equal to or greater than the maximum load
current IB
determination of K In
factors and of the choice of maximum permissible current IZ for the
appropriate letter circuit, corresponding to a conductor size that the
code protective device is capable of protecting
I Z1 I Z2
* or slightly greater
table H1-11: logigram for the determination of minimum conductor size for a circuit.
The first step is to determine the size of the reference which takes into account:
phase conductors. The dimensioning of the v the type of circuit (single-phase; three-
neutral and protective conductors is phase, etc.) and
explained in H1-6 and H1-7. v the kind of installation: and then
In this clause the following cases are c determine the factor K of the circuit
considered: considered, which covers the following
c unburied conductors, influences:
c buried conductors. v installation method,
The tables in this clause permit the v circuit grouping,
determination of the size of phase conductors v ambient temperature.
for a circuit of given current magnitude.
The procedure is as follows:
c determine an appropriate code-letter
single-core cables F
B, C, E, F - other cases 1
table H1-13: factor K1 according to method of circuit installation (for further examples
refer to IEC 364-5-52 table 52H).
Correction factor K2 Two circuits are considered to be in close
Factor K2 is a measure of the mutual proximity when L, the distance between
influence of two circuits side-by-side in close two cables, is less than double the diameter
proximity. of the larger of the two cables.
H1
2.2 determination of conductor size for unburied circuits (continued)
When cables are installed in more than one
layer a further factor, by which K2 must be
multiplied, will have the following values :
2 layers : 0.80
3 layers : 0.73
4 or 5 layers : 0.70.
Correction factor K3
Factor K3 is a measure of the influence of the
temperature, according to the type of
insulation.
H1
2.2 determination of conductor size for unburied circuits (continued)
Example Determination of the cross-sectional areas
The example shown in figure H1-16 for A standard value of In nearest to, but higher
determining the value of K, will also be used than 23 A is required.
to illustrate the way in which the minimum Two solutions are possible, one based on
cross-sectional-area (c.s.a.) of conductors protection by a circuit breaker and the second
may be found, by using the table H1-17. on protection by fuses.
The XLPE cable to be installed will carry c circuit breaker: In = 25 A
23 amps per phase. v permissible current Iz = 25 A
Previous examples show that: v fictitious current
c the appropriate code letter is E, I'z = 25 = 36.8 A
c the factor K = 0.68. 0.68
v cross-sectional-area of conductors is found
1 2 3
as follows:
In the column PR3 corresponding to code
letter E the value of 42 A (the nearest value
greater than 36.8 A) is shown to require a
copper conductor c.s.a. of 4 mm2.
For an aluminium conductor the
corresponding values are 43 A and 6 mm2.
θa = 40°C XLPE c fuses: In = 25 A
v permissible current Iz = K3
fig. H1-18: example for the determination In = 1.21 x 25 = Iz = 30.3 A
of minimum cable sizes. v the fictitious current I'z = 30.3 = 40.6 A
0.68
v the cross-sectional-areas, of copper or
aluminium conductors are (in this case) found
to be the same as those noted above for a
circuit-breaker-protected circuit.
nature of soil K6
very wet soil (saturated) 1.21
wet soil 1.13
damp soil 1.05
dry soil 1.00
very dry soil (sunbaked) 0.86
table H1-21: correction factor K6 for the
nature of the soil.
Correction factor K7
factor K7 is a measure of the
This factor takes into account the influence of
influence of the soil temperature. soil temperature if it differs from 20 °C.
H1
2.3 determination of conductor size for buried circuits (continued)
determination of the smallest
c.s.a. (cross-sectional-area) of a
conductor, for buried circuits
Knowing Iz and K, the corresponding cross-
sectional-areas are given in table H1-24
below.
insulation and number of loaded conductors
rubber or PVC Butyl, or cross-linked polyethylene
XLPE, or ethylene-propylene rubber
EPR
3 conductors 2 conductors 3 conductors 2 conductors
c.s.a. 1.5 26 32 31 37
copper 2.5 34 42 41 48
(mm2) 4 44 54 53 63
6 56 67 66 80
10 74 90 87 104
16 96 116 113 136
25 123 148 144 173
35 147 178 174 208
50 174 211 206 247
70 216 261 254 304
95 256 308 301 360
120 290 351 343 410
150 328 397 387 463
185 367 445 434 518
240 424 514 501 598
300 480 581 565 677
c.s.a. 10 57 68 67 80
aluminium 16 74 88 87 104
2
(mm ) 25 94 114 111 133
35 114 137 134 160
50 134 161 160 188
70 167 200 197 233
95 197 237 234 275
120 224 270 266 314
150 254 304 300 359
185 285 343 337 398
240 328 396 388 458
300 371 447 440 520
table H1-24: case of a buried circuit: minimum c.s.a. in terms of type of conductor; type of
insulation; and value of fictitious current I'z (I'z = Iz ).
K
Example
This is a continuation of the previous
θa = 20°C
example, for which the factors K4, K5, K6
and K7 were determined, and the factor K
was found to be 0.48. 5 kW
230 V
Full load current
5.000
IB = = 22 A fig. H1-25: example for determination of
230
the minimum c.s.a. of the circuit
Selection of protection conductors.
A circuit-breaker rated at 25 A would be
appropriate.
Maximum permanent current permitted
Iz = 25 A (i.e. the circuit-breaker rating In)
Fictitious current
Iz 25
I'z = = = 52.1 A
K 0.48
C.s.a. of circuit conductors
In the column PVC, 2 conductors, a current of
54 A corresponds to a 4 mm2 copper
conductor.
In the case where the circuit conductors are
in aluminium, the same fictitious current
(52 A) would require the choice of 10 mm2
corresponding to a fictitious current value
(for aluminium) of 68 A.
H1
The impedance of circuit conductors is low maintained within the limits required for
but not negligible: when carrying load current correct performance.
there is a fall in voltage between the origin of This section deals with methods of
the circuit and the load terminals. The correct determining voltage drops, in order to check
operation of an item of load (a motor; lighting that:
circuit; etc.) depends on the voltage at its c they conform to the particular standards
terminals being maintained at a value close to and regulations in force,
its rated value. It is necessary therefore to c they can be tolerated by the load,
dimension the circuit conductors such, that at c they satisfy the essential operational
full-load current, the load terminal voltage is requirements.
HV consumer
LV consumer
8%(1)
5%(1)
H1
3.2 calculation of voltage drops in steady load conditions
use of formulae
The table below gives formulae commonly X: inductive reactance of a conductor in Ω/km
used to calculate voltage drop in a given Note: X is negligible for conductors of c.s.a. less than
circuit per kilometre of length. 50 mm2. In the absence of any other information, take X as
being equal to 0.08 Ω/km.
If:
ϕ: phase angle between voltage and current
IB: the full load current in amps
in the circuit considered, generally:
L: length of the cable in kilometres
c lighting: cos ϕ = 1
R: resistance of the cable conductor in Ω/km
c motor power:
22,5 Ω.mm2/km
R= for copper v at start-up: cos ϕ = 0.35
S (c.s.a. in mm2)
v in normal service: cos ϕ = 0.8
36 Ω.mm /km2
R= for aluminium Un: phase-to-phase voltage.
S (c.s.a. in mm2)
Vn: phase-to-neutral voltage.
Note: R is negligible above a c.s.a. of 500 mm2.
For prefabricated pre-wired ducts and bus-
trunking, resistance and inductive reactance
values are given by the manufacturer.
circuit voltage drop (∆ U)
in volts in %
single phase: phase/phase ∆U = 2 IB (R cos ϕ + X sin ϕ) L 100 ∆U
Un
single phase: phase/neutral ∆U = 2 IB (R cos ϕ + X sin ϕ) L 100 ∆U
Vn
balanced 3-phase: 3 phases ∆U = eIB (R cos ϕ + X sin ϕ) L 100 ∆U
(with or without neutral) Un
table H1-28: voltage-drop formulae.
simplified table
Calculations may be avoided by using the K is given by the table,
table H1-29 below, which gives, with an IB is the full-load current in amps,
adequate approximation, the phase-to-phase L is the length of cable in km.
voltage drop per km of cable per ampere, in The column motor power cos ϕ = 0.35" of
terms of: table H1-29 may be used to compute the
c kinds of circuit use: motor circuits with voltage drop occurring during the start-up
cos ϕ close to 0.8, or lighting with a cos ϕ in period of a motor (see example (1) after the
the neighbourhood of unity; table H1-29).
c of the type of cable; single-phase or
3-phase.
Voltage drop in a cable is then given by:
K x IB x L
Example 2
A 3-phase 4-wire copper line of 70 mm2 c.s.a.
and a length of 50 m passes a current of
150 A. The line supplies, among other loads,
3 single-phase lighting circuits, each of
2.5 mm2 c.s.a. copper 20 m long, and each
passing 20 A.
It is assumed that the currents in the 70 mm2
line are balanced and that the three lighting
circuits are all connected to it at the same 50 m / 70 mm2 Cu
IB = 150 A
point.
What is the voltage drop at the end of the
lighting circuits?
Solution:
c voltage drop in the 4-wire line:
∆U % = 100 ∆U/Un
Table H1-29 shows 0.55 V/A/km. 20 m / 2.5 mm2 Cu
∆U line = 0.55 x 150 x 0.05 = 4.125 V IB = 20 A
phase-to-phase
which: 4.125 V = 2.38 V phase to neutral.
e fig. H1-31: example 2.
c voltage drop in any one of the lighting
single-phase circuits:
∆U for a single-phase circuit = 18 x 20 x 0.02
= 7.2 V
The total volt-drop is therefore
7.2 + 2.38 = 9.6 V
9.6 V
x 100 = 4.2 %
230 V
This value is satisfactory, being less than the
maximum permitted voltage drop of 6%.
the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-19
4. short-circuit current calculations
H1
A knowledge of 3-phase symmetrical short- Except in very unusual circumstances, this
knowing the levels of 3-phase
circuit current values (Isc) at strategic points type of fault is the most severe, and is
symmetrical short-circuit currents of an installation is necessary in order to certainly the simplest to calculate.
(Isc) at different points in an dimension switchgear (fault current rating); Short-circuit currents occurring in a network
installation is an essential feature of cables (thermal withstand rating); protective supplied from an alternator and also in d.c.
its design. devices (discriminative trip settings) and so systems are dealt with in Chapter J
on... Sub-clauses 1.1 and 6.1.
In the following notes a 3-phase short-circuit The simplified calculations and practical rules
of zero impedance (the so-called bolted which follow give conservative results of
short-circuit) fed through a typical HV/LV sufficient accuracy, in the large majority of
distribution transformer will be examined. cases, for installation design purposes.
method of calculating ZT
Each component of an installation (HV
network, transformer, cable, circuit breaker,
busbar, and so on...) is characterized by its
impedance Z, comprising an element of
resistance (R) and an inductive reactance Z
X
(X). It may be noted that capacitive
reactances are not important in short-circuit
current calculations.
The parameters R, X and Z are expressed in ϕ
ohms, and are related by the sides of a right- R
angled triangle, as shown in the impedance fig. H1-35: impedance diagram.
diagram of figure H1-35.
The method consists in dividing the network R1 R2 X1 X2
R3 = or for reactances X3 =
into convenient sections, and to calculate the R1 + R2 X1 + X2
R and X values for each. Combining two or more dissimilar circuits in
Where sections are connected in series in the parallel is (fortunately) seldom required in
network all the resistive elements in the normal radial-type installation networks and
section are added arithmetically; likewise for will not be demonstrated in the main text.
the reactances, to give RT and XT. The General methods for reducing impedances to
impedance (Z) for the combined sections a single equivalent impedance are given,
concerned is then calculated from however, in Appendix H1.
ZT = RT 2 + XT 2
Any two sections of the network which are
connected in parallel, can, if, predominantly
both resistive (or both inductive) be combined
to give a single equivalent resistance (or
reactance) as follows:
Let R1 and R2 be the two resistances
connected in parallel, then the equivalent
resistance R3 wil be given by:
H1
4.2. 3-phase short-circuit current (Isc) at any point within a LV installation (continued)
c transformers (table H1-37) Pcu x 103
Pcu = 3 In2 Rtr so that Rtr =
The impedance Ztr of a transformer, viewed 3 In2
from the LV terminals, is given by the formula: in milli-ohms where
U22O Usc Pcu = total losses in watts.
Ztr = x milli-ohms where: In = nominal full-load current in amps.
Pn 100
Rtr = resistance of one phase of the
U2 o = open-circuit secondary phase-to- transformer in milli-ohms (the LV and
phase voltage expressed in volts. corresponding HV winding for one LV phase
Pn = rating of the transformer (in kVA). are included in this resistance value).
Usc = the short-circuit impedance voltage of
the transformer expressed in %. Xtr = Ztr 2 − Rtr 2
The transformer windings resistance Rtr can For an approximate calculation Rtr may be
be derived from the total losses as follows: ignored since X ≈ Z in standard distribution-
type transformers.
transformer rated power kVA 50 100 160 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500
oil-immersed transformer Usc % 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 6 6 6 6 6
Rtr mΩ 95.3 37.9 16.2 9.2 6.9 5.1 3.9 2.9 2.9 2.3 1.8 1.4 1.1 0.9
Xtr mΩ 104.1 59.5 41.0 26.7 21.3 16.9 13.6 10.8 12.9 10.3 8.3 6.5 5.2 4.1
Ztr mΩ 141.1 70.5 44.1 28.2 22.4 17.7 14.1 11.2 13.2 10.6 8.5 6.6 5.3 4.2
cast-resin transformer Usc % 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Rtr mΩ 33.5 18.6 10.7 8.2 6.1 4.6 3.5 2.6 1.9 1.5 1.1 0.8 0.6
Xtr mΩ 100.4 63.5 41.0 32.6 25.8 20.7 16.4 13.0 10.4 8.3 6.5 5.2 4.2
Ztr mΩ 105.8 66.2 42.4 33.6 26.5 21.2 16.8 13.3 10.6 8.4 6.6 5.3 4.2
table H1-37: resistance, reactance and impedance values for typical distribution transformers with HV windings i 20 kV.
c circuit breakers c motors
In LV circuits, the impedance of circuit At the instant of short-circuit, a running motor
breakers upstream of the fault location must will act (for a brief period) as a generator, and
be taken into account. The reactance value feed current into the fault.
conventionally assumed is 0.15 mΩ per CB, In general, this fault-current contribution may
while the resistance is neglected. be ignored. However, for more precise
c busbars calculation, particularly in the case of large
The resistance of busbars is generally motors and/or numerous smaller motors, the
negligible, so that the impedance is total contribution can be estimated from the
practically all reactive, and amounts to formula:
approximately 0.15 mΩ/metre* length for LV Iscm = 3.5 In from each motor
busbars (doubling the spacing between the i.e. 3.5 m In for m similar motors operating
bars increases the reactance by about 10% concurrently.
only). The motors concerned will be the 3-phase
* for 50 Hz systems, but 0.18 mΩ/metre length at 60 Hz. motors only; single-phase-motor contribution
being insignificant.
c circuit conductors For HV circuit breakers, the contribution from
The resistance of a conductor is given by the motors is often reduced to very low values at
formula: the instant of contact separation, and for that
ρx L reason is frequently ignored, but with low-
Rc = where
S inertia high-speed LV CBs* the value given in
ρ = the resistivity constant of the conductor the above formula is recommended.
material at the normal operating temperature Note: for circuit breaker fault-current making-
being: duty however, no account can be taken of
22.5 mΩ.mm2/m for copper, diminution of fault current contribution, and
36 mΩ.mm2/m for aluminium, each running motor will initially feed current
S = c.s.a. of conductor in mm2. into the fault at a level approaching its own
Cable reactance values can be obtained from starting current, i.e. 4 or 5 In.
the manufacturers. For c.s.a. of less than * and fuses
50 mm2 reactance may be ignored. In the
absence of other information, a value of c fault-arc resistance
0.08 mΩ/metre may be used (for 50 Hz Short-circuit faults generally form an arc
systems) or 0.096 mΩ/metre (for 60 Hz which has the properties of resistance. The
systems). For prefabricated bus-trunking and resistance is not stable and its average value
similar pre-wired ducting systems, the is low, but at low voltage this resistance is
manufacturer should be consulted. sufficient to reduce the fault-current to some
extent. Experience has shown that a
reduction of the order of 20% may be
expected. This phenomenon will effectively
ease the current-breaking duty of a CB, but
affords no relief for its fault-current making
duty.
4.3 Isc at the receiving end of a feeder in terms of the Isc at its sending end
The following tables, derived by the "method If more precise values are required, it is
of composition" (mentioned in Chapter G possible to make a detailled calculation (see
Sub-clause 5.2) give a rapid and sufficiently Sub-Clause 4.2 above) or to use a software
accurate value of short-circuit current at a package, such as Ecodial*.
point in a network, knowing: In such a case, moreover, the possibility of
c the value of short-circuit current upstream using the cascading technique should be
of the point considered considered, in which the use of a current-
c the length and composition of the circuit limiting circuit breaker at the upstream
between the point at which the short-circuit position would allow all circuit breakers
current level is known, and the point at which downstream of the limiter to have a short-
the level is to be determined. circuit-current rating much lower than would
It is then sufficient to select a circuit breaker with otherwise be necessary (see Chapter H2
an appropriate short-circuit fault rating Sub-clause 4.5).
immediately above that indicated in the tables. * a Merlin Gerin product (see Chapter B, Clause 1,
Methodology).
H1
4.3 Isc at the receiving end of a feeder in terms of the Isc at its sending end (continued)
copper c.s.a. of length of circuit (in metres)
230 V / phase
400 V conductors
(in mm2)
1.5 0.8 1 1.3 1.6 3
2.5 1 1.3 1.6 2.1 2.6 5
4 0.8 1.7 2.1 2.5 3.5 4 8.5
6 1.3 2.5 3 4 5 6.5 13
10 0.8 1.1 2.1 4 5.5 6.5 8.5 11 21
16 0.9 1 1.4 1.7 3.5 7 8.5 10 14 17 34
25 1 1.3 1.6 2.1 2.6 5 10 13 16 21 26 50
35 1.5 1.9 2.2 3 3.5 7.5 15 19 22 30 37 75
50 1.1 2.1 2.7 3 4 5.5 11 21 27 32 40 55 110
70 1.5 3 3.5 4.5 6 7.5 15 30 37 44 60 75 150
95 0.9 1 2 4 5 6 8 10 20 40 50 60 80 100 200
120 0.9 1 1.1 1.3 2.5 5 6.5 7.5 10 13 25 50 65 75 100 130 250
150 0.8 1 1.1 1.2 1.4 2.7 5.5 7 8 11 14 27 55 70 80 110 140 270
185 1 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.6 3 6.5 8 9.5 13 16 32 65 80 95 130 160 320
240 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 4 8 10 12 16 20 40 80 100 120 160 200 400
300 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.4 5 9.5 12 15 19 24 49 95 120 150 190 240
2 x 120 1.5 1.8 2 2.3 2.5 5.1 10 13 15 20 25 50 100 130 150 200 250
2 x 150 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.8 5.5 11 14 17 22 28 55 110 140 170 220 280
2 x 185 2 2.3 2.6 2.9 3.5 6.5 13 16 20 26 33 65 130 160 200 260 330
3 x 120 2.3 2.7 3 3.5 4 7.5 15 19 23 30 38 75 150 190 230 300 380
3 x 150 2.5 2.9 3.5 3.5 4 8 16 21 25 33 41 80 160 210 250 330 410
3 x 185 2.9 3.5 4 4.5 5 9.5 20 24 29 39 49 95 190 240 290 390
Isc upstream Isc downstream
(in kA) (in Ka)
100 94 94 93 92 91 83 71 67 63 56 50 33 20 17 14 11 9 5
90 85 85 84 83 83 76 66 62 58 52 47 32 20 16 14 11 9 4.5
80 76 76 75 75 74 69 61 57 54 49 44 31 19 16 14 11 9 4.5
70 67 67 66 66 65 61 55 52 49 45 41 29 18 16 14 11 5 4.5
60 58 58 57 57 57 54 48 46 44 41 38 27 18 15 13 10 8.5 4.5
50 49 48 48 48 48 46 42 40 39 36 33 25 17 14 13 10 8.5 4.5
40 39 39 39 39 39 37 35 33 32 30 29 22 15 13 12 9.5 8 4.5
35 34 34 34 34 34 33 31 30 29 27 26 21 15 13 11 9 8 4.5
30 30 29 29 29 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 19 14 12 11 9 7.5 4.5
25 25 25 25 24 24 24 23 22 22 21 20 17 13 11 10 8.5 7 4
20 20 20 20 20 20 19 19 18 18 17 17 14 11 10 9 7.5 6.5 4
15 15 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 13 13 12 9.5 8.5 8 7 6 4
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 9 8.5 7 6.5 6.5 5.5 5 3.5
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 6.5 6.5 6.5 6 5.5 5 5 4.5 4 2.9
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4.5 4 4 4 3.5 3.5 2.5
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3.5 3.5 3.5 3 3 2.9 2.2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3 1.9
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.7 1.4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8
aluminium c.s.a. of length of circuit (in metres)
230 V / phase
400 V conductors
(in mm2)
2.5 0.8 1 1.3 1.6 3
4 1 1.3 1.6 2.1 2.6 5
6 0.8 1.6 2 2.4 3 4 8
10 1.3 2.6 3.5 4 5.5 6.5 13
16 0.8 1.1 2.1 4 5.5 6.5 8.5 11 21
25 0.8 1 1.3 1.7 3.5 6.5 8.5 10 13 17 33
35 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.8 2.3 4.5 9 12 14 18 23 46
50 1.3 1.7 2 2.6 3.5 6.5 13 17 20 26 33 65
70 0.9 1.8 2.3 2.8 3.5 4.5 9 18 23 28 37 46 90
95 1.3 2.5 3 4 5 6.5 13 25 32 38 50 65 130
120 0.8 1.7 3 4 4.5 6.5 8 17 32 40 47 65 80 160
150 0.9 1.7 3.5 4.5 5 7 8.5 17 34 43 50 70 85 170
185 0.9 1 2 4 5 6 8 10 20 40 50 60 80 100 240
240 0.9 1 1.1 1.3 2.5 5 6.5 7.5 10 13 25 50 65 75 100 130 250
300 0.9 1 1.2 1.4 1.5 3 6 7.5 9 12 15 30 60 75 90 120 150 300
2 x 120 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.6 3 6.5 8 9.5 13 16 32 65 80 95 130 160 320
2 x 150 1 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 3.5 7 9 10 14 17 35 70 85 100 140 170
2 x 185 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 4.1 8 10 12 16 20 41 80 100 120 160 200
2 x 240 1.5 1.8 2 2.3 2.5 5 10 13 15 20 25 50 100 130 150 200 250
3 x 120 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.4 4.5 9.5 12 14 19 24 48 95 120 140 190 240
3 x 150 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.3 2.6 5 10 13 15 21 26 50 100 130 150 210 260
3 x 185 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 6 12 15 18 24 30 60 120 150 180 240 300
3 x 240 2.3 2.7 3 3.5 4 7.5 15 19 23 30 38 75 150 190 230 300 380
table H1-40: Isc at a point downstream, in terms of a known upstream fault-current value and the length and c.s.a. of the intervening
conductors, in a 230/400 V 3-phase system.
