Chapter 4

BRIDGES
• A bridge circuit in its simplest form • Bridge circuits are extensively used
consists of a network of four for measuring component values
resistance arms forming a closed such as R , L and C.
circuit, with a dc source of current
• The bridge circuit merely compares
applied to two opposite junctions
the value of an unknown component
and a current detector connected to
with that of an accurately known
the other two junctions, as shown in
component (a standard), its
Fig. 4.1.
measurement accuracy can be very
high.
• The readout of this comparison is
based on the null indication at
bridge balance, and is essentially
independent of the characteristics of
the null detector.
• The measurement accuracy is
therefore directly related to the
accuracy of the bridge component
and not to that of the null indicator
used.

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 WHEATSTONE’S BRIDGE
(MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE)
• The basic dc bridge is used for accurate
measurement of resistance and is
called Wheatstone's Bridge.

• When SW1 is closed, current flows and

divides into the two arms at point A, i.e.
I1 and I2. The bridge is balanced when
there is no current through the
galvanometer, or when the potential
difference at points C and D is equal,
i.e. the potential across the
galvanometer is zero. Figure 4.1
• To obtain the bridge balance equation,
we have from the Fig. 4.1.

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 Example 4.1:
Figure 4.1 consists of the following
parameters.

R1  10k , R2  15k , R3  40k

• . Find the unknown resistance.

Solution:
From the equation for bridge
Figure 4.1 balance we have

R1R4  R2 R3  R1Rx  R2 R3
R2 R 3 15kx40k
 Rx    60k
R1 10k

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 Sensitivity of a Wheatstone Bridge
• When the bridge is in an unbalanced condition, current flows through
the galvanometer, causing a deflection of its pointer.

• The amount of deflection is a func­tion of the sensitivity of the

galvanometer. Sensitivity can be thought of as deflection per unit
current. A more sensitive galvanometer deflects by a greater amount
for the same current.

• Deflection may be expressed in linear or angular units of measure, and

sensitivity can be expressed in units of S = mm/μA or degree/μA or
radians/μA.

• Therefore it follows that the total deflection D is D = S x I, where S is

defined above and I is the current in microamperes.

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 Unbalanced Wheatstone's Bridge
• To determine the deflection of • Applying the voltage divider
unbalance, use Thevenin's equation, the voltage at point
theorem. a and point at b can be deter­
• Thevenin's equivalent voltage mined as follows
as shown in Fig. 11.2, and •
determining the open-circuit
voltage between terminals a
and b.

• Figure 11.2
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Thevenin’s equivalent resistance can be determined by replacing the
voltage source E with its internal impedance or otherwise short-circuited
and calculat­ing the resistance looking into terminals a and b. Since the
internal resistance is assumed to be very low, we treat it as 0 Ω.
• Thevenin's equivalent • Thevenin's equivalent circuit for
resistance circuit is shown in the bridge, as seen looking back
Fig. 11.3. at terminals a and b in Fig. 11.2,
• The equivalent resistance of the is shown in Fig. 11.4.
circuit is R1//R3 in series with • The deflection current in the
R2//R4 i.e. R1//R3 + R2//R4. galvanometer is therefore given
by
• ..

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• Example 11.2: An unbalanced an Wheatstone bridge is given in Fig.11.5,
Calculate the current through the galvanometer.
• Solution: The Thevenin's equivalent voltage between a and b is the
difference of voltages at these points i.e.
Eth  Ea  Eb  Eb  Ea
•
• .
• .
• .
• ,

• Thevenin’s equivalent resistance is

• The equivalent circuit connected along
with the galvanometer is as shown in Fig. 11.6.
• The current through the galvanom-eter is
given by

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 Slightly Unbalanced Wheatstone's Bridge
If three of the four resistors in a bridge are equal to R and the fourth differs
by 5% or less, we can develop an approximate but accurate expression for
The'venin's equivalent voltage and resistance.
• Consider the circuit in Fig, 11.7. The • Thevenin's equivalent voltage between a
voltage at point a and b are and b is the difference between these
voltages.
• Therefore

