Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
PAKISTAN NAVY E
ENGINEERING COLLEGE
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCES &
TECHNOLOGY
DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
PROJECT ADJUDICATION REPORT
Project Advisor:
Dr. Waqar A Khan
Group Members:
Rehan Azhar (ME‐722‐06)
Project Examiners:
Shahzad Ahmad (ME‐723‐06)
M.Sajjad Ashraf (ME‐710‐06)) Mr. Aijaz Ahmad
Dr. Noman Danish
FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
Table of Contents
PREFACE……………… ................................................................................................................................ 8
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................... 9
PROJECT APPROVAL............................................................................................................................. 10
NOMENCLATURE……………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………..1
1
CHAPTER 1 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................... 13
CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 16
2.1 AIM OF PROJECT ............................................................................................................................... 16
2.2 SCOPE ............................................................................................................................................ 16
2.3 PROJECT DESCRIPTION ....................................................................................................................... 16
2.3.1 Stirling Engine .......................................................................................................................... 16
2.3.2 History ..................................................................................................................................... 16
2.4 TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE STIRLING ENGINE ...................................................................................... 17
2.4.1 Heat engine ............................................................................................................................. 17
2.4.2 Sink .......................................................................................................................................... 17
2.4.3 Source ...................................................................................................................................... 17
2.4.4 Internal Combustion Engine .................................................................................................... 17
2.5 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF THE STIRLING ENGINE .................................................................................... 17
2.5.1 Displacer .................................................................................................................................. 17
2.5.2 Power piston ............................................................................................................................ 18
2.5.3 Crank shaft .............................................................................................................................. 18
2.5.4 Connecting rod ........................................................................................................................ 18
2.5.5 Regenerator (optional) ............................................................................................................ 18
2.6 STIRLING ENGINE‐EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE ................................................................................. 18
2.7 BASICS OF STIRLING ENGINE ............................................................................................................... 19
2.8 THE STIRLING ENGINE CYCLE ............................................................................................................... 19
2.8.1 2‐3 Isothermal Expansion ........................................................................................................ 20
2.8.2 3‐4 Constant Volume Heat Rejection ....................................................................................... 20
2.8.3 4‐1 Isothermal Compression .................................................................................................... 20
2.8.4 1‐2 Constant Volume Heat Addition ........................................................................................ 20
2.9 OPERATION OF STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE ................................................................................................ 20
2.10 HOW TO INCREASE THE POWER OUTPUT OF A STIRLING ENGINE .............................................................. 21
2.10.1 Pressurization .......................................................................................................................... 24
2.10.2 Lubricants and friction ............................................................................................................. 24
2.11 COMPARISON OF STIRLING ENGINE WITH AN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE ............................................ 24
2.11.1 Advantages .............................................................................................................................. 24
2.11.2 Disadvantages ......................................................................................................................... 25
2.12 APPLICATIONS OF STIRLING ENGINE ..................................................................................................... 25
CHAPTER 3 DESIGN SELECTION .................................................................................................. 28
3.1 CONFIGURATIONS OF STIRLING ENGINE ................................................................................................. 28
3.2 ALPHA STIRLING ENGINE ..................................................................................................................... 28
3.2.1 Advantages .............................................................................................................................. 28
3.2.2 Disadvantages ......................................................................................................................... 29
3.2.3 Action of an alpha type Stirling engine .................................................................................... 29
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
3.3 BETA STIRLING ENGINE ....................................................................................................................... 29
3.3.1 Advantages .............................................................................................................................. 30
3.3.2 Disadvantages ......................................................................................................................... 30
3.3.3 Action of a Beta Type Stirling Engine ....................................................................................... 30
3.4 GAMMA STIRLING ENGINE .................................................................................................................. 30
3.4.1 Advantages .............................................................................................................................. 30
3.4.2 Disadvantages ......................................................................................................................... 31
3.5 WEIGHTING MATRIX FOR STIRLING ENGINE TYPES................................................................................... 31
3.6 RATING MATRIX FOR STIRLING ENGINE TYPES ........................................................................................ 31
3.6.1 Pie Charts (Based on the data from the rating matrix) ........................................................... 32
3.6.2 Final analysis for the choice of configuration of Stirling Engine .............................................. 33
3.7 CHOICE OF GAS (WORKING FLUID) ...................................................................................................... 33
3.7.1 Hydrogen ................................................................................................................................. 33
3.7.2 Helium ..................................................................................................................................... 34
3.7.3 Air (primarily nitrogen) ............................................................................................................ 34
3.8 WEIGHTING MATRIX FOR WORKING FLUID ............................................................................................ 36
3.9 RATING MATRIX FOR WORKING FLUID .................................................................................................. 36
3.9.1 Pie Charts (Based on the data from the rating matrix of working fluid) ................................. 37
3.9.2 Final analysis for the choice of gas .......................................................................................... 38
CHAPTER 4 THERMAL ANALYSIS ................................................................................................ 39
4.1 CALCULATION OF THE ADIABATIC FLAME TEMPERATURE| ......................................................................... 39
4.1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 39
4.1.2 Assumptions ............................................................................................................................ 39
4.1.3 Calculations for liquid kerosene (C12H26) .................................................................................. 39
4.1.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 41
4.2 CALCULATIONS FOR METHANE (CH4) .................................................................................................... 41
4.2.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 42
4.2.2 Final conclusion with respect to the choice of fuel .................................................................. 42
4.3 HEAT TRANSFER CALCULATION ............................................................................................................ 42
4.3.1 Formulas to be used ................................................................................................................ 42
4.3.2 Data ......................................................................................................................................... 43
4.3.3 Calculations for thermal resistance network ........................................................................... 46
4.3.4 Calculations for the flame temperature .................................................................................. 47
4.3.5 Calculations for thermal efficiency: ......................................................................................... 49
CHAPTER 5 SELECTION OF SWEPT VOLUME ............................................................................... 50
5.1 ANALYSIS OF STIRLING ENGINE ............................................................................................................ 50
5.1.1 1st‐order method ..................................................................................................................... 50
5.1.2 2nd‐order method ................................................................................................................... 50
5.1.3 3rd‐order methods ................................................................................................................... 50
5.2 THE SCHMIDT ANALYSIS ..................................................................................................................... 50
5.2.1 Assumptions of Schmidt Model for Gamma Stirling Analysis .................................................. 51
5.2.2 Indicated Work ........................................................................................................................ 51
5.2.3 Root Mean Cycle Pressure ....................................................................................................... 52
5.2.4 Forced Work ............................................................................................................................ 52
5.2.5 Shaft Work ............................................................................................................................... 53
5.3 1ST‐ORDER ANALYSIS METHOD ........................................................................................................... 54
5.3.1 Effectiveness & Mechanical Efficiency ..................................................................................... 54
5.3.2 Compression Ratio ................................................................................................................... 54
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5.3.3 Workspace Charging Effect ..................................................................................................... 55
5.3.4 Dead Space Effects .................................................................................................................. 57
5.3.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 58
5.4 DESIGN APPROACH ........................................................................................................................... 58
5.5 ACTUAL TREND OF GRAPH .................................................................................................................. 64
5.6 SELECTION OF COMPRESSION RATIO ..................................................................................................... 65
5.7 CALCULATIONS (AT OPTIMUM VALUES) ................................................................................................. 67
5.7.1 Values of Designed Parameters ............................................................................................... 67
5.7.2 Total Volume .................................................................................................................. 67
5.7.3 Mass of Working Fluid (m) ...................................................................................................... 67
5.7.4 Root Mean Cycle Pressure ( ) ................................................................................................. 68
5.7.5 Indicated Work (W) ................................................................................................................. 68
5.7.6 Forced Work ............................................................................................................................ 68
5.7.7 Shaft Work ............................................................................................................................... 68
5.7.8 Mechanical Efficiency .............................................................................................................. 68
CHAPTER 6 KINETICS & TURNING MOMENT .............................................................................. 69
6.1 KINETICS AND TURNING MOMENT ....................................................................................................... 69
6.1.1 Assumptions ............................................................................................................................ 70
6.1.2 Calculations ............................................................................................................................. 70
CHAPTER 7 SIMULATION OF STATIC TEMPERATURE ................................................................... 76
7.1 MODELING ...................................................................................................................................... 76
7.2 MESHING ........................................................................................................................................ 77
7.3 GRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION .................................................................................................................. 77
7.4 TEMPERATURE PROFILE ...................................................................................................................... 78
CHAPTER 8 CAD DRAFTS ............................................................................................................ 79
CHAPTER 9 INSTRUMENTATION ................................................................................................ 90
9.1 PROXIMITY SENSOR ........................................................................................................................... 90
9.2 MODEL EXPLANATION OF PROXIMITY SWITCH ......................................................................................... 91
9.3 MAIN FEATURES: .............................................................................................................................. 91
9.4 THERMOCOUPLE ............................................................................................................................... 92
9.5 TYPES OF THERMOCOUPLES: ............................................................................................................... 93
9.6 K‐TYPE ........................................................................................................................................... 93
9.7 TABLE FOR TYPE K THERMOCOUPLE (REF JUNCTION 0 ◦C) ........................................................................ 94
CHAPTER 10 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ......................................................................................... 95
10.1 FLAME CHARACTERISTICS .................................................................................................................... 95
10.2 EXPERIMENTAL FINDINGS .................................................................................................................... 95
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GALLERY………………………… .................................................................................................................. 110
APPENDIX A “GANTT CHART” ............................................................................................................. 114
APPENDIX B “SOR” ............................................................................................................................ 116
APPENDIX C “TERMS & DEFINITIONS” ................................................................................................ 127
APPENDIX D “REFERENCES” ............................................................................................................... 133
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
List of Figures
Figure 2‐1 Ideal Stirling Cycle ........................................................................................................................ 19
Figure 2‐2 Operation of Ideal Stirling Cycle Engine (Displacer at the Lower‐Dead Center) .......................... 21
Figure 2‐3 Operation of Ideal Stirling Cycle Engine (Displacer at the Upper‐Dead Center) .......................... 21
Figure 2‐4 Expansion (Driving the Power Piston Upward) ............................................................................ 22
Figure 2‐5 Transfer of Warm Gas to the Upper Cool end.............................................................................. 22
Figure 2‐6 Contraction (Driving the Power Piston Downward) ..................................................................... 23
Figure 2‐7 Transfer of Cooled Gas to the Lower Hot End .............................................................................. 23
Figure 3‐1 Alpha Engine Configuration .......................................................................................................... 28
Figure 3‐2 Beta Engine Configuration ........................................................................................................... 29
Figure 3‐3 Gamma Engine Configuration ...................................................................................................... 30
Figure 3‐4 Ease of Sealing .............................................................................................................................. 32
Figure 3‐5 Design Simplicity .......................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 3‐6 Problem of Hot Moving Seals ....................................................................................................... 32
Figure 3‐7 Compression Ratio ...................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 3‐8 Availability .................................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 3‐9 Cost (cheap) ................................................................................................................................. 37
Figure 3‐10 Non‐Flammable .......................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 3‐11 Low Diffusivity ............................................................................................................................ 37
Figure 3‐12 Low Viscosity .............................................................................................................................. 37
Figure 3‐13 High Thermal Conductivity ......................................................................................................... 37
Figure 4‐1 1D Heat Transfer Across the Displacer Cylinder ........................................................................... 46
Figure 4‐2 Thermal Resistive Network Schematic ......................................................................................... 46
Figure 4‐3 Thermal Resistances ..................................................................................................................... 48
Figure 5‐1 Effect of Increasing Swept Volume Ratio ..................................................................................... 52
Figure 5‐2 Effect of Increasing Size on Forced Work ..................................................................................... 53
Figure 5‐3 Graph of Maximum Mechanical Efficiency versus Compression Ratio ........................................ 55
Figure 5‐4 PV Diagram of Charged Stirling Engine ........................................................................................ 56
Figure 5‐5 Variation of maximum specific shaft work Ws versus dead space ratio χ ................................... 57
Figure 5‐6 Work and Mechanical Efficiency as a Function of Swept Volume Ratio at τ=0.2 ......................... 61
Figure 5‐7 Work and Mechanical Efficiency as a Function of Swept Volume Ratio at τ=0.3 ......................... 62
Figure 5‐8 Work and Mechanical Efficiency as a Function of Swept Volume Ratio at τ=0.4 ......................... 63
Figure 5‐9 Actual Graphical Representation from Experimental Data .......................................................... 64
Figure 5‐10 Mechanical Efficiency as a Function of Compression Ratio at T=0.3 ......................................... 66
Figure 6‐1 Crank‐angle Mechanism ............................................................................................................... 69
Figure 6‐2 Kinetics of Flywheel ...................................................................................................................... 70
Figure 6‐3 Turning Moment Diagram ............................................................................................................ 75
Figure 7‐1 Modeling of 2D Cylinder in ANSYS ............................................................................................... 76
Figure 7‐2 Meshing of 2D Cylinder in ANSYS ................................................................................................. 77
Figure 7‐3 Contours of Temperature Distribution ......................................................................................... 77
Figure 7‐4 Graph of Temperature Variation Along Cylinder Height .............................................................. 78
Figure 9‐1 Proximity Sensor (RPM Measuring Device) .................................................................................. 91
Figure 9‐2 Dimensions of Proximity Sensor ................................................................................................... 92
Figure 9‐3 Construction of Thermocouple .................................................................................................... 92
Figure 9‐4 K Type Thermocouple .................................................................................................................. 93
Figure 10‐1 Temperature vs. Height .............................................................................................................. 96
Figure 10‐2 RPM vs. Flame Temperature ...................................................................................................... 97
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List of Tables
Table 3‐1 Weighting Matrix for Stirling Engine Types ................................................................................... 31
Table 3‐2 Rating Matrix for Stirling Engine Types ......................................................................................... 31
Table 3‐3 Weighting Matrix for Working Fluid .............................................................................................. 36
Table 3‐4 Rating Matrix for Working Fluid .................................................................................................... 36
Table 4‐1 Data Input ...................................................................................................................................... 43
Table 4‐2 For Horizontal Plate with Hot Side Facing Down ........................................................................... 43
Table 4‐3 Assumed Ts .................................................................................................................................... 44
Table 4‐4 Film Temperature at Ts ................................................................................................................. 44
Table 4‐5 Air Properties at Various Tf ........................................................................................................... 44
Table 4‐6 Air Properties at Film Temperatures for Various Ts Values........................................................... 46
Table 4‐7 Thermal Resistances ...................................................................................................................... 47
Table 4‐8 Various Temperatures Calculated via Thermal Resistance Network ............................................. 48
Table 5‐1 Engine Operating Parameter as a Function of Volume Ratio ........................................................ 60
Table 5‐2 Engine Operating Parameters as a Function of Compression Ratio .............................................. 65
Table 6‐1 Parameters at Different Crank Positions ....................................................................................... 74
Table 9‐1 Types of Thermocouple ................................................................................................................. 93
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
Preface
The final year project plays a significant role in BE degree classes in order to furbish the
students with practical skills along with the theoretical knowledge. It also provides the
opportunity to the members to work as a team which is the basic requirement of any
reputable organization. It also creates managerial skills in an individual’s personality as
no project can be accomplished without proper management. In order to manage and
plan the project, it is necessary that the progress of the project should be documented
as it serves as a good tool for having a good and unanimous consensus amongst the
project members.
We being final year students are going through the same phase of our degree. The
purpose of writing this report is to present our progress and work on this initial phase of
our project titled “Design and Fabrication of a Stirling Cycle Engine” in a presentable
form as it is the requirement of the Design Evaluation Board and in addition it will also
be helpful for future reference as it would be needed for our final report.
The report is divided into four sections. The first section mainly consists of the
introduction and how a stirling engine works. The second section comprises of the
design criteria and our proposed selection. The third section is on risk assessment and
the fourth section is on cost evaluation.
Readers are requested to kindly compromise with any deficiency that they might find in
this report as this was our first attempt in its compilation and thus might be subjected to
some un‐intentional oversight. In light of the above mentioned we would like to request
you to kindly consider this as our first step and we assure you that the future editions of
this report will be comprehensibly better and complete.
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
Acknowledgements
This report is the product of sheer hard work and pure dedication. We would like to take
this opportunity to first of all thank Allah the Almighty for giving us the mental and
physical strength to manage our project work simultaneously with our academic
routine, deal with the various problems involved, overcome the various obstacles
encountered and accomplish it on time.
Furthermore we would also like to thank our families for their continued support and
bearing with our hectic schedule. This project would not have culminated without their
cooperation.
Last but by no means the least, we would like to acknowledge with gratitude the
following individuals whose valued suggestions, guidance and constructive criticism
helped in shaping our project and above all our professional lives and personalities,
which will be very beneficial for our future career:
Project Advisor Project Examiner
• Dr. Waqar A. Khan • Mr. Aijaz Ahmed
(Professor) (Lecturer)
Project Co Examiner
• Dr. Nouman Danish
(Associate Professor)
Though the following were not actively involved in the project, nonetheless they do
deserve special mention for their continued support and advice:
• Gp. Capt. Shoaib Ahmed
(Associate Professor)
• Mr. Khurram Jammal Hashmi
(Assistant Professor)
• Mr. Mirza Ahmed Ali
(Lecturer)
• Mr. Atif
(Lab Supervisor)
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
Project Approval
It is certified that the contents and form of the thesis entitled “The Design and
Fabrication of a Stirling Cycle Engine” submitted by Mr. Rehan Azhar, Mr. Shahzad
Ahmad and Mr. M. Sajjad Ashraf have been found to be satisfactory for the requirement
of B.E degree.
Project Advisor: _____________________________
Name: Dr. Waqar Ahmed Khan
(Professor)
Project Examiner 1: __________________________
Name: Mr. Aijaz Ahmad
(Lecturer)
Project Examiner 2: __________________________
Name: Dr. Noman Danish
(Associate Professor)
Project Coordinator: _________________________
Name: Cdr. (R) Muhammad Shakeel
(Associate Professor)
HOD (Mechanical): __________________________
Name: Gp. Capt. (R) Shoib Ahmed
(Associate Professor)
Dean ES: __________________________________
Name: Cdr Dr. Nadeem Ahmed
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
Nomenclature
= displacer swept volume = piston swept volume
= dead volume = hot space temperature
= cold space temperature = dead space temperature = ⁄2
= external buffer pressure ω = angular velocity of crankshaft
= root mean cycle pressure or mean = angle by which displacer crank leads
pressure piston crank
space displacer swept volume
r = uncompressed volume / compressed χ = = dead volume ratio
volume
ωt = instantaneous angular position of piston
crank
= instantaneous total engine volume = instantaneous pressure throughout
engine spaces
l= Length of the connecting rod c= Crank radius
A1= Cross‐sectional area on the back end side A2= Cross‐sectional area on the crank end side
of the piston of the piston
a= Cross‐sectional area of the connecting rod p1= Pressure on the back end side of the
piston
p2= Pressure on the crank end side of the d= Outer diameter of power piston
piston=Buffer pressure=pb
B= Bore of the power cylinder L= Stroke of the piston
mR= Mass of the reciprocating parts Vd= Displaced Volume of the power cylinder
T= Torque or Turning moment of the crank N = Crankshaft speed in revolutions per
minute (rpm)
P= Desired power in Watts Fp= Piston Effort
FL= Net load on piston FI= Inertia Force
W R= Weight of reciprocating parts T = Torque or Turning moment on the
crankshaft at any instant
Tmean = Mean Resisting Torque P = Desired power in Watts
N = Crankshaft speed in revolutions per CE = Co‐efficient of fluctuation of Energy
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
minute (rpm)
CS = Co‐efficient of fluctuation of Speed mf = Mass of the flywheel
k = Radius of Gyration of the flywheel I = Mass moment of Inertia of flywheel
h = convective heat transfer coefficient k = thermal conductivity
ε = emissivity σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant
Ts = External surface temperature at the top of Tli = Internal surface temperature at the top of
the displacer the displacer
To = Ambient temperature Tflame = Temperature of the applied flame
Th = External surface temperature at the base Tu = Internal surface temperature at the base
of the displacer of the displacer
Tf = Film temperature Pr = Prandtl number
Ra = Rayleigh number Nu = Nusselt number
β = Volume expansion coefficient υ = Kinematic viscosity
τ = Temperature ratio of sink to source D = Diameter
A = Area R = Thermal resistances
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
CHAPTER 1
LITERATURE REVIEW
[1]
Iskander Tlili, Youssef Timoumi and Sassi Ben Nasrallah presented the study and
design of a mean temperature differential Stirling engine for solar application. The
system uses hydrogen as working fluid and is designed for a temperature difference of
300◦C, with the source at 320◦C and the sink at 20◦C. They also discuss design
considerations which may be taken to develop a solar Stirling engine with average
concentration operating on mean temperature difference of 300◦C. Detailed design
considerations pertaining to the output power, energy losses as well as the
effectiveness of the regenerator used are presented. Then the relationship between
different operating parameters is discussed.
[2]
Bancha Kongtragool and Somchai Wongwises gave different approaches to determine
the designed power output, discussing their relative significance. In the preliminary
design phase, some design parameters are unknown. The Schmidt formula and West
formula are more difficult to use when compared with the Beale formula and the mean
pressure formula. In principle, the Beale formula is simpler, however, an accurate value
of the Beale number is critical and the existing data on the Beale number are not
available for Low Temperature Differential (LTD) Stirling engines.
For design purposes, the mean pressure power formula can be used to calculate the
engine rated output, or inversely, to evaluate the approximate operating parameters of
the Stirling engine for a required or given power output. The mean pressure power
formula allows us to initiate an initial design process rapidly. For LTD Stirling engines
operated by a low temperature source, results from this study indicate that the rated
power output of a LTD Stirling engine can be directly calculated from the mean pressure
power formula.
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
[3]
Can Cinar and Halit Karabulut presented study of a gamma type Stirling engine with
276 cc swept volume that was designed and manufactured. The engine was tested with
air and helium by using an electrical furnace as heat source. Working characteristics of
the engine were obtained within the range of heat source temperature 700–1000 ₀C and
range of charge pressure 1–4.5 bar. Maximum power output was obtained with helium
at 1000 ₀C heat source temperature and 4 bar charge pressure as 128.3 W. The
maximum torque was obtained as 2 Nm at 1000 ₀C heat source temperature and 4 bar
helium charge pressure. Results were found to be encouraging to initiate a Stirling
engine project for 1 kW power output.
[4]
Bancha Kongtragool, Somchai Wongwises presented results from their study which
indicated that stirling engines working with relatively low temperature air are
potentially attractive engines of the future, especially solar‐powered low temperature
differential stirling engines with vertical, double‐acting, gamma‐configuration. New
materials and good heat transfer to working fluid are the keys to the success of a stirling
engine. Good heat transfer needs high mass flows, then a lower viscosity working fluid is
used to reduce pumping losses, or higher pressure is used to reduce the required flow
or the combination of both. Simplicity and reliability is the key to a cost effective Stirling
solar generator. Since, during two‐thirds of the day, solar energy is not available,
solar/fuel hybrids are needed. For solar operation, the cover plate acts as the solar
absorber and also the displacer cylinder head, it must therefore be able to tolerate the
effects of high maximum internal pressures and temperatures.
[5]
D.G. Thombarea and S.K. Vermab stated that the performance of stirling engines
meets the demands of the efficient use of energy and environmental security; hence the
development and investigation of stirling engine have come to the attention of many
scientific institutes. The stirling engine is simple, reliable and safe. Today stirling cycle‐
based systems are in commercial use as a heat pump, cryogenic refrigeration and air
liquefaction. It is seen that for successful operation of engine system with good
efficiency a careful design of heat exchangers, proper selection of drive mechanism and
engine configuration is essential. The reliable and efficient operation of the engine
depends upon the dynamic behavior of engine mechanism and performance of all heat
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
exchangers, which are interdependent. This difficult task to design a system where
thermal, fluid and mechanical design considerations are required to be taken into
account jointly with system optimization. An additional development is needed to
produce a practical engine by selection of suitable configuration; adoption of good
working fluid and development of better seal may make stirling engine a real practical
alternative for power generation.
[6]
Leonardo Scollo, Pablo Valdez and Jorge Baro´n focused on the local design,
construction and testing of Stirling engine. They presented the research work carried on
an external combustion engine which makes it a versatile machine along with the
advantage of using any external heat source like concentrated solar energy, hydrogen,
biomass and fossil fuels. Moreover, it explains the working of cycles quite elaborately on
a PV diagram which serves a good source of understanding the ideal stirling cycle
scheme. The formulated power for this project is in the range of 0.5‐1kW. The engine is
designed from a previously designed prototype engine of known parameters and
characteristics through scaling. The results of this research were marked encouraging
and it was foreseen to redesign each part of the engine.
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION
2.1 Aim of Project
To obtain useful mechanical work output from a given heat input by employing a stirling
cycle engine mechanism.
2.2 Scope
The design, analysis and fabrication of a stirling engine by systematic study of basic
operating principles, design parameters and the study of a home‐made scaled down
version of the engine (as per the PCSIR project competition requirement) in order to
identify the engineering complications associated with it.
2.3 Project Description
2.3.1 Stirling Engine
It is a heat engine that operates by cyclic compression and expansion of air or another
gas, the working fluid, at different temperature levels such that there is a net conversion
of heat energy to mechanical work.
2.3.2 History
The Stirling was invented and patented by Robert Stirling in 1816. Subsequent
development by Robert Stirling and his brother James, an engineer, resulted in patents
for various improved configurations of the original engine including pressurization which
had by 1843 sufficiently increased power output to drive all the machinery at a Dundee
iron foundry.
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
Though it has been disputed it is widely supposed that as well as saving fuel, the
inventors were motivated to create a safer alternative to the steam engines of the time,
whose boilers frequently exploded, causing many injuries and fatalities. The need for
Stirling engines to run at very high temperatures to maximize power and efficiency
exposed limitations in the materials of the day and the few engines that were built in
those early years suffered unacceptably frequent failures.
2.4 Terms associated with the Stirling engine
2.4.1 Heat engine
A heat engine is a device that converts thermal energy into mechanical work output.
2.4.2 Sink
The heat sink is typically the environment at ambient temperature to where heat is lost
and the temperature is lowered.
2.4.3 Source
Source is the venue from where heat energy is obtained.
2.4.4 Internal Combustion Engine
An engine, where combustion takes place inside the power cylinder.
2.5 Major Components Of The Stirling Engine
2.5.1 Displacer
The displacer resembles a large piston, except that it has a smaller diameter than the
cylinder, thus its motion does not change the volume of gas in the cylinder—it merely
transfers the gas around within the cylinder.
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
2.5.2 Power piston
Power piston is the piston located in the expansion chamber. The expanding gases in the
cylinder exert a pressure on the power piston which in turn rotates the crank and
provides the system with the power stroke.
2.5.3 Crank shaft
The crankshaft, sometimes casually abbreviated to crank, is the part of an engine which
translates reciprocating linear piston motion into rotation.
2.5.4 Connecting rod
Transfers power from the power piston to the crankshaft.
2.5.5 Regenerator (optional)
The regenerator is an internal heat exchanger and temporary heat storage element
placed between the hot and cold spaces such that the working fluid passes through it
first in one direction then the other. Its function is to retain within the system that heat
which would otherwise be exchanged with the environment at temperatures
intermediate to the maximum and minimum cycle temperatures, thus enabling the
thermal efficiency of the cycle to approach the limiting Carnot efficiency.
2.6 Stirling EngineExternal Combustion Engine
Stirling engine uses an external heat source that could be concentrated solar energy
through the use of parabolic troughs, flame, combustion of fuel etc, this heat energy
flows in and out through the walls and creates a temperature difference which is the
key in the operation of the Stirling engine. Due to the external heat source it is known as
external combustion engine in contrast to internal combustion engine where the heat
source is the combustion of fuel inside the working fluid. Stirling engine uses a
permanently sealed gaseous working fluid (air, helium or hydrogen) much like a
refrigerant or air‐conditioner.
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2.7 Basics Of Stirling Engine
In a Stirling engine, a fixed amount of a gas is sealed inside the engine. The Stirling cycle
involves a series of events that change the pressure of the gas inside the engine, causing
it to do work. There are several properties of gases that are critical to the operation of
Stirling engines:
If you have a fixed amount of gas in a fixed volume of space and you raise the
temperature of that gas, the pressure will increase.
If you have a fixed amount of gas and you compress it (decrease the volume of its
space), the temperature of that gas will increase.
2.8 The Stirling Engine Cycle
The Stirling cycle engine consists of four thermodynamic process cycles as show in
Figure 2‐1.
1‐2 Constant Volume Heat Addition
2‐3 Isothermal Expansion
3‐4 Constant Volume Heat Rejection
4‐1 Isothermal Compression
Figure 2‐1 Ideal Stirling Cycle
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2.8.1 23 Isothermal Expansion
The expansion‐space and associated heat exchanger are maintained at a constant high
temperature, and the gas undergoes isothermal expansion absorbing heat from the hot
source.
2.8.2 34 Constant Volume Heat Rejection
Constant‐volume (known as iso‐volumetric or isochoric) heat‐removal. The gas is passed
through the regenerator, where it cools transferring heat to the regenerator for use in
the next cycle.
2.8.3 41 Isothermal Compression
The compression space and associated heat exchanger are maintained at a constant low
temperature so the gas undergoes isothermal compression rejecting heat to the cold
sink.
2.8.4 12 Constant Volume Heat Addition
Constant‐Volume (known as iso‐volumetric or isochoric) heat‐addition. The gas passes
back through the regenerator where it recovers much of the heat transferred in 2 to 3,
heating up on its way to the expansion space.
2.9 Operation of Stirling Cycle Engine
A simple stirling engine uses two cylinders and two pistons: power piston and displacer
piston. The vertical cylinder (see Figure 2‐2) is constantly heated up on the top while it is
cooled at the lower part. The displacer piston does not seal with the walls of cylinder,
and lets air pass through. If the displacer piston is now in the lower dead‐center, air is
strongly heated up and the pressure pushes on the working piston on the right, which
slides to the right now. The left piston (see Figure 2‐3) now gets pulled upward by the
coupling of the two pistons. Air is strongly cooled, and together with compression work
from the flywheel the working piston is brought again to the left, the displacer piston
slides down and the air is heated up again.
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Figure 2‐2 Operation of Ideal Stirling Cycle Engine Figure 2‐3 Operation of Ideal Stirling Cycle Engine
(Displacer at the Lower‐Dead Center) (Displacer at the Upper‐Dead Center)
2.10 How To Increase The Power Output Of A Stirling Engine
The stirling engine only makes power during the first part of the cycle. There are two
main ways to increase the power output of a stirling cycle:
Increase power output in stage one ‐ In part one of the cycle, the pressure of the
heated gas pushing against the piston performs work. Increasing the pressure during
this part of the cycle will increase the power output of the engine. One way of
increasing the pressure is by increasing the temperature of the gas. A look at a two‐
piston Stirling engine later in this article, shows how a device called a regenerator can
improve the power output of the engine by temporarily storing heat.
Decrease power usage in stage three ‐ In part three of the cycle, the pistons perform
work on the gas, using some of the power produced in part one. Lowering the pressure
during this part of the cycle can decrease the power used during this stage of the cycle
(effectively increasing the power output of the engine). One way to decrease the
pressure is to cool the gas to a lower temperature.
The four phases of the cycle are explained in a clear manner as follows:
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Figure 2‐4 Expansion (Driving the Power Piston Upward)
Expansion
The majority of the gas is in contact with the warmer plate. The gas heats and expands,
driving the power piston upward (see Figure 2‐4)
Figure 2‐5 Transfer of Warm Gas to the Upper Cool end
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Transfer
Flywheel momentum carries the displacer downward, transferring the warm gas to the
upper, cool end of the cylinder (see Figure 2‐5).
Figure 2‐6 Contraction (Driving the Power Piston Downward)
Contraction
Now the majority of the gas is in contact with the cool plate. The gas cools and
contracts, drawing the power piston downward (see Figure 2‐6)
Figure 2‐7 Transfer of Cooled Gas to the Lower Hot End
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Transfer
Flywheel momentum carries the displacer up, transferring the cooled gas back to the
lower, hot end of the cylinder(see Figure 2‐7).
2.10.1 Pressurization
In most high power Stirling engines, both the minimum pressure and mean pressure of
the working fluid are above atmospheric pressure. This initial engine pressurization can
be realized by a pump, or by filling the engine from a compressed gas tank, or even just
by sealing the engine when the mean temperature is lower than the mean operating
temperature. All of these methods increase the mass of working fluid in the
thermodynamic cycle.
2.10.2 Lubricants and friction
At high temperatures and pressures, the oxygen in air‐pressurized crankcases, or in the
working gas of hot air engines, can combine with the engine’s lubricating oil and
explode.
Thus, non‐lubricated, low‐coefficient of friction materials (such as graphite), with low
normal forces on the moving parts, are preferred, especially for sliding seals. At times
sliding surfaces are avoided altogether by using diaphragms for sealed pistons. These
are some of the factors that allow Stirling engines to have lower maintenance
requirements and a longer life than internal‐combustion engines.
2.11 Comparison Of Stirling Engine With An Internal Combustion Engine
2.11.1 Advantages
• In contrast to internal combustion engines, they can use renewable heat sources
more easily.
• Are quieter than internal combustion engines.
• More reliable with lower maintenance dues to lesser moving components.
• More efficient and cleaner (creation of pollutants such as NOx can be avoided).
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• Since the fuel is burned slowly and constantly outside the engine, there are no
explosions to muffle. Thus there are no violent vibrations.
• A Stirling cycle is truly reversible (this means that if you heat and cool the heat
exchangers of the engine you get power out or if you power the engine you get
heating or cooling out).
• Most Stirling engines have the bearing and seals on the cool side of the engine,
and they require less lubricant and last longer than other reciprocating engine
types.
• No valves are needed.
• A Stirling engine uses a single‐phase working fluid which maintains an internal
pressure close to the design pressure, and thus for a properly designed system
the risk of explosion is low. In comparison, a steam engine uses a two‐phase
gas/liquid working fluid, so a faulty relief valve can cause an explosion.
• Since they run without an air supply, they can be used for air‐independent
propulsion in submarines.
• Easy to start, though slowly after warming up.
2.11.2 Disadvantages
• Lower power output as compared to an internal combustion engine of the same
size.
• Gas leakage may pose design problems.
• The Stirling engine must successfully contain the pressure of the working fluid,
where the pressure is proportional to the engine power output/temperature. In
addition, the expansion‐side heat exchanger is often at very high temperature,
so the materials must resist the corrosive effects of the heat source, and have
low creep.
2.12 Applications Of Stirling Engine
Since stirling engines employ external combustion and are quieter, cleaner and more
efficient than internal combustion engines, thus they are used where use of internal
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combustion engines is either impractical or unfeasible. From cooling microchips to
powering submarines, there uses are various.
The following are a few practical applications of stirling engines:
As a heat pump
Since the stirling cycle is reversible, therefore if the crankshaft of the stirling engine is
supplied with mechanical power, then it can act as a heat pump with the result that the
sink of the engine will experience a drop in temperature and the source will experience
an increase in temperature. This process may be employed for domestic air‐conditioning
and heating.
Power generation via utilization of waste heat in domestic water heaters
It is possible to generate electricity by employing a stirling engine that utilizes waste
heat from a domestic water heater. However, this is not practical since stirling engines
run on very high temperatures whereas the waste generated by such heaters is mostly
warm and not hot.
Generation of electricity via solar energy
A stirling engine, with its source end placed at the focal point of a parabolic trough, can
use the focused rays of the sun to drive the engine mechanism and generate electrical
power. Care must be taken to ensure that the material used at the source can withstand
the extreme temperatures generated.
Power generation in submarines
Stirling engines are a better alternative to diesel engines for submarines since they are
quieter and do not experience heavy vibrations. They carry compressed oxygen to allow
fuel combustion.
Nuclear power generation
The steam turbines of nuclear power plants may be replaced with stirling engines since
they are more efficient and require less maintenance. It is also theorized that spacecraft
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on lengthy space missions may generate electricity for themselves by using a stirling
engine with a nuclear fuel rod as the heat source and space itself as the sink.
Aircraft and automobile engines
Due to their low power‐to‐weight ratios and long start‐up time, stirling engines are not
yet feasible for automobiles. However they do hold some promise for aircraft
propulsion if high power density and low cost can be achieved. They are quieter, less
polluting, gain efficiency with altitude due to lower ambient temperatures, are more
reliable due to fewer parts and the absence of an ignition system, produces much less
vibration (meaning airframes last longer).
Microchip cooling
Miniature Stirling engine cooling systems for personal computer chips have been
developed that use the waste heat from the chip to drive a fan in order to cool it.
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CHAPTER 3
DESIGN SELECTION
3.1 Configurations of Stirling Engine
Stirling engines are distinguished according to the motion of air between the hot and
cold sides of the cylinder. Two types of configurations are used:
• Alpha‐type stirling engines
• Displacer‐type stirling engines (Beta and Gamma).
3.2 Alpha Stirling engine
An alpha Stirling engine contains two power pistons in separate cylinders, one hot and
one cold. The hot cylinder is situated inside the high temperature heat exchanger and
the cold cylinder is situated inside the low temperature heat exchanger as shown in
Figure 3‐1. This type of engine has a high power‐to‐volume ratio but has technical
problems due to the usually high temperature of the hot piston and the durability of its
seals.
Figure 3‐1 Alpha Engine Configuration
3.2.1 Advantages
• High power‐to‐volume ratio
• Relatively simple design as compared to the beta type stirling engine.
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3.2.2 Disadvantages
• Causes technical problems due to the high temperature of the hot piston
• Sealing of the hot and cold pistons is a primary problem due to dual pistons
3.2.3 Action of an alpha type Stirling engine
The following diagrams do not show internal heat exchangers in the compression and
expansion spaces, which are needed to produce power. A regenerator would be placed
in the pipe connecting the two cylinders. The crankshaft has also been omitted.
3.3 Beta Stirling engine
Figure 3‐2 Beta Engine Configuration
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3.3.1 Advantages
• Just one cylinder needs to be sealed.
• Beta type avoids the technical problems of hot moving seals.
3.3.2 Disadvantages
• Containing the moving power and displacer pistons in one cylinder poses design
problems.
3.3.3 Action of a Beta Type Stirling Engine
Again, the following diagrams do not show internal heat exchangers or a regenerator,
which would be placed in the gas path around the displacer.
3.4 Gamma Stirling Engine
A gamma stirling engine is simply a beta Stirling in which the power piston is mounted in
a separate cylinder alongside the displacer piston cylinder, but is still connected to the
same flywheel as shown in Figure 3‐3. The gas in the two cylinders can flow freely
between them and remains a single body.
Figure 3‐3 Gamma Engine Configuration
3.4.1 Advantages
• Mechanically simpler in design when compared with a beta type engine due to
the power piston and displacer being in separate cylinders.
• Sealing is relatively easier.
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• Avoids the technical problems of hot moving seals.
3.4.2 Disadvantages
• Produces a lower compression ratio.
3.5 Weighting Matrix for Stirling Engine Types
I WEIGHTAG
CRITERIA A B C D E TOTAL
D E
A EASE OF SEALING 1 1 1 1 4 0.4
B DESIGN SIMPLICITY 0 1 1 1 3 0.3
C HOT MOVING SEALS 0 0 1 1 2 0.2
D COMPRESSION RATIO 0 0 0 1 1 0.1
E POWER TO VOLUME RATIO 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 1
Table 3‐1 Weighting Matrix for Stirling Engine Types
3.6 Rating Matrix for Stirling Engine Types
LEGEND
a Alpha 1 Low
b Beta 2 Medium
c Gamma 3 High
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3.6.1 Pie Charts (Based on the data from the rating matrix)
EASE OF SEALING DESIGN SIMPLICITY
Alpha
14% Alpha
33%
Gamma
43% Gamma
50%
Beta
Beta
43%
17%
Figure 3‐4 Ease of Sealing Figure 3‐5 Design Simplicity
PROBLEM OF HOT MOVING COMPRESSION RATIO
SEALS Gamma
17%
Gamma
20%
Alpha
50%
Beta
Alpha 33%
Beta 60%
20%
Figure 3‐6 Problem of Hot Moving Seals Figure 3‐7 Compression Ratio
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3.6.2 Final analysis for the choice of configuration of Stirling Engine
After going through the analysis of the rating matrix (refer to Table 3‐1 and Table 3‐2)
and pie charts shown in (Figure 3‐4 to Figure 3‐7) it can be seen that the rating of
gamma stirling engine is quite higher (i.e. 2.4) as compared to the other configuration
namely alpha and beta which have a rating of 1.9 each. So depending on these rating,
the final choice for configuration of stirling engine is Gamma stirling engine. It is
noteworthy to mention here that while creating these matrices priorities were given to
the ease of sealing and design simplicity.
3.7 Choice Of Gas (Working Fluid)
Though just about any gas can be used as the working fluid in a stirling engine, however
the most popular choices are hydrogen, helium or air (primarily nitrogen). The choice of
the working fluid is very essential to the overall efficiency, power output, safety and
performance of the stirling engine.
The used gas should have the following characteristics:
• A low heat capacity, so that a given amount of transferred heat leads to a large
increase in pressure.
• Low viscosity and high thermal conductivity.
• Low rate of diffusivity diffusion rate.
• Should not be a flammable gas, which is a major safety concern.
• Should be cheap.
• Should be easy available.
• Should not condense at the sink temperature like CFCs.
Let us analyze the three gases that are available to us for selection:
3.7.1 Hydrogen
Advantages
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• Its low viscosity and high thermal conductivity make it the most powerful
working gas, primarily because the engine can run faster than with other gases.
• Relatively cheaper than helium.
• Can be generated by electrolysis of water, the action of steam on red hot
carbon‐based fuel or by the reaction of acid on metal.
• Has a low heat capacity, meaning a given amount of transferred heat leads to a
large increase in pressure.
Disadvantages
• Hydrogen’s high diffusion rate associated with its low molecular weight causes it
to diffuse through the walls of the cylinder particularly at high temperatures,
thus reducing its pressure and mass.
• Hydrogen also causes metals to become brittle.
• Hydrogen is a flammable gas, which is a safety concern, although the quantity
used is very small, and it is arguably safer than other commonly used flammable
gases.
3.7.2 Helium
Advantages
• Best gas because of its very low heat capacity.
• Non‐flammable as it’s an inert gas.
• Low viscosity and high thermal conductivity.
Disadvantages
• High diffusivity but not as high as hydrogen’s.
• Not available easily.
• Very expensive.
3.7.3 Air (primarily nitrogen)
Advantages
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• Low diffusivity.
• Easily available.
• Very cheap.
• Is not a flammable gas (though the oxygen in the air supports combustion).
Disadvantages
• The oxygen in a highly pressurized air engine can cause fatal accidents caused by
lubricating oil explosions.
• Relatively higher viscosity and lower thermal conductivity.
• Highest heat capacity of the three available gases.
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3.8 Weighting Matrix For Working Fluid
I TOTA
CRITERIA A B C D E F G WEIGHTAGE
D L
A AVAILABILITY 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 0.2857143
B COST (CHEAP) 0 1 1 1 1 1 5 0.2380952
C NON‐FLAMMABLE 0 0 1 1 1 1 4 0.1904762
D LOW DIFFUSIVITY 0 0 0 1 1 1 3 0.1428571
E LOW VISCOSITY 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 0.0952381
F HIGH THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.047619
G LOW HEAT CAPACITY 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
∑ 21 1
Table 3‐3 Weighting Matrix for Working Fluid
3.9 Rating Matrix For Working Fluid
WEIGHTAG
CRITERIA CONCEPT RATING
E
a b c a b c
AVAILABILITY 0.28571428 3 2 1 0.85714285 0.571428571 0.28571428
COST (CHEAP) 0.23809523 3 2 1 0.71428571 0.476190476 0.23809523
NON‐ 0.19047619 3 1 3 0.57142857 0.19047619 0.57142857
LOW 0.14285714 3 1 2 0.42857142 0.142857143 0.28571428
LOW VISCOSITY 0.09523809 1 3 3 0.09523809 0.285714286 0.28571428
HIGH THERMAL 0.04761904 1 3 3 0.04761904 0.142857143 0.14285714
LOW HEAT 0 1 3 3 0 0 0
∑ 2.71428571 1.80952381 1.80952381
Table 3‐4 Rating Matrix for Working Fluid
LEGEND
a Air 1 Low
b Hydrogen 2 Medium
c Helium 3 High
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3.9.1 Pie Charts (Based on the data from the rating matrix of working fluid)
AVAILABILITY COST(CHEAP)
Helium Helium
17% 17%
Air
Air 50%
50%
Hydrogen Hydrogen
33% 33%
Figure 3‐8 Availability Figure 3‐9 Cost (cheap)
NON‐FLAMMABLE LOW DIFFUSIVITY
Hydrogen Hydrogen
14% 17%
Figure 3‐10 Non‐Flammable Figure 3‐11 Low Diffusivity
LOW VISCOSITY Air
HIGH THERMAL
14% CONDUCTIVITY Air
14%
Helium
43% Helium
43%
Hydrogen
Hydrogen
43%
43%
Figure 3‐12 Low Viscosity Figure 3‐13 High Thermal Conductivity
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3.9.2 Final analysis for the choice of gas
The utmost priority in the selection of the working fluid after going through the rating
matrix (refer to Table 3‐3 and Table 3‐4 and also the pie charts as shown in Figure 3‐8 to
Figure 3‐13) is to ensure that it is not flammable and has a low rate of diffusivity since
safety and containment of the gas are to two vital aspects of this project. Also it must be
cheap (due to financial constraints) and be easily available. Since it is not desired to
achieve a high power output thus low heat‐capacity, low viscosity and high thermal
conductivity do not fall within the primary criteria. Keeping all these factors in mind, the
working fluid that suits is Air.
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CHAPTER 4
THERMAL ANALYSIS
4.1 Calculation of the Adiabatic Flame Temperature|
4.1.1 Introduction
The determination of the adiabatic flame temperature is important because it indicates
the maximum temperature that can be used at the source. Also, it is useful in
determining what the choice of fuel should be. For example, if the required temperature
of the source is to be 1000 oC and the adiabatic flame temperature of Fuel A is 900 oC
and that of Fuel B is 1200 oC, then Fuel B is to be used as the maximum temperature as
compared to Fuel A that is less than the required temperature at the source. If Fuel B is
employed, then after convective heat transfer losses, the temperature of the flame will
drop down to the required source of temperature of 1000 oC.
4.1.2 Assumptions
1. Steady flow combustion process
2. Combustion chamber is adiabatic (Q=0)
3. There are no work interactions
4. Air and the combustion gases are ideal gases
5. Changes in kinetic and potential energies are negligible
6. Combustion reaction is stoichiometric (i.e. 100% theoretical air)
7. Standard conditions of 1 atm and 25 oC apply
4.1.3 Calculations for liquid kerosene (C12H26)
Combustion equation: C12H26(l) + 18.5(O2+3.76N2) Æ 12CO2 + 13H2O + 69.56N2
Enthalpy of products = Enthalpy of reactants (Hprod = Hreact)
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
Note:
All values of hf and ho have been taken from enthalpy tables. The values of hf for
elements are taken to be zero.
∑ Np (hf + h ‐ ho) = ∑ Nr (hf + h ‐ ho)
12(‐393,520 + hCO2 – 9364) + 13(‐241,820 + hH20 – 9904) + 69.56(0 + hN2 – 8669)
= 1(‐24,149 + h298 – h0298) + 18.5(0 + h298 – h0298) + 69.56(0 + h298 – h0298)
12hCO2 + 13hH2O + 69.56hN2 = 8685886.64 kJ
Divide by total number of moles to get Æ 91855.82 kJ/kmol
For N2 this value corresponds to T = 2741.4K
For H2O this value corresponds to T = 2179.23K
For CO2 this value corresponds to T = 1851K
Since majority of the moles are of N2, the temperature should be close to 2741.4K but
somewhat under it. After trying different values of temperature under 2741.4K it is
determined between which two temperatures the value of sum of the enthalpies of the
products fluctuates about the value of the sum of the enthalpies of the reactants.
For T = 2700K
∑Hprod = 9562976.68 kJ which is greater than ∑Hreact = 8685886.64 kJ
For T = 2650K
∑Hprod = 9362504.28 kJ which is greater than ∑Hreact = 8685886.64 kJ
For T = 2450K
∑Hprod = 8563731.44 kJ which is less than ∑Hreact = 8685886.64 kJ
For T = 2500K
∑Hprod = 8762922.36 kJ which is greater than ∑Hreact = 8685886.64 kJ
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
4.1.4 Conclusion
It is clear that the value of the adiabatic flame temperature lies between 2450K and
2500K. After interpolation, it is found to be 2480.66K
4.2 Calculations for methane (CH4)
Combustion equation: CH4 (g) + 2(O2+3.76N2) Æ CO2 + 2H2O + 7.52N2
Enthalpy of products = Enthalpy of reactants (Hprod = Hreact)
Note: All values of hf and ho have been taken from enthalpy tables. The values of hf for
elements are taken to be zero.