Note: for a 3-phase system having 230 V between phases, divide the above lengths by e= 1.732
H1
5.1 calculation of minimum levels of short-circuit current
In general, on LV circuits, a single protective In certain cases, however, overload protective
if a protective device in a circuit is
device protects against all levels of current, devices and separate short-circuit protective
intended only to protect against from the overload threshold through the devices are used.
short-circuit faults, it is essential that maximum rated short-circuit current-breaking
it will operate with certainty at the capability of the device.
lowest possible level of short-circuit
current that can occur on the circuit. examples of such arrangements
Figures H1-42 to H1-44 show some common aM fuses
(no protection
arrangements where overload and short- against overload)
circuit protections are effected by separate
devices.
As shown in figures H1-42 and H1-43, the
most common circuits using separate devices
control and protect motors.
Figure H1-44 constitutes a derogation in the load-breaking
basic protection rules, and is generally used contactor with thermal
on circuits of prefabricated bustrunking, overload relay
lighting rails, etc.
circuit breaker
with instantaneous
magnetic short-circuit
protective relay only
load-breaking
contactor with thermal
overload relay
circuit breaker D
S1
S2 < S1
load with
incorporated
overload
protection
fig. H1-44: circuit breaker D provides
protection against short-circuit faults as
far as and including the load.
k2 S2
t=
I2
Ia I
fig. H1-47: protection by gl-type fuses.
i f
Using the "conventional method", the voltage
at the point of protection P is assumed to be
80% of the nominal voltage during a short-
circuit fault, so that 0.8 U = Isc Zd, where:
Zd = impedance of the fault loop
Isc = short-circuit current (ph/ph)
U = phase-to-phase nominal voltage.
For cables i 120 mm2, reactance may be
neglected, so that
2L
Zd = ρ
Sph
H1
5.1 calculation of minimum levels of short-circuit current (continued)
2. calculation of Lmax for a 3-phase 4-wire current density in the conductor (due to "skin"
230/400 V circuit and "proximity" effects, previously noted in
The minimum Isc will occur when the short- Chapter G Sub-clause 5.2).
circuit is between a phase conductor and the Suitable values (taken from French standard
neutral. NF 15-100) are as follows:
A calculation similar to that of example 1 150 mm2 : R + 15%
above is required, but using the following 185 mm2 : R + 20%
formulae (for cable i 120 mm2 (1)). 240 mm2 : R + 25%
c where Sn for the neutral conductor = Sph 300 mm2 : R + 30%
for the phase conductor where R is the value calculated from
Sph ρ 2L
Lmax = 3,421 R=
Im Sph
c If Sn for the neutral conductor < Sph, then For larger c.s.a.'s than those listed, reactance
6,842 Sph Sph values must be combined with those of
Lmax = where m =
(1+m) Im Sn resistance to give an impedance. Reactance
(1) for larger c.s.a.'s, the resistance may be taken as 0.08mΩ/metre for cables
calculated for the conductors must be (at 50 Hz). At 60Hz the constant is
increased to account for the non-uniform 0.096 mΩ/metre.
H1
5.1 calculation of minimum levels of short-circuit current (continued)
circuit details Sph =1 Sph =2
S neutral S neutral
3-phase 3-wire or 1 ph 2-wire 1
400 V circuit 400V circuit (no neutral)
3-phase 4-wire or 2 ph 3-wire 0.58 0.39 (1)
230/400 V circuit 230/400 V circuit
(i.e. with neutral)
1-phase 2-wire 0.58
(phase and neutral)
230 V circuit
table H1-53: correction factors to apply to lengths obtained from tables H1-49 to H1-52.
(1) 0.77 for the c.s.a. of the neutral conductor.
examples
Example 1
In a 3-phase 3-wire installation the protection
is provided by a 250 A industrial-type circuit
breaker, the instantaneous short-circuit-
current trip setting of which, is set at
2,000 A (accuracy of ± 20%), i.e. in the worst
case would require 2,000 x 1,2 = 2,400 A to
trip. The cable c.s.a. = 120 mm2 and the
conductor material is copper.
In table H1-49, the row Im = 2,000 A crosses
the column c.s.a. = 120 mm2 at the value for
Lmax of 296 m.
The circuit breaker protects the cable against
short-circuit faults, therefore, provided that its
length does not exceed 296 metres.
Example 2
In a single-phase 230 V (phase to neutral)
system, the protection is provided by a circuit
breaker with an instantaneous short-circuit-
current trip setting of 500 A (± 20%), i.e.
a worst case of 600 A to be certain of tripping.
The cable c.s.a. = 10 mm2 and the conductor
material is copper.
In table H1-49 the row Im = 500 A crosses
the column c.s.a. = 10 mm2 at the value for
Lmax of 99 m.
Being a 230 V single-phase circuit, a
correction factor from table H1-53 must be
applied. This factor is seen to be 0.58.
The circuit breaker will therefore protect the
cable against short-circuit current, provided
that its length does not exceed
99 x 0.58 = 57 metres.
electrodynamic constraints
For bus-trunking and other kinds of
prefabricated pre-conductored channels,
rails, etc. it is necessary to verify that the
electrodynamic withstand performance when
carrying short-circuit currents is satisfactory.
The peak value of current, limited by the
circuit breaker or fuse, must be less than that
for which the pre-conductored system is
rated.
Tables of coordination ensuring adequate
protection of their products are generally
published by the manufacturers of such
systems.
H1
6.1 connection and choice Protective (PE) conductors provide the
bonding connection between all exposed and
connection, choice and dimensioning extraneous conductive parts of an installation,
to create the main equipotential bonding
of PE conductors (extracted from system. These conductors conduct fault
IEC standards and the French current due to insulation failure (between a
standard NF C 15-100) phase conductor and an exposed conductive
part) to the earthed neutral of the source. P.E.
conductors are connected to the main
earthing terminal of the installation.
The main earthing terminal is connected to
the earthing electrode (see Chapter F) by the
earthing conductor (grounding electrode
conductor in USA).
PE conductors must be:
c insulated and coloured yellow and green
(stripes);
c be protected against mechanical and
chemical damage.
In IT and TN-earthed schemes it is strongly
recommended that PE conductors should be
installed in close proximity (i.e. in the same
conduits, on the same cable tray, etc.) as the
live cables of the related circuit. This
arrangement ensures the minimum possible
inductive reactance in the earth-fault current-
carrying circuits.
connection PE
PE conductors must:
c not include any means of breaking the
continuity of the circuit (such as a switch,
removable links, etc.);
c connect exposed conductive parts
individually to the main PE conductor, i.e. correct
in parallel, not in series, as shown in figure
H1-56; PE
c have an individual terminal on common
earthing bars in distribution boards.
TT scheme
The PE conductor need not necessarily be
installed in close proximity to the live
conductors of the corresponding circuit, since
high values of earth-fault current are not incorrect
needed to operate the RCD-type of protection fig. H1-56: a poor connection in a series
used in TT installations. arrangement will leave all downstream
IT and TN schemes appliances unprotected.
The PE or PEN conductor, as previously
noted, must be installed as close by as PEN
possible to the corresponding live conductors
of the circuit and no ferro-magnetic material
must be interposed between them. A PEN
conductor must always be connected directly
to the earth terminal of an appliance, with a
looped connection from the earth terminal to
the neutral terminal of the appliance
(figure H1-57). fig. H1-57: direct connection of the PEN
c TN-C scheme (the neutral and PE conductor to the earth terminal of an
conductor are one and the same, referred to appliance.
as a PEN conductor). The protective function PEN PE
of a PEN conductor has priority, so that all
rules governing PE conductors apply strictly
to PEN conductors; N
c TN-C to TN-S transition
fig. H1-58: the TN-C-S scheme.
The PE conductor for the installlation is
connected to the PEN terminal or bar
(figure H1-58) generally at the origin of the
installation. Downstream of the point of
separation, no PE conductor can be
connected to the neutral conductor.
H1
6.2 conductor dimensioning (continued)
The neutral cannot be used as a PEN c the kVA rating of single-phase loads is less
conductor unless its c.s.a. is equal to or than 10% of the total kVA load, and
larger than 10 mm2 (copper) or 16 mm2 c Imax likely to pass through the neutral in
(aluminium). normal circumstances, is less than the
Moreover, a PEN conductor is not allowed in current permitted for the cable size selected.
a flexible cable. Since a PEN conductor Furthermore, protection of the neutral
functions also as a neutral conductor, its conductor must be assured by the protective
c.s.a. cannot, in any case, be less than that devices provided for phase-conductor
necessary for the neutral, as discuss in Sub- protection (described in Sub-clause 7.2
clause 7.1 of this Chapter. of this Chapter).
This c.s.a. cannot be less than that of the
phase conductors unless:
H1
The c.s.a. and the protection of the neutral
conductor, apart from its current-carrying
requirement, depend on several factors,
namely:
c the type of earthing system, TT, TN, etc.;
c method of protection against indirect-
contact hazards according to the methods
described below.
(C)
3-phase 3P
3-wire
3-phase 3P-N
4-wire Sn = Sph*
(C)
* Sn = c.s.a. of neutral conductor
Sph = c.s.a. of phase
3P-N
Sn < Sph
table H1-65: table of protection schemes for neutral conductors in different earthing systems.
thermal magnetic Symbol for overcurrent and short-circuit
tripping devices.
(A) authorized for TT and TN schemes if a
RCD is installed at the origin of the circuit or
upstream of it, and if no artificial neutral is
distributed downstream of its location.
(B) authorized for TT and TN schemes if the
neutral conductor is protected against short-
circuits by protective arrangements made for
the phases, and if the normal service current
is substantially less than the maximum
permissible for the neutral conductor
concerned.
(C) authorized for IT schemes in certain
conditions, viz: if the circuit breaker
controlling a number of homogeneous (i.e.
similar) final circuits, of which the ratio of the
extreme circuit ratings does not exceed 2,
and which are protected against a second
fault occurring elsewhere in the installation by
a RCD of sensitivity i 15% of that of the
calibration of the final circuit having the
smallest c.s.a.
Refer to example 2 for CB 5.
H1
7.2 protection of the neutral conductor (continued)
examples N
Example 1: (figure H1-66) 4-pole CB
3-phase 4-wire circuit with 3 x 95 mm2 copper 3 - 250 A trip units
phase conductors and 1 x 50 mm2 copper 1 - 125 A
neutral conductor. The installation is
TT-earthed with RCD protection upstream.
Single-phase power of load: 70 kVA 50 mm2
(connected phase-neutral). Three-phase 3-phase power
3 x 95 mm2
power of load: 140 kVA. The condition of 140 kVA
single-phase power being < 10% of the
3-phase power delivered (Sub-clause 7.1 TT 1-phase power
and TN-S schemes) is not satisfied in this 70 kVA
case, since 70/140 = 50%. A reduced neutral
c.s.a. may however, be used, provided that it
is correctly protected. A suitable circuit
breaker for this purpose would be a 4-pole 3-phase 1-phase
loads loads
unit rated at 250 A with 3 trip units (1 for each
phase) set at 250 A and 1 trip unit (for the fig. H1-66: example 1.
neutral) set at 125 A. The operation of any
one (or more) of these tripping units will trip
all four poles of the circuit breaker.
PE
PE PE
3 x 120 mm2 3 x 185 mm2
+1 x 70 mm2 +1 x 95 mm2
3 x 16 mm2
DPN DPN DPN DPN DPN
2 x 2.5 mm2
2 x 1.5 mm2
4 x 2.5 mm2
2 x 1.5 mm2
3d = 3 tripping units
4d = 4 tripping units outdoor
diff. HS = high-sensitivity differential tripping lighting
diff. BS = low-sensitivity differential tripping 30 kW
58 A
fig. H1-67: example 2.
H1-38 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear
H1
Example 3: (figure H1-68) Section of the installation which is TN-S
TN-C/TN-S installation connected (PE conductor and neutral
Three-pole circuit breakers only must be conductor separated at a point upstream)
used for nos. 1, 2, 3 and 7, since no Circuit breaker 4
switchgear of any kind must be included in c.s.a. neutral = c.s.a. phase, so that a tripping
the combined protective and neutral device for the neutral current is not
conductor (PEN) associated with them. necessary. A 4-pole circuit breaker with one
The total single-phase power of the load is tripping device per phase is therefore
less than 10% of the 3-phase power, so that appropriate.
the c.s.a. of the PEN conductor from the Circuit breaker 5
source (i.e. circuit 1) may be half that of the c.s.a. neutral = 50% c.s.a. phase, so that a
phase conductors of the circuit. The tripping device for the neutral is required.
protection against indirect contact for this A 4-pole circuit breaker with 3 tripping
circuit (1) is provided by CB1 if the maximum devices (set at 160 A) for the phases, and
length of the circuit is less than Lmax (see 1 tripping device for the neutral (set at 80 A)
Chapter G Sub-clause 5.2). is required, as noted in (B) of table H1-65.
For a 630 A CB, regulated to trip Circuit breaker 6
instantaneously at a current level of 4 In The protection of a circuit supplying socket
L max = 0.8 x 230 x 240 x 103 outlets, as mentioned frequently in earlier
22.5 (1.25 + 2) x Ia Chapters, must include a RCD of high
The 1.25 factor in the denominator is a 25% sensitivity (generally of 30 mA).
increase in resistance for a 240 mm2 c.s.a. Associated circuit breaker and contactor 8
conductor*, while Ia = 630 x 4 x 1.15 where This combination provides short-circuit
the factor 1.15 allows for the guaranteed protection (circuit breaker) and overload
± 15% tolerance of the instantaneous protection (thermal relays on contactor to suit
magnetic tripping element of the circuit motor characteristics). The circuit breaker has
breaker (i.e. the worst case, requiring the no thermal tripping devices, while the
shortest Lmax). contactor has three (one for each phase).
Lmax = 208 metres. Circuit breaker 9
* Chapter G Sub-clause 5.2 Controls and protects an extensive lighting
circuit, and since the phase and neutral
conductors have the same c.s.a. a 4-pole
circuit breaker is suitable, having 3 tripping
devices (1 for each phase).
t
minimum
pre-arcing
time curve
fuse-blown
curve
4In x In
fig. H1-68: example 3.
H2
National and international standards define breakers, in the form of thermal-magnetic
the role of switchgear is that of:
the manner in which electric circuits of LV devices and/or residual-current-operated
c electrical protection; installations must be realized, and the tripping devices (less-commonly, residual-
c safe isolation from live parts; capabilities and limitations of the various voltage-operated devices - acceptable to, but
c local or remote switching. switching devices which are collectively not recommended by IEC).
referred to as switchgear. In addition to those functions shown in table
The main functions of switchgear are: H2-1, other functions, namely:
c electrical protection; c over-voltage protection;
c electrical isolation of sections of an c under-voltage protection are provided by
installation; specific devices (lightning and various other
c local or remote switching. types of voltage-surge arrester; relays
These functions are summarized below in associated with: contactors, remotely-
table H2-1. controlled circuit breakers, and with combined
Electrical protection at low voltage is (apart circuit breaker/isolators… and so on).
from fuses) normally incorporated in circuit
electrical protection isolation control
against
overload currents - isolation clearly indicated - functional switching
short-circuit currents by an authorized fail-proof - emergency switching
insulation failure mechanical indicator - emergency stopping
- a gap or interposed insulating - switching off for
barrier between the open mechanical maintenance
contacts, clearly visible.
table H2-1: basic functions of LV switchgear.
1.2 isolation
The aim of isolation is to separate a circuit or c it must be provided with a means of locking
a state of isolation clearly indicated
apparatus, or an item of plant (such as a open with a key (e.g. by means of a padlock)
by an approved "fail-proof" indicator, motor, etc.) from the remainder of a system in order to avoid an unauthorized reclosure
or the visible separation of contacts, which is energized, in order that personnel by inadvertence;
are both deemed to satisfy the may carry out work on the isolated part in c it must conform to a recognized national or
national standards of many perfect safety. international standard (e.g. IEC 947-3)
In principle, all circuits of an LV installation concerning clearance between contacts,
countries. shall have means to be isolated. In practice, creepage distances, overvoltage withstand
in order to maintain an optimum continuity of capability, etc. and also:
service, it is preferred to provide a means of (1) the concurrent opening of all live conductors, while not
isolation at the origin of each circuit. always obligatory, is however, strongly recommended (for
reasons of greater safety and facility of operation). The
An isolating device must fulfil the following neutral contact opens after the phase contacts, and closes
requirements: before them (IEC 947-1).
c all poles of a circuit, including the neutral
(except where the neutral is a PEN
conductor) must be open (1);
H2
1.2 isolation (continued)
v verification that the contacts of the isolating Industrial LV switchgear which affords
device are, in fact, open. The verification may isolation when open is marked on the front
be: face by the symbol .
- either visual, where the device is suitably This symbol may be combined with those
designed to allow the contacts to be seen indicating other features where a device also
(some national standards impose this performs other functions as shown in figure
condition for an isolating device located at the H2-4.
origin of a LV installation supplied directly
from a HV/LV transformer),
- or mechanical, by means of an indicator fig. H2-3: symbol for a disconnector* also
solidly welded to the operating shaft of the commonly referred to as an isolator.
device. In this case the construction of the
device must be such that, in the eventuality
that the contacts become welded together in switch-disconnector*, also
referred to as a load-break
the closed position, the indicator cannot isolating switch
possibly indicate that it is in the open position.
v leakage currents. With the isolating device
open, leakage currents between the open
circuit breaker suitable
contacts of each phase must not exceed: for circuit isolation
- 0.5 mA for a new device,
fig. H2-4: symbols for circuit isolation
- 6.0 mA at the end of its useful life.
capability incorporated in other switching
v voltage-surge withstand capability, across
devices.
open contacts. The isolating device, when
open must withstand a 1.2/50 µs impulse, * IEC 617-7 and 947-3.
having a peak value of 5, 8 or 10 kV
according to its service voltage, as shown in Note. In this guide the terms "disconnector"
table H2-2. The device must satisfy these and "isolator" have the same meaning.
conditions for altitudes up to 2,000 metres.
Consequently, if tests are carried out at sea
level, the test values must be increased by
23% to take into account the effect of altitude.
See standard IEC 947 and the Note
immediately preceding table F-10.
H2
2.1 elementary switching devices
disconnector (or isolator)
This switch is a manually-operated, lockable,
two-position device (open/closed) which
provides safe isolation of a circuit when
locked in the open position. Its characteristics
are defined in IEC 947-3. fig. H2-5: symbol for a disconnector
A disconnector is not designed to make or to (or isolator).
break current* and no rated values for these
functions are given in standards. It must,
however, be capable of withstanding the
passage of short-circuit currents and is
assigned a rated short-time withstand
capability; generally for 1 second, unless
otherwise agreed between user and
manufacturer. This capability is normally
more than adequate for longer periods of
(lower-valued) operational overcurrents, such
as those of motor-starting.
Standardized mechanical-endurance,
overvoltage, and leakage-current tests, must
also be satisfied.
* i.e. a LV disconnector is essentially a dead-
system switching device to be operated with
no voltage on either side of it, particularly
when closing, because of the possibility of an
unsuspected short-circuit on the downstream
side. Interlocking with an upstream switch or
circuit breaker is frequently used.
load-breaking switch
This control switch is generally operated
manually (but is sometimes provided with
electrical tripping for operator convenience)
and is a non-automatic two-position device
(open/closed).
It is used to close and open loaded circuits
under normal unfaulted circuit conditions.
It does not consequently, provide any
protection for the circuit it controls.
IEC standard 947-3 defines:
c the frequency of switch operation
(600 close/open cycles per hour maximum);
c mechanical and electrical endurance
(generally less than that of a contactor);
c current making and breaking ratings for
normal and infrequent situations.
IEC 947-3 also recognizes 3 categories of
load-breaking switch, each of which is
suitable for a different range of load power
factors, as shown in table H2-7.
H2
2.1 elementary switching devices (continued)
contactor
The contactor is a solenoid-operated c a rated current making and breaking
switching device which is generally held performance according to the category of
closed by (a reduced) current through the utilization concerned.
closing solenoid (although various Example:
mechanically-latched types exist for specific A 150 A contactor of category AC3 must have
duties). Contactors are designed to carry out a minimum current-breaking capability of 8 In
numerous close/open cycles and are (= 1,200 A) and a minimum current-making
commonly controlled remotely by on-off rating of 10 In (= 1,500 A) at a power factor
pushbuttons. (lagging) of 0.35.
The large number of repetitive operating
cycles is standardized in table VIII of IEC
947-4-1 by:
c the operating duration: 8 hours;
uninterrupted; intermittent; temporary of 3,
10, 30, 60 and 90 minutes;
c utilization category: (for definition see table
control power
J5-4) for example, a contactor of category circuit circuit
AC3 can be used for the starting and
fig. H2-10: symbol for a contactor.
stopping of a cage motor;
c the start-stop cycles (1 to 1,200 cyles per
hour);
c mechanical endurance (number of off-load
manœuvres);
c electrical endurance (number of on-load
manœuvres);
discontactor*
A contactor equipped with a thermal-type circuit breaker, since its short-circuit current-
relay for protection against overloading breaking capability is limited to 8 or 10 In. For
defines a "discontactor". Discontactors are short-circuit protection therefore, it is
used extensively for remote push-button necessary to include either fuses or a circuit
control of lighting circuits, etc., and may also breaker in series with, and upstream of, the
be considered as an essential element in a discontactor contacts.
motor controller, as noted in sub-clause 2.2. *This term is not defined in IEC publications
"combined switchgear elements". but is commonly used in some countries.
The discontactor is not the equivalent of a
H2
2.1 elementary switching devices (continued)
rated short-circuit breaking I
currents
prospective
A characteristic of modern cartridge fuses is fault-current peak
that, owing to the rapidity of fusion in the case rms value of the a.c.
of high short-circuit current levels*, a current component of the
cut-off begins before the occurrence of the prospective fault current
current peak
first major peak, so that the fault current limited by the fuse
never reaches its prospective peak value
(fig. H2-15).
0.01s
This limitation of current reduces significantly t
Tf Ta 0.005s
the thermal and dynamic stresses which
Ttc
would otherwise occur, thereby minimizing
danger and damage at the fault position.
The rated short-circuit breaking current of the
fuse is therefore based on the r.m.s. value of 0.02s
the a.c. component of the prospective fault
current.
No short-circuit current-making rating is Tf: fuse pre-arc fusing time
assigned to fuses. Ta: arcing time
*for currents exceeding a certain level, depending on the Ttc: total fault-clearance time
fuse nominal current rating, as shown below in figure
H2-15A. fig. H2-15: current limitation by a fuse.