• Fig.11.7 Slightly Unbalanced

Wheatstone's Bridge
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• If Δr is 5% of R or less, Δr in the • Again, if Δr is small compared to R, Δr
denominator can be neglected without can be neglected. Therefore,
introducing appreciable error.
Therefore, Thevenin's voltage is

• Using these approximations, the

Thevenin's equivalent circuit is as
• The equivalent resistance can be shown in Fig, 11.8. These approximate
calculated by replacing the voltage equations are about 98% accurate if Δr
< 0.05 R.
source with its internal impedance
(for all practical purpose short-
circuit). The Thevenin's equivalent
resistance is given by

• Fig.11.8 Thevenin’s equivalent of a

slightly unbalanced wheatstone’s bridge
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 Example 11.3: Given a centre zero 200 - 0 - 200 (lA movement having an
internal resistance of 125 £2. Calculate the current through the
galvanometer given in Fig. 11.9 by the approximation method.

Solution: The Thevenin’s equivalent • If the detector is a 200 - 0 - 200

voltage is μA galvanometer, we see that
the pointer is full scale for a 5%
change in resistance.

• Thevenin’s equivalent resistance is

• The current through the

galvanometer is

• Fig.11.9

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Application of Wheatstone's Bridge
A Wheatstone bridge may be used to measure the dc resistance of
various types of wire, either for the purpose of quality control of the wire
itself, or of some assembly in which it is used.
For example, the resistance of motor windings, transformers, solenoids,
and relay coils can be measured. Wheatstone's bridge is also used
extensively by telephone companies and others to locate cable faults.
The fault may be two lines shorted together, or a single line shorted to
ground.
Limitations of Wheatstone's Bridge
• For low resistance measurement, the resistance of the leads and
contacts becomes significant and introduces an error. This can be
eliminated by Kelvin's Double bridge.
• For high resistance measurements, the resistance presented by the
bridge becomes so large that the galvanometer is insensitive to
imbalance. Therefore, a power supply has to replace the battery and a
dc VTVM replaces the galvanometer. In the case of high resistance
measurements in mega ohms, the Wheatstones bridge cannot be used.
• Another difficulty in Wheatstone's bridge is the change in resistance of
the bridge arms due to the heating effect of current through the
resistance. The rise in temperature causes a change in the value of the
resistance, and excessive current may cause a permanent change in
value.

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 KELVIN'S BRIDGE
• When the resistance to be measured is of the
order of magnitude of bridge contact and lead
resistance, a modified form of Wheatstone's
bridge, the Kelvin bridge is employed.
• Kelvin’s bridge is a modification of Wheatstone's
bridge and is used to measure values of
resistance below 1Ω. In low resistance
measurement, the resistance of the leads
connecting the unknown resistance to the terminal
of the bridge circuit may affect the measurement.
• Fig. 11.10 Kelvin's Bridge
• Consider the circuit in Fig. 11.10,
where Ry represents the resistance
of the connecting leads from R3 to
Rx (unknown resistance). The
galvanometer can be connected
either to point c or to point a. When
it is connected to point a, the
resistance Ry, of the connecting
lead is added to the unknown
resistance Rx, resulting in too high
indication for Rx. When the
connection is made to point c, Ry is
added to the bridge arm R3 and
resulting measurement of Rx is
lower than the actual value,
because now the actual value of R3
is higher than its nominal value by
the resistance Ry. If the
galvanometer is connected to point
b, in between points c and a, in such
a way that the ratio of the resistance
from c to b and that from a to b
equals the ratio of resistances Rx
and R2, then
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• and the usual balance equations for Therefore
the bridge give the relationship

• But

Subtituting

Hence

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• Figure 11.11 shows a schematic
diagram of Kelvin's double bridge.
The ratio of the resistances of
arms a and b is the same as
the ratio of R1 and R2. The
galvanometer indication is zero
when the potentials at k and c
are equal.

Fig.11.11

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• Example11.4 :
If in Fig. 11.12 the ratio of
Ra to Rb is 1000Ω, R1 is
5 Ω and R1 = 0.5 R2.
What is the value of Rx?

• Solution:
Resistance Rx can be
calculated as follows.