∑ Np (hf + h ‐ ho) = ∑ Nr (hf + h ‐ ho)
(‐393,520 + hCO2 – 9364) + 2(‐241,820 + hH20 – 9904) + 7.52(0 + hN2 – 8669)
= 1(‐74,850 + h298 – h0298) + 2(0 + h298 – h0298) + 7.52(0 + h298 – h0298)
hCO2 + 2hH2O + 7.52hN2 = 896672.88 kJ
Divide by total number of moles to get Æ 85235 kJ/kmol
For N2 this value corresponds to T = 2561.5K
For H2O this value corresponds to T = 2051.5K
For CO2 this value corresponds to T = 1741K
Since majority of the moles are of N2, the temperature should be close to 2561.5K but
somewhat under it. After trying different values of temperature under 2561.5K it is
determined between which two temperatures the value of sum of the enthalpies of the
products fluctuates about the value of the sum of the enthalpies of the reactants.
For T = 2500K
∑Hprod = 973043.12 kJ which is greater than ∑Hreact = 896672.88 kJ
For T = 2450K
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
∑Hprod = 950825.48 kJ which is greater than ∑Hreact = 896672.88 kJ
For T = 2300K
∑Hprod = 884516.52 kJ which is less than ∑Hreact = 896672.88 kJ
For T = 2350K
∑Hprod = 906552.92 kJ which is greater than ∑Hreact = 896672.88 kJ
4.2.1 Conclusion
It is clear that the value of the adiabatic flame temperature lies between 2300K and
2350K. After interpolation, it is found to be 2327.6K
4.2.2 Final conclusion with respect to the choice of fuel
Since there is very little difference in the values of the adiabatic flame temperatures of
the two fuels and since both temperatures are sufficiently higher than the required
source temperature of 720 oC, methane is employed as the fuel for the following
reasons:
1. It is easily available
2. Its flow can be regulated easily using a valve
3. It burns more cleanly than kerosene
4.3 Heat Transfer Calculation
4.3.1 Formulas to be used
Thermal conductive resistance, (oC/W)
Thermal convective resistance, (oC/W)
β
Rayleigh number,
υ
Convective heat transfer coefficient, (W/m2.oC)
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For horizontal plate with hot side facing down:
.
Nusselt number, 0.27
For horizontal plate with hot side facing up:
.
Nusselt number, 0.54 (For Ra 104 ‐ 107)
For internal side of the cylinder at the base:
.
Nusselt number, 0.4
Volume expansion coefficient, β (K‐1)
(W)
Indicated power,
4.3.2 Data
External Diameter (m) 0.05506
Internal Diameter (m) 0.05056
Height (m) 0.0872
Thickness (m) 0.00225
Tc (K) and (oC) 298 25
Temp Ratio (Tc/Th) 0.3
Th (K) and (oC) 993.3333333 720.3333333
Tf (K) and (oC) 645.6666667 372.6666667
Table 4‐1 Data Input
For horizontal plate with hot side facing down:
Properties of air at Tf = 372.5 oC and 1 atm (Table A‐15)
k (W/m2.oC) 0.048533 Pr 0.694195
k of steel @ 993K 25
v (m2/s) 0.0000580980 B (K‐1) 0.001548787
Ra 362678.18090
Nu = 0.27Ra1/4 6.62588847 h=(k/Dext)(Nu) 5.840433075
Table 4‐2 For Horizontal Plate with Hot Side Facing Down
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For horizontal plate with hot side facing up:
Assume external surface temperatures at the top of the displacer (oC) and (K) Ts
Ts (oC) Ts (K)
600 873
500 773
300 573
250 523
200 473
150 423
100 373
75 348
55 328
30 303
Table 4‐3 Assumed Ts
The corresponding film temperatures in K and oC are:
o
K C
585.5 312.5
535.5 262.5
435.5 162.5
410.5 137.5
385.5 112.5
360.5 87.5
335.5 62.5
323 50
313 40
300.5 27.5
Table 4‐4 Film Temperature at Ts
Corresponding air properties at the respective film temperatures:
Table 4‐5 Air Properties at Various Tf
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k air @ 50 oC 0.02735 k air @ 62.5 oC 0.0282625
Pr air at 50 oC 0.7228 Pr air at 62.5 oC 0.7195375
V air @ 50 oC 0.00001798 V air @ 62.5 oC 0.0000192075
B air @ 50 oC 0.003095975 B air @ 62.5 oC 0.002980626
k steel @ 348 K 15.705 k steel @ 373 K 16.145
Ra 566740.01803 Ra 713934.08478
Nu 14.81629886 Nu 15.69669751
h 7.359712567 h 8.057172417
k air @ 87.5 oC 0.0300625 k air @ 112.5 oC 0.031825
Pr air at 87.5 oC 0.71375 Pr air at 112.5 0.708725
V air @ 87.5 oC 0.00002175 V air @ 112.5 oC 0.00002441
B air @ 87.5 oC 0.002773925 B air @ 112.5 oC 0.002594034
k steel @ 423 K 13.09 k steel @473 K 17.745
Ra 856662.92389 Ra 884165.34491
Nu 16.42843723 Nu 16.55873409
h 8.969849148 h 9.571044539
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For internal side of the cylinder at the base:
Assumed base temperature Tu of 718 oC (991K):
Table 4‐6 Air Properties at Film Temperatures for Various Ts Values
4.3.3 Calculations for thermal resistance network
Figure 4‐1 1D Heat Transfer Across the Displacer Cylinder
Tflame Rconv1 Th Rcond1 Tu Rpar Tli Rcond2 Ts Rconv2 To
Figure 4‐2 Thermal Resistive Network Schematic
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Area External m2 0.002381014
Area Internal m2 0.002007722
4.3.4 Calculations for the flame temperature
Power = h1(Tflame‐Tu)‐h2(Tli‐
Power (W) = 11.248
Table 4‐7 Thermal Resistances
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Intersection of Ts assumed with Ts resistance
Figure 4‐3 Thermal Resistances
Conclusion:
From the graph it can be clearly observed that Ts assumed and Ts calculated via the
thermal resistance network, have a common value at approximately 600 oC. Thus the
operating point and its associated values are as follows:
Table 4‐8 Various Temperatures Calculated via Thermal Resistance Network
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For internal side of the cylinder at the base:
For cold side of the cylinder with hot side facing up:
k air @ 312.5 oC 0.0449375
Pr air at 312.5 oC 0.69355
V air @ 312.5 oC 0.000049425
B air @ 312.5 oC 0.001707942
k steel @ 873 K 23.53
Ra 456565.39765
Nu 14.03684513
h 11.45624279
4.3.5 Calculations for thermal efficiency:
Carnot Efficiency (Maximum theoretical thermal efficiency):
1 ; (where To and Th are in Kelvin)
298
1 0.7 70%
993
Thermal Efficiency (Actual Efficiency)
8.43375
0.5479938 54.79%
15.39022973
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CHAPTER 5
SELECTION OF SWEPT VOLUME
5.1 Analysis of Stirling Engine
The analysis of Stirling engines are parted on three methods.
5.1.1 1storder method
The analysis is based on the use of experimental value and engine size, or the ideal
analysis models. For example Schmidt model.
5.1.2 2ndorder method
The analysis takes into consideration losses of various kind. It uses the results of ideal
analysis and the losses of various kind.
5.1.3 3rdorder methods
This type of analysis solves homogeneous equations of flow and equations of various
kinds of losses.
5.2 The Schmidt Analysis
It is an idealized model which captures the basic and essential features of a stirling
engine basically the interconnection between the mechanically constraint motion of the
parts and the interconnected or resulting thermodynamically cycle.
The work here is basically focused to on finding the maximum indicated cycle work
relative to the cycle pressure, relative to the mass to the working fluid or to the total
swept volume.
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The fore coming calculations and analysis is to select that what should be the ratio of
the swept volume of the piston to that of the displacer.
5.2.1 Assumptions of Schmidt Model for Gamma Stirling Analysis
• The motion of piston and displacer is pure sinusoidal motion.
• Working fluid in work space is an ideal gas
• Isothermal hot, cold and dead spaces
• Uniform instantaneous pressure throughout all the engine spaces
• No leaking of working gas into or out of the engine.
• All dead space is treated as being at the arithmetic average of the extreme cycle
temperatures.
• Temperature ratio represents the temperature extremes of the working gas.
• The mechanism effectiveness is assumed constant throughout the cycle.
• Limitations in the heat transfer are ignored.
5.2.2 Indicated Work
The closed form of indicated work of Schmidt’s gamma Stirling can be written as
follows:
6
W=
κ √
Where: 1 κ
κ 2κ 1 cos 1
It can be seen that the only factors having dimensions is the total swept volume and
root mean cycle pressure.
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Figure 5‐1 Effect of Increasing Swept Volume Ratio
The Figure 5‐1 shows that increasing the swept volume ratio correspondingly increases
indicated work. It can be seen that the indicated work of the largest cycle is relatively
higher than the smallest one.
5.2.3 Root Mean Cycle Pressure
The root mean cycle pressure = can be written as:
2
√
5.2.4 Forced Work
The definition of the forced work of a cycle requires integrating the product of p− pb and
dV over those portions of the cycle where they differ in sign. It can be written as follows:
After employing necessary numerical integration techniques and simplification, the
following is obtained,
1 ln 1 ln 1
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Figure 5‐2 Effect of Increasing Size on Forced Work
Forced work depends upon the shape of the cycle and upon the buffer pressure level. It
is the work that the mechanism must deliver to the piston to make it move in opposition
to the pressure difference across it. Because of losses in transmission through the
mechanism, more work, namely Wi (work input) , must be taken from the flywheel to
supply W−.
As can be seen from Figure 5‐2 that as the indicated work increases with increasing
swept volume ratio, so does the forced work, represented as the shaded area. Therefore
a careful compromise has to be made regarding the selection of the optimum swept
volume ratio.
5.2.5 Shaft Work
The shaft work of Schmidt’s gamma stirling engine is given by:
1
It is worth mentioning here that the maximum indicated output does not ensure getting
the maximum shaft or brake output. Since shaft work is not a simple multiple of
indicated work but depends upon the shape of the engine cycle and the relative buffer
pressure, as well as on the effectiveness of the engine mechanism.
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5.3 1stOrder Analysis Method
5.3.1 Effectiveness & Mechanical Efficiency
Mechanism effectiveness in principle depends in a complex way upon a number of
variables. It obviously depends upon the instantaneous position of the parts of the
mechanism, which determines the loading on the various joints and hence the acting
Coulomb friction forces. Inertial effects due to the velocity and acceleration of parts
with appreciable mass also affect the joint loads and friction. Mechanism effectiveness
may also depend significantly upon the magnitude of the force applied to the piston as
when a friction type other than Coulomb is present in some joints.
Clearly, mechanism effectiveness is a non‐negative quantity and cannot exceed unity.
There may in fact be portions of an engine cycle where the effectiveness is actually zero.
This is the case in the situation where both piston and flywheel put work into the
mechanism in certain parts of the cycle.
During work input by the piston to the mechanism for transmittal to the flywheel shaft,
some work is lost to friction and the reduced amount is actually delivered. This loss is
due to the mechanism’s mechanical efficiency. The presence of any forced work always
reduces mechanical efficiency to a value below that of the effectiveness of the
mechanism.
5.3.2 Compression Ratio
Maximal mechanical efficiency ηms is simply equal to the Effectiveness as long as r ≤ 1/τ.
As no engine can have a better mechanical efficiency than ηms, so no engine can run
with a compression ratio beyond the r value where ηms becomes zero.
Figure 5‐3 shows graphs of maximal mechanical efficiency ηms with respect to r for
specific values of E and τ .The smaller E2 is relative to τ, the faster ηms becomes zero. This
means that for engines operating from relatively low temperature heat sources, the
range of usable compression ratio is definitely limited. The closer τ is to 1, the more
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limited the compression ratio range becomes. This is precisely why low temperature
differential engines require low compression ratios.
Figure 5‐3 Graph of Maximum Mechanical Efficiency versus Compression Ratio
On the other hand, if an engine is to operate from a very high temperature source, then
τ = TC/TH will be small enough so that E2 > τ for all practical values of E. In this case, there
is no intrinsic restriction on compression ratio, and it can be chosen to suit any other
requirements or desires.
5.3.3 Workspace Charging Effect
In any monomorphic engine with constant mechanism effectiveness, if the charge of its
workspace and its buffer pressure are increased by the same factor, then its shaft work
also will increase by the same factor, and mechanical efficiency is preserved. An engine
in which the buffer pressure never exceeds the workspace pressure will be referred to
as being charged above buffer pressure or as buffered from below.
There are a number of practical advantages to buffering from below. These advantages
include preventing lubricant migration into the workspace, preventing or minimizing
bearing load reversals, and perhaps most important, increasing output, albeit at the
expense of mechanical efficiency. It often is the case in practice that buffer pressure
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cannot be modified. Charging the workspace alone is the only option to increase the
output of such engines. Even when a crankcase is totally enclosed and pressure‐worthy,
the other advantages may make charging above buffer pressure desirable.
For engines buffered from below, there is no forced work arising during expansion. The
forced work occurs over the whole compression process and is simply the absolute
compression work minus the area below the buffer pressure line.
Figure 5‐4 PV Diagram of Charged Stirling Engine
The mechanical efficiency (ηm) is a decreasing function of the mass (m) inside the
workspace. Therefore the output of the stirling engine can be increased by charging, but
it can be done only at the expense of diminished mechanical efficiency.
For an Ideal Stirling engine, the absolute work ratio equals the temperature ratio:
Wc/We = TC/TH = τ .
Thus, if E2 > τ, cyclic shaft work output will increase indefinitely as the workspace is
charged higher and higher above a fixed buffer pressure. Of course, mechanical
efficiency will certainly decrease after the engine becomes buffered entirely from
below. If, on the other hand, E2 < τ, then shaft output decreases as the workspace is
charged above buffer pressure, and eventually the engine will even be unable to run
itself.
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5.3.4 Dead Space Effects
The amount of dead space reduces the output potential of the stirling engine. The dead
volume effect is greater for engines operating at a smaller temperature difference.
Figure 5‐5 shows the variation of specific shaft work with increasing dead space over the
range from χ = 0 to 10 for a particular engine with τ = 0.5 and E = 0.7. Note that
performance drops off at a high rate over the entire usual range of relative dead
volume, becoming what one might call gradual only for dead volume ratios much higher
than ever necessary in practice.
Figure 5‐5 Variation of maximum specific shaft work Ws versus dead space ratio χ
Dead volume effects on brake output are not neutralized by increasing compression
ratio, as one might have guessed prior to the analysis.
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5.3.5 Conclusion
Some of the findings important for 1st order stirling engine design are summarized as
follows:
• Maximum shaft output occurs at smaller swept volume ratios than does
maximum indicated work.
• Less effective mechanisms favor smaller swept volume ratios.
• Smaller swept volume ratios yield better mechanical efficiency.
• Low temperature differential engines require small swept volume ratios.
• Dead volume incurs a high penalty in brake output.
• Higher engine speeds favor lower swept volume ratios.
• Dead volume effects cannot be offset by increasing compression ratio.
5.4 Design Approach
Before going in to the details of the design, there are few things that must be kept in
mind in order to clearly understand the design method presented here. The
conventional approach of design, which is referred to as the “bottom‐up” method in
which the design is focused towards obtaining the desired output from the device and
thus setting other parameters accordingly, is not generally recommended for low‐
power, low temperature differential stirling engines.
Therefore the design of Stirling Engine involves a significant question, that is what
should be the ratio of swept volume of the power piston to that of the displacer, and
what should be the phase angle between them. Thus a need arises for choosing
optimum design parameters that would give a handful of power at suitable temperature
ratio and good mechanical efficiency.
The optimum phase angle is usually easy to adjust or reset and so the best phase angle
can be experimentally determined to the engine operator’s satisfaction, and also the
engine’s performance is not extremely sensitive to phase angle.
But the swept volume ratio cannot be easily changed without affecting other engine
features that might themselves affect output such as overall size and dead volume.
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Therefore an optimum swept volume ratio must be chosen to maximize the work per
cycle.
Design of the Stirling Engine is based on 1st order analysis method. Using this method
different designing parameters which are stated above are being analyzed through the
aid of experimental data and then plotted to study their behavior. The following data
and graph shows the effect of swept volume ratio on the indicated power, shaft work,
forced work and then connectively to the mechanical efficiency.
Since the required temperature ratio was determined through the heat transfer
analysis. Also setting the other parameters which are quite independent of each other
as,
τ= 0.3
α= 90
E= 0.75
χ=0.2
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For τ=0.3
Table 5‐1 Engine Operating Parameter as a Function of Volume Ratio
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Figure 5‐6 Work and Mechanical Efficiency as a Function of Swept Volume Ratio at τ=0.2
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Figure 5‐7 Work and Mechanical Efficiency as a Function of Swept Volume Ratio at τ=0.3
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Figure 5‐8 Work and Mechanical Efficiency as a Function of Swept Volume Ratio at τ=0.4
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5.5 Actual Trend of Graph
Figure 5‐9 Actual Graphical Representation from Experimental Data
The graphs presented in (Figure 5‐6 to Figure 5‐8) above exhibit a similar trend as
indicated by the actual curves of Figure 5‐9. Since the heat transfer analysis yielded the
temperature ratio to be τ= 0.3, so looking in the graph for the stated temperature ratio,
two swept volume ratios namely κ= 0.7 and κ= 2.1 yield good mechanical efficiency and
allow lesser forced work. But κ= 0.7 is selected to be the optimum swept volume since
limited heat transfer rates strongly favor choosing a small κ and also a smaller κ would
allow the engine to start at a lower hot end temperature. Moreover, the ease of
availability of the cylinder sleeves with swept volumes of 70 and 100cc.
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5.6 Selection of Compression Ratio
Table 5‐2 Engine Operating Parameters as a Function of Compression Ratio
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Figure 5‐10 Mechanical Efficiency as a Function of Compression Ratio at T=0.3
Now an optimum compression ratio is to be set, that would give the best mechanical
efficiency. Keeping the already determined parameters fixed, and varying the
compression ratio, gives the optimum value to be 3.3, as indicated in the table.
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5.7 Calculations (At optimum values)
After getting the swept volume ratio and compression selected, calculations of root
mean cycle pressure, indicated work, shaft work, forced work and mechanical efficiency
can be shown.
5.7.1 Values of Designed Parameters
Displacer Volume =100cc=0.0001
Temperature ratio τ=0.3
Swept Volume Ratio 6=0.7
Compression ratio r=3.3
Phase Angle α=90°
Dead Volume Ratio χ = 0.2
Effectiveness E=0.75
Cold side Temperature = 300K
Hot side Temperature = = 1000
.
5.7.2 Total Volume
Since
1 6
1 0.7 0.0001
1.7e‐4
5.7.3 Mass of Working Fluid (m)
=
x
0.00020485 kg
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5.7.4 Root Mean Cycle Pressure ( )
. .
1 0.3 0.7
.
. .
Now: = =181.1355857
√ . √ . .
5.7.5 Indicated Work (W)
6
W
6 √
. . . . °
. kilo‐
. √ . . .
joule
5.7.6 Forced Work
1 ln 1 ln 1
0.00020485)( 0.287 1000 0.3 ln 0.3 1 0.3 ln 1 0.3
ln 1 3.3 ln 0.3
6.864507e‐7 kilo‐joule
5.7.7 Shaft Work
. e‐3 kilo‐joule
5.7.8 Mechanical Efficiency
.
0.74994
.
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CHAPTER 6
KINETICS & TURNING MOMENT
6.1 Kinetics and Turning Moment
Reciprocating engines employ a very popular mechanism known as slider crank
mechanism. Kinematic analysis of the slider‐crank mechanism helps to answer many
questions pertaining to the motion of various links of the mechanism viz. displacement,
velocity and accelerations of driven members like connecting rod and piston, while
kinetics involves the study of various forces acting on the mechanism. Figure 6‐1 shows
arrangement of crank‐angle mechanism.
Figure 6‐1 Crank‐angle Mechanism
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The Figure 6‐2 indicates various forces acting on the slider‐crank mechanism:
Figure 6‐2 Kinetics of Flywheel
6.1.1 Assumptions
Following are some assumptions used in the analysis of the forces in the slider‐crank
mechanism:
• The weight of the connecting rod is neglected in the analysis.
• The unbalance of rotating masses is balanced using counterweight.
• Frictional effects of link joints and gravitational effects are ignored.
6.1.2 Calculations
Earlier the following parameters had been developed, related to the operation of the
stirling engine:
Tc=300K
τ=0.3
κ=0.7
X=0.989926563
Y=2.184615385
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χ=0.2
E=0.75
r=3.3
Pb=100 Kpa
m=0.00020485 kg
Now the design of the stirling engine focuses on obtaining a shaft power output of at a
crankshaft speed of, having following parameters.
l= 93mm
Vd= 0.00007 m3
V1= 0.0001 m3= Displacer swept volume
B= 47.5mm
α=90°
The displaced volume Vd is given by,
π
4
Thus,
π
0.0007 0.0475
4
or,
39.50217
It is known that in a reciprocating engine the stroke “L” and crank radius “c” are related
as,
2
or,
19.75108
Similarly,
π π
0.0469
4 4
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0.00172757
And,
0.00172757 0.00000675
0.00172082 m
Also,
1.20247
4.7086
The instantaneous pressure “p” inside the cylinder at any crank position is given by,
2
θ φ
where,
φ
√
κ 1 τ α
0.7 1 0.3 90° 0.7
1 τ α 1 0.3 90° 0.7
Using values of A and B the following is obtained,
0.7
φ 45° 0.785398
√0.7 0.7
Now putting all the values of the required constants determined above, into the
equation for the instantaneous pressure for various crank angle position.
Net load on the piston is given by,
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p1 is taken to be the instantaneous pressure at a certain crank angle, while p2 is taken to
be equal to the buffer pressure, which is atmospheric in the design.
Inertia force is given by,
2
900
Weight of reciprocating parts is given by,
Then piston effort is determined as,
Finally Turning moment or Torque can be obtained as,
2
2√
These parameters can now be obtained at different crank positions as shown in Table
6‐1 and then the turning moment diagram for the stirling engine is obtained.
The mean resisting torque (Tmean) can be found as:
5.061
0.805 .
2π
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Table 6‐1 Parameters at Different Crank Positions
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Figure 6‐3 Turning Moment Diagram
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CHAPTER 7
SIMULATION OF STATIC TEMPERATURE
7.1 Modeling
In order to verify the static temperature distribution within the displacer cylinder, a
simplified 2D‐model of the cylinder was analyzed using Finite Element software ANSYS.
It should be kept in mind that the displacer is assumed to be absent in the analytical
solution, in order to make the laborious task easy. Accompanying Figure 7‐1 shows
modeling of 2D Cylinder in Ansys where the green region depicts the modeling of air
whereas the thin purple region depicts the modeling of Cylinder.
Figure 7‐1 Modeling of 2D Cylinder in ANSYS
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7.2 Meshing
The two areas highlighted in separate colors in the figure 6‐2 are uniformly meshed in
order to achieve accuracy of results.
Figure 7‐2 Meshing of 2D Cylinder in ANSYS
7.3 Graphical Distribution
Temperature distribution profile can finally be obtained and the results can be readily
compared against those obtained from calculations. Figure 7‐3 shows contours of
Temperature variation along the cylinder height.
Figure 7‐3 Contours of Temperature Distribution
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7.4 Temperature Profile
The solver enables a graph to be plotted between the temperature and the distance
along the center line from the base of the cylinder. Figure 7‐4 shows the graph of
temperature variation along cylinder height.
Figure 7‐4 Graph of Temperature Variation Along Cylinder Height
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CHAPTER 8
CAD DRAFTS
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CHAPTER 9
INSTRUMENTATION
9.1 Proximity Sensor
A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any
physical contact. A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic field or a beam of
electromagnetic radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the field or
the return signal.
The maximum distance that this sensor can detect is defined "nominal range".
Proximity switches open or close an electrical circuit when they make contact with or
come within a certain distance of an object. Proximity switches are most commonly
used in manufacturing equipment, robotics, and security systems. There are four basic
types of proximity switches:
1. Infrared: Emits infra‐red radiation.
2. Acoustic: Emits inaudible sound waves
3. Capacitive: Measures changes in capacitance around it
4. Inductive: Emits magnetic field
Inductive proximity switches sense distance to objects by generating magnetic fields.
They are similar in principle to metal detectors. A coil of wire is charged with electrical
current, and an electronic circuit measures this current. If a metallic part gets close
enough to the coil, the current will increase and the proximity switch will open or close
accordingly. The chief disadvantage of inductive proximity switches is that they can only
detect metallic objects.
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Figure 9‐1 Proximity Sensor (RPM Measuring Device)
9.2 Model explanation of proximity switch
LM 18 – 30 08 N A
1. LM signifies the switch category (LM: inductance type; CM: capacitance type
etc.)