Reminder maximum possible current
Short-circuit currents initially contain d.c. prospective fault peak characteristic
current (kA) peak i.e. 2.5Ir.m.s. (IEC)
components, the magnitude and duration of
which depend on the XL/R ratio of the fault- 100
H2
2.2 combined switchgear elements (continued)
The current range for these devices is limited
to 100 A maximum at 400 V 3-phase, while
their principal use is in domestic and similar
installations.
To avoid confusion between the first group
(i.e. automatic tripping) and the second
group, the term "switch-fuse" should be
qualified by the adjectives "automatic" or
"non-automatic".
fuse - disconnector
+ discontactor
fuse - switch-disconnector
+ discontactor
As previously mentioned, a discontactor does
not provide protection against short-circuit
faults. It is necessary, therefore, to add fuses
(generally of type aM) to perform this
function.
The combination is used mainly for motor-
control circuits, where the disconnector or fig. H2-18 (a): symbol for a fuse-
switch-disconnector allows safe operations disconnector + discontactor.
such as:
c the changing of fuse links (with the circuit
isolated);
c work on the circuit downstream of the
discontactor (risk of remote closure of the
discontactor).
The fuse-disconnector must be interlocked
with the discontactor such that no opening or
closing manœuvre of the fuse-disconnector is
possible unless the discontactor is open
(figure H2-18 (a)), since the fuse-
disconnector has no load-switching capability.
A fuse-switch-disconnector (evidently) fig. H2-18 (b): symbol for a fuse-switch-
requires no interlocking (figure H2-18 (b)). disconnector + discontactor.
The switch must be of class AC22 or AC23 if
the circuit supplies a motor.
circuit-breaker + contactor
circuit-breaker + discontactor
These combinations are used in remotely-
controlled distribution systems in which the
rate of switching is high, or for control and
protection of a circuit supplying motors.
The protection of induction motors is
considered in chapter J, clause J5.
H2
3.1 tabulated functional capabilities
After having studied the basic functions of LV
switchgear (clause 1, table H2-1) and the
different components of switchgear
(clause 2), table H2-19 summarizes the
capabilities of the various components
to perform the basic functions.
H2
As shown in table H2-19 the circuit breaker/
the circuit breaker/disconnector fulfills
disconnector is the only item of switchgear
all of the basic switchgear functions, capable of simultaneously satisfying all the
while, by means of accessories, basic functions necessary in an electrical
numerous other possibilities exist. installation.
Moreover, it can, by means of auxiliary units,
provide a wide range of other functions, for
example: indication (on-off - tripped on fault);
undervoltage tripping; remote control… etc.
These features make a circuit-breaker/
disconnector the basic unit of switchgear for
any electrical installation.
functions possible conditions
isolation c
control functional c
emergency switching c (with the possibility of a tripping
coil for remote control)
switching-off for mechanical c
maintenance
protection overload c
short-circuit c
insulation faulty c (with differential-current relay)
undervoltage c (with undervoltage-trip coil)
remote control c added or incorporated
indication and measurement c (generally optional with an electronic
tripping device)
table H2.20: functions performed by a circuit-breaker/disconnector.
contacts and
arc-dividing chamber
latching mechanism
H2
4.1 standards and descriptions (continued)
apart from the above-mentioned 1
functions further features can be
associated with the basic circuit
breaker by means of additional 2
modules, as shown in figure H2-24; 3
4
notably remote control and indication
5
(on-off-fault).
-OFF
O-O
O FF
O-OFF
O-OFF
fig. H2-25: example of a modular (Compact NS*) industrial type of circuit breaker capable
of numerous auxiliary functions.
* Merlin Gerin product.
fig. H2-26: examples of heavy-duty industrial circuit breakers. The "Masterpact"* provides
many automation features in its tripping module.
These circuit breakers are provided with
means to adjust protective-device settings
over a wide range, and also with:
c a 20 mA output loop;
c remote indication contacts;
c load indication at the CB.
H2
4.2 fundamental characteristics of a circuit breaker (continued)
overload relay trip-current
setting (Irth or Ir)
Apart from small circuit breakers which are That value must be greater than the
very easily replaced, industrial circuit maximum load current IB, but less than the
breakers are equipped with removable, i.e. maximum current permitted in the circuit Iz
exchangeable, overcurrent-trip relays. (see chapter H1, sub-clause 1.3).
Moreover, in order to adapt a circuit breaker The thermal-trip relays are generally
to the requirements of the circuit it controls, adjustable from 0.7 to 1.0 times In, but when
and to avoid the need to install over-sized electronic devices are used for this duty, the
cables, the trip relays are generally adjustment range is greater; typically 0.4 to
adjustable. 1 times In.
The trip-current setting Ir or Irth (both Example (figure H2-27): a circuit breaker
designations are in common use) is the equipped with a 320 A overcurrent trip relay,
current above which the circuit breaker will set at 0.9, will have a trip-current setting:
trip. It also represents the maximum current Ir = 320 x 0.9 = 288 A
that the circuit breaker can carry without Note: for circuit breakers equipped with non-adjustable
tripping. overcurrent-trip relays, Ir = In.
I(A) I(A)
Ir Im PdC Ir Im I PdC
fig. H2-29: performance curve of a circuit fig. H2-30 : performance curve of a circuit
breaker thermal-magnetic protective breaker electronic protective scheme.
scheme.
Ir: overload (thermal or short-delay) relay trip-current setting.
Im: short-circuit (magnetic or long-delay) relay trip-current setting.
I: short-circuit instantaneous relay trip-current setting.
PdC: breaking capacity.
isolating feature
A circuit breaker is suitable for isolating a All Multi 9, Compact NS and Masterpact LV
circuit if it fulfills all the conditions prescribed switchgear of Merlin Gerin manufacture is in
for a disconnector (at its rated voltage) in the this category.
relevant standard (see sub-clause 1.2).
In such a case it is referred to as a circuit
breaker-disconnector and marked on its front
face with the symbol
H2
4.3 other characteristics of a circuit breaker
Familiarity with the following less-important
characteristics of LV circuit breakers is,
however, often necessary when making a
final choice.
I(A)
Im I Icw PdC
fig. H2-33: category B circuit breaker.
nt
limited rre limited
peak cu s peak
current d i c
ite st current
(kA) m ri
n -li cte (A2 x s)
a
no har 4,5.105
c
22
2.105
150
150 kA
fig. H2-36: performance curves of a typical LV current-limiting circuit breaker.
H2
4.3 other characteristics of a circuit breaker (continued)
current limitation reduces both the advantages
thermal and electrodynamic stresses of current limitation
on all circuit elements through which The use of current-limiting CBs affords Example:
numerous advantages: On a system having a prospective short-
the current passes, thereby c better conservation of installation networks: circuit current of 150 kA r.m.s., a circuit
prolonging the useful life of these current-limiting CBs strongly attenuate all breaker limits the peak current to less than
elements. Furthermore, the limitation harmful effects associated with short-circuit 10% of the calculated prospective peak
feature allows "cascading" currents; value, and the thermal effects to less than 1%
techniques to be used (see 4.5) c reduction of thermal effects: of those calculated.
conductors (and therefore insulation) heating Cascading of the several levels of distribution
thereby significantly reducing design is significantly reduced, so that the life of in an installation, downstream of a limiting
and installation costs. cables is correspondingly increased; CB, will also result in important economies.
c reduction of mechanical effects: The technique of cascading, described in
forces due to electromagnetic repulsion are sub-clause 4.5 allows, in fact, substantial
lower, with less risk of deformation and savings on switchgear (lower performance
possible rupture, excessive burning of permissible downstream of the limiting CB(s))
contacts, etc.; enclosures, and design studies, of up to 20%
c reduction of electromagnetic-interference (overall).
effects: Discriminative protection schemes and
less influence on measuring instruments and cascading are compatible, in the range
associated circuits, telecommunication Compact NS*, up to the full short-circuit
systems, etc. breaking capacity of the switchgear.
These circuit breakers therefore contribute * A Merlin Gerin product.
towards an improved exploitation of:
c cables and wiring;
c prefabricated cable-trunking systems;
c switchgear, thereby reducing the ageing of
the installation.
compensated thermal-magnetic
tripping units
These tripping units include a bi-metal This CB, besides affording protection against
compensating strip which allows the overload indirect-contact hazard, will trip on overload;
trip-current setting (Ir or Irth) to be adjusted, in this case, if the consumer exceeds the
within a specified range, irrespective of the current level stated in his supply contract with
ambient temperature. the power authority.
For example: The circuit breaker (i 60 A) is compensated
c in certain countries, the TT system is for a temperature range of - 5 °C to + 40 °C.
standard on LV distribution systems, and c LV circuit breakers at ratings i 630 A are
domestic (and similar) installations are commonly equipped with compensated
protected at the service position by a circuit tripping units for this range (- 5 °C to + 40 °C).
breaker provided by the supply authority.
H2
4.4 selection of a circuit breaker (continued)
general note concerning derating
of circuit breakers
It is evident that a CB rated to carry a current
In at its reference ambient temperature
(30 °C) would overheat when carrying the
same current at (say) 50 °C.
Since LV CBs are provided with overcurrent
protective devices which (if not compensated)
will operate for lower levels of current in
higher ambient temperatures, the CB is
automatically derated by the overload tripping
device, as shown in the tables H2-38.
Where the thermal tripping units are
temperature-compensated, the tripping
current level may be set at any value
between 0.7 to 1 x In in the ambient
temperature range of - 5 °C to + 40 °C.
The reference ambient temperature in this
case is 40 °C (i.e. on which the rating In is
based).
For these compensated units, manufacturers'
catalogues generally also give derated values
of In for ambient temperatures above the
compensated range, e.g. at + 50 °C and
+ 60 °C; typically, 95 A at + 50 °C and 90 A at
+ 60 °C, for a 100 A circuit breaker.
coeff. In (A)
1 2500
circuit breaker A
0.96 2400
0.94 2350
circuit breaker B
0.88 2200
θ °C
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
fig. H2-39: derating of two circuit breakers having different characteristics, according to
the temperature.
selection of an instantaneous, or
short-time-delay, tripping
threshold
Principal charasteristics of magnetic or short-
time-delay tripping units. Type classification
according to IEC 898. See also table H2-28.
type tripping unit applications
t low setting c sources producing low-short-circuit-current levels
type B (standby generators)
c long lengths of line or cable
I
t standard setting c protection of circuits: general case
type C
I
t high setting c protection of circuits having high initial transient
type D or K current levels (e.g. motors, transformers, resistive
loads)
I
t 12 In c protection of motors in association with
type MA discontactors (contactors with overload protection)
H2
4.4 selection of a circuit breaker (continued)
the installation of a LV circuit breaker selection of a circuit breaker
requires that its short-circuit breaking according to the short-circuit
capacity (or that of the CB together breaking capacity requirements
with an associated device) be equal The installation of a circuit breaker in a LV In the second case, the characteristics of the
installation must fulfil one of the two following two devices must be co-ordinated such that
to or exceeds the calculated conditions: the energy permitted to pass through the
prospective short-circuit current at its c either have a rated short-circuit breaking upstream device must not exceed that which
point of installation. capacity Icu (or Icn) which is equal to or the downstream device and all associated
exceeds the prospective short-circuit current cables, wires and other components can
calculated for its point of installation, or withstand, without being damaged in any
c if this is not the case, be associated with way.
another device which is located upstream, This technique is profitably employed in:
and which has the required short-circuit c associations of fuses and circuit breakers;
breaking capacity. c associations of current-limiting circuit
breakers and standard circuit breakers.
The technique is known as "cascading" (see
sub-clause 4.5 of this chapter).
H2
4.4 selection of a circuit breaker (continued)
Choice of outgoing-circuit CBs v solution 2: install a range of CBs having a
short-circuit fault-current levels at any
and final-circuit CBs higher rating. This solution is economically
point in an installation may be c use of table H1-40 interesting only where one or two CBs are
obtained from tables. From this table, the value of 3-phase short- affected;
circuit current can be determined rapidly for v solution 3: associate current-limiting fuses
any point in the installation, knowing: (gG or aM) with the CBs concerned, on the
v the value of short-circuit current at a point upstream side. This arrangement must,
upstream of that intended for the CB however, respect the following rules:
concerned; - the fuse rating must be appropriate
v the length, c.s.a., and the composition of - no fuse in the neutral conductor, except in
the conductors between the two points. certain IT installations where a double fault
A circuit breaker rated for a short-circuit produces a current in the neutral which
breaking capacity exceeding the tabulated exceeds the short-circuit breaking rating of
value may then be selected. the CB. In this case, the blowing of the
c detailed calculation of the short-circuit neutral fuse must cause the CB to trip on all
current level phases.
In order to calculate more precisely the short-
circuit current, notably, when the short-circuit
current-breaking capacity of a CB is slightly
less than that derived from the table, it is
necessary to use the method indicated in
chapter H1 clause 4.
c two-pole circuit breakers (for phase and
neutral) with one protected pole only
These CBs are generally provided with an
overcurrent protective device on the phase
pole only, and may be used in TT, TN-S and
IT schemes. In an IT scheme, however, the
following conditions must be respected:
v condition (c) of table H1-65 for the
protection of the neutral conductor against
overcurrent in the case of a double fault;
v short-circuit current-breaking rating:
A 2-pole phase-neutral CB must, by
convention, be capable of breaking on one
pole (at the phase-to-phase voltage) the
current of a double fault equal to 15% of the
3-phase short-circuit current at the point of its
installation, if that current is i 10 kA; or 25%
of the 3-phase short-circuit current if it
exceeds 10 kA;
cascading: a particular solution to v protection against indirect contact: this
problems of CBs insufficiently rated protection is provided according to the rules
for S.C. breaking duty. for IT schemes, as described in chapter G
sub-clause 6.2.
c insufficient short-circuit current-
breaking rating
In low-voltage distribution systems it
sometimes happens, especially in heavy-duty
networks, that the Isc calculated exceeds the
Icu rating of the CBs available for installation,
or system changes upstream result in lower-
associating fuses with CBs avoids level CB ratings being exceeded.
the need for a fuse in the neutral, v solution 1: check whether or not
except in particular circumstances on appropriate CBs upstream of the CBs
some IT systems. affected are of the current-limiting type,
allowing the principle of cascading (described
in sub-clause 4.5) to be applied;
H2
4.5 coordination between circuit breakers (continued)
Advantages of cascading Short-circuit breaking capacity of the
The limitation of current benefits all upstream (limiter) CBs
downstream circuits that are controlled by the kA r.m.s.
current-limiting CB concerned. 150 NS250L
The principle is not restrictive, i.e. current-
100
limiting CBs can be installed at any point in
70 NS250H
an installation where the downstream circuits
would otherwise be inadequately rated. 36 NS250N
The result is: 25
c simplified short-circuit current calculations; 22
c simplification, i.e. a wider choice of Short-circuit breaking capacity of the
downstream switchgear and appliances; downstream CBs (benefiting from the
c the use of lighter-duty switchgear and cascading technique)
appliances, with consequently lower cost;
c economy of space requirements, since kA r.m.s.
light-duty equipment is generally less 150 NC100LH
voluminous. NC100LMA
100 NC100LS
70 NC100LS NC100L
NC100LH
NC100LMA
50 NC100L
40 C60L i 40 C60L i 40
30 C60H C60N C60N
C60L C60H C60H
C60L C60L
(50 to 63) (50 to 63)
NC100H NC100H
25 C60N
NC100H
20 C60a C60a
15 C60a
tables H2-45: example of cascading
possibilities on a 230/400 V or 240/415 V
3-phase installation.
B A B A
Isc downstream of B
Ir B Ir A Icc B Irm A I Ir B Ir A Irm A Isc B IscA I
B only A and B
opens open
fig. H2-47: absolute discrimination fig. H2-48: partial discrimination
between CBs A and B. between CBs A and B.
table H2-49: summary of methods and components used in order to achieve discriminative tripping.
H2
4.5 coordination between circuit breakers (continued)
Current-level discrimination Example:
current-level discrimination is
Current-level discrimination is achieved with circuit breaker A: Compact NS250 N fitted
achieved with stepped current-level circuits breakers, preferably limiters, and with a trip unit which includes a SD feature.
settings of the instantaneous stepped current-level settings of the Ir = 250 A, magnetic trip set at 2,000 A
magnetic-trip elements. instantaneous magnetic-trip elements. circuit breaker B: Compact NS100N
c the downstream circuit breaker is not a Ir = 100 A
current-limiter. The Merlin Gerin distribution catalogue
The discrimination may be absolute or partial indicates a discrimination limit of 3,000 A
for a short-circuit fault downstream of B, as (an improvement over the limit of 2,500 A
previously noted in 1, above. obtained when using a standard tripping unit).
Absolute discrimination in this situation is
practically impossible because Isc A z Isc B,
so that both circuit breakers will generally trip
in unison.
In this case discrimination is partial, and
limited to the Irm of the upstream circuit
breaker.
c the downstream circuit breaker is a I peak
current limiter. A
Improvement in discriminative tripping can be fault current limitation
obtained by using a current limiter in a upstream curve for
of B circuit breaker
downstream location, e.g. for circuit (see note) B
breaker B. fault
For a short-circuit downstream of B, the downstream
limited level of peak current IB would operate of B
the (suitably adjusted) magnetic trip unit of B,
but would be insufficient to cause circuit
breaker A to trip.
Note: All LV breakers (considered here) have
some inherent degree of current limitation,
Isc Isc I
even those that are not classified as current-
limiters. This accounts for the curved prospective (rms)
characteristic shown for the standard circuit fig. H2-50: downstream limiting circuit
breaker A in figure H2-50. breaker B.
Careful calculation and testing is necessary,
t
however, to ensure satisfactory performance
A (compact S)
of this arrangement.
B
c the upstream circuit breaker is high-
speed with a short-delay (SD) feature.
These circuit breakers are fitted with trip units
which include a non-adjustable mechanical
short-time-delay feature. The delay is
sufficient to ensure absolute discrimination
with any downstream high-speed CB at any
value of s.c. current up to Irms (figure H2-51).
H2
4.6 discrimination HV/LV in a consumer's substation
In general the transformer in a consumer's
substation is protected by HV fuses, suitably
rated to match the transformer, in accordance
with the principles laid down in IEC 787 and
IEC 420, by following the advice of the fuse
manufacturer.
The basic requirement is that a HV fuse will
not operate for LV faults occurring
downstream of the transformer LV circuit
breaker, so that the tripping characteristic
curve of the latter must be to the left of that of
the HV fuse pre-arcing curve.
This requirement generally fixes the
maximum settings for the LV circuit breaker
protection:
c maximum short-circuit current-level setting
of the magnetic tripping element;
c maximum time-delay allowable for the
short-circuit current tripping element.
See also Chapter C sub-clause 3.2.7, and
Appendix C1, for further details.
63 A
1250 kVA
20 kV / 400 V
full-load current
1760 A
3-phase
short-circuit
current level Visucompact
31.4 kA CM 2000
set at 1800 A
J
Most industrial and large commercial as certain equipment, the stoppage of which
a major difficulty encountered when
electrical installations include certain would entail a loss of production, or the
an installation may be supplied from important loads for which a power supply destruction of a machine tool, etc.
alternative sources (e.g. a HV/LV must be maintained, in the event that the One of the current means of maintaining a
transformer or a LV generator) is the public electricity supply fails: supply to the so-called “essential” loads, in
provision of electrical protection c either, because safety systems are involved the event that other sources fail, is to install a
(emergency lighting, automatic fire-protection diesel-generator set connected, via a
which operates satisfactorily on equipment, smoke dispersal fans, alarms and changeover switch, to an emergency-power
either source. The crux of the signalization, and so on...) or: standby switchboard, from which the
problem is the great difference in the c because it concerns priority circuits, such essential services are fed (figure J1-1).
source impedances; that of the
generator being much higher than HV
that of the transformer, resulting in a G
LV
corresponding difference in the
magnitudes of fault currents.
standby supply
change-over switch
alternator
3 In with automatic
voltage regulator
In alternator
with manual
excitation control
0.3
In
instant 10 to 0.1 to t
of fault 20 ms 0.3 s
fig. J1-2: establishment of short-circuit current for a three-phase short circuit at the
terminals of an alternator.
* depending on the characteristics of the particular machine.
J
1.1 an alternator on short-circuit (continued)
Figure J1-2 shows the r.m.s. values of
current, on the assumption that no d.c.
transient components exist. In practice, d.c.
components of current are always present to
some degree in at least two phases, being
maximum when the short-circuit occurs at the
alternator terminals.
This feature would appear to complicate still
further the matter of electrical protection, but,
in fact, the d.c. component in each phase
simply increases the r.m.s. values already
mentioned, so that calculations and tripping-
current settings for protective devices based
only on the a.c. components, as indicated
below, will be conservative, i.e. the actual
currents will always be either equal to or
higher than those calculated.
The further the point of short-circuit from the
generator the lower the fault current, and the
more rapidly the transient d.c. components
disappear. Furthermore, the a.c. decrement
also becomes negligible when the network
impedance to the fault position attains ohmic
values which are high compared with the
reactance values of the alternator (since the
overall change in impedance is then relatively
small).
J
1.2 protection of essential services circuits supplied in emergencies from an alternator
The characteristics (s.c. breaking capacity Note 1. Sensitive high-speed protection of an
the difficulty is due to the small
and range of adjustable magnetic tripping alternator against internal faults (i.e.
margin between the rated current unit) of the CBs protecting the circuits of upstream of its CB) is always possible by
and the short-circuit current of the essential loads must be defined as described using a pilot-wire and current-transformers
alternator. below: differential scheme of protection, with the
Choice of s.c. breaking capacity advantage that discrimination with circuit
This parameter must always be calculated for protection schemes is absolute. The problem
the condition of supply from the transformer, of discriminative overload protection (as
or other “normal” source. noted above) remains, however.
A widely-used solution to this problem is
Adjustment of magnetic tripping units provided by a voltage-controlled overcurrent
In practice, the only circuit breakers relay, which depends on the following
concerned are those protecting the essential principle: short-circuit currents cause much
services circuits at the main general lower system voltages than overload
distribution board. currents. An inverse-time/current overload
The protection of circuits from local relay is used having two operating curves,
distribution or sub-distribution boards is one of which corresponds to that of fig. J1-4,
always calibrated at a much lower level than and is effective when system voltage levels
those at the main general distribution board, are normal.
so that, except in unusual cases, adequate If the system voltage falls below a pre-set
fault currents are available from an alternator value, the relay is automatically switched to
to ensure satisfactory protective-gear operate much faster and at lower current
operation at these lower levels. levels than those shown in fig. J1-4.