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 PRACTICAL KELVINS DOUBLE BRIDGE
• Figure 11.13 shows a commercial
Kelvin's bridge capable of measuring
resistances from 10 - 0.00001Ω.
• Contact potential drops in the circuit may
cause large errors. This effect is reduced
by varying a standard resistance
consisting of nine steps of 0.001Ω each,
plus a calibrated manganin bar of
0.0011Ω with a sliding contact. When
both contacts are switched to select the
suitable value of standard resistance, the
voltage drop between the ratio arm
connection points is changed, but the
total resistance around the battery circuit
is unchanged.
• This arrangement places any contact
resistance in series with the relatively
high resistance value of the ratio arms,
rendering the contact resistance effect
negligible. The ratio R1/R2 is selected
(as given in Fig.11.13) such that a
relatively large part of the standard
resistance is used and hence Rx is
determined to the largest possible
number of significant figures. Therefore,
measurement accuracy improves.

Fig.11.13

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 BRIDGE CONTROLLED CIRCUITS
Whenever a bridge is unbalanced, a potential difference exists at its output terminal. The potential
difference causes current to flow through the detector
(say, a galvanometer) when the bridge is used as part 6f a measuring instrument. When the bridge is used
as an error detector in a control circuit , the potential difference at the output of the bridge is called an error
signal, as in Fig.11.14. Resistor Rv in Fig. 11.14 may be sensitive to one of many different physical
parameters, such as heat or light. If the particular parameter to which the resis­tor is sensitive, is of a
magnitude such that the ratio R2IRV equals Ri/R3, then the error signal is zero. If the physical parameters
changes, Rv also changes. The bridge then becomes unbalanced and an error signal occurs. In most
control applications the measured and controlled parameter is corrected, restoring Rv to the value that
creates a null condition at the output of the bridge.Since Rv varies by only a small amount, the amplitude of
the error signal is normally quite low. It is therefore amplified before being used for control pur­poses.

• Passive circuit elements such as

strain gauges, temperature sensitive
resis­tors (thermistors) and photo
resistors, produce no output voltage.
However, when used as one arm of
Wheatstones bridge, a change in
their sensitive param­eter {heat, light,
pressure) produces a change in
their resistances. This causes the
bridge to be unbalanced, thereby
producing an output voltage or an
error signal.
• Fig. 11.14 m Wheatstone's Bridge Error Detector
with Resistance Ftv Sensitive to Some Physical
Parameters
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Example 11.5: Resistor Rv in Fig.11.15(a) is temperature sensitive, with a relation between
resistance and temperature as shown in Fig.11.I5(b), Calculate (i) at what temperature
the bridge is balanced, and (ii) The ampli­tude of the error signal at 60°C.

Solution:
• (i) The value of Rv when the bridge is balance is calculated as

The bridge is balanced when the temperature is 80°C. This is read di­rectly from the
graph of Fig. 11.15(b).

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Solution: • The error signal can also be
• (ii) We can also determine the determined by using the
resistance of Rv at 60°C directly following equation.
from the graph. This values of
4.5 kQ. Therefore the error
signal is given by

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 DIGITAL READOUT BRIDGES

• The tremendous increase in the use of digital circuitry has had a marked effect
on electronic test instruments. The early use of digital circuits in bridges was to
provide a digital readout. The actual measuring circuitry of the bridge remained
the same, but operator error in observing the reading was eliminated. The block
diagram for a Wheatstone bridge with digital readout is shown in Fig.11.16. Note
that a logic circuit is used to provide a signal to R3, sense the null, and provide a
digital readout representing the value of Rx.

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 AC BRIDGES
• Impedances at AF or
RF are commonly • This bridge is similar to a dc bridge,
determined by means except that the bridge arms are
of an ac Wheatstone impedances. The bridge is excited by an
bridge. The diagram of ac source rather than dc and the
an ac bridge is given in galvanometer is replaced by a detector,
Fig. 11.17. such as a pair of headphones, for
detecting ac. When the bridge is
balanced,

• where Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the

impedances of the arms, and are vector
complex quantities that possess phase
angles. It is thus necessary to adjust
both the magnitude and phase angles of
the impedance arms to achieve balance,
i.e. the bridge must be balanced for both
the reactance and the resistive
component.