2. 30 signifies the operating voltage (30: 6‐36VDC; 310: 5‐24VDC; 320: 12‐
60VDC; 20:90‐250VAC; 210: 24‐250VAC;220: 380VAC; 40: 12‐240VDC/24‐
240AC; 50: Special voltage)
3. 08 signifies the detection distance (01: 1mm; 05: 5mm; 10: 10mm)
9.3 Main features:
• Compact volume
• Wide voltage range
• Dust proof, vibration proof, water proof and oil proof.
• Long service life
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Figure 9‐2 Dimensions of Proximity Sensor
9.4 Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that produces a voltage
related to a temperature difference. Thermocouples are a widely used type of
temperature sensor for measurement and control and can also be used to convert heat
into electric power. They are inexpensive and interchangeable, are supplied fitted with
standard connectors and can measure a wide range of temperatures.
Figure 9‐3 Construction of Thermocouple
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9.5 Types of Thermocouples:
Certain combinations of alloys have become popular as industry standards. Selection of
the combination is driven by cost, availability, convenience, melting point, chemical
properties, stability, and output. Different types are best suited for different
applications. They are usually selected based on the temperature range and sensitivity
needed. Thermocouples with low sensitivities (B, R, and S types) have correspondingly
lower resolutions. Other selection criteria include the inertness of the thermocouple
material and whether it is magnetic or not.
B 100..1800 1030..1800 -
R -50..1760 330..1760 -
S -50..1760 250..1760 -
Table 9‐1 Types of Thermocouple
9.6 KType
Type K (chromel–alumel) is the most common general purpose thermocouple with a
sensitivity of approximately 41 µV/°C chromel positive relative to alumel. It is
inexpensive and a wide variety of probes are available in its −200 °C to +1350 °C range.
Figure 9‐4 K Type Thermocouple
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9.7 Table for Type K Thermocouple (Ref Junction 0 ◦C)
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CHAPTER 10
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
10.1 Flame characteristics
Natural gas consumption Heat dissipated
Type of Consumer 3
10‐6
ft /hr liters/s Btu/hr kW
m3/s
Bunsen burner
3 20 0.02 3500 1
small
Bunsen burner
10 80 0.08 10000 3
large
10.2 Experimental findings
For Tamb= 33◦C
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Flame Flame
RPM Height
Temperature Temperature
Figure 10‐1 Temperature vs. Height
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Figure 10‐2 RPM vs. Flame Temperature
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CHAPTER 11
POST DESIGNING
11.1 Cost Estimates
TOTAL Rs 16,600
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11.2 Risk Assessment
Probability Estimated
Mitigation Contingency
Risk Event Description of Project
Strategy Plan
Occurrence Impact
Leakage of
Use of
working 70%‐80% Control
High secure
Sealing fluid due to (Very (Minimize
(Catastrophic) sealings/pist
improper likely) the effect)
on rings
seals
Dimensional
non‐
compliance Retention Re‐designing
Dimensional between 30%‐40% Low (Accept the of the
inaccuracy the stroke (Unlikely) (Marginal) consequen concerned
and the ces) parts
cylinder
length
Resistance
Use of
to smooth 70%‐90% Control
Mechanical High lubricants
movement (Very (Minimize
friction (Catastrophic) such as oil or
of dynamic likely) the effect)
grease
components
Leakage of Coating of
working Control cylinder
fluid 20%‐30% Low walls with
Diffusivity (Minimize
through the (Unlikely) (Marginal)
the effect) thick heat‐
walls of the resistant
cylinder due paint to
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to low reduce
molecular diffusion
weight of through
the fluid them
with respect
to the
molecular
spacing of
the wall
material
Rise in
Use of
temperatur
effective
e of the
cooling
material Control
50%‐60% Medium mechanism
Overheating due to non‐ (Minimize
(Probable) (Critical) by reducing
uniform the effect)
the
heating and
temperature
ineffective
at the sink
cooling
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Impact Guidelines for
Scope,
Probability Guidelines Mitigation Strategy
Cost, Schedule, or
Quality
Transfer the risk to
Very Likely 70‐100% High (Catastrophic) Deflection
another party.
Accept the
Unlikely 0‐40% Low (Marginal) Retention
consequences.
Reject the risk; do
Avoidance
nothing.
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11.3 Safety Assessment:
11.3.1 Introduction:
There is always considerable amount of risk and danger while working with power
producing or energy conversion devices. Stirling Engine is one such device, and as
compared to conventional internal combustion engine, it has increased amount of
danger due to its external source of heat or combustion. This chapter aims to provide a
complete in‐depth analysis of the safety concerns associated with the project, and the
necessary remedial measures taken in this regard. It identifies all safety features of the
system, design, and procedural hazards that may be present and specific procedural
controls and precautions that should be followed. This study is based on the factors
which were highlighted earlier during the risk assessment in the concept design phase.
11.3.2 System Operation:
Stirling engine is a heat engine that operates by cyclic compression and expansion of air
or another gas, the working fluid, at different temperature levels such that there is a net
conversion of heat energy to mechanical work. The key components within the system
are the power piston, displacer, the connecting rod, crankshaft and the heat source
(flame). The synchronous operation of each of these components is necessary for the
smooth operation of the engine. Otherwise, these components might induce unwanted
vibrations, resulting in the complete malfunction of the engine or break‐up of these
components, causing both material and human damage.
The engine is operated after being provided a sufficient amount of heat with any of the
available heat source such as flame, steam etc. It is important to contain the flame
within a specified area so as to ensure uniform or continuous heating and therefore it
must be prevented from gust of winds. Also the uncontrolled flame may go on to
damage the instrumentation devices such as the thermocouple wire or the proximity
sensor.
The output shaft is coupled with a fan, so as to indicate the engine output and also to
provide the engine with the initial push to get it started. This fan remains bare on the
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output shaft and a little carelessness from the operator may cause the hands of the
operator to stick into the sharp blades of the fan, causing serious injuries.
The reciprocating parts must be lubricated from time to time to ensure their smooth
operation. Also the seals must be checked regularly to make sure that they are in order
and functioning properly. The engine must be inspected periodically to assess the
wearing of moving parts and to replace them if necessary. The gas pipe leading to the
burner must be checked for any sort of blockage.
11.3.3 Safety Engineering:
Estimated
Probability of Safety
Event Description/Issue Project
Occurrence Feature
Impact
Use of secure
Leakage of working High sealings and
70%‐80% (Very
Sealing fluid due to (Catastrophi strong
likely)
improper seals c) gasketting
fixtures
Use of flame
Due to sudden
enclosures
increase in the mass
around the
Dispersed/ flow of gas the flame
30%‐40% Medium base of the
Uncontroll may come up in
(Unlikely) (Critical) burner and
ed flame contact with sensors
upto the
or measuring
base of
instruments
cylinders
Resistance to Use of
High
Mechanica smooth movement 70%‐90% (Very lubricants
(Catastrophi
l friction of dynamic likely) such as oil or
c)
components grease
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Coating of
Leakage of working
cylinder walls
fluid through the
with thick
walls of the cylinder
heat‐
due to low
20%‐30% Low resistant
Diffusivity molecular weight of
(Unlikely) (Marginal) paint to
the fluid with
reduce
respect to the
diffusion
molecular spacing of
through
the wall material
them
Rise in temperature
of the material due
Overheati 50%‐60% Medium Heat sink or
to non‐uniform
ng (Probable) (Critical) fins are used
heating and
ineffective cooling
The rotating fan
Protective
blades may get
Blade 30%‐40% Low cage is used
damaged or may
Damage (Unlikely) (Marginal) to enclose
hurt someone
the fan
during operation
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11.3.4 Objectives Assessment:
This is to assess the percentage of success the project had as when compared with the
SOR originally given.
Proposed
Ref Task Result Description
status
1.5 Optimization of
components of
Did not manage to optimize
stirling engine using
W(L) NA the design due to time
commercially
constraints.
available FEA package
software.
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fabrication of model.
1.5 Submission of project
in the form of a
Did not manage to compile a
research paper to be
submitted in a W(L) research paper due to time
NA
constraints.
reputable
international
journal/conference.
Final design
calculations of our
Conducted one dimensional
fabricated engine
steady state heat transfer,
model based on the
2.1.6 D A geometric and mechanical
studies conducted on
calculations for a gamma type
the hand‐made (tin‐
can) stirling engine stirling engine.
model.
Simulation of our
design on FEA
Successfully managed to
software package.
This will include simulate the thermal and
dynamic performance of the
optimization of the
2.1.7 design and W(L) design on ANSYS simulation
A
software. The results were
performance
parameters, the almost in agreement with the
structural, dynamic, analytical calculations
thermal and flow performed.
analysis.
Final fabrication of Fabricated engine with minor
2.1.8 D A
the engine based on changes in original design that
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
our analysis. were essential to overcome
the problems encountered in
the fabrication phase.
Comparison of our
Did not manage to draw
design with an
2.1.9 equivalent power W(L) comparisons with an internal
NA
combustion engine due to
internal combustion
engine. time and financial constraints.
2.2 Should be capable of
producing useful
electrical output for Did not manage to couple the
W(H) NA engine with a generator due to
charging an electronic
time and financial constraints.
device such as laptop
or cell phone.
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within permissible limits.
design limits.
2.2.2 The stirling engine
should produce a This objective was achieved
smooth and W(H) A after an initial round of trouble
continuous power shooting.
output.
2.3.1 Heat source must be
The heat source in shielded
properly concealed to
D A from direct human contact by
prevent direct human
contact. an aluminum sheet.
2.3.1 The engine placement
The engine rig is stably
rig must be stable to
D supported on three legs with
prevent any mishap A
soft rubber pegs for a firm
due to engine
dynamics. grip.
2.3.3 Expansion chamber
and displacer
W(H) The working fluid is sealed
chamber must be air A
shut inside the two cylinders.
tight to prevent
leakage.
2.4 It shall be ensured
All engine components are
that the components
D easily available in the market
of the engine are A
or can be easily manufactured
easily available in the
local market. at minimal cost and time.
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environmental safety human contact. No toxic
standards. pollutants are emitted and the
engine also does not create a
lot of noise.
2.4 The engine shall not The design is completely
be plagiarized from indigenous though it may bear
an existing design. D A some similarities to other
designs due to its conventional
nature.
2.5 The engine shall Engine operates at standard
operate at STP. D conditions of 25 oC ambient
A
temperature and 1 atm
pressure.
2.6 Engine components
All engine components are
shall be replaceable in
D A easily replaceable at a very low
case of
damage/malfunction. cost.
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GALLERY
This gallery is dedicated to the pictures of the final and
successfully fabricated Stirling engine prototype.
Also in the pictures can be seen the inductive proximity sensor
and its associated wiring which was used to measure the RPM of
the engine.
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
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APPENDIX A
“GANTT CHART”
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APPENDIX B
“SOR”
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Statement Of Requirement
1 Introduction
1.1 Preamble
1.2 Objective
1.3 Scope
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
principles, design parameters and the study of a
home‐made scaled down version of the engine (as
per the PCSIR project competition requirement) in
order to identify the engineering complications
associated with it.
1.4 Related Documents
1.4.1 Books
Yunus A. Cengel, Heat Transfer, Tata‐McGraw Hill,
New‐Delhi
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
2003
R. S. Khurmi and J. K. Gupta, Theory of Machines
and Mechanisms, Eurasia Publishing House, New
Delhi, 1998
1.4.2 Software
D Solid Edge V20 or Solid Edge ST
W(L) Ansys V11 FEA package software
1.5 Deliverables
Fabrication of a scaled down home‐made stirling
W(L) engine for PCSIR project competition
requirement.
D Design, analysis and fabrication of stirling engine.
D 3D geometrical modeling on Solid Edge.
Optimization of components of stirling engine
W(L) using commercially available FEA package
software.
Final presentation, project report and fabrication
D
of model.
Submission of project in the form of research
W(L) paper to be submitted in a reputable international
journal/conference.
1.6 Definitions, Abbreviations and Symbols
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
1.6.1 Definitions
Displacer:
The displacer resembles a large piston, except
that it has a smaller diameter than the cylinder,
thus its motion does not change the volume of
gas in the cylinder—it merely transfers the gas
around within the cylinder.
Power piston:
Power piston is the piston located in the
expansion chamber. The expanding gases in the
cylinder exert a pressure on the power piston
which in turn rotates the crank and provides the
system with the power stroke.
Crank shaft:
The crankshaft, sometimes casually abbreviated
to crank, is the part of an engine which translates
reciprocating linear piston motion into rotation.
Connecting rods:
The connecting rod connects the piston to the
crank or crankshaft.
Piston rings:
A piston ring is an open‐ended ring that fits into a
groove on the outer diameter of a piston with the
primary aim to seal the expansion chamber.