Two difficulties have to be overcome: Modern low-setting magnetic tripping units,
c the first is the need for discrimination of however, often provide a simpler solution as
circuit protection with the protection scheme noted in 1.3 below.
for the alternator. Note 2. Where the level of earth-fault current
For the basic protection requirements of an is not sufficient, in IT* and TN systems, to trip
alternator, viz: overload protection, the curve CBs on overcurrent, the protection against
shown in figure J1-4 is representative (see indirect-contact hazards can be provided by
Note 1). an appropriate use of RCDs, as indicated in
c the second concerns protection of persons Chapter G Sub-clause 6.5 Suggestion 2 (for
against electric shock from indirect contact, IT circuits) and Sub-clause 5.5. Suggestion 2
when the protection depends on the (for TN circuits).
operation of overcurrent relays (for example,
in IT* or TN systems). The operation of these time (s)
relays must be assured, whether the supply
is from the alternator or from the transformer
(see Note 2). 1000
Instantaneous or short-time delay magnetic-
relay trip settings of the circuit breakers
concerned must therefore be set to operate
at minimum fault levels occurring at the 100
extremity of the circuits they protect, when
being supplied from the alternator. 12
10
7
3
2
1
characteristics of protection
for essential-services circuits
type of circuit fault-breaking rating tripping unit adjustment
(FBR)
diesel-
generator
protection
cabinet
power-source
changeover switch
J
1.4 methods of approximate calculation
An installation on (normal) 630 kVA What circuit breakers should be installed on
transformer supply (figure J1-6) includes an the out-going ways from the essential-
essential-services distribution board which services board:
can also be supplied from a standby 400 kVA c if the installation is TN-earthed?
diesel-alternator set. c if the installation is IT-earthed?
transformer
630 kVA alternator
20 kV/400 V 400 kVA
400 V
alternator
and diesel
protection
equipment
cabinet
PE
NS250N
STR22SE NS160N
250 A TM400D
IB = 220 A IB = 92 A
100 m 70 m
120 mm2 35 mm2
PE : 70 mm2 PE : 35 mm2
sub-distribution board
fig. J1-6: example.
calculation of the minimum level
of 3-phase short-circuit current
Table J1-7 shows the procedure for an
alternator together with one or several
circuits.
J
1.4 methods of approximate calculation (continued)
maximum permissible setting
of instantaneous or short-time
delay tripping units
c TN scheme Where
Of the two fault conditions considered Z1 = positive phase-sequence impedance
(3-phase and 1-phase/neutral) the 3-phase Z2 = negative phase-sequence impedance
fault was found to give the lower short-circuit Z0 = zero phase-sequence impedance
current. The setting of the protective relay
must therefore be selected to a current level Simplifications:
below that calculated. c Z1 is assumed to be equal to Z2 so that
For the 220 A outgoing circuit the trip unit formula ➁ becomes
would be rated at 250 A and adjusted (in eVph = 0.866 Vph or 0.866 Isc (3-phase)
principle) to Isc/250, i.e. 1,870/250 = 7.4 In. 2 Z1 Z1
Owing to a ± 20 % manufacturing tolerance
however, the maximum permissible setting c In table J1-8 the calculated cable reactance
would be 7.4 = 6.2 In assumes that X1 = X2 = X0 for the cable, so
1.2 that in formula ③ the total reactance
A tripping unit type TM250D* set at 6 In on a = (X1 + X2 + X0) 1/3 = (3 X1) 1/3 = X1
NS250N* circuit breaker (breaking capacity * Merlin Gerin product.
= 36 kA i.e. > 21.5 kA) would be appropriate;
c IT scheme
In this case the protection must operate for a
second earth fault occurring before the first
earth fault is cleared. This condition (only)
produces indirect-contact hazards on an IT
system.
If the neutral conductor is not distributed, then
the minimum short-circuit current for the
system will be the phase-to-phase value
(i.e. concurrent earth faults on two different
phases) which is equal to 0.866 Isc
(Isc = the 3-phase s.c. current).
If the neutral is distributed, the minimum s.c.
current occurs when a phase-to-earth fault
and a neutral-to-earth fault occur
concurrently, and a protective relay setting
equal to 0.5 Isc (phase to neutral) i.e. half the
value of a phase-to-neutral short-circuit
current, is conventionally used to ensure
positive relay operation,
v for the case of a non-distributed neutral,
the minimum s.c. current =
0.5 x 0.866 x 1.87 = 0.81 kA
The tripping unit rated at 250 A will be set at
810 x 1 = 2.7 In
250 1.2
(the factor 1.2 accounting for the ± 20 %
manufacturing tolerance for tripping units).
A TM250D or a STR22SE tripping unit set at
2.5 In would be appropriate,
v when the neutral is distributed, the
minimum s.c. current relay setting
= 0.5 x 2.08 = 1.04 kA
The 250 A tripping unit will be set at
1.040 x 1
250 1.2
= 3.5 In (the 1.2 factor covering
manufacturing tolerance, as before)
A STR22SE tripping unit, set at 3.0 In would
be satisfactory.
Note: The foregoing method is based on a
simplified application of the following
formulae:
➀
Isc (3-phase) = V ph
Z1
➁
Isc (phase/phase) = eVph
Z1+Z2
➂
Isc (phase/earth) = 3 Vph
Z1+Z2+Z0
mobile sets
These are used mainly to provide temporary
supplies (on construction sites for example)
where protection of persons against electric
shock must be ensured by the use of RCDs
with an operating threshold not exceeding
30 mA.
non-metallic
conduit prividing
supplementary
insulation
PE
C32N
30 mA
Vigi-
compact
NS100
TM63G
30 mA
PE
load circuits
fig. J1-9: mobile generating set.
J
2.1 what is an inverter?
An inverter produces an a.c. supply of high fluorescent-lamp circuits and (normally
quality (i.e. an undistorted sine-wave, free undetectable, but totally unacceptable to
from interference) from a d.c. source; its sensitive electronic systems) of mini-
function is the inverse of that of a rectifier interruptions of several milli-seconds.
(figure J2-1). By the addition of a storage battery at the
Its main purpose (when associated with a input terminals of the inverter (and therefore
rectifier which provides its input) is to afford a across the output terminals of the associated
high-quality power supply to equipment for rectifier), an elementary UPS system is
which the interference and disturbances of a formed.
normal power-supply system cannot be In normal circumstances, the rectifier supplies
tolerated (e.g. to computer systems). the load through the inverter, while, at the
Power systems are subjected to many kinds same time, a trickle charge from the rectifier
of perturbation which adversely affect the maintains the battery fully charged.
quality of supply: atmospheric phenomena A loss of a.c. power supply from the
(lightning, freezing), accidental faults (short- distribution network would simply result in the
circuits), industrial parasites, the switching of battery automatically maintaining the output
large electric motors (lifts, fluorescent lighting) from the inverter with no discernable
are among the many causes of poor quality interruption.
of supplies.
d.c. source load
Apart from occasional loss of supply, the
disturbances take the form of more-or-less
severe voltage dips, high- and low-frequency sinusoidal
inverter a.c. output
parasites, continuous “noise” from
fig. J2-1: inverter function.
An off-line type of UPS system (figure J2-2) transient currents such as those for motor-
is connected in parallel with a supply direct starting and switching on of (cold) resistive
from the public distribution network, as shown loads. The most common use for such units
in figure J2-2, and is autonomous, within the is the supply to multi-workstation ITE
capacity of its battery, on loss of the a.c. (information technology equipment)
power supply. In normal operation the filter installations, such as cash registers.
improves the quality of the current while the a. c. power supply
voltage is maintained sensibly constant at its network
declared value by appropriate and automatic
regulation within the filter unit.
F
When the tolerance limits are exceeded,
sensitive
including a total loss of supply, a contactor, load
which carries the normal load, changes over
rapidly to the UPS unit (in less than 10 ms) rectifier/ inverter filter
the power then being supplied from the charger
battery. On the return of normal power supply,
the contactor changes back to its original battery
condition; the battery then recharges to its full fig. J2-2: off-line UPS system.
capacity.
These units are normally of low rating
(i 3 kVA) but are capable of passing large
An on-line type of UPS system (figure J2-3) a.c. power supply sensitive
is connected directly between the public a.c. network load
supply network and the load, and has an
autonomous capability, the period of which rectifier inverter
depends on the battery capacity and load charger
magnitude.
The total load passes through the system, battery
which affords a supply of electrical energy
fig. J2-3: on-line UPS system.
within strict tolerance limits, regardless of the
state of the a.c. power supply network.
On loss of the latter, the battery automatically,
and without interruption, maintains the
pollution-free a.c. supply to the load.
This system is equally suitable for small loads
(i 3 kVA) or large loads (up to several MVA).
disturbances considered
type of network corrective
disturbance measures
HF parasites c c c c c
variations of voltage regulation c c c c
autonomy
10 to 30 mn (according to battery capacity) c c c
rated power
i 250 VA c c c c c
300 - 1,000 VA c c c c
1,000 - 2,500 VA c c c
> 2,500 VA c c
applications
minimal all micro- micro-informatic highly disturbed a.c.
protection sensitive informatic terminals power systems and/or
loads stand-alone PC heavy loads
table J2-4: examples of different possibilities and applications of inverters, in decontamination of supplies and in UPS schemes.
2.3 standards
The international standard presently covering
semi-conductor converters is IEC 146-4.
J
2.4 choice of a UPS system
The choice of a UPS system is determined types of load, it may be necessary to adjust
mainly by the following parameters: the power rating of the UPS system.
c rated power, based on: c voltage levels upstream (input) and
v maximum value of actual estimated kVA downstream (output) of the UPS unit;
demand, c duration of autonomy required (i.e. supply
v transitory current peaks (motor starting, from the battery);
energization of resistive loads, c frequencies upstream (input) and
transformers...). downstream (output) of the UPS unit;
Note: in order to obtain satisfactory c level of availability required.
discrimination of protective devices for all
(9)
mains 1
(2)
(1)
(3)
(7)
availability
A UPS system is generally provided with an
alternative (unconditioned) emergency
source, a situation which affords a relatively
high level of availability.
By way of example, a UPS alone has a
MTBF (mean time between failures) of
50,000 hours.
In the usual case, where the supply is
doubled as noted above (mains 1 and
C/S
mains 2 in figure J2-5) the MTBF obtained is
in the range 70,000 to 200,000 hours, P/2
depending on the availability of the second
source.
Switching from one source to the other is
achieved automatically by a static (solid P/2
state) contactor. P
Configurations having a higher redundancy,
e.g. three UPS units each rated at P/2 to P/2
supply a load of P (figure J2-8) are also
sometimes installed. The calculation of their
level of availability can be carried out by
specialists, and the manufacturers are able to fig. J2-8: 3 UPS P/2 units providing a high
quote availability levels, relative to their own level of availability of a power rated P.
products and recommended layouts.
J
2.5 UPS systems and their environment
UPS units can communicate with other This evolution towards a general compatibility
UPS system components include the
equipments, notably with IT (information between diverse systems and related
means to communicate with other technology) systems, passing data hardware requires the incorporation of new
equipments. concerning the state of the UPS components functions in the UPS systems. These
(static contactor open or closed, and so on...) functions can be designed to ensure
and receiving orders controlling its function, in mechanical and electrical compatibility with
order to: other equipments: standard versions are now
c optimize the protection scheme: provided with dry contacts and current loops.
the UPS, for example, transmits data Interconnection facilities according to the
(such as: condition normal, supply being standards RS 232, RS 422 or RS 485 can be
maintained by the battery, alarm for period incorporated on request.
of autonomy almost reached) to the computer In fact, certain advanced modules include
it is supplying. The computer deduces the modern cards with integral protocole (JBus
appropriate corrective action, and indicates for example).
accordingly; Furthermore, they can make use of
c permit remote control: specialized software for automatic checking
the UPS transmits data concerning the state and fault diagnosis (e.g. Soft-Monitor on PC)
of UPS components, together with measured which may be integrated into other systems
quantities, to the console of an operator, who of overall supervision (figure J2-10).
is then able to carry out operational
manœuvres through remote-control
channels;
c supervise (manage) the installation:
the consumer (i.e. the “user”) has a
centralized management technique facility
which allows him to acquire data from the
UPS unit(s) which are then stored and
analysed, with anomalies indicated, and the
state of the UPS is presented on a mimic
board or displayed on a screen, and finally to
exercise remote control of UPS functions
(figures J2-9 to J2-11).
fig. J2-9: UPS units can communicate with fig. J2-10: software (e.g. Soft-Monitor)
centralized system management allows remote checking and automatic
terminals. fault diagnosis of the UPS system.
fig. J2-11: UPS units are readily integrated into centralized management systems.
fig. J2-12: a UPS (slim-line) is easily accommodated under the computer of a stand-alone
PC.
fig. J2-13: for large computer installations, the UPS cabinets are generally located in the
computer room.
fig. J2-14: large UPS systems are frequently located in an electrical services room.
J
2.6 putting into service and technology of UPS systems (continued)
types of battery
Two types of battery are associated with
UPS systems.
battery location
For any closed location housing batteries, In the case of forced ventilation, the battery
most national standards impose a system of charger must be automatically switched off if
ventilation, forced or natural, which relates the fan(s) of the system fail, or if the air-flow
the renewal rate of air to the size and is stopped or reduced, for any other reason.
charging rate of the battery (or batteries). For UPS systems of large rating, the batteries
A recommended air-change rate in cubic are generally located in specially designed
metres per hour can be calculated from the battery rooms, complying with the relevant
formula 0.05 NI where: local standards and regulations.
N = number of cells in the battery
I = maximum charging-current capability of
the battery charger (in amperes).
galvanic separation
of the upstream
and downstream circuits
of the UPS system
The measures taken to provide protection c if there is complete separation between the
against electric shock depend on the earthing upstream and downstream sides of the UPS
scheme, and therefore on the existence, or system, the earthing schemes upstream and
not, of galvanic separation of the downstream downstream may be different (or identical).
circuits from the upstream circuits. The Technical Notes CT 129 of Merlin Gerin
Manufacturers should be ready to provide all explain this subject in more detail.
the necessary information.
c if there is no separation, then the earthing
scheme is evidently identical on both sides of
the UPS system;
TT/TT scheme
The neutral of the inverter cannot be Protection of the d.c. circuits of the UPS
permanently connected to earth, as system
described above, but only temporarily, i.e. c battery protection:
when D2 is open in figure J2-16. D2 is a most national standards and codes of
4-pole circuit breaker which breaks the practice, covering battery installations are
neutral conductor when it is open. The neutral based on stringent regulations, which, if
conductor is earthed at the HV/LV properly observed, reduces the probability of
transformer, and so, when D2 opens, a short-circuit fault or an accidental indirect
contactor C closes automatically to reconnect contact occurring, sufficiently, to consider that
the neutral busbar of the LV distribution board the circuit from the battery terminals to the
to earth. controlling circuit breaker adequately assures
the safety of persons. Such will be the case,
General protection if:
A RCD is installed at each outgoing way of v the battery and all d.c. circuits are in the
the MGDB feeding the UPS system (D1 and same cabinet as the other components of the
D2 in figure J2-16) and discrimination UPS system, i.e. an equipotential location is
between these RCDs and those on the created,
outgoing ways of the DB downstream of the v in the case of a battery location remote
UPS system, is arranged to ensure the from the UPS system, class II insulation
maximum possible continuity of supply. standards are respected;
The sensitivity of the RCDs is selected c for the remainder of the installation:
according to the value of earthing resistance in particular, the section from the downstream
(electrode plus earth-wires). side of the battery circuit breaker and the
Note: Certain versions of RCD are designed junction of the rectifier output with the inverter
to avoid malfunctioning under abnormal input, where an insulation fault on the d.c.
conditions (d.c. components of current...) that circuits presents a risk, an insulation
are sometimes generated by UPS systems. It monitoring scheme is strongly recommended.
is recommended that the manufacturers of A suitable system of permanent surveillance
the UPS system be consulted concerning this injects a low-frequency test current
aspect of their product. (a XM 200* monitor, as mentioned in
Merlin Gerin Technical Notes CT 129, for
example).
J
2.7 earthing schemes (continued)
D1 D2
mains 1 RCD
30mA
RCD
RCD
non essential
circuits
UPS LV distribution board
mains 2
C/S RCD
30mA socket
outlet
circuits
mains 1 RCD
30mA
mains 2
CIC2
J
2.8 choice of main-supply and circuit cables, and cables for the battery connection
self-contained UPS units of small ready-to-use UPS units
power ratings are supplied for direct The UPS units for low-power applications
such as individual PCs and micro-informatic
connection, by plugging into their installations are marketed as complete units
input and output sockets. in a metal enclosure, as shown typically in
figure J2-19.
All internal wiring is factory-installed and
adapted to the characteristics of the
components.
CS
mains 2
Iu
rectifier/ load
I1 charger inverter
mains 1
Ib
battery
capacity C10
fig. J2-20: currents to be considered for cable selection.
Calculation of the currents I1 and Iu Each of these parameters imposes a
c current Iu is the maximum estimated minimum c.s.a. of conductor. Calculation of
utilization current of the load; the c.s.a. of conductors may be carried out as
c current I1 input to the rectifier/charger of the shown in Chapter H1 Clause 2.
UPS system depends on: Merlin Gerin recommends cable sizes to be
v the capacity of the battery (C10) and its used with Maxipac and EPS 2000 systems
charging rate, (tables J2-22 to J2-24) in normal conditions,
v the characteristics of the charger, for cable lengths of less than 100 m (voltage
v the output from the inverter; drop < 3 %).
c the current Ib is the current in the battery Table J2-21 shows the voltage drop for d.c.
cable. These current magnitudes are circuit lengths of less than 100 m of copper
obtained from the manufacturers of the UPS cable. That for a.c. cables can be calculated
equipment. as described in Chapter H1 Clause 3.
Choice of cables
In this application the basis of cable selection
is the maximum voltage drop allowable for
satisfactory performance of the load.
Preferable values are for this application:
c 3% for a.c. circuits;
c 1% for d.c. circuits.
J
2.8 choice of main-supply and circuit cables, and cables for the battery connection (continued)
nominal current (A)
rated power
circuit 1 with battery circuit 2 battery
3-phase 400 V - I1 or load Ib
floating recharging for standby period of: 3-phase 400 V
10 mn 15-30 mn Iu
40 kVA 70 86 87.6 60.5 109
60 kVA 100 123 127 91 160
80 kVA 133 158 164 121 212
100 kVA 164 198 200 151 255
120 kVA 197 240 244 182 317
160 kVA 261 317 322 243 422
200 kVA 325 395 402 304 527
250 kVA 405 493 500 360 658
300 kVA 485 590 599 456 790
400 kVA 646 793 806 608 1050
500 kVA 814 990 1005 760 1300
600 kVA 967 1180 1200 912 1561
800 kVA 1290 1648 1548 1215 2082
table J2-24: input, output and battery currents for UPS system EPS 5000 (Merlin Gerin).
For a given power rating of a UPS system,
these tables indicate the value of input
current I1 to the rectifier/charger when the
battery is on trickle charge (i.e. “floating”) as
well as the load current Iu, together with the
c.s.a. of corresponding input and output
cables.
The value of I1 when the battery is recharging
(following a period in which the load has been
temporarily supplied entirely from the battery)
has no influence on the sizing of the cable,
due to the short duration of the recharging
cycle. The recharging current has to be taken
into account however, to correctly determine
the upstream protection requirements of
circuit 1.
Example:
For a Maxipac UPS system rated at 7.5 kVA
3-phase 400 V, I1 = 15 A with the battery
floating and Iu = 34 A (see table J2-22).
The c.s.a. of the corresponding cables are:
10 mm2 for the (3-phase) input cable to the
rectifier/charger,
16 mm2 for the (1-phase) output cable to the
load.
example
20 kV / 400 V
CS
power D2 EPS 5000 of 200 kVA
630 kVA system I1
Isc 22.1 kA network
D1 Ddc
Ib
autonomy 10 mn D3
J
2.10 complementary equipments
transformers
A two-winding transformer included on the c prevents third harmonic currents (and
upstream side of the static contactor multiples of them) which may be present on
of circuit 2 (see figure J2-5) allows: the secondary side from passing into the
c a change of voltage level when the power power-system network, providing that the
network voltage is different to that of the load; primary winding is connected in delta.
c a different arrangement for the neutral on
the load-side winding, from that of the power
network.
Moreover, such a transformer:
c reduces the short-circuit current level on
the secondary, (i.e. load) side compared with
that on the power network side,
anti-harmonic filter
The UPS system includes a battery charger For example, when:
which is controlled by commutated thyristors c the power rating of the UPS system is large
or transistors. The resulting regularly- relative to the HV/LV transformer supplying it;
chopped current cycles “generate” harmonic c the LV busbars supply loads which are
components in the power-supply network. particularly sensitive to harmonics;
These indesirable components are filtered at c a diesel (or gas-turbine, etc.) driven
the input of the rectifier and for most cases alternator is provided as a standby power
this reduces the harmonic current level supply.
sufficiently for all practical purposes. In In such cases, the manufacturers of the UPS
certain specific cases however, notably in system should be consulted.
very large installations, an additional filter
circuit may be necessary.
communications equipment
Communication with equipment associated
with informatic systems (see Sub-clause 2.5)
may entail the need for suitable facilities
within the UPS systems.
Such facilities may be incorporated in an
original design, or added to existing systems
on request.
J
These transformers are generally in the range with protective systems incorporated, and the
of several hundreds of VA to some hundreds manufacturers must be consulted for details.
of kVA and are frequently used for: Overcurrent protection must, in any case, be
c changing the (LV) voltage level for: provided on the primary side. The exploitation
v auxiliary supplies to control and indication of these transformers requires a knowledge
circuits, of their particular function, together with a
v lighting circuits (230 V created when the number of points described below.
primary system is 400 V 3-phase 3-wires), Note: In the particular cases of LV/LV safety
c changing the method of earthing for certain isolating transformers at extra-low voltage, an
loads having a relatively high capacitive earthed metal screen between the primary
current to earth (informatic equipment) or and secondary windings is frequently
resistive leakage current (electric ovens, required, according to circumstances, as
industrial-heating processes, mass-cooking recommended in European Standard
installations, etc.). EN 60742, and as discussed in detail in
LV/LV transformers are generally supplied Sub-clause 3.5 of Chapter G.
In 10In 20In I
r.m.s. value
of the first
peak
fig. J3-3: tripping characteristic of a circuit
breaker according to standardized type D
curve (for Merlin Gerin 10 to 14 In).
J
3.2 protection for the supply circuit of a LV/LV transformer (continued)
Example (figure J3-4)
A 400 V 3-phase circuit is supplying a NS250N
125 kVA 400/230 V transformer (In = 180 A) tripping unit
STR22SE (Ir = 200)
for which the first in-rush current peak can
reach 17 In, i.e. 17 x 180 A = 3,067 A.
A Compact NS250 circuit breaker with Ir
setting of 200 A would therefore be a suitable 3 x 70 mm2
protective device.
A particular case: overload protection 400/230 V
125 kVA
installed at the secondary side of the
transformer
An advantage of overload protection located fig. J3-4: example.
on the secondary side, is that the short-circuit
protection on the primary side can be set at a Note: The primary protection is sometimes
high value, or alternatively a circuit breaker provided by fuses, type a M. This practice
type MA* may be used. The primary-side has two disadvantages:
short-circuit protection setting must, however, c the fuses must be largely oversized (at
be sufficiently sensitive to ensure its least 4 times the nominal full-load rated
operation in the event of a short-circuit current of the transformer);
occurring on the secondary side of the c in order to provide isolating facilities on the
transformer (upstream of secondary primary side, either a load-break switch or a
protective devices). contactor must be associated with the fuses.
* Motor-control circuit breaker, the short-circuit protective
relay of which is immune to high transient-current peaks, as
shown in figure J5-3.
J
3.4 protection of transformers with characteristics as tabled in J3-5 above, using
Merlin Gerin circuit breakers (continued)
1-phase transformers (230 V primary) circuit breakers
P (kVA) In (A) Usc % type trip-unit current
rating (A)/type no.
0.1 0.4 13 C60 D or K 1
0.16 0.7 10.5 C60 D or K 2
0.25 1.1 9.5 C60 D or K 3
0.4 1.7 7.5 C60 D or K 4
0.63 2.7 7 C60 D or K 6
1 4.2 5.2 C60 / NC100 D or K 10
1.6 6.8 4 C60 / NC100 D or K 16
2 8.4 2.9 C60 / NC100 D or K 16
2.5 10.5 3 C60 / NC100 D or K 20
4 16.9 2.1 C60 / NC100 D or K 40
5 21.1 1.9 C60 / NC100 D or K 50
6.3 27 1.6 C60 / NC100 D or K 63
8 34 5 NC100 D 80
10 42 5 NC100 D 100
12.5 53 5 NC100 D 100
16 68 4.5 NS160H/L STR22SE
20 84 4.5 NS160H/L STR22SE
25 105 4.5 NS250N/H/L STR22SE
NS250N/H/L STR22SE
31.5 133 4 NS250N/H/L STR22SE
40 169 4 NS250N/H/L STR22SE
NS400N/H/L STR23SE
50 211 5 NS250N/H/L STR22SE
NS400N/H/L STR23SE
63 266 5 NS630N/H/L STR23SE
80 338 4.5 C801N/H/L STR35SE
100 422 5.5 C801N/H/L STR35SE
125 528 5 C801N/H/L STR35SE
160 675 5 C801N/H/L STR35SE
C1001N/H/L STR35SE
table J3-9: protection of 1-phase LV/LV transformers with 230 V primary windings.
J
The planning and realization of a lighting In fact, the provision of adequate illumination
the presence of adequate lighting
installation requires a sound understanding of in the event of fire or other catastrophic
contributes to the satety of persons. the materials installed, together with circumstances is of great importance in
familiarity with the rules for safety against fire reducing the likelihood of panic, and in
hazards in establishments receiving the permitting the necessary safety manœuvres
public. to be carried out.
J
4.2 lamps and accessories (luminaires)
fluorescent tubes
For normal operation a fluorescent tube c the starter is a switch, which, by breaking
requires a ballast and a starter (device for the (electrode-preheating) current passing
initiating the luminous discharge). through the ballast, causes a high-voltage
c the ballast is an iron-cored inductor, transient pulse to appear across the tube.
permanently connected in series with the This causes an arc (in the form of a gaseous
tube; its function is threefold, viz: discharge) to be established through the
v to limit the preheating current during the tube. The discharge is then self-sustaining at
(brief) starting period, normal voltage.
v to provide a pulse of high voltage at the end The ballast, capacitor and the tube, engender
of the starting period to strike the initial arc, disturbances during the periods of starting,
v to stabilize the current through the luminous steady operation and extinction. These
column (hence the term “ballast”). disturbances are analysed in table J4-1
below.
The presence of the ballast means that the
power-factor (cos ø) of the circuit is low (of
the order 0.6) with the corresponding
consumption of reactive energy, which is
generally metered. For this reason each
fluorescent lamp is normally provided with its
own power-factor-correction capacitor.
B
starter
fluorescent lamp with c can generate a current peak at no particular problems
HF ballast start;
c can cause leakage to earth of HF
Advantages: current (at 30 kHz) via the phase
Energy savings of the conductor capacitances to earth.
order of 25%.
Rapid one-shot start.
No flicker or
stroboscopic effects.
table J4-1: analysis of disturbances in fluorescent-lighting circuits.
factor of simultaneity ks
(diversity)
A particular feature of large (e.g. factory) Consequently, the interior of distribution
lighting circuits is that the whole load is “on” panels supplying lighting schemes are
or “off”, i.e. there is no diversity. Furthermore, frequently at an elevated temperature, an
even among a number of lighting circuits from important consideration to be taken into
a given distribution panel, the factor ks is account when selecting protective devices.
generally near unity.
J
4.4 determination of the rated current of the circuit breaker (continued)
The following table (J4-3) is valid for 230 V and 400 V installations, with or without individual
power-factor correcting capacitors.
mercury vapour fluorescent lamps
P i 700 W 6A
P i 1000 W 10 A
P i 2000 W 16 A
metal-halogen mercury-vapour lamps
P 275 W 6A
P 1000 W 10 A
P 2000 W 16 A
high-pressure sodium discharge lamps
P 400 W 6A
P 1000 W 10 A
table J4-3: maximum limit of rated current per outgoing lighting circuit, for high-pressure
discharge lamps.
single-phase distribution 230 V
three-phase distribution + N : 400 V phase/phase
types de tube number of luminaires per phase
luminaires rating
(W)
single-phase 18 7 14 21 42 70 112 140 175 225 281 351 443 562 703
with capacitor 36 3 7 10 21 35 56 70 87 112 140 175 221 281 351
58 2 4 6 13 21 34 43 54 69 87 109 137 174 218
duo circuit 2x18= 36 3 7 10 21 35 56 70 87 112 140 175 221 281 351
with 2x36= 72 1 3 5 10 17 28 35 43 56 70 87 110 140 175
capacitor 2x58= 116 1 2 3 6 10 17 21 27 34 43 54 68 87 109
current rating of
1-,2-,3 -or 4- pole CBs 1 2 3 6 10 16 20 25 32 40 50 63 80 100
where: C = current rating of C B, V = phase/neutral voltage, 0.86 = cos ø of circuit, 0.8 = derating
factor for high temperature in CB housing, 1.25 = factor for watts consumed by ballast,
Pu = nominal power rating of tube (W).
J
4.6 protection of ELV lighting circuits
A LV/ELV transformer is often located in an
inaccessible position, so that protection
installed on the secondary side would be
equally difficult to reach.
For this reason the protection is commonly
provided on the primary circuit.
The protective device is therefore chosen:
c to provide switching control (Multi 9
type C CB, or type aM fuses);
c to ensure protection against short-circuits.
It must therefore be verified that:
v in the case of a CB, the minimum value of
short-circuit current exceeds by a suitable
margin the short-circuit magnetic relay setting
Im of the CB concerned,
v in the case of fuses it is also necessary to
ensure that the I2t energy let-through of the
fuse(s) at minimum short-circuit current is
well below the level of the thermal withstand
capacity of the circuit conductors,
c if necessary, overload protection must be
provided. If the number of lamps on the circuit
has been correctly chosen, however,
overload protection is not necessary.
Example:
The s.c. current Isc2 at the secondary
2A
terminals of a single-phase LV/ELV
transformer is equal to
Us where Zs = Us2 x Usc %
Zs Pn 100
so that Isc2 = Pn x 100 = 400 x 100 LV 230/12 V
Us x Usc% 12 x 6 ELV
400 VA
= 555 A which gives Isc1 = 29 A in the Usc = 6%
primary circuit.
compatibility between
emergency lighting sources and
other parts of the installation
Emergency-lighting sources must supply Central sources for emergency supplies may
exclusively the circuits installed only for also be used to provide standby supplies,
operation in emergency situations. provided that the following conditions are
Standby lighting systems operate to maintain simultaneously fulfilled:
illumination, on failure of normal lighting c where there are several sources, the failure
circuits (generally in non-emergency of one source must leave sufficient capacity
circumstances). However, failure of standby in service to maintain supply to all safety
lighting must automatically bring the systems, with automatic load shedding of
emergency lighting system into operation. non-essential loads (if necessary);
c the failure of one source, or one equipment
concerned with safety, must leave all other
sources and safety equipments unaffected;
c any safety equipment must be arranged to
receive supply from any source.
classification of emergency-
lighting schemes
Many countries have statutory regulations Type C
concerning safety in buildings and areas The lamps may, or may not, be supplied in
intended for public gatherings. normal conditions and, if supplied, may be
Classification of such locations leads to the fed from the normal lighting system, or from
determination of suitable types of solutions, the emergency-lighting supply.
authorized for use in emergency-lighting c the emergency-lighting batteries must be
schemes in the different areas. maintained on charge from the normal source
The following four classifications are typical. by automatically regulated systems, that
Type A ensure a minimum of capacity equal to the
The lamps are supplied permanently and full emergency-lighting load for one hour;
totally during the presence of the public by a c the heat-engine-driven generator sets must
single central source (battery of storage cells, be capable of automatically picking-up the full
or a heat-engine-driven generator). These emergency lighting load from a standby
circuits must be independent of any other (stationary) condition, in less than
circuits (1). 15 seconds, following the failure of normal
supply.
Type B The engine start-up power is provided by a
The lamps are permanently supplied during battery which is capable of six starting
the presence of the public, either: attempts, or by a system of compressed air.
c by a battery to which the lamps are Minimum reserves of energy in the two
permanently connected, and which is on systems of start-up must be maintained
permanent trickle charge from a normal automatically.
lighting source, or, c failures in the central emergency supply
c by a heat-engine-driven generator, the source must be detected at a sufficient
characteristics of which also assure supplies number of points and adequately signalled to
to essential loads within one second (since supervisory/maintenance personnel;
the set is already running and supplying the c autonomous units may be of the
emergency lighting) in the event of failure of permanently-lit type or non-permanently-lit
the normal power supply, or, type.
c by autonomous units which are normally The circuits for all emergency lamps must be
supplied and permanently alight from the independent of any other circuits (2).
normal lighting supply, and which remain
alight (for at least one hour), on the loss of Type D
normal supply, by virtue of a self-contained This type of emergency lighting comprises
battery. The battery is trickle-charged in hand-carried battery-powered (primary or
normal circumstances. secondary cells) at the disposal of service
These units have fluorescent lamps for personnel or the public.
general emergency lighting, and fluorescent (1) Circuits for types A and B, in the case of a central
emergency power source, must also be fire-resistant.
or incandescent lamps for exit and direction- Conduit boxes, junction sleeves and so on must satisfy
indicating signs. national standard heat tests, or the circuits must be installed
in protective cable chases, trunking, etc. capable of assuring
The circuits for all emergency lamps must be satisfactory performance for at least one hour in the event of
independent of any other circuits (1). fire.
(2) Cable circuits of type C are not required to comply with
the conditions of (1).
J
The consequences of an incorrectly protected It is, therefore, the safety of persons and
the asynchronous (i.e. induction)
motor can include the following: goods, and reliability and availability levels
motor is robust and reliable, c for persons: which must influence the choice of protective
and very widely used. 95% v asphyxiation due to the blockage of motor equipment.
of motors installed around the world ventilation, In economic terms, it is the overall cost of
are asynchronous. The protection v electrocution due to insulation failure in the failure which must be considered; a penalty
motor, which is increasingly severe as the size of the
of these motors is consequently v accident due to sticking (contact welding) of motor, and difficulties of access to it increase.
a matter of great importance the controlling contactor; Loss of production is a further, and evidently
in numerous applications. c for the driven machine and the process: important factor.
v shaft couplings and axles, etc. damaged
due to a stalled rotor,
v loss of production,
v manufacturing time delayed;
c for the motor:
v motor windings burnt out due to stalled
rotor,
v cost of dismantling and reinstating or
replacement of motor,
v cost of repairs to the motor.
In Id I" I
fig. J5-1: direct-on-line starting-current
characteristics of an induction motor.
disconnection
(or isolation)
manual remote
control control
short-circuit
protection
multi-function relays
Direct and indirect thermal protection against:
c the starting period excessively long, or
stalled-rotor condition
c imbalance, absence or inversion of phase
voltages
c earth fault or excessive earth-leakage current
c motor running on no-load; motor blocked
during start-up
c pre-alarm overheating indication
J
5.2 standards
The international standards covering
materials discussed in this Sub-clause are:
IEC 947-2, 947-3, 947-4-1, and 947-6-2.
These standards are being adopted (often
without any changes) by a number of
countries, as national standards.
limit of thermal-
câble relay constraint
short-circuit tripping
characteristic
motor of the circuit breaker
(nominal 20 to (type MA)
current In) 30 ms
In Is I" Imagn. l CB plus contactor (see Note)
short-circuit-current
circuit breaker only breaking capacities
fig. J5-3: tripping characteristics of a circuit breaker (type MA)** and
thermal-relay / contactor (1) combination.
Advantages c interlocking;
This combination of devices facilitates c diverse remote indications;
installation work, as well as operation and c better protection for the starter for short-
maintenance, by: circuit currents up to about 30 In (see
c the reduction of the maintenance work load: figure J5-3).
the CB avoids the need to replace blown In the majority of cases short-circuit faults
fuses and the necessity of maintaining a occur at the motor, so that the current is
stock (of different sizes); limited by the cable and the wiring of the
c better continuity performance: a motor starter (e.g. the direct-acting trip coil of the
circuit can be re-energized immediately CB).
following the elimination of a fault; c possibility of adding RCD:
c additional complementary devices v an RCD of 500 mA sensitivity practically
sometimes required on a motor circuit are eliminates fire risk due to leakage current,
easily accommodated; v protection against destruction of the motor
c tripping of all three phases is assured (short-circuiting of laminations) by the early
(thereby avoiding the possibility of “single- detection of earth-fault currents (300 mA to
phasing”); 30 A);
c full-load current switching possibility (by c etc.
CB) in the event of contactor failure, e.g.
contact welding;
* The association of an overload relay and a contactor is referred to as a “discontactor” in some countries.
** Merlin Gerin.
standardization of the
association of circuit breakers/
discontactors
Categories of contactor
The standard IEC 947-4 gives utilization
categories which considerably facilitate the
choice of a suitable contactor for a given
service duty.
The utilization categories advise on:
c a range of functions for which the contactor
may be adapted;
c its current breaking and making
capabilities;
c standard test values for expected life
duration on load, according to its utilization.
The following table gives some typical
examples of the utilization categories
covered.
utilization application characteristics
category
AC-1 Non-inductive (or slightly inductive) loads: cos ø u 0.95 (heating, distribution)
AC-2 Starting and switching off of slip-ring motors
AC-3 Cage motors: starting, and switching off motors during running
AC-4 Cage motors: starting, plugging, inching
table J5-4: utilization categories for contactors (IEC 947-4).
Types of co-ordination Which type to choose?
For each association of devices, a type of co- The type of co-ordination to adopt depends
ordination is given, according to the state of on the parameters of exploitation, and must
the constituant parts following a circuit be chosen to satisfy (optimally) the needs of
breaker trip out on fault, or the opening of a the user and the cost of installation.
contactor on overload. c type 1:
IEC 947-4-1 defines two types of co- v qualified maintenance service,
ordination, type 1 and type 2, which set v volume and cost of switchgear reduced,
maximum allowable limits of deterioration of v continuity of service not demanded, or
switchgear, which must never present a provided by replacement of motor-starter
danger to personnel. drawer;
c type 1: deterioration of the contactor and/or c type 2:
of its relay is acceptable under 2 conditions: v continuity of service imperative,
v no risk for the operator, v no maintenance service,
v all elements other than the contactor and its v specifications stipulating this type of co-
relay must remain undamaged; ordination.
c type 2: burning, and the risk of welding of
the contacts of the contactor are the only
risks allowed.
J
5.3 basic protection schemes: circuit breaker / contactor / thermal relay (continued)
key points in the successful
association of a circuit breaker
and a discontactor
t
Compact NS 2 1 CB magnetic-trip performance curve
type MA 2 thermal-relay characteristic
3 thermal-withstand limit of the thermal relay
1
3
Isc ext.
fig. J5-5: the thermal-withstand limit of the thermal relay must be to the right of the CB
magnetic-trip characteristic.
Standards define precisely all the elements c the short-circuit current breaking rating of
which must be taken into account to realize a the contactor must be greater than the
correct co-ordination of type 2: regulated threshold of the CB magnetic trip
c absolute compatibility between the thermal relay, since it (the contactor) must be capable
relay of the discontactor and the magnetic trip of breaking a current which has a value equal
of the circuit breaker. In figure J5-5 the to, or slightly less than, the setting of the
thermal relay is protected if its limit boundary magnetic relay (as seen from figure J5-5);
for thermal withstand is placed to the right of c a reliable performance of the contactor and
the CB magnetic trip characteristic curve. its thermal relay when passing short-circuit
In the case of a motor-control circuit breaker current, i.e. no excessive deterioration of
incorporating both magnetic and thermal either device and no welding of contactor
devices, co-ordination is provided in the contacts.
design;
multi-function motor-protection
relay
The multi-function relay, associated with a
number of sensors and indication modules,
provides protection for motors, such as:
c thermal overload;
c rotor stalled, or starting-up period too long;
c overheating;
c phase current imbalance, loss of one
phase, inverse rotation;
c earth fault (by RCD);
c running on no-load, blocked rotor on
start-up.
The advantages of this relay are essentially:
c a comprehensive protection, providing a
reliable, high-performance and permanent fig. J5-9: multi-function protection,
monitoring/control function; typified by the Telemecanique relay, type
c efficient surveillance of all motor-operating LT8 above.
schedules;
c alarm and control indications;
c possibility of communication via
communication buses.
J
5.4 preventive or limitative protection (continued)
preventive protection of
stationary motors
This protection concerns the monitoring of the
level of insulation resistance of a stationary
motor, thereby avoiding the undesirable SM20
consequences of insulation failure during
operation, such as:
c for motors used on emergency systems for MERLIN GERIN
example: failure to start or to perform SM20
correctly; IN OUT
limitative protection
Residual current differential protective
devices (RCDs) can be very sensitive and
detect low values of leakage current which
occur when the insulation to earth of an
installation deteriorates (by physical damage,
contamination, excessive humidity, and so
on). Some versions of RCDs, specially
designed for such applications, provide the
following possibilities:
c to avoid the destruction of a motor
(by perforation and short-circuiting of the RH328A
laminations of the stator) caused by an
eventual arcing fault to earth. This protection
can detect incipient fault conditions by
operating at leakage currents in the range of MERLIN GERIN
J
differences between a.c. and d.c.
installations
Although the basic design principles in each
case are similar, there are differences in:
c the calculations for short-circuit currents,
and;
c the choice of protective equipment, since
the techniques employed for the interruption
of direct current differ in practice from those
used for alternating current.
Isc
direct-current generator
If Vg is the open-circuit voltage of the Example:
generator and Ri its internal resistance, then: A d.c. generator rated at 200 kW, 230 V, and
Isc = Vg / Ri. having an internal resistance of 0.032 ohm,
In the absence of precise data, and for a d.c. will give a terminal short-circuit current of
system of voltage Un, Vg may be taken as 230 x 1.1 = 7.9 kA
1.1 Un. 0.032
G
= Icc
J
6.3 choice of protective device (continued)
type ratings sc current-breaking capacity kA thermal coefficient for
(A) for L/R i 0.015 seconds overload uprating the
(the number of series-connected protection instantaneous
contacts per pole is shown in brackets) magnetic
24/48 V 125 V 250 V 500 V 750 V 1000 V tripping units*
C32HDC 1 to 40 20 (1p) 10 (1p) 20 (2p) 10 (2p) special DC special DC
C60a 10 to 40 10 (1p) 10 (2p) 20 (3p) 25 (4p) ditto AC 1.38
C60N 6 to 63 15 (1p) 20 (2p) 30 (3p) 40 (4p) ditto AC 1.38
C60H 1 to 63 20 (1p) 25 (2p) 40 (3p) 50 (4p) ditto AC 1.38
C60L 1 to 63 25 (1p) 30 (2p) 50 (3p) 60 (4p) ditto AC 1.38
NC100H 50 to 100 20 (1p) 30 (2p) 40 (3p) 20 (4p) ditto AC 1.42
NC100LH 10 to 63 50 (1p) 50 (1p) 50 (1 p) 50 (3p) ditto AC 1.42
NS100N 16 to 100 50 (1p) 50 (1p) 50 (1p) 50 (2p) ditto AC 1.42
NC100H 16 to 100 85 (1p) 85 (1p) 85 (1p) 85 (2p) ditto AC 1.42
NS100L 16 to 100 100 (1p) 100 (1p) 100 (1p) 100 (2p) ditto AC
NS160N 40 to 160 50 (1p) 50 (1p) 50 (1p) 50 (2p) ditto AC
NS160H 40 to 160 85 (1p) 85 (1p) 85 (1p) 85 (2p) ditto AC
NS160L 40 to 160 100 (1p) 100 (1p) 100 (1p) 100 (2p) ditto AC
NS250N 40 to 250 50 (1p) 50 (1p) 50 (1p) 50 (2p) ditto AC
NS250H 40 to 250 85 (1p) 85 (1p) 85 (1p) 85 (2p) ditto AC
NS250L 40 to 250 100 (1p) 100 (1p) 100 (1p) 100 (2p) ditto AC
NS400H MP1/MP2-400 85 (1p) 85 (1p) 85 (1p) 85 (2p) no thermal relay; tripping units
NS630H MP1/MP2/MP3-630 85 (1p) 85 (1p) 85 (1p) 85 (2p) provide MP1/MP2/MP3
C1251N-DC P21/P41-1250 50 (1p) 50 (1p) 50 (2p) 50 (3p) 25 (3p) an external special for
M10-DC 1000 100 (3p) 100 (3p) 100 (3p) 100 (3p) 50 (4p) 50 (4p) relay direct current
M20-DC 2000 100 (3p) 100 (3p) 100 (3p) 100 (3p) 50 (4p- 50 (4p) (if necessary)
M40-DC 4000 100 (3p) 100 (3p) 100 (3p) 100 (3p) 50 (4p) 50 (4p)
M60-DC 6000 100 (4p) 100 (4p) 100 (4p)
M80-DC 8000 100 (4p) 100 (4p) 100 (4p)
table J6-5: choice of d.c. circuit breakers manufactured by Merlin Gerin.
* These tripping units may be used on a.c. or d.c. circuit breakers, but the operating levels marked on each unit correspond to
r.m.s. a.c. values. When used on a d.c. circuit breaker the setting must be changed according to the co-efficient in table J6-5.
For example, if it is required that the d.c. circuit breaker should trip at 800 A or more the coefficient given in table J6-5 is 1.42,
then the setting required will be 800 x 1.42 = 1,136 A.
6.4 examples
Example 1 Table J6-4 shows that the full system voltage
Choice of protection for an 80 A outgoing d.c. will appear across the contacts of the positive
circuit of a 125 V system, of which the pole.
negative pole is earthed. The Isc = 15 kA. Table J6-5 indicates that circuit breaker
NC100H (30 kA 2 contacts/pole 125 V) is an
+ appropriate choice.
125 V = Preferred practice is to (also) include a
-
contact in the negative conductor of the
outgoing circuit, to provide isolation (for
NC100 H maintenance work on the load circuit for
3-pole
80 A example), as shown in figure J6-6.
Note: three contacts in series, which open in
load unison, effectively triple the speed of contact
fig. J6-6: example. separation. This technique is often necessary
for successfully breaking d.c. current.
load
J
The characteristics of a 3-phase alternator As shown in figure AJ1-1, the current
under short-circuit conditions are obtained reduction requires a certain time, and the
from oscillogram traces recorded during reason for this is that, as the rotor flux begins
tests, in which a short-circuit is applied to diminish, the change of flux induces a
instantaneously to all three terminals of a current in the closed rotor circuit in the
machine at no load, excited (at a fixed level) direction which, in effect, increases the
to produce nominal rated voltage. excitation current, i.e. opposes the
The resulting currents in all three phases will establishment of a reduced level of magnetic
normally* include a d.c. component, which flux. The gradual predominance of the stator
reduces exponentially to zero after m.m.f. depends on the overall effect of rotor
(commonly) some tens of cycles. The curve and stator time constants, the result of which
shown below in figure AJ1-1 is the current is the principal factor in the "a.c. current
trace, from which the d.c. component has decrement" shown in figure AJ1-1.
been eliminated, of a recording made during If, during a short-circuit, there were no eddy
the testing of a 3-phase 230 V 50 kVA currents induced in the unlaminated face of
machine. round-rotor alternators, or in damper
The definitions of alternator reactance windings (see note 1) of salient-pole
values are based on such "symmetrical" alternators, the envelope of the a.c. current
curves. decrement would be similar to that of
curve b in figure AJ1-1, i.e. the so-called
c transient-current envelope.
b The presence of either of the two features,
i
mentioned above however, gives rise to the
sub-transient component of current (curve C).
a The effect is analogous to that of the closed
0 circuit of the rotor-excitation winding
t described above (i.e. the induced currents
oppose the change), but having a very much
shorter time constant.
The overall a.c. current decrement is
therefore composed of the sum of two
exponentially-decaying quantities, viz. the
fig. AJ1-1: short-circuit current of one sub-transient and the transient components,
phase of a 3-phase alternator with the d.c. as shown in figure AJ1-2.
component eliminated. Note 1: Damper windings are made up of heavy gauge
* unless, by chance, the voltage of a phase happens to be copper bars embedded in the pole faces of salient-pole
maximum at the instant of short-circuit. In that case, there rotors, to form a squirrel-cage "winding" similar to that of an
will be no d.c. transient in the phase concerned. induction motor. Their purpose is to help to maintain
synchronous stability of the alternator.
With the rotor turning at the same speed as that of the
The reduction of current magnitude from its m.m.f. due to the stator currents, no currents will be
initial value occurs in the following way. induced in the damper windings; if a difference in the speed
At the instant of short-circuit, the only of rotation occurs, due to loss of synchronism, then currents
induced in the damper windings will be in a direction that
impedance limiting the magnitude of current produces a torque which acts to slow (an overspeeding
is principally** the inherent leakage rotor) or to accelerate (an underspeeding rotor). A similar,
reactance of the armature (i.e. stator) but much smaller effect occurs due to eddy currents in the
surface of solid unlaminated rotors of turbo-alternators.
windings, generally of the order of
10%-15%. For advanced analytical studies of
The large stator currents are (practically) alternators, two component axes "direct" and
entirely inductive, so that the synchronously "quadrature" are defined, and subtransient
rotating m.m.f. produced by them acts in and transient reactances, etc. are derived for
direct opposition to that of the excitation each component system.
current in the rotor winding. In the simple studies needed for 3-phase
The result is that the rotor flux starts to symmetrical fault levels and for circuit-
reduce, thereby reducing the e.m.f. breaker performance based on such faults,
generated in the stator windings, and the direct-axis component system only is
consequently reducing the magnitude of the required; this accounts for the suffix "d" of
fault current. The effect is cumulative, and reactance values, shown in figure AJ1-2.
the reduced fault current, in turn, now Suffix "q" is used for quadrature quantities.
reduces the rotor flux at a slower rate, and ia enveloppe
so on, i.e. the flux follows the exponential i" of the current, ia
law of natural decay, its reduction rate at any
instant depending on the magnitude of the Vo/x"d i'
quantity causing the phenomenon.
Vo/x'd
Eventually, a stable state is reached, in which i
the (greatly reduced) rotor flux produces just
enough voltage to maintain the stator current t
at the level of equilibrium between the three Vo/xd
quantities, viz. current, flux and voltage.
The reduction of fault current therefore is
subs- transient steady
caused by a diminution of the generated transient period state
e.m.f. due to armature reaction, and not, in period
fact, by an increase in impedance of the x''d = the sub-transient reactance Vo/i''
machine (that is why the term "effective x'd = the transient reactance Vo/i'
xd = the synchronous reactance Vo/i
reactance" was used in Chapter J Vo = peak rated voltage of the alternator
Sub-clause 1.1).
fig. AJ1-2: a.c. component of armature
** the sub-transient reactance, which is defined later, is
very nearly equal to the leakage reactance.
current versus time, in a short-circuited
alternator (no d.c. transient is shown).
Appendix J1 - 1
J
The reactances are generally defined as
r.m.s. voltages divided by r.m.s. currents. In
the current trace of figure AJ1-2, however, it
is simpler to use the projected peak values
of current, so that Vo must be the rated peak
voltage of the machine.
Note 2: in the definition of "i" some authors use the actual
voltage measured during the test, instead of Vo. Moreover,
xd is generally denoted by Xs and is referred to as
"synchronous reactance".
asymmetrical currents
As previously noted, in general, all 3-phases
of short-circuit current will include a d.c.
component. These components give rise to
additional electro-dynamic and thermal
stresses in the machine itself, and in circuit-
breakers protecting a faulted circuit.
The worst condition is that of a phase in
which the d.c. component is the maximum
possible, i.e. the d.c. transient value at zero
time (the instant of fault) is equal to the peak
value of current given by Vo/xd'', as defined
in figure AJ1-2.
A typical test trace of this condition is shown
in figure AJ1-3.
stator
phase
current
d.c. component
time
instant of
short circuit
The current envelope of an asymmetrical transient has the
same dimensions about the d.c. transient curve, as the
symmetrical envelope has about the current zero axis.
fig. AJ1-3: a fully-offset asymmetrical
transient fault-current trace.
The consequence of asymmetrical transient
fault currents and the standardized
relationship between the symmetrical and
asymmetrical quantities for circuit breaker
performance ratings are given in
Sub-clause 1.1 of Chapter C, and are
illustrated in figure C5.
2 - Appendix J1
1. domestic and similar premises
L
Electrical installations for inhabited premises
need a high standard of safety and reliability.
1.1 general
related standards
Most countries have national regulations and-
or standards governing the rules to be strictly
observed in the design and realization of
electrical installations for domestic and similar
premises. The relevant international standard
is the IEC publication 364.
L
1.2 distribution-board components
control and
distribution board
enclosure
incoming-supply
circuit breaker
service
connection
lightning arrester
lightning
protection
protection
differential differential
against direct MCB
and load switch
indirect contact,
and protection
against fire
remote control
bistable switch
THP CDSc
energy
management
IHPc Isis
the incoming-supply
circuit breaker
The consumer is permitted to operate this CB
if necessary (e.g. to reclose it if the current
consumption had exceeded the authorized
limit; to open it in case of emergency or for
isolation purposes...). The differential trip
generally has a 500 mA setting to provide
indirect-contact protection (and a measure of
fire protection) for the whole installation. fig. L1-3: incoming-supply circuit breaker.
Current ratings for these circuit breakers are
commonly:
c 15 - 90 A two-poles,
c 10 - 60 A four-poles.
lightning arresters
Where the keraunic level of a locality exceeds appropriate sensitivity, according to the
25, and the supply is taken from an overhead resistance of the earthing electrode for the
line, the installation of a lightning arrester at installation. In the case of domestic
the service position of a LV installation is installations the use of a 500 mA differential
prescribed in many national standards and is incoming-supply circuit breaker type S (i.e.
strongly recommended for installations which slightly time-delayed) will provide effective
include sensitive (e.g. electronic) equipment. earth-leakage protection, while, at the same
These devices must automatically disconnect time, will not trip unnecessarily each time a
themselves from the installation in case of lightning arrester discharges the current (of
failure or be protected by a RCD of an overvoltage-surge) to earth.
L
1.2 distribution-board components (continued)
if, in TT schemes, the resistance resistance value of the earth
of the installation earth electrode electrode (of a TT scheme)
In the case where the resistance-to-earth is
exceeds 100 ohms, then one very high and exceeds the value
or more 30 mA RCDs must be
Rt = 50 V = 100 ohms
installed to take over the function 500 mA
of the differential device in the one or several RCDs of appropriate
incoming-supply circuit breaker. sensitivity, i.e. 30 mA, should be used in
place of the differential device of the
incoming-supply circuit breaker.
L
1.4 circuits
the distribution and division of circuits subdivision
provides comfort, and facilitates rapid National standards commonly recommend
the sub-division of circuits according to the
location of faults. number of utilization categories in the
installation concerned (see figure L1-8):
c at least 1 circuit for lighting. Each circuit
supplying a maximum of 8 lighting points,
c at least 1 circuit for socket-outlets rated
10/16 A. Each circuit supplying a maximum of
8 sockets. The sockets may be single or
double units (a double unit is made up of two
10/16 A sockets mounted on a common base
in an embedded box, identical to that of a
single unit),
c 1 circuit for each appliance such as a water
heater, washing machine, dish-washing socket- lighting heating washing cooking
machine, cooker, refrigerator, etc. outlets machine apparatus
Recommended numbers of 10/16 A (or fig. L1-8: circuit division according to
similar) socket-outlets and fixed lighting utilization.
points, according to the use for which the
various rooms of a dwelling are intended, are
indicated in the following table.
room function minimum number of fixed minimum number
lighting points of 10/16 A socket-outlet
living room 1 5
bedroom, lounge, 1 3
bureau, dining room
kitchen 2 4 (1)
bathroom, shower room 2 1 or 2
entrance hall, box room 1 1
WC, storage space 1 -
laundry room - 1
table L1-9: recommended minimum number of lighting and power points in domestic
premises.
(1) of which 2 above the working surface and 1 for a specialized circuit: in addition an independent socket-outlet of 16 A or 20 A
for a cooker and a junction box or socket-outlet for a 32 A specialized circuit.
cross-sectional-area (c.s.a.)
of conductors
The c.s.a. of conductors and the rated current
of the associated protective device depend
on the current magnitude of the circuit, the
ambient temperature, the kind of installation,
and the influence of neighbouring circuits
(refer to Chapter H1).
Moreover, the conductors for the phase
wires, the neutral and the protective
conductors of a given circuit must all be of
equal c.s.a. (assuming the same material for
the conductors concerned, i.e. all copper or
all aluminium).
Table L1-11 indicates the c.s.a. required for
commonly-used appliances.
Protective devices 1 phase + N in 2 x 9 mm
spaces comply with requirements for
isolation, and for marking of circuit current
rating and conductor sizes. fig. L1-10: circuit breaker 1 phase + N
2 x 9 mm spaces Déclic 32.
individual-load circuits
water heater 2.5 mm2 4600 W circuit breaker 25 A
(4 mm2) fuse 20 A
table L1-11: c.s.a. of conductors and current rating of the protective devices in domestic
installations (the c.s.a. of aluminium conductors are shown in brackets).
(1) in a 230/400 V 3-phase circuit, the c.s.a. is 4 mm2 for copper or 6 mm2 for aluminium, and protection is provided by a 32 A
circuit breaker or by 25 A fuses.
L
1.5 protection against overvoltages and lightning
the relevance of protective
devices
c disturbances
Three types of disturbance often occur on
electrical-power networks:
v lightning and atmospheric electrical
phenomena in general, with its direct and
indirect consequences.
The direct effects, which are fairly infrequent,
concern its impact on overhead transmission
and distribution lines.
The indirect effects are more common and
occur at lower energy levels. Such indirect
phenomena are characterized by a powerful
induction effect on the lines and/or by an
increase of local earth potential,
v operational overvoltages are transient, and
are caused by abrupt changes in the circuit,
such as the opening/closing of circuit
breakers, load-break switches, contactors,
etc.,
v overvoltages at normal system frequency
can occur in many ways, and will do so, for
example, if a neutral connection is broken on
a 3-phase system, if the load is unbalanced,
c the kind of installation to be protected.
It is necessary to know in some detail the
characteristics of the items to be protected, in
order to select the most appropriate form of
protection. The choice of protective device(s)
depends on two factors:
v the sensitivity: the ability of the equipment
concerned to withstand an overvoltage
condition i.e. its magnitude and duration,
v the cost: which comprises the purchase
price and the operational costs (possible
losses, maintenance, etc.).
L
Bathrooms and shower rooms are areas of
high risk, because of the very low resistance
of the human body when wet or immersed in
water.
Precautions to be taken are therefore
correspondingly rigorous, and the regulations
are more severe than those for most other
locations.
The relevant IEC standards are 364-7-701,
479 and 669-1.
Precautions to observe are based on three
aspects:
c the definition of zones, numbered 0, 1, 2
and 3 in which the placement (or exclusion)
of any electrical device is strictly limited or
forbidden, and, where permitted, the electrical
and mechanical protection is prescribed,
c the establishment of an equipotential bond
between all exposed and extraneous metal
parts in the zones concerned,
c the strict adherence to the requirements
prescribed for each particular zone, as tabled
in Clause L3.
zone 1 * zone 1 *
zone 0 zone 0
vertical cross-section
2.25 m
zone 1
zone 0
2.25 m
zone 1
zone 0
0.60 m 2.40 m
2.40 m
2.40 m
zone 3 zone 3
2.25 m
0.60 m
permanent wall
fig. L2-3: zones 0, 1, 2, 3 in proximity of a shower without basin.
(1) When the shower head is at the end of a flexible tube, the vertical central axis of a zone passes through the fixed end of the flexible tube.
0.60 m
prefabricated
shower
cabinet
0.60 m
L
2.1 classification of zones (continued)
classes classes
of external of external
influences influences
zone 3
AD 3 AD 3
BB 2 dressing cubicles BB 2
BC 3 (zone 2) BC 3
AD 3
BB 3 AD 3
BC 3 WC BB 2
AD 7
BB 3
BC 3 BC 3
AD 3 AD 3
BB 2 dressing room
zone 3 BB 2
BC 3
BC 3
h<1.10 m
AD 5 AD 7
1.10 m<h<2.25 m
AD 3 zone 2 zone 1 BB 3
BB 3 BC 3
BC 3
water-drainage
piping
gas
radiator
lighting
metal
door-frame
metal bath
equipotential conductors
for a bathroom
L
The following table summarizes the main Note:
requirements prescribed in many national Section numbers in brackets refer to sections
and international standards. of IEC 364-7.
L
locations protection principles IP level wiring switchgear socket- installation
and cables outlets materials
fountains protection by 30 mA RCDs and
(section 702) equipotential bonding of all exposed
and extraneous conductive parts
data processing TN-S scheme recommended (3)
(section 707) TT scheme if leakage current is
limited. Protective conductor 10 mm2
minimum in aluminium. Smaller sizes
(in copper) must be doubled
caravan parks 34 5 flexible under- protection of
(section 708) ground cables circuits by
30 mA RCDs
(one per 6
socket-outlets)
marinas and 36 5 in conduits ditto
yacht basins or buried
medical centres IT (medical) scheme equipotential protection by
bonding 30 mA RCDs
fairs and protection by 30 mA 21 7
exhibitions RCDs. TT or TN-S scheme
balneotherapy individual: see section 701
(cure-centre (volumes 0 and 1)
baths) collective: see section 702
(volumes 0 and 1)
motor-fuel filling explosion risks in security zones limited to the
stations necessary
minimum
motor vehicles protection by RCDs or by electrical
separation
(3) in an IT scheme provide a LV/LV transformer to create a TN-S scheme.
2. electromagnetic disturbances
2.1 disturbances by conduction EMC2
2.2. radiation EMC8
G
4. local network problems EMC20
EMC
Legislation on EMC throughout the world is
broadly divided into two philosophies. In
"liberal" countries, any parasitic interference
with radio reception is illegal, but no
emission-level limit for the source of
interference is imposed. However, in cases of
litigation the methods of measuring, and the
limits of emission level laid down by the
CISPR, serve as reference. For example,
Japan is a "liberal country" in which the VCCI
standards (that correspond technically to the
international publications of CISPR) assumes
that the attitude of civic responsibility
prevailing is adequate at the present time.
For countries more rigidly "regulated",
emission levels exceeding a standardized
limit are illegal. For example, in the U.S.A.,
Automatic Data Processing (ADP) systems
are protected by obligatory emission-level
standards defined by the Federal law FCC
part 15. Checking procedures differ,
depending on whether the level for class A
(procedure for "compliance") or class B is
concerned. In the case for class B (domestic
environment), certification is then required.
European regulations are effectively placed
between the two foregoing attitudes. The
parasitic-emission level and an excessively-
sensitive reception device are both illegal.
Compliance with the EMC standards,
although only constituting a presumption of
conformity to the essential requirements, is,
nevertheless, the preferred means of
checking. Moreover, the European
regulations are applicable to all apparatuses,
systems and commercialised installations,
without exception.
Appendix EMC - 1
2. electromagnetic disturbances
EMC
Problems of EMC (ElectroMagnetic travelling in space.
Compatibility) often arise when equipment, The magnitudes of electromagnetic
which is highly sensitive to extraneous disturbances are expressed by four
electrical disturbances (commonly referred to parameters: two for the conduction mode and
as "interference" or "parasites") is located in two for the radiation mode.
an environment subject to electromagnetic For the conduction mode, measurements are
disturbances. made in the traditional quantities, viz: volts
Since sources of electromagnetic disturbance (U) and amps (I). For the radiated
are numerous and inevitable, and electromagnetic waves the electric and
desensitizing an equipment (generally magnetic field strengths are measured in
electronic) to counter the effect of volts per metre (E) and in amperes per
disturbances is difficult to achieve, metre (H), respectively.
consideration of the physical layout of the The frequency is one of the principal features
sensitive equipments and related cabling, that characterise an electromagnetic wave.
relative to the sources of disturbance, In EMC studies the solutions adapted differ
becomes necessary. according to whether the disturbance is at low
This is the principal means of ensuring a frequency (LF) or at high frequency (HF).
satisfactory degree of immunity for the large * Stationary (but changing in magnitude) magnetic and
majority of sensitive electronic devices. electric induction fields generally, are only significant in
close proximity to the sources and are easily countered by
There are two recognized modes of placing sensitive equipment at a suitable distance from
electromagnetic interference: them. A notable exception is the case where some tens of
thousands of amps, i.e. short-circuit fault currents, flow in a
c conducted disturbances propagated along power cable.
cables, wires, etc.
c radiated disturbances by stationary
induction (magnetic or electrostatic fields*)
and/or by electromagnetic (radio) waves
I I
2
U equipment
equipment
I
I U
2
fig. EMC-1: signal or disturbance in the
differential mode.
Differential mode disturbances are the most fig. EMC-2: disturbance in common
severe at low frequencies. By low mode.
frequencies (LF) it is understood in EMC
studies to concern all frequencies lower than
9 kHz. This convention means that a very
large number of electrical disturbances are
considered as being LF phenomena.
In electrical power networks disturbances in
the differential mode are numerous. One may
cite, for example, interruptions of supply of
short or long duration, voltage fluctuations
and dips, phase instability, lamp flicker,
variations of frequency: harmonics and
voltage spikes. The effect of an electromagnetic
disturbance depends largely on its duration.
Permanent (maintained) disturbances
principally affect analogue-type circuits, while
transient and impulsive disturbances interfere
especially with digital circuits.
2 - Appendix EMC
EMC
Electromagnetic disturbances couple readily This is the role of insulated and/or
with cables in the common mode, particularly symmetrical connections.
at high frequencies (HF), since they act as A galvanic insulation is only effective at low
radio antennae. Several kinds of coupling frequencies. A symmetrical connection, also
between neighbouring circuits can occur. referred to as "balanced", can remain
The problems of common mode recur effective up to high frequencies. The
frequently in EMC cases. A conducting dissymmetry of a differential connection
environment is always good for EMC, originates mainly from its end circuits. An
due to it equipotential quality. imbalance at an end circuit can be caused by
Only disturbances in the differential mode can an electrical and/or geometric dissymmetry.
be filtered locally, cable by cable. In any case, a connection by simple coaxial
As indicated by its name, the common mode cable to transmit signals at low frequencies is
is common to all the cables of a given not recommended.
equipment. Common mode problems at HF Correcting measures which may produce
are particularly critical in an insulated harmful secondary effects must be combined
environment, or where the mass (the zero- with other precautions in order that the
voltage refernce for all electronic circuits) is system effectively counters the entire range
"floating" with respect to earth (i.e. insulated of disturbances (LF and HF, of large and
from the earth). small amplitudes). The combination of the
A common mode voltage is always different corrective measures (galvanic
detrimental. If it cannot be reduced, it is separation, symmetrical connections and
important, at least, to prevent it from overvoltage protection) is referred to as
developing into a differential mode coordinated protection.
disturbance.
Appendix EMC - 3
2. electromagnetic disturbances (continued)
EMC
2.1 disturbances by conduction (continued)
Flicker drop of voltage, caused principally by
Flicker describes a condition of small but switching loads which, at the instant of
frequently recurring voltage dips caused by energization, require a greater current than
loads which require relatively heavy current the normal rated value, e.g. small-motor
for brief and regularly repeated periods. starting currents, the switching on of large
The impedance of a LV network is made up resistive heating devices and incandescent
mainly of cable impedance and the lamps, etc. Such dips are transitory only, but
impedance of the HV/LV transformer are often more severe than those classed as
supplying the network. The greater the kVA flicker, generally exceeding 10%. The duration
rating of the transformer, the lower its of a "dip" lasts from 10 ms to approximately 1 s.
effective impedance. In public power-supply Voltage reductions which exceed 10% and
systems the flicker problem is more common 1 s, due, for example, to starting large motors,
on rural systems, particularly at the end of or, as previously described, due to system
long lines. It is a problem on a line which is faults, are simply referred to as "voltage drop"
supplying arc furnaces, arc-welding machines and the extent of the drop and its duration are
and, generally, where heavy loads are specified. Voltage fluctuations have little
frequently switched. effect on electronic circuits generally.
Flicker creates an objectionable annoyance Sensitive, precision electronic-control devices,
for persons working under incandescent electronic calculators of early design, and
lighting. The effect is purely physiological, no electronic (HF) fluorescent lighting tubes,
dysfunctioning of electronic equipment will however, may be adversely affected.
occur due to flicker. A well-designed electronic device can
Flicker is objectionable only where heavy tolerate, without difficulty, voltage fluctuations
overloads and frequent switching are up to + 8%.
combined, or where the impedance of the A voltage dip at a point on a HV system is
system is high. Standardized parameter limits generally due to a short-circuit fault
and a flicker meter are described in IEC elsewhere on the same network. The closer
publications 1000-3-3 and 1000-4-15. the fault to the point in question, the more
severe the dip. The severity of the dip is
defined by two parameters: the magnitude of
∆U/Un in % the drop as a percentage of the system
3 nominal voltage, and its duration in
milliseconds.
2
Voltage dips are generally due to wind-blown
debris (tree branches, etc.), electric storms,
or faults on the lines (broken insulators) or
occur on the installation of a neighbouring
1
consumer.
Ueff.
0,5
most influenced beetween the
400 V three phase to phase voltages
0,3 360 V
depth
(% de Un)
clearing
.5 .7 1 10 100 1000 10 time
fig. EMC-3: number of variations per = 0,3 s
minute.
duration time
For industrial installations subject to flicker, a = 0,4 s
modification to the installation is sometimes fig. EMC-4: caracteristics of a voltage dip.
necessary. Among the possible corrective
measures available, the most effective Faults on VHV (very high voltage)
include: separate cables for heavy loads transmission lines are rare and are usually
preferably with each large load supplied due to lightning, or to exceptionally severe
through an individual HV/LV transformer, cold weather.
division of the load, increase the time lags in The consequence of voltage dips (when
automatic control systems, reduction in the followed by an interruption) is a complete loss
work-cycle rate, time-wise staggering and of supply to electronic (and power) devices.
spreading of operations which require Relays will drop out and motors controlled by
impulsive power demands, together with the electronic speed-variation and regenerative-
installation of a static reactive-power braking devices will be deprived of brake control.
compensator. Technically, a reduction in the Even if there is no supply interruption, a large
source impedance is an excellent solution. and long (up to 1 second) voltage dip may
In final general-distribution circuits at LV, the cause similar malfunctions.
3-phase symmetrical short-circuit current is Means of countering these problems at the
usually within the 500-5,000 A range. In least cost requires individual analysis of each
industry, the short-circuit current at LV may case. To overcome the voltage-dip problem,
exceed 10 kA on a circuit of large c.s.a. close many low-power electronic equipments have
to the source substation. This value never, individual power packs with an autonomy of
however, exceeds 100 kA. several hundred milliseconds for 100% loss
of supply voltage.
Fluctuations and voltage dips For heavy-duty power supplies, the period of
A fluctuation of voltage is a rapid change of autonomy amounts only to approximately
supply voltage not exceeding + 10% (the 20 milliseconds, the limiting factor being the
generally accepted limits at distribution level) size of the energy-storing capacitors required.
during normal operation. A "dip" is a sudden Rotating machines (motor/generators) have
4 - Appendix EMC
EMC
sufficient autonomy to cope with voltage dips. Frequency variations
Finally, uninterruptible power supply units can The European network performs, in practice,
suppress voltage dips, and maintain the as an infinite system as far as frequency
power supply during a period of complete stability is concerned, in that load changes do
interruption. not sensibly affect the frequency. On smaller
Unbalance private systems, and especially on single
The amplitude of an ac voltage is expressed generators, where the rotational inertia is
by its rms (root-mean-square) value. The small and the regulating system of the prime
voltage between a phase conductor and the mover is generally rudimentary, the frequency
neutral is referred to as the phase voltage, will vary (within reasonable limits) each time
while that measured between any two phases the load changes abruptly. Diesel engine
is called the line voltage. The line voltage prime movers are less stable, in terms of
equals etimes the phase voltage, on a frequency, than turbines. Frequency
normally balanced 3-phase system variations do not unduly disturb electronic
(e= 1.732). A 3-phase system may be equipments. Converters based on current
defined simply by the amplitude of 3 voltages, chopping principles are insensitive to
either line or phase values. frequency changes. All modern devices and
In order to define a sinusoidal system which components should be capable of correct
is in an unbalanced state, however, the performance during frequency changes of
values of current and voltage of each phase + 4% throughout a 10 minute period.
are then, in the general case, the sum of Only very large systems with transformers
3 rotating vector components. The three operating at the limit of saturation may, when
components of each phase are known as: the system voltage is at its maximum, be
c the positive phase-sequence component subjected to overheating by a long-term low-
c the negative phase-sequence component frequency condition. AC motors (locked to the
c the zero phase-sequence component. frequency) will experience speed variations
A balanced 3-phase system is composed of corresponding to those of the frequency. On
positive phase-sequence components only. the other hand, the inertia of motors tends to
An unsymmetrical system is said to be smooth out other sudden disturbances
unbalanced; its negative- and zero-phase occurring on a network.
sequence components are generally both Harmonics
present, together with the positive phase- Any non-linear load (fluorescent lamp, Graetz
sequence component. bridge, arc furnace, etc.) takes a non-
A common cause of imbalance is that of sinusoidal current from the network. Such a
different levels of loading on the 3 phases. current is composed of a sinusoidal
Unbalanced loading results in unbalanced component at the frequency of the system
voltages being applied to 3-phase motors. and is known as the fundamental component,
Increased losses occur in the rotors of the together with other sinusoidal components
motors, and in cases of excessive imbalance, which are whole-number multiples of the
motors can be destroyed by overheating. fundamental frequency. These latter are
Single-phase (line-to-line) loads are not referred to as harmonic components.
normally adversely affected by imbalance. Conventionally, harmonics up to the rank of
Small degrees of imbalance (0.5-1%) are 40 only are considered in power systems,
inevitable on LV 3-phase 3-wire networks, i.e. 2 kHz for 50 Hz systems and 2.4 kHz for
and up to 2 or 3% can be tolerated for several 60 Hz systems. Supplies to electronic circuits,
minutes by all loads. power regulators based on Graetz bridge,
When an imbalance of voltage is considered and fluorescent lighting equipment, are rich in
to be excessive (> 2% for example), it is harmonics.
advisable to correct the balance of phase Distortion of a voltage waveform is onerous
loading. Where it is not possible to improve for associated equipments; it is expressed as
the balance, the situation may be eased by a percentage. It is proportional to the
increasing the fault level at the circuit harmonic content of the current and to the
concerned by changing the supply impedance of the source. The effect of
transformer. distortion is to increase the heating losses in
An average HV/LV distribution transformer motors. In an ADP environment, a distortion
(> 100 kVA) has a short-circuit voltage of of 5% may be considered to be normal. All
5-6%. Special transformers are available with electronic components can tolerate a global
interlaced windings which limit the leakage factor of distortion including possible inter-
reactance to give a short-circuit voltage of harmonics of at least 8%. An inter-harmonic
approximately 2%. current has a frequency which is not a whole-
A low short-circuit voltage effectively means a number multiple of the fundamental (i.e.
low source impedance (with higher fault- system) frequency. A distinction is made
current level) a situation which improves the between "true" inter-harmonics generated at
voltage balance, and (incidentally) improves discrete frequencies, and those forming part
the form of the voltage wave (if it happens to of a continuous spectrum.
be distorted) by reducing the harmonic Even-numbered harmonics are generated
content of the wave. A modern method of only by asymmetrical rectifiers and load
improving a condition of imbalance, though currents which contain a dc component. A dc
presently rather costly, is to install a static component can readily saturate a power-
compensator. It consists of a system which supply transformer. Most non-linear loads
stores energy in an inductor or capacitor, and (satured transformers, fluorescent tubes,
restores this energy to the system at the power supply circuits which use current-
appropriate instants. chopping techniques, etc.) only generate
An active filter constitutes one of the odd-numbered harmonics.
preferred solutions for limiting disturbances
generated by arc furnaces during the start-up
phase.
Appendix EMC - 5
2. electromagnetic disturbances (continued)
EMC
2.1 disturbances by conduction (continued)
Balanced 3-phase loads supplied from The role of an active filter, triggered by an
a 3-phase 3-wire system (i.e no neutral wire) error function, is to inject into the network a
do not generate 3rd harmonic currents or harmonic current exactly equal, but in phase
multiples of 3rd harmonic currents. A Graetz opposition, to that produced downstream.
bridge or a hexaphase thyristor-controlled The principle of operation is comparable to
regulator behave as current generators, that of a static compensator, but at a
which are practically independent of the considerably higher chopping rate. An active
voltage distortion. filter can be called upon to compensate not
Third harmonic currents and multiples of only first (i.e. lower) harmonics, but also
them (known as "triplen" currents) when reactive power (var) and flicker ; it is simply a
generated in the phases of a 3-phase 4-wire question of dimensioning.
system, present a particular problem in that, Overvoltages
being of zero-phase sequence (i.e. in phase Overvoltages that affect industrial-supply
with each other), they add arithmetically and power networks in the differential mode
complete their circuit through the neutral (between phases) can occur for numerous
conductor. The current in the neutral reasons.
conductor due to this cause is at 150 Hz and The energizing of a bank of capacitors can
can exceed, in unfavourable circumstances, generate an overvoltage transient associated
the current flowing in the phase wires. This with an energy level of several hundred
aspect should be borne in mind when Joules. The inductance of the system and the
considering supplies to ADP loads and loads capacitance of the bank behave as a series
made up of fluorescent lighting tubes. If the LC circuit which oscillates transiently at its
neutral is not distributed, i.e. the system is natural frequency, typically below 1 kHz.
3-phase 3-wires, then 3rd harmonic currents The value of the first peak (the sum of the
cannot flow. A transformer with a delta- transient and system peaks) can reach
connected primary winding, however, allows almost twice the value of the power system
the circulation of 3rd harmonic currents, a peak voltage, i.e. the transient can have a
feature that practically negates the distortion peak value almost equal to the system peak.
of the LV voltage wave, which would A second cause of overvoltage may occur on
otherwise contain a large 3rd harmonic the blowing of a wire-type fuse. A sudden
component. release of the magnetic energy stored in the
Reduction of the source impedance is not system inductances can be as much as a
always effective in reducing distortion : thousand Joules, which, when converted into
power-factor correcting capacitors can cause electrostatic form in the system capacitances,
a problem, if, together with the source can raise the voltage sufficiently to damage
impedance (which is predominantly inductive) associated equipment. The effect is
the combination should form a resonant (or considerably less with cartridge fuses or with
partially resonant) circuit at one of the a circuit breaker.
harmonic or inter-harmonic frequencies. Any manœuvre on a power transmission
The parallel combination of inductive system (opening or closing a circuit breaker,
reactance L and capacitive reactance C can isolating switch, etc.) results in an operational
present a high impedance at its resonant disturbance. The energization of a
frequency, particularly at low-load periods. transmission line is characterized by a wave
The distortion can therefore become front of voltage which (at approximately the
excessive due to the amplification effect of speed of light) propagates and reflects along
the resonance. the line to produce a voltage-doubling
A harmonic filter is a series LC circuit phenomenon.
connected in parallel with the source and acts The frequency of this highly-damped short-
as a short-circuit to currents at its resonant duration oscillation varies between 10 kHz
frequency. The capacitor and inductor must and 1 MHz. The phenomenon is related to
be capable of carrying the maximum value of that of energizing a capacitor, but the
the harmonic current, while the capacitor frequency in this case is much greater
must withstand the elevated harmonic (depending on the length of the line) while the
voltage plus the system normal-frequency energy level is lower. The risk of damage to
voltage. The inductor is adjusted to cause the equipment from this phenomenon is much
combination to resonate at the exact less than that from overvoltages of longer
frequency of the harmonic in question. It must duration, but the risks of malfunctions are
not saturate or overheat. The rating of a greater.
harmonic filter varies according to the size of Overvoltages have little effect on
the installation from some kvar to several electrotechnical equipments, but can disturb,
Mvar. weaken and even destroy electronic
A problem with harmonic filters is that their equipments. A LF overvoltage in common
resonant frequencies change from one point mode has no effect on supply circuits that are
on the network to another due to cable galvanically isolated, provided that the
inductance. The longer the cabling, the lower isolating dielectric can withstand the voltage
the frequency at which the filter resonates. stress without rupturing. At HF, principally by
It is advisable moreover, to check that the its common-mode component, an
currents in a number of paralleled filters are overvoltage can disturb (i.e. interfere with)
satisfactorily shared. sensitive electronic systems. The solution is
A modern means of limiting distortion is by simple: filter each equipment with respect to
the use of active filters. These filters are its own mass (metallic structure of the
inverters based on PWM (Pulse Width equipment).
Modulation) techniques, together with
reactive-energy storage.
6 - Appendix EMC
EMC
The installation engineer has practically only New overvoltage surge arresters based on
one way to protect the installation against the use of varistors of high energy-dissipation
overvoltages, and that is to install overvoltage ratings allow an effective protection of all LV
limiting devices on the supply-circuit systems and equipments downstream of the
conductors. Overvoltages occurring on public point of arrester installation.
LV distribution networks are lower in energy Failure of the zinc-oxide varistor will cause a
than those occurring in heavy-current thermal fusing element (which is connected in
industrial networks: the energy on public series with it) to blow, and open the circuit,
networks rarely exceeding 100 Joules. thereby avoiding a short-circuit to earth via a
The only really dangerous case is that of a faulty or damaged arrester. The cable from
lightning stroke on a line close to the this device must be connected by the
installation. shortest possible route to the mass of the
distribution board, i.e. the common earthing
bar, and not to the earthing electrode, which
is generally too far away (see Sub-clause
L 1.4).
EMC
2.2 radiation
Electrical energy propagation is not only conductor (which acts as a receiving
confined to conductors. It can also propagate antenna), give rise to minute emfs and
in space without material support. Such currents in the conducting material, i.e. in the
propagation is referred to as electromagnetic form of disturbance by conduction. For cable
fields or waves, or Hertzian waves. Such a circuits, these disturbances are in common
wave is made up of an electric component E mode. It is therefore possible to protect
in volts per metre, and a magnetic against these radiated fields by means of a
component H in amperes per metre. Faraday cage arrangement or by (very often)
These radiated fields, when encountering a low-pass filters.
8 - Appendix EMC
3. cabling of equipment and systems
EMC
In order to cable an electronic system achievement of EMC in modern electronic
correctly or to correct an unsatisfactory systems. Many practices which are
installation, it is often sufficient to apply some satisfactory at LF have proved to be poor or
simple elementary rules. From experience, even catastrophic at HF. Certain cabling
the most important factor is a clear options can be chosen with confidence.
understanding of the phenomena and the The interconnection of all the non-functional
recognition of their limits. The strict earths of a single site is one example.
observance of traditional rules for correct Factors which are always favourable should
installation and cabling has become become standard practice.
necessary. This is the price to pay for the
3.1 earthing
The expressions "earth", "earth electrode", These currents, and short-circuit-to-earth fault
"earth plate", "earth rod" all refer to a currents, flow mainly through the protective
conductor which is buried, and in intimate earthing PE conductors (coloured with yellow
contact with the soil. The word «mass» refers and green stripes) and finally back to the
to metal parts of equipment (electrical or not - source substation, via the earth (TT system)
for example, water pipes) which, under or via the earth path and (mainly) through the
normal conditions, are not intended to carry neutral conductor in parallel (TN system).
current. Bonding conductors, which are used Since, in the TN case, practically all of the
to interconnect masses are also referred to fault (and leakage) currents return to the
as "mass". Although all masses in normal LF source via the neutral conductor, the
installation practice are connected to earth, resistance of the installation earth electrode is
the two words, "earth" and the above-noted not of primary importance (unless lightning
equivalents should not be confused with arresters are to be connected to it).
"mass". "Mass" is commonly called "ground" For the protection of electronic equipments, it
in some countries. is strongly recommended that common-mode
currents entering the building from external
3.1.1 the role of earthing cables be diverted to earth at the point of entry.
The basic role of an earth electrode is to A simple galvanic isolation is often
maintain all masses in an installation at a insufficient: the overvoltage withstand
voltage close to zero, whether the power capability of a galvanic isolation transformer
source is earthed or not. This is achieved in a is typically less that 10 kV. This value is
properly designed installation, regardless of insufficient on days of intense electrical
whether a faulty condition (which would storms.
otherwise raise the voltage of the installation The installation of non-linear voltage-limiting
masses) occurs in the installation circuits or devices then becomes a necessity.
on the power-supply network, or other It is important that all incoming metallic pipes,
sources external to the installation. ducts, trunking, etc., be connected to earth at
The role of earthing, therefore, is that of the their entry into the building. This policy can
protection of persons against the dangers of avoid the circulation of currents (from outside
electrocution. The severity of an electric the building) in the conductors bonding the
shock is a function of the current which masses.
passes through the body, and equally The installation of overvoltage-protection
important is the path of the current flow devices must be carried out with the
through the body. Established IEC rules of minimum possible common impedance
protection against electric shock set safe between the external circuit and the circuit to
limits of voltage (referred to as conventional be protected. The length of conductor in
voltage limits) above which masses are series with the voltage limiter must,
considered to be unacceptably dangerous. consequently, be the shortest possible.
For normal 50 Hz or 60 Hz power systems, The residual voltage "seen" by the protected
these values are 50 Vrms for dry locations equipment is then independent of the
and 25 Vrms for wet locations, for example impedance of the earth.
bathrooms and laundries (see Chapter L of Even with a "bad" earth, it is possible to
the main text for more details). protect an equipment effectively against
It is recognized that a low contact resistance external overvoltages: it is necessary and
of an earth electrode with the mass of the sufficient to connect the voltage limiter to the
earth cannot always be obtained. mass of the equipment using the shortest
Furthermore, its value is rarely constant, practical length of cable.
depending largely on soil humidity (and so
prone to seasonal changes). An essential electric-power line
factor in maintaining safety to personnel in protected
the event of a high earthing resistance, is that voltage
limiter electronic
of the equipotential concept. If, for example, earthing conductor equipment
all masses are at a common (even normally
dangerous) potential, and the earth below the yes
building is at a similar potential, a person can
touch any or several masses at the same protected
time without danger. This is why electrical electronic
appliances with long leads (hedge trimmers, equipment
lawn mowers, etc.), which allow the user to
leave the equipotential environment of the no
house, must be of Class II insulation level
(i.e. doubly insulated).
So-called normal leakage currents (no fig. EMC-5: a voltage limiter must be
insulation is perfect) also include the minute connected to the mass and not to earth.
capacitive currents of the wiring to earth.
Appendix EMC - 9
3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)
EMC
3.1 earthing (continued)
When a voltage limiter is correctly connected An electronic equipment is not affected by the
to the mass, the impedance of the earth value of earth resistance. At worst, there is a
electrode is immaterial. risk of exposure to overvoltages from an
A direct lightning stroke on the supply line external cable, if its protection is insufficient,
close to the installation requires the or is badly cabled. So that the role of the
dissipation of (typically) 10 kA to 100 kA of masses is essential, and more important than
stroke current, most of which passes to earth that of the earthing. The only requirement for
through lightning arresters on the line a satisfactory performance of the electronic
external to the installation. Overvoltages equipments is a high degree of
within an installation where external arresters equipotentiality.
are provided rarely exceed 6 kV due to It is evident that two earths are always less
atmospheric causes. equipotential than one. Any separate earth,
even if said to be «interference free» is
always detrimental to equipotentiality, and so
direct-stroke current
to the safety of persons and to the
satisfactory functioning of interconnected
lightning protection equipments. Two non-functional earth-
conductors electrode systems on a common site should
internal equipments must always be interconnected.
be maintained at In practice, care must be taken that there is
equipotential no touch-voltage existing when working on an
electronic equipment interconnection
between two buildings (video, access control,
local network, information technology (ADP)
fig. EMC-6: the entire equipotential devices...) if the earthing systems of the two
"cage" will be at a high absolute potential buildings are not solidly interconnected. It is,
during the brief flow of stroke current. as already noted, not possible to be sure of
the equipotentiality of two separate earths.
For transmission and distribution lines at high * This statement is not true in certain circumstances, notably
in rural areas, where a small transformer supplies an
voltage, the fault current for one phase to isolated community, for example. The neutral earth
earth returns to the source through the earth electrode must necessarily have the lowest possible
and (where provided) through the shielding resistance in such cases. If not, potential gradients on the
surface of the ground can be dangerously high in the vicinity
conductors above the phase conductors of of the electrode during an earth fault.
the lines. Animals are frequently killed due to this cause.
The provision of an equipotential condition on
the surface of the ground at the base of
transmission towers and, more importantly, at
substations (the source of the fault current) is
a primary concern of design engineers. The
principle of equipotential bonding is identical
to that required for a low-voltage installation
in a building.
A functional earth means an earth electrode
which is designed to pass load current
through the earth, i.e. the earth path acts as
one of the circuit conductors. There are
several installations around the world that
utilise this method. In some countries, d.c. is
used in this (economic) way to operate a
service of facsimile transmission.
It may be of interest to note that when
telephone cables (which use paper insulation
on the conductors) have a high degree of
leakage current and consequently doubtful
symmetry, a low earth resistance allows the
quality of the transmitted signals to be
preserved. Although the magnitude of
telephone signals is low (millivolts to less
than 1 volt), the quality of modern cables
overcomes the constraints of a "good" earth.
To summarise, the protection of persons does
not depend directly on a low value of earth
resistance*; it is rather the establishment of a
condition of equipotential between masses
that is of prime importance. Thus, an aircraft
in an electric storm presents no danger to the
passengers, who are in a metallic envelope
which is (within a few volts) perfectly
equipotential. For persons or animals, the
danger is not the magnitude of the absolute
potential, it is the difference of potential
between metal parts which can be touched
simultaneously that is dangerous.
10 - Appendix EMC
EMC
3.2 masses
The majority of malfunctions in safety limit (of 50 Vrms in dry locations and
electromagnetic devices, sometimes wrongly 25 Vrms in wet conditions for ac systems).
imputed to software problems or human error, These values are the maximum allowed that
are found to be due to an insufficient level of can exist indefinitely in specified conditions of
equipotentiality between interconnected units external influences.
(probes, cards, actuators). A dangerous touch voltage can arise during a
There are two differences between a buried fault if the resistance of the equipotential
conductor and a mass conductor. A buried conductors is not sufficiently low. In some
conductor will dissipate its common mode cases, it is necessary to install supplementary
currents, but it is always too far from the equipotential conductors in parallel with
equipments to be effective at HF. existing conductors to satisfy the UL criterion.
A mass conductor above ground level It should be noted that access to two (or
presents two essential virtues to the good more) masses is illegal, even if they are
performance of electronic systems, viz: it is associated with different installations, if they
physically close to the circuits, and it is are connected to different earthing systems
accessible. which are not interconnected.
The equipotentiality of equipments and their The respect of safety rules is obligatory but
masses is a functional objective. not sufficient, in themselves, to ensure
As long as interference signals circulate in satisfactory EMC of an installation. In fact, the
the masses and not in the electronic circuits, risk of electrocution only exists by a voltage
they are harmless. On the other hand, if the of a high value and relatively long duration
masses are not all equipotential and are appearing between adjacent masses.
connected to earth in star*, for example, HF An electronic equipment is sensitive to an
interference currents will circulate through extensive range of frequencies, or to very
any available path, i.e. via signal cables. brief impulses. An electrostatic discharge, for
Some circuits will therefore be subjected to example, is generally of no consequence for
interference and even be destroyed. its source, but it could be catastrophic for an
Networking the mass conductors to form a electronic device. Normal earths, commonly
closely-connected low-impedance bonding connected in «star» (i.e. radial) configuration
system is the only economical way to ensure for example, guarantee the safety of persons
a satisfactory level of equipotentiality to install when the relevant standards are respected,
all sensitive equipments in a "Faraday cage" but not the satisfactory operation of an
arrangement (a room enclosed in a mesh of installation which includes sensitive electronic
conductors) would be technically ideal, but is components.
generally not economically justified. It is certain that more and more electronic
By definition, a "mass" is any conducting equipments are, or will be, connected to other
material which can be touched by any part of apparatuses and devices for the exchange of
a human body, that is not normally alive, but information. The best way of ensuring a
which may become alive as the result of a successful and durable installation
fault. Two masses which are accessible and performance is to establish a high degree of
within human reach must present a potential equipotentiality throughout the entire
difference, under any conceivable fault installation.
condition, that does not exceed the IEC- * i.e. by one of a number of conductors radially connected to
recommended conventional voltage (UL) the main earth bar, the ensemble resembling a "star".
3.2.1. loops of mass and between masses If a current circulates around a mass loop,
A loop of mass is the area included between such a current in common mode may either
a working cable (metering cable, control superimpose «noise» (interference) on useful
cable, power-supply cable, local-network signals (in differential mode, by conversion
system cable) and the mass conductor from common mode to differential mode) or
(generally the nearest PE conductor). There disturb the electronic circuits at each
are, therefore, as many loops of mass as extremity.
there are cables. This is inevitable, whether The risk is equally present for radiation from a
the conductors are galvanically isolated or loop as for reception of interference by the
not. A galvanic isolation reduces the loop. The output stages of electronic circuits
circulation of LF currents without, however, are as sensitive to interference as the input
reducing the area of the loop. A loop can stages, and are more difficult to filter.
oscillate strongly at HF, so that large-area The areas enclosed by mass conductors
loops constitute the major problem in EMC. must not be confused with those referred to
above as "mass loops". It is preferable to
equipment 1 equipment 2 allow parasitic currents to propagate in the
masses rather than in the signal cables.
signal These loops between mass conductors are
cable called "loops between masses".
mass conductor
fig. EMC-7: there is an inevitable mass
loop per cable. loop between masse
mass conductor
fig. EMC-8.
Appendix EMC - 11
3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)
EMC
3.2 masses (continued)
If two neighbouring masses are not The more this policy is developed, the more
connected together, the differential potential effective is the resulting state of
difference between them may be significant. equipotentiality, both at LF and at HF.
A direct connection from one to the other will Connecting the masses to a mesh of
always improve the equipotential condition. interconnecting mass cables is always
At least, the masses of all equipments which beneficial, regardless of the nature of the
exchange data between them should be equipments concerned.
interconnected by mass conductors. An even
more certain way of improving the state of equipment 1 equipment 2
equipotentiality is to interconnect all greater immunity
against
equipment masses, whether they exchange radiation fields by
data or not. reduction
"Mass loops", also called "ground loops", of area of the mass loop
should never be confused with «loops
between masses». A mass loop is never
favourable, and its area must be reduced to
the minimum attainable, to reduce as far as
possible the interference effects of disturbing greater immunity from conducted
fields. On the other hand, it is always good interference by multiplication and reduction
practice to increase the number and reduce in area, of loops between masses.
the areas of loops between masses. fig. EMC-9.
3.2.2 unity of the mass network Earthing in "star" can create a common
The mass must be unique to be equipotential. impedance between two interconnected
There are three methods of connecting equipments.
masses which preserve this unity. It is sometimes also assumed that the "star"
1 - Earthing connections in "star": each system of earth connections suppresses the
equipment has its own earthing cable, which mass loops. Between two interconnected
terminates with all other individual earthing equipments, it is evidently not the case; the
cables on a unique earthing bar. area enclosed by the mass loop can, in fact,
be considerable. An electromagnetic field
due, for example to a lightning discharge, will
induce voltage in the mass loop greater than
that occurring in any other method of
earthing.
earth cables
inevitably long strong
equipment 1 equipment 2
d.p.d.
signal
cable
authorized method, but costly and not electro-
good for EMC, particularly for magnetic
interconnected equipments wave large area
earth cables radiating from the main earth bar,
figuratively similar to a star
fig. EMC-10.
The justification of such a philosophy is over-
simple: when an equipment develops a leakage fig. EMC-12.
current to mass, the remaining equipments This long-established "star" earthing method
are assumed to remain at earth potential. is now only possible for an equipment which
But "earth" potential has no real meaning in is, and will remain, isolated from any other.
practical electronics, all potentials are relative The method can be suitable only for
one to another, the concept of absolute zero electronic analog systems (as opposed to
potential (i.e. "remote earth") is abstract. digital systems) with floating sensors, and the
It is often assumed that the "star" configuration electronic circuits completely isolated from
of earthing overcomes the problem of any other. Such cases are becoming
common impedance. It is, in fact, quite the increasingly rare.
opposite! Earthing in the "star" configuration With the generalisation of information-data
increases the common impedance (that is, transmissions over great distances, local
forms a point of common coupling) between networks, shared peripherals and, in general,
interconnected equipments. the exchange of signals between
equipments, the "star" method of earthing
high value of must be abandoned. Moreover, even if the
differential earth connection of each equipment by an
potential
equipment 1 difference equipment 2 individual conductor is not detrimental, it still
disturbance (d.p.d.) remains a costly method that requires large
on cable amounts of copper and many hours of
I mc installation work.
signal The only reasonable application for the "star"
PE cable PE arrangement of earthing (in fact, connection
high impedance if the
to mass) is the connecting cable between an
Z
conductor is long equipment and power-supply socket-outlet, or
the nearest distribution board. Thus, in an
I ADP environment, it is reasonable to use the
green-and-yellow PE conductor of the power-
fig. EMC-11. supply circuits to connect each equipment to
12 - Appendix EMC
EMC
the general distribution board, located in the 3 - The shortest connection to the nearest
room. From the common earth bar of the mass.
board, a single protection cable is taken to This third method of connection to the
the main earth electrode for the installation. nearest mass is better than those previously
This conductor can be common to other described. It is based on the mesh
devices, and may, with advantage, be connection of masses. The areas of mass
connected to neighbouring masses. loops are reduced to the strict minimum and
the degree of equipotentiality of the masses
PE conductor for is excellent.
other installations
sensitive
main distribution equipments
board
earth bar
main earth
terminal
local mass
earth-electrode structures of adjacent masses
system (mass grid, conducting false floor, cable trays,
ducts, troughs, etc)
fig. EMC-13: a good earthing-system fig. EMC-15.
arrangement.
Note: concerning the safety of persons, this
Even if a strong source of interference is
type of local connection is not generally a
installed in the same environment as
substitute for PE conductors. It is appropriate,
sensitive equipment, a separate earthing
therefore, to superimpose the methods 2 (or
system for the sensitive equipment is
even 1) for the safety of persons, and n° 3 for
detrimental and not recommended. At the
EMC.
most, it is desirable to supply the two
incompatible systems on separate cables Mesh connecting the masses is even more
from the power-supply network. In any case, important as the area covered by the
mesh-connecting the masses is favourable. installation increases, with long
Such a mesh of PE conductors has the merit interconnecting cables, or when the
of avoiding involuntary loops which can equipments are divided between several
become catastrophic if not successfully storeys.
countered. The mesh connecting of masses does not
"Star"-system earthing can be accepted only reduce the favourable policy of supplying
for low-frequency installations that are, and sensitive equipments by different supply
will remain, independent and isolated from cables than those used to supply strongly
any other installation. polluting loads. However, the use of different
supply cables does not signify "star" -
2 - Connection to the nearest PE
connected masses.
conductor: a unique protection (PE)
The lengths of protective conductors (PE)
conductor, associated with several
mean that, at HF, their impedance is
equipments.
generally too high to effectively improve the
equipotential situation. For example, a PE
conductor 100 metres long is incapable of
passing significant currents at frequencies
exceeding 100 kHz.
The PE conductors and earthing conductors
alone are not sufficient to ensure the EMC of
a single PE conductor an installation. Additional conductors and
short inter-mass connections are also
necessary.
PE cables, even long, and short-circuited at
one end by a mass grid, function correctly at
fig. EMC-14.
LF for the protection of persons. No
By using this cabling scheme, the mass loops interconnection between masses and no
have a small area and the common protective conductor should ever be
impedance between interconnected removed, even if they appear to have
equipments is less than that with a "star"- become redundant following a careful
connected earthing scheme. This economic meshing (close interconnection of
method is also recommended for safety equipments and other masses to form a
reasons. It is easy to prove that the touch "mesh") of all adjacent masses.
voltage between two masses connected to A PE conductor is not to be considered as an
the same PE conductor remains less than the earthing conductor but as a "bonding"
conventional (UL) value. The risk of using the conductor, or "earth-bonding" conductor, the
same PE conductor for earthing two systems, principal function of which is to ensure that UL
one "noisy" and the other sensitive, is not (i.e. the maximum allowable touch voltage) is
negligible. Although the low impedance of the never exceeded.
PE conductors and the good level of Furthermore, there should never be more
immunity to LF interference in common mode than one earthing system per installation (i.e.
together limit the risks, the HF currents per site) similarly for the mass system which
generated by strongly polluting sources must be unique, and connected to the unique
(power converters in particular) cannot be earthing system. If this policy is not adopted,
dissipated efficiently by a single PE then EMC problems will certainly be
conductor. In such cases, it is necessary to experienced via the inevitable links between
install additional (supplementary) PE adjacent installations (entry controls, video,
conductors in the form of a meshed network. alarms, safety measures, etc.).
Appendix EMC - 13
3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)
EMC
3.2 masses (continued)
In practice, any conductor can be included Except for the installation of a (very costly)
usefully in the equipotential network of the "Faraday cage" type of enclosure, the mesh
masses: metallic tubes, pipes, drains, cable- connecting of masses is the only practical
trays and ladders, structural members way to guarantee a sufficient level of
(girders, beams, reinforcing rods, etc.). Such equipotentiality to counter effectively all types
a mesh of interconnected metal improves of electromagnetic interference.
considerably the EMC of systems, as well as The notion of equipotentiality is more and
favouring the measures for safety of persons. more localised as the frequency increases.
The nature of the conductors has little The equipotential condition is only obtained at
importance in equipotentiality. A steel HF by the free circulation of the common-
conductor at HF has approximately the same mode currents in all directions, i.e. by
inductance as a copper conductor of dispersion.
equivalent cross-sectional-area and length. Thus, in an industrial environment, it is
These connections to any and all masses in recommended to connect routinely all
buildings are authorized and desirable. conducting structures to neighbouring
It is simpler, and ensures the best results, to conducting parts of the building by the
interconnect all masses of every kind shortest possible "bonding" conductors and,
routinely, rather than to limit the where appropriate (e.g. in multi-storey
interconnections to the masses of the buildings) in three dimensions. This is the
equipments and devices, of the electrical and most economic way to improve the
electronic systems only. In this way a "mesh equipotentiality of an installation at all
of masses" or a "mass grid" (both terms are frequencies, despite some inevitable currents
used) is formed. It is rarely useful to install an in the masses.
electrical conductor; it is sufficient to simply Only desk-top equipments in an office
interconnect, at as many points as possible, environment and not connected to a network
all metallic pipes, tubes, ducts, structural have no need be connected to a mass grid.
girders, beams, reinforcing rods, etc. It is They must, on the other hand, be very
recommended to connect every large rack, carefully screened.
frame, or structure, to the mass grid at
intervals of approximately 1 metre.
In conclusion, an effective equipotential
condition of all masses favours the
satisfactory performance of any electronic
system, especially for rapid or highly-polluting
digital systems. Whether it be for the
improvement in immunity from
electromagnetic interference, or for the
reduction of radiation from the equipments of
the installation, the mesh connection of
masses affords a simple, relatively
inexpensive and efficient solution for
frequencies up to several tens of megahertz.
If the public power-supply system benefits
from 3-phase star-connected operation, it is
because the supplies are (and must remain)
galvanically isolated each one from the
others. It should be understood that factors
which are favourable for phase conductors,
are not necessarily so for the masses.
A HF current cannot flow easily through a
phase conductor: it is only possible at low
frequencies. To divide the inevitable HF
common-mode currents through the multiple
paths of numerous conductors of a mass grid
is a guarantee of protection for the signal
cables. Experience shows that when a
system functions correctly in the absence of
HF interference, regardless of the cabling
philosophy of its masses, the routine meshing
of masses has no adverse effect on the
correct operation of the system; on the
contrary, it often decisively improves the
system performance.
14 - Appendix EMC
EMC
3.3 attenuation effects
The attenuating effect of a conducting lower strength than that of the original field.
structure (mass) is defined by the amplitude A cable in close proximity to conductive mass
of the common-mode interference appearing from end to end is therefore less exposed to
on a cable installed at a location remote from the most severe type of interference, viz: that
any masses, with respect to the amplitude of of common mode.
the interference on the same cable due to the Attenuation effects can be made more
same disturbance, but with the cable installed effective by arranging the mass, where
in close proximity (i.e. clamped firmly) to possible, to envelop the conductors to be
mass, throughout its length. protected. In this way, a woven metallic
screen, incorporated in signal cables and
connected to mass, protects the envelopped
victim cable conductors above a frequency of 1 MHz with
an attenuation factor of at least 300.
10 V It is difficult and expensive to shield all the
I
interconnections in a installation, but it is
often easy to select cable routes which
mass conductor provide good attenuation. To benefit from the
attenuation effect, it is sufficient to fix cables
on conductive mass throughout the entire
victim cable cable length. Such masses must be carefully
bonded together electrically and to all nearby
I 2V structural framework. The quality (i.e. the low
impedance) of interconnecting bonds is of
fig. EMC-16: example of attenuating primary importance. The most efficient is a
effect (in this case equal to 5). direct contact of sheet metal on sheet metal.
The attenuating effect is one of the key dB attenuation effect of a perforated steel sheet
metal, type "dalle marine"
factors in EMC, being effective and not too direct contact, sheet metal on sheet metal
costly. In order to exchange signals in good 40
conditions, i.e. in limiting the interference
picked up by the signal cables, it is important (same connection
to reduce common-mode coupling. at 2 extremities)
20
Any metallic structure, close to, i.e. in contact metal flexible-connection
with, and longitudinally parallel to a signal tresses
10
cable, from one end to the other, can provide cable
frequency
two favourable effects: (MHz)
1 - A more effective meshing of the masses. 0,1 0,3 1 3 10 30 100
For d.c. currents, the mesh does not act as fig. EMC-17.
an attenuator; its role is to reduce the
resistance between masses, not to provide a Electrical continuity from one end to the other,
shielding effect. The galvanic effect of the and the correct connection to mass at
mesh is independent of the proximity of the extremities, guarantee an effective
signal cables with the mass. attenuation factor. It is recommended to
2 - An attenuation (shielding) effect. The connect cable ways to conductive building
effect of proximity adds to that mentioned in structures at intervals along the cable route.
above, if the word "impedance" replaces The attenuation factor is not reduced by
"resistance". It is achieved by connecting these additional contacts between masses,
equipments, which are interconnected to the but the mass mesh is improved. In a single
mass of conducting structures which are cable tray, in order to limit "cross-talk", power
close to the signal cables. The benefit is an cables or, for example, cables of speed
efficient shielding which is practically cost- controllers should not be placed beside small-
free. The attenuation effect being directly signal cables.
attributed to mutual induction, there is no The ideal, in an industrial environment, would
attenuation of d.c. interference, as noted in 1. be to install three separate cable trays, i.e.
It should be borne in mind that any cable is one for measurements and similar functions,
potentially an excellent wide-band antenna, one for control and indication circuits, and
especially in the metric range. In order to one for power cables.
reduce its radiation ability, a simple, efficient A copper conductor provides an attenuation
and inexpensive method consists in placing factor of the order 5 if it is installed throughout
the cable as close as possible to a mass the entire length close to the protected signal
structure throughout its length, i.e. close to a cable. It is therefore an advantage to
mass cable, metal ducting, structural girder, associate signal cables with interconnecting
etc. The attenuation effect produced by a earthing cables in a common cable way (for
mass conductor close to a signal cable is instance, between two buildings). This is still
simply explained, as follows. On the occurrence true even if the earths are interconnected
of an electromagnetic-wave disturbance, a elsewhere. It is always possible to add a
current is induced in the mass conductor. mass cable adjacent to a particularly
This current generates, according to Lenz’s sensitive signal cable if necessary. The mass
law, a magnetic field which acts in the cable is then referred to as a "cable of
opposite sense to the field that produced the accompaniment".
current. A signal cable close to the mass A buried cable which is passing an a.c.
conductor will therefore be affected by the current in common mode creates a magnetic
difference only of the original field and the field in the surrounding soil. This (concentric)
reactive field of the mass-conductor current. field gives rise to (Foucault) currents in the
The resulting field affecting the signal cable is earth and the magnetic energy is dissipated
known as the residual field and is evidently of in the form of heat. The common-mode
Appendix EMC - 15
3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)
EMC
3.3 attenuation effects (continued)
currents are damped by this effect, which is particularly effective where the interference is
not exactly the same as that of the due to repetitive trains of transient damped
attenuation described above, but is rather oscillations (i.e. "bursts"). The Foucault
analogous to the action of a transformer with currents in the soil increase the degree of
a resistive load. This damping action is damping.
∆ transformer ∆ ∆ ∆
PE
conductor
transformer main
earth
bar
Appendix EMC - 17
3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)
EMC
3.5 EMC components and solutions (continued)
plated. An electromagnetic shield need not output connectors at any convenient point. If,
necessarily be earthed to be effective. For a on the contrary, a screen performs badly, with
magnetic field simply its presence is excessive leakage (display, keyboard,
sufficient. For electric fields, it is enough that printed-circuit board or disk reader) then, it is
the screen acts as potential reference for the an advantage to group all the input and
input and output circuits. It may be concluded output connectors on a common chassis,
that a shield prevents the fields from remote from the leakage, the role of this
penetrating the protected space, but also, chassis being that of a reference-potential
and especially, prevents parasitic currents point. It may be noted that all modern
from entering. Thus, shields and filters are microcomputers have their cables grouped at
not rivals, but are complementary, one with the rear face, remote from the disk units
the other. which are mounted on the front face.
If a screen is of excellent quality, with no
leakage, it is possible to install input and
18 - Appendix EMC
EMC
3.5.3 overvoltage protection public service supply line, the low arc-voltage,
The role of an overvoltage limiter, sometimes several tens of volts, requires the installation
referred to as "surge diverter" or "lightning of a varistance in series, to extinguish the arc
arrester" (depending on its intended location) when the surge has been dissipated.
is to reduce the risk of destruction to Analogous components exist at high voltage
components or entire equipments by ("horned spark-gaps" for example). At low
interferences which may occur at excessive voltage, "silicon spark-gaps" such as "Trisil"
voltage levels. of Thomson (a triac controlled by a Zener
An overvoltage limiter is generally a non- diode in the trigger circuit) are well adapted to
linear unilateral device: it limits the peak value the protection of telecommunication lines and
of voltage at a level which is much lower than circuits.
that of the incoming surge. This reduced level The highly non-linear metal-oxide varistance
being, in principle, lower than the rated components are well adapted to the
impulse withstand capability of all protection of supply-circuits. A disk of zinc-
downstream plant and equipment. oxide becomes conductive when the voltage
The limiting of the voltage peak, however, applied to its two faces exceeds a
does not reduce the HF radiation field "knee-point" value. That voltage, proportional
strength. Conversely, a low-pass filter does to the thickness of the disk, varies from some
not limit the voltage peak, the duration of tens of volts to several kilovolts. The energy
which, at half-peak level, considerably that a component can tolerate depends on
exceeds the response time of the filter. the volume of the disk: from tens of Joules to
Thus, an efficient filter which suppresses some tens of thousand Joules. The main
frequencies above 10 kHz would have a rise- drawback of varistances is their degradation
time of about 35 µs. This filter cannot limit an during periods of conduction.
overvoltage due to lightning, the tail-time of Zener diodes of very low dynamic resistance
which to half-peak is standardized at 50 µs. have a precise knee-point voltage and a short
The first voltage limiters used in telephone response time. Their low energy handling
systems were gas-filled discharge devices. capacity, of a fraction of a Joule to several
A gas-filled glass envelope contains two Joules, limits the use of these components to
electrodes separated one from the other by a the protection of signal circuits. Failure of
calibrated space. An overvoltage ionizes the such a diode always occurs as a short-circuit,
gas which allows a discharge to occur a condition that guarantees "fail-safe"
between the electrodes, thereby reducing the protection for the circuits.
potential and allowing the gas to de-ionize. In all cases, an overvoltage device in
Such a component is robust and has only a common mode should be connected directly
small parasitic effect. at the mass of the item to be protected, and
Its occasional failure, often by short-circuiting not, as is still often the case, by a long cable
of the electrodes (i.e. following an connected radially from a distant earth bar.
overvoltage discharge, the ionized gas The response time of an overvoltage limiting
sometimes provokes a short-circuit at normal device depends on the length of its
working voltage) means that its reliability connections.
cannot be guaranteed. In order to protect a
Appendix EMC - 19
4. local network problems
EMC
Local networks present at least one particular ∆I/∆t = 100 kA/µs
signal cable protected
problem: the numerous equipments are electronic
spread out, relatively distant one from equipment
∆H
another, and are installed for user
∆t
convenience rather than for EMC aera ≈ 300 m2
coordination considerations, are often
supplied from different lines, and 400 m
interconnected by conventional wiring protected
practices. electronic
equipment
insulation
stressed by 15 kV
20 - Appendix EMC
list of "cahiers techniques"
EMC
N° CT English French Spanish
114 Residual current devices X X X
141 Les perturbations électriques en BT X X
144 Introduction to dependability design X X
145 Etude thermique des tableaux électriques BT X X
147 Initiation aux réseaux de communication X
numérique
148 High availability electrical power distribution X X
149 EMC: Electromagnetic Compatibility X X
150 Development of LV circuit breakers X X X
to standard IEC 947-2
152 Harmonics in industrial networks X X X
154 LV circuit breaker breaking techniques X X X
155 MV public distribution networks X X X
throughout the world
156 Sûreté de fonctionnement et tableaux électriques BT X X
158 Calculation of short-circuit currents X X X
159 Inverters and harmonics X X X
(case studies of non-linear loads)
160 Harmonics upstream of rectifiers in UPS X X
161 Automatic transfering of power supplies X X
in HV and LV networks
162 Les efforts électrodynamiques X X
sur les jeux de barres en BT
163 LV breaking by current limitation X X
166 Enclosures and degrees of protection X X X
167 Energy-based discrimination X X X
for low-voltage protective devices
172 Earthing systems in LV X X X
173 Earthing systems wolrdwide and evolutions X X X
179 Surtensions et parafoudres en BT, X
Coordination de l'isolement en BT
Appendix EMC - 21