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 CAPACITANCE COMPARISON BRIDGE
• Figure 11.18 shows the circuit • The condition for balance of the bridge is
of a capacitance comparison
bridge. The ratio arms Rl7 R2
are resistive. The known
standard capacitor C3 is in
series with R3. R3 may also
include an added variable
resistance needed to balance
the bridge. Cx is the unknown
capacitor and Rx Is the small
leakage resistance of the • Two complex quantities are equal when
capacitor. In this case an both their real and their imaginary terms
unknown capacitor is compared are equal. Therefore,
with a standard capacitor and
the value of the former, along
with its Fig. 11.18 leakage
resistance, is obtained. Hence.

• Since R3 does not appear in the

expression for Cx, as a variable element
it is an obvious choice to eliminate any
interaction between the two balance
controls.

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• Example 11.6: A capacitance
• finding Cx using the equation
comparison bridge (similar angle
bridge) is used To measure a
capacitive impedance at a
frequency of 2 kHz. The bridge
constants at balance are C3 = 100
μF, R1 = 10 kΩ, R2 = 50 kΩ, R3 =
100 kΩ Find the equivalent series
circuit of the unknown impedance.
• Solution: Finding R^ using the
equation
• The equivalent series circuit is
shown in Fig. 11.19.

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 INDUCTANCE COMPARISON BRIDGE
• Figure 11.20 gives a schematic
diagram of an inductance • The inductive balance equation yields
comparison bridge. In this, values of
the unknown inductance Lx and its
internal resistance Rx are obtained
by comparison with the standard
inductor and resistance, i.e. L3 and • and resistive balance equations yields
R3.

• In this bridge R2 is chosen as the

inductive balance control and R3 as the
resistance balance control. (It is
advisable to use a fixed resistance ratio
and variable standards). Balance is
obtained by alternately varying L3 or
R3. If the Q of the unknown reactance
is greater than the standard Q, it is
necessary to place a variable resistance
in series with the unknown reactance to
obtain balance. If the unknown
inductance has a high Q, it is
permissible to vary the resistance ratio
when a variable standard inductor is not
available.
• The equation for balance condition
is
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 MAXWELL'S BRIDGE
• Maxwell's bridge, shown in Fig.
11.21, measures an unknown induc­
tance in terms of a known capacitor.
The use of standard arm .offers the
advantage of compactness and
easy shielding. The capacitor is
almost a loss-less component. One
arm has a resistance R1 in parallel
with C1, and hence it is easier to
write the balance equation using the
admittance of arm 1 instead of the
impedance.
• The general equation for bridge
balance is

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• Equating real terms and imaginary terms we have

• Maxwell's bridge is limited to the measurement of low Q values (1 - 10). The

measurement is independent of the excitation frequency. The scale of the
resistance can be calibrated to read inductance directly.
• The Maxwell bridge using a fixed capacitor has the disadvantage that there is an
interaction between the resistance and reactance balances. This can be avoided
by varying the capacitances, instead of R2 and R3, to obtain a reactance
balance. However, the bridge can be made to read directly in Q.
• The bridge is particularly suited for inductances measurements, since ^
comparison with a capacitor is more ideal than with another inductance.™
Commercial bridges measure from 1 - 1000 H, with ± 2% error. (If the Q is very
large, R1 becomes excessively large and it is impractical to obtain a satisfactory
variable standard resistance in the range of values required).

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• Example: A Maxwell bridge is used to measure an inductive
impedance. The bridge constants at balance are C1 = 0.01 μF, Rl - 470
kft, R2 = 5.1 kQ, and R3 = 100 kii. Find the series equivalent of the
unknown impedance.
• Solution: We need to find Rx and Lx.

• The equivalent series circuit is shown in Fig. 11.22

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 HAY'S BRIDGE
• At balance
• The Hay bridge, shown in Fig.11.23,
differs from Maxwell's bridge by having a
resistance R1 in series with a standard
capacitor C1 instead of a parallel. For
•
large phase angles, R1 needs to be low;
therefore, this bridge is more convenient
for measuring high-Q coils. For Q = 10,
the error is ± 1%, and for Q = 30, the • Substituting these values in the balance
error is ± 0.1%. Hence Hay's bridge is equation we get
preferred for coils with a high Q, and
Maxwell's bridge for coils with a low Q.

•
• Equating the real and imaginary terms
we have

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• Solving for Lx and Rx we have, • The Hay bridge is also used in the
measurement of incremental induct­ance.
The inductance balance equation
depends on the losses of the inductor (or
• Substituting for Rx, we get Q) and also on the operating frequency.
• An inconvenient feature of this bridge is
that the equation giving the balance
condition for inductance, contains the
multiplier 1/(1 + 1/Q2). The inductance
balance thus depends on its Q and
frequency.
• Multiplying both sides by C1 we get
• Therefore,

• Therefore,
• For a value of Q greater than 10, the
term 1/Q2 will be smaller than 1/100 and
can be therefore neglected.
• Therefore Lx = R2 R1 Cx, which is the
• Substituting for Lx, we get same as Maxwell's equation. But for
inductors with a Q less than 10, the 1/Q2
term cannot be neglected. Hence this
bridge is not suited for measurements of
coils having Q less than 10.
• • A commercial bridge measure from 1 μH
The term ω appears in the expression for
both Lx and Rx. This indicates that the - 100 H with ± 2% error.
bridge is frequency sensitive.

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• Example: Find the series • and
equivalent inductance and
resistance of the network that
causes an opposite angle (Hay
bridge) to null with the following
bridges arms. (See Fig. 11.24)

  3000rad / s; R2  10k
R1  2k; C1  1F ; R3  1k

• Solution: We need to find Rx

and Lx.

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 SCHERING'S BRIDGE

• A very important bridge used for the

precision measurement of
capacitors and their insulating
properties is the Schering bridge. Its
basic circuit arrangement is given in
Fig.11.25. The standard capacitor
C3 is a high quality mica capacitor
(low-loss) for general
measurements, or an air capacitor
(having a very stable value and a
very small electric field) for • Equating the real and imaginary
insulation measurement. terms, we get
• For balance, the general equation is
•

• The dial of capacitor C1 can be

calibrated directly to give the
dissipation factor at a particular
frequency.
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• The dissipation factor D of a • The lower junction of the bridge
series RC circuit is defined as is grounded. At the frequency
the contangent of the phase normally used on this bridge,
angle. the reactances of capacitor C3
and Cx are much higher than
the resistances of R1 and R2.
Hence, most of the voltage
drops across C3 and Cx, and
• very little across Rx and R2.
Also, D is the reciprocal of the Hence if the junction of Rx and
quality factor g, i.e. D = 1/Q. D R2 is grounded, the detector is
indi­cates the quality of the effectively at ground potential.
capacitor. This reduces any stray-
• Commercial units measure from capacitance effect, and makes
100 pf - 1 μf, with ± 2% the bridge more stable.
accuracy. The dial of C3 is
graduated in terms of direct
readings for Cx, if the resistance
ratio is maintained at a fixed
value.
• This bridge is widely used for
testing small capacitors at low
voltages with very high
precision.

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• Example 11.9: An ac bridge has the following constants (refer Fig. 11.26).
Arm AB - capacitor of 0.5 μF in parallel with 1 kΩ resistance
Arm AD - resistance of 2 kΩ
Arm BC - capacitor of 0.5 μF
Arm CD - unknown capacitor Cx and Rx in series
Frequency - 1 kHz
Determine the unknown capacitance and
dissipation factor.
• Solution:
From

We have The dissipation factor is given by

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 WIEN'S BRIDGE
• The Wien bridge shown in Fig. • The impedance of one arm is
11.27 has a series RC combination
in one arm and a parallel
combination in the adjoining arm.
Wien's bridge in its basic form, is • The admittance of the parallel arm is
designed to measure frequency. It
can also be used for the • Using the bridge balance equation,
measurement of an unknown capaci­ we have
tor with great accuracy.
• Therefore

• Equating the real and imaginary

terms we have

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• Therefore • In most Wien bridge circuits, the components
are chosen such that R1=R3=R and
C1=C3=C.
• The bridge is used for measuring frequency
in the audio range. Resistances R1 and R3
• And can be ganged together to have identical
values. Capacitors C1 and C3 are normally of
fixed values.
• The audio range is normally divided into 20 -
200 - 2k - 20kHz ranges. In this case, the
• resistances can be used for range changing
We have and capacitors C1 and C3 for fine frequency
control within the range.
• The bridge can also be used for measuring
capacitances. In that case, the frequency of
operation must be known.
• The bridge is also used in a harmonic
distortion analyzer, as a Notch filter, and in
audio frequency and radio frequency
oscillators as a frequency determining
element.
• An accuracy of 0.5% - 1% can be readily
obtained using this bridge. Because it is
frequency sensitive, it is difficult to balance
unless the waveform of the applied voltage is
purely sinusoidal.

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• Example 11.10: Find the • Solution: Given
equivalent parallel resistance
and capacitance that causes a
Wien bridge to null with the
following component values. Substituting the value of C3 we get,

The value of C3 can also be

found out by using equation

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 WAGNERS EARTH (GROUND) CONNECTION
• When performing measurements at high • Resistors R1 and R3 are then adjusted for
frequency, stray capacitances between the minimum sound and this procedure is repeated
various bridge elements and ground, and until a null is obtained on both switch positions 1
between the bridge arms themselves, and 2. This is the ground potential. Stray
become significant. This introduces an error capacitances C1 and C2 are then effectively short-
in the measurement, when small values of circuited and have no effect on the normal bridge
capacitance and large values of inductance balance.
are measured. • The capacitances from point C to D to ground are
• An effective method of controlling these also eliminated by the addition of Wagner's ground
capacitances, is to enclose the elements by connection, since the current through these
a shield and to ground the shield. This does capacitors enters Wagner's ground connection.
not eliminate the capaci­tance, but makes it • The addition of the Wagner ground connection
constant in value. does not affect the balance conditions, since the
• Another effective and popular method of procedure for measurement remains unaltered.
eliminating these stray capacitances and the
capacitances between the bridge arms is to
use a Wagner's ground connection. Figure
11.28 shows a circuit of a capacitance
bridge. C1 and C2 are the stray
capacitances. In Wagner*s ground
connection, another arm, consisting of Rw
and Cw forming a potential divider, is used.
• The junction of Rw and Cw is grounded and
is called Wagner's ground connection. The
procedure for adjustment is as follows.
• The detector is connected to point 1 and R1
is adjusted for null or minimum sound in the
headphones. The switch S is then connected
to point 2, which connects the detector to the
Wagner ground point. Resistor Rw is now
adjusted for minimum sound. When the
switch S is connected to point 1, again there
will be some imbalance.

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RESONANCE BRIDGE • Using the equation for balance, we have
• One arm of this bridge, shown in Fig.
11.29, consists of a series resonance
circuit. The series resonance circuit is
formed by Rd, Cd and Ld in series. All
the other arms consist of resistors only.
• The bridge can be used to measure
unknown inductances or capacitances.
The losses Rd can be determined by
keeping a fixed ratio Ra/Rb 3tn^ using a
standard variable resistance to obtain
balance.
• Equating the real and imaginary terms, we get

• If an inductance is being measured, a standard

capacitor is varied until balance is obtained. If a capaci­
tance is being measured, a standard inductor is varied
until balance is obtained. The operating frequency of
the generator must be known in order to cal­culate the
unknown quantity. Balance is indicated by the
minimization of sound in the headphones.
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TYPES OF DETECTORS
1. For low frequency, the most convenient
detector is the vibration galvanometer.
2. For ordinary laboratory work at
frequencies up to a few 100 Hz, the
moving coil type of instrument is usually
employed. It has a high sensitivity.
3. In high voltage testing, the moving
magnet type of vibration
galvanometer with remote controlled
tuning is used, (for 300 Hz -1 kHz).
4. For higher AF frequencies (>800 Hz), the
telephone (headphone) is the best
detector. (Vibration galvanometers and
headphones have no phase selectivity,
i.e. they do not indicate whether it is
resistance or reactance adjustments that
are required.)
5. The ac galvanometer and separately
excited dynamometer are phase
selective, and are best suited at low
frequencies. They have a high sensitivity.
6. In many cases, especially in bridges for
routine use, a pointer instrument
is used. It is advantageous if it can be
made phase selective. These pointer
instruments are generally moving coil
milliammeters operated with some
arrangement of copper oxide rectifiers
(frequency range 40 Hz-1 kHz).
7. Modern bridge techniques employ the
amplifier as a regular feature.
8. At frequencies above about 3 kHz, and
particularly at high AF or RF, a
heterodyne or beat-tone detector is used.
9. With all detectors, the impedance should
be selected to suit that of the bridge. A
higher sensitivity can be obtained by
using an inter bridge transformer. Also,
when headphones are used as detectors,
precautions should be taken to eliminate
capacitance effects between the
observer
and the headphones.
10. A moving magnet vibration galvanometer
has a range of up to 1500 Hz.
11. An electrodynamometer can also be
used as an ac detector.
12. Electrometers are used as detector
because small capacitances possess a
very large impedance when used with ac
circuits at low frequency, and
when measured in the bridge they form a
high impedance branch. Hence,
this detector is used to increase
sensitivity.
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PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHEN USING A BRIDGE
• Assuming that a suitable method of measurement has been
selected and that the source and detector are given, there are
some precautions which must be observed to obtain accurate
readings.
• The leads should be carefully laid out in such a way that no
loops or long lengths enclosing magnetic flux are produced,
with consequent stray inductance errors.
• With a large L, the self-capacitance of the leads is more
important than their inductance, so they should be spaced
relatively far apart.
• In measuring a capacitor, it is important to keep the lead
capacitance as low as possible. For this reason the leads
should not be too close together and should be made of fine
wire.
• In very precise inductive and capacitances measurements,
leads are encased in metal tubes to shield them from mutual
electromagnetic action, and are used or designed to completely
shield the bridge.

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 Review Questions
1. Compare the measuring accuracy of a Wheatstone bridge with the accuracy of
an ordinary ohmmeter?
2. What is the criteria for balance of a Wheatstone bridge?
3. In what two types of circuits do Wheatstone bridges find most of their
applications?
4. Describe the operation of the Wheatstone bridge.
5. List and discuss the principle applications of Kelvin's bridge.
6. Describe the operation of a Kelvin's bridge.
7. What is the criteria for balance of a Kelvin* s bridge.
8. What is the primary use of Kelvin's bridge?
9. How does the basic circuit of Kelvin's bridge differ from that of Wheatstone's
bridge?
10. How does the use of microprocessors be useful in bridge circuits?
11. Describe how Wheatstone's bridge may be used to control various physical
parameters.
12. Define the term null as it applies to bridge measurement.
13. Describe how microprocessors are being used in test equipment.
14. What are some ways by which microprocessors are reducing the cost and
complexity of analog measurements?
15. Explain how a simple ac bridge circuit operates and derive an expression for the
unknown parameters.
16. What two conditions must be satisfied to make an ac bridge balance?
17. Describe how a similar angle bridge (comparison bridge) differs from a
Wheatstone bridge.
18. Do the balance conditions in a similar angle bridge depend on frequency?

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 Practice Problems

1. Calculate the value of Rx in a Wheatstone bridge if

2. What resistance range must resistor R3 have in order to measure

unknown resistor in the range 1 — 100 kΩ using a Wheatstone
bridge? Given R1 = 1 k and R2 = 10 k.

3. Calculate the value of Rx in Fig.11.12, Ra = 1600Rb, R1 = 800Rb

and R1 = 1.25R2.

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4. Calculate the current through the galvanometer in the circuit diagram
of Fig. 11.30.

5. If the sensitivity of the galvanometer in the circuit of Fig. 11.31 is 10

mm/μA, determine its deflection.

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