Flywheel:
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A flywheel is a mechanical device with a
significant moment of inertia used as a storage
device for rotational energy.
Heat engine:
A heat engine is a device that converts thermal
energy to mechanical work output.
Sink:
The heat sink is typically the environment at
ambient temperature to where heat is lost and
the temperature is lowered.
Source:
Source is the venue from where heat energy is
obtained, in this design via combustion.
Internal Combustion Engine:
An engine where combustion takes place inside
the power cylinder.
Heat Transfer Coefficient:
A coefficient used in calculating the convective
heat transfer between a fluid and a solid body.
Fins:
They are used to enhance convective heat
transfer by increasing the area exposed to
convection.
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1.6.2 Abbreviations
ICE:
Internal Combustion Engine
NASA:
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
PCSIR:
Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research
FEA:
Finite Element Analysis
STP:
Standard Temperature & Pressure (250C, 1atm)
NOX:
Nitrous Oxide
1.6.3 Symbols
D
Demand: A mandatory requirement.
W(H)
Wish high: A highly desirable attribute.
W(L)
Wish low: A less desirable attribute.
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2 Technical Requirements
Conceptual knowledge of thermodynamics, heat
transfer, mechanics of machines, engineering
D dynamics, mechanics of solids and material
sciences along with modeling and FEA software
packages.
2.1 Description and Purpose
Study of the basic concept and three categories of
D 2.1.1
stirling engine namely alpha, beta and gamma.
Collecting the latest research literature and
W(H) 2.1.2
general subject matter on stirling engines.
Narrowing down the selection to the right type
D 2.1.3 (alpha, beta and gamma) of stirling engine on
which to base the design.
Solid modeling of the selected stirling engine
W(H) 2.1.4 category on modeling software, for the home‐
made (tin‐can) stirling engine.
Construction of the hand‐made (tin‐can) stirling
engine in order to gain a better understanding of
its working principles and identification of the
W(L) 2.1.5
associated mechanical problems coupled with
their solutions (as per the PCSIR competition
requirement).
Final design calculations of the fabricated engine
D 2.1.6 model based on the studies conducted on the
hand‐made (tin‐can) stirling engine model.
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Simulation of the design on FEA software
package. This will include optimization of the
W(L) 2.1.7
design and performance parameters, the
structural, dynamic, thermal and flow analysis.
Final fabrication of the engine based on the
D 2.1.8
analysis.
Comparison of the design with an equivalent
W(L) 2.1.9
power internal combustion engine.
2.2 Functional Characteristics
Should be capable of producing useful electrical
W(H) output for charging an electronic device such as
laptop or cell phone.
2.2.1 Qualitative issues
Combustion by‐products produced by ICE such as
D NOx are eliminated.
Should generate less noise as compared to an ICE.
2.2.2 Quantitative issues
The temperature of the heat source shall not
D exceed the melting point temperature of the
expansion cylinder.
Pressure attained inside the expansion chamber
D
should be within permissible design limits.
The stirling engine should produce a smooth and
W(H)
continuous power output.
2.3 Physical and other characteristics
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
2.3.1 Health and safety criteria
Heat source must be properly concealed to
prevent direct human contact.
D
The engine placement rig must be stable to
prevent any mishap due to engine dynamics.
2.3.2 Protective finish and coatings
Use of lubricants where desired.
2.3.3 Equipment sealing requirements
Expansion chamber and displacer chamber must
W(H)
be air tight to prevent leakage.
2.4 Design & Construction
It shall be ensured that the components of the
engine are easily available in the local market.
The engine shall be in compliance with the
D
environmental safety standards.
The engine shall not be plagiarized from an
existing design.
2.5 Environmental conditions
D The engine shall operate at STP.
2.6 Interchangeability
Engine components shall be replaceable in case of
D
damage/malfunction.
2.7 Production
D Engine is to be developed by the students under
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
the guidance of project advisor and with the aid
of reference books and online subject matter.
Students may employ the use of modeling and
FEA software to aid in the engine design.
2.8 Miscellaneous
Safe handling of parts during fabrication.
Project details shall be documented.
D Project content shall be monitored by project
advisor Dr. Waqar Ahmed Khan and overlooked
by project examiner and co‐examiner, Mr. Aijaz
Ahmed and Dr. Noman Danish respectively.
3 Cost
The estimated cost of the project is Rs. 60,000
(10% contingencies). However the actual cost of
the project may vary according to the
circumstances and will be ascertained by the
group members.
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APPENDIX C
“TERMS & DEFINITIONS”
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Adiabatic Flame Temperature:
In the absence of any work interactions or changes in the kinetic or potential energies,
the chemical energy released during combustion is either lost as heat to the
surroundings or is used to raise the temperature of the products. The smaller the heat
loss, larger the temperature rise. When there is no heat loss, the temperature of the
products will reach a maximum. This maximum is called the ‘adiabatic flame
temperature’ of the reaction.
Buffer Pressure:
Pressure acting on the non‐workspace side of the piston is known as buffer pressure.
The buffer gas like the fly wheel absorbs stores and returns energy during the cycle.
Coefficient of Fluctuation of Energy:
It is defined as the ratio of the maximum fluctuation of energy to the work done per
cycle.
Coefficient of Fluctuation of Speed:
The difference between the maximum and minimum speeds during a cycle is called the
maximum fluctuation of speed. The ratio of the maximum fluctuation of speed to the
mean speed is called the coefficient of fluctuation of speed.
Compression Ratio:
It is the ratio of uncompressed volume upon compressed volume. It is denoted by r.
Convection heat transfer coefficient (h):
Defined as the rate of heat transfer per unit area, per unit temperature difference of
fluid flow. The convective heat transfer coefficient is not a property of the fluid. It is an
experimentally determined parameter whose value depends on the surface geometry,
the nature of fluid motion, the properties of the fluid and the bulk fluid velocity.
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Dead Volume:
Dead volume is a function of volume of heaters, coolers, piston clearances, ducts, etc
and any other volumes in the gas circuit that is not swept by either piston, denoted by
VD.
Effectiveness:
The ratio of actual torque to ideal torque is called the effectiveness denoted by E.
Efficacious Cycle:
If τr ≤ 1, the Stirling cycle has the property that the minimum expansion process
pressure is greater than or equal to the maximum compression process pressure.
Efficacious engines are the most efficient mechanically, but they are not always the
most practical.
Enthalpy of Reaction (hr):
This is the difference between the enthalpy of the products at a specified state and the
enthalpy of the reactants at the same state for a complete reaction.
Enthalpy of Formation (hf):
This is the enthalpy of a substance at a specified state due to its chemical composition.
Forced Work:
The forced work is the work that the mechanism must deliver to make the piston move
in opposition to the pressure difference across it. It is denoted by .
Film Temperature (Tf):
To account for the temperature variation of the fluid in the thermal boundary layer (i.e.
from the surface to the outer edge of the boundary layer), the fluid properties are
usually evaluated at the ‘film temperature’ which is the arithmetic average of the
surface and the free‐stream temperature.
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Grashof number (Gr):
It is a dimensionless number which represents the ratio of the buoyancy force to the
viscous force acting on the fluid. The role played by Reynolds number in forced
convection is played by the Grashof number in natural convection.
Inertia Force: (FI)
It is an imaginary force, which when acts upon a rigid body, brings it in an equilibrium
position. It is numerically equal to the accelerating force in magnitude, but opposite in
direction.
Indicated Work:
It is the difference between the work done by the fluid during expansion and the work
done during compression. It is denoted by Wi. It is also defined as the area enclosed by
the P‐v diagram of the cycle.
Maximum Fluctuation of Energy:
The variation of energy above and below the mean resisting torque line is called the
fluctuation of energy, while the difference between the maximum and minimum
energies is known as the maximum fluctuation of energy.
Mean Resisting Torque: (Tmean)
The product of the crank‐pin effort and the crank‐pin radius is known as crank effort or
turning moment or torque on the crankshaft
Mechanical Efficiency:
It is the measure of how much the work produced by the thermodynamic cycle can
actually be taken out to the shaft, outside the engine.
Monomorphic Engine:
A monomorphic engine is one in which its pressure–volume function is proportional to
the gas mass content of its workspace.
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Net Load on Piston: (FL)
It is the force acting on the piston due to the difference of pressures in the cylinder on
the two sides of the piston.
Non‐ Efficacious Cycle:
Non‐Efficacious Stirling Cycle is the one, for which τr > 1. Non‐efficacious engines
potentially
have a higher power density.
Nusselt number (Nu):
It represents the enhancement of the heat transfer through a fluid layer as a result of
convection relative to conduction across the same fluid layer.
Piston Effort: (Fp)
It is the net force acting on the piston or crosshead pin, along the line of stroke.
Prandtl number (Pr):
It is a dimensionless number that describes the relative thickness of the velocity and the
thermal boundary layers.
Radius of Gyration:
A body when it rotates behaves as if all of its mass were concentrated in a ring at some
distance from the axis of rotation. This distance is known as the Radius of Gyration of
the body.
Rayleigh number (Ra):
It is simply the product of the Grashof number and the Prandtl number.
Shaft Work:
It is the difference between the cyclic work Wo received by the flywheel/output shaft
and indicated work Wi.
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Ws = Wo − Wi
Stoichiometric Air:
The minimum amount of air needed for the complete combustion of a fuel is called
stoichiometric or theoretical air.
Swept Volume:
The volume displaced during the reciprocating motion of the piston is called the swept
volume.
Temperature Ratio:
Ratio of cold space temperature to hot space temperature is known as temperature
ratio. It is denoted by τ.
Thermal conductivity (k):
The rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of the material per unit area, per unit
temperature difference.
Turning Moment or Torque on Crankshaft: (T)
The product of the crank‐pin effort and the crank‐pin radius is known as crank effort or
turning moment or torque on the crankshaft.
Workspace:
The working substance, typically a gas confined in an expansion chamber is known as
working space.
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APPENDIX D
“REFERENCES”
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[1] Iskander Tlili, Youssef Timoumi and Sassi Ben Nasrallah (2007), “Analysis and
design consideration of mean temperature differential Stirling engine for solar
application”, Renewable Energy, Vol. 33 (2008), pg 1911–1921.
[2] Bancha Kongtragool and Somchai Wongwises (2004), “Investigation on power
output of the gamma‐configuration low temperature differential Stirling engines”,
Renewable Energy, Vol. 30 (2005), pg 465–476.
[3] Can Cinar and Halit Karabulut (2004), “Manufacturing and testing of a gamma
type Stirling engine”, Renewable Energy, Vol. 30 (2005), pg 57–66.
[4] Bancha Kongtragool, Somchai Wongwises (2002), “A review of solar powered
stirling engines and low temperature differential stirling engines”, Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 7 (2003), pg 131–154.
[5] D.G. Thombarea and S.K. Vermab (2006), “Technological development in the
stirling cycle engines”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 12 (2008), pg 1‐
38.
[6] Leonardo Scollo, Pablo Valdez and Jorge Baro´n (2007), “Design and construction
of a Stirling engine prototype”, International Association for Hydrogen Energy (2008).
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FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A STIRLING CYCLE ENGINE
Books:
James R. Senft
“Mechanical Efficiency of Heat Engines”, Cambridge University Press, ISBN‐13 978‐0‐
511‐33538‐9.
Theodor Finkelstein & Allan J. Organ
“Air Engines”, Professional Engineering Publishing Limited, ISBN 1 86058 338 5
Allan J. Organ
“The Air Engine‐ Stirling Cycle Power for a sustainable future”, Woodhead Publishing
Limited, ISBN 978‐1‐84569‐360‐2
Research Articles:
Bancha Kongtragool, Somchai Wongwises
“Investigation on power output of the gamma‐configuration low temperature
differential Stirling engines”, ELSEVIER (www.sciencedirect.com)
Can Cinar , Halit Karabulut
“Manufacturing and testing of a gamma type Stirling engine”, ELSEVIER
(www.sciencedirect.com)
Leonardo Scollo, Pablo Valdez, Jorge Baron
“Design and construction of a Stirling engine prototype”, ELSEVIER
(www.sciencedirect.com)
Iskander Tlili, Youssef Timoumi, Sassi Ben Nasrallah
“Analysis and design consideration of mean temperature differential Stirling engine for
solar application”, ELSEVIER (www.sciencedirect.com)
Web References:
http://www.stirlingengine.fr/principles.php
http://www.animatedengines.com/ltdstirling.shtml
http://www.sesusa.org/
http://www.stirlingengine.com/
http://www.solarheatengines.com/
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