SUMMER TRAINING REPORT

15th June to 30th July

Submitted By:-
Gaurav Srivastava
0713231040
ECE-1(7th sem)
 ABOUT THE COMPANY
CORPORATE VISION :

“A world class integrated power major, powering India's growth with increasing
global presence.”

CORE VALUES :
B - Business ethics
C - Customer focus
O - Organizational & professional pride
M - Mutual respect & trust
I - Innovation & speed
T - Total quality for excellence

NTPC Limited is the largest thermal power generating company of India,

public sector company. It was incorporated in the year 1975 to accelerate power
development in the country as a wholly owned company of the Government of
India. At present, Government of India holds 89.5% of the total equity shares of
the company and the balance 10.5% is held by FIIs, Domestic Banks, Public
and others. Within a span of 31 years, NTPC has emerged as a truly national
power company, with power generating facilities in all the major regions of the
country.
 Type State-owned enterprise
Public (BSE: 532555)

Industry Electricity generation

Founded 1975

Headquarters Delhi, India

Key people R S Sharma, Chairman

& Managing Director

Products Electricity

Revenue ▲ 50,188.52 crore

(US$ 10.89
billion)(2009-10)[1]

Net income ▲ 8,837.65 crore

(US$ 1.92 billion)(2009-
10)[1]

Employees 25944 (2009)

Website www.ntpc.co.in

Source: Wikipedia
 EVOLUTION OF NTPC

NTPC was set up in 1975 with 100% ownership by the

1975 Government of India. In the last 30 years, NTPC has
grown into the largest power utility in India.

In 1997, Government of India granted NTPC status of

1997 “Navratna‟ being one of the nine jewels of India,
enhancing the powers to the Board of Directors.

NTPC became a listed company with majority

2004 Government ownership of 89.5%.
NTPC becomes third largest by Market Capitalisation of
listed companies

The company rechristened as NTPC Limited in line with

2005 its changing business portfolio and transform itself from a
thermal power utility to an integrated power utility.

NTPC is the largest power utility in India, accounting for about

20% of India‟s installed capacity.
 Sites of NTPC

NTPC Head Quarters

Sr. No. Head Quarter City

1 NCR HQ Delhi
2 ER-I, HQ Patna
3 ER-II, HQ Bhubaneswar
4 NER Lucknow
5 SR HQ Hyderabad
6 WR HQ Mumbai

NTPC Project Sites:

1 Singrauli Uttar Pradesh 2,000

2 Korba Chhattisgarh 2,100
3 Ramagundam Andhra Pradesh 2,600
4 Farakka West Bengal 1,600
5 Vindhyachal Madhya Pradesh 3,260
6 Rihand Uttar Pradesh 2,000
7 Kahalgaon Bihar 2,340
8 NCTPP, Dadri Uttar Pradesh 1,330
9 Talcher Kaniha Orissa 3,000
10 Unchahar Uttar Pradesh 1,050
11 Talcher Thermal Orissa 460
12 Simhadri Andhra Pradesh 1,000
13 Tanda Uttar Pradesh 440
14 Badarpur Delhi 705
15 Sipat-II Chhattisgarh 1000
16 Sipat-I(erection phase) Chhattisgarh 1980
17 Bongaigaon(erection phase.) Assam 750
Total 24,835
 Need for communication
Among different sites
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)
An ERP system can either reside on a centralized server or be distributed
across modular hardware and software units that provide "services" and
communicate on a local area network. The distributed design allows a business
to assemble modules from different vendors without the need for the placement
of multiple copies of complex and expensive computer systems in areas which
will not use their full capacity
Manufacturing
Engineering, bills of material, work orders, scheduling, capacity, workflow
management, quality control, cost management, manufacturing process,
manufacturing projects, manufacturing flow
Supply chain management
Order to cash, inventory, order entry, purchasing, product configurator,
supply chain planning, supplier scheduling, inspection of goods, claim
processing, and commission calculation
Financials
General ledger, cash management, accounts payable, accounts receivable,
fixed assets
Project management
Costing, billing, time and expense, performance units, activity management
Human resources
Human resources, payroll, training, time and attendance, rostering, benefits
Customer relationship management
Sales and marketing, commissions, service, customer contact, call-center
support
Data services
Various "self-service" interfaces for customers, suppliers and/or employees
Access control
Management of user privileges for various processes
Types of networks used by NTPC
NTPC uses 3 different types of networks for the purpose of communication
among its various sites. These are listed below:

MPLS Network
ISDN Network
VSAT Network

MPLS Network
MPLS Network is the Multiple Protocol Level Shift Network. It provides a
network speed of 2 mbps to 34 mbps. It is the primary network which is used
by the NTPC sites.

ISDN Network
ISDN is the Integrated Service Digital Network. This Network is provided
by operators like BSNL or VSNL, in the form of a leased line which is a
dedicated line. The speed provided is up to 2 mbps.

VSAT Network
VSAT or Very Small Aperture Network is a satellite based network. It is
used as a backup network. The speed provided by VSAT is about 2 mbps.

Launch Date 28.09.2003

INSAT-3E is the fourth satellite launched in the INSAT-3 series. It is an exclusive
communication satellite to further augment the communication services that are
being provided by the INSAT System. Weighing 2775 kg at lift-off, INSAT-3E
carries 24 Normal C-band and 12 Extended C-band transponders.

Mission Communication

2,775 Kg (Mass at Lift-off)

Spacecraft Mass
1218 Kg (Dry mass)

Launch date September 28, 2003

Launch site French Guyana

Launch vehicle Ariane5-V162

Orbit Geostationary Orbit

VSAT Network

Definition:
A Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT), is a two-way satellite ground
station with a dish antenna that is smaller than 3 meters (most VSAT antennas
range from 75 cm to 1.2 m). VSAT data rates typically range from narrowband
up to 4 Mbit/s. VSATs access satellites in geosynchronous orbit to relay data
from small remote earth stations (terminals) to other terminals (in mesh
configurations) or master earth station "hubs" (in star configurations).

VSATs access satellites in geosynchronous orbit to relay data from small

remote earth stations (terminals) to other terminals (in mesh configurations) or
master earth station "hubs" (in star configurations).

Technology:
VSAT was originