JIM CUMMINS’ ICEBERG METAPHOR

Conversational Language L1 L2
(1-3)

Academic Language
(3-5)
Common Underlying
Proficiency
TWO BROAD LEVELS OF LANG. PROFICIENCY
CONVERSATIONAL LANGUAGE—language proficiency in everyday communication, acquired
naturally without formal schooling; peer-appropriate conversation.
ACADEMIC LANGUAGE—language proficiency in academic situation, emerges & becomes distinctive
with formal schooling; classroom-appropriate language.

FACTORS INFLUENCING 2ND LANGUAGE LEARNING

• General Intellectual • Motivation
Ability • Personality
• Auditory Memory • Auditory Discrimination
• Opportunity
• Quality of Instruction • First Language Skills • Etc.

SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION THEORIES

TIME ON TASK THEORY--the amount of exposure to the new language is directly related to the
learning of that language. THE MORE ENGLISH, THE BETTER ENGLISH
FACILITATION THEORY--the level of development of the first language is directly related to the
learning of the second language. THE MORE SPANISH, THE BETTER ENGLISH

BILINGUAL CONDITIONS
ADDITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT--the second language is added, while first language is
maintained or developed.
Result: Student becomes literate in native language.
Implication: native language has significant educational value.
SUBTRACTIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT--the first language is not actively maintained or
developed while a second language is introduced.
Result: Student is often not literate in native language.
Implication: native language has little or no educational value.

BILINGUAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS

• English as a Second Language (ESL) • Late-Exit or Maintenance Bilingual Education
• Early-Exit or Transitional Bilingual Education • Two-Way Bilingual Education

“. . . the bilingual is not the sum of two complete or incomplete monolinguals; rather, he or she has a unique and
specific linguistic configuration.” Grosjean, F., Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, Vol. 6, N.6, 1985

“. . . for a non-native speaker and for a speaker of some dialects of English, every test given in English becomes, in
part, a language or literacy test . . . Test results may not reflect accurately the abilities and competencies being
measured if test performance depends on these test takers’ knowledge of English.”
Standard for Educational and Psychological Testing
American Psychological Association
American Educational Research Association
National Council on Measurement in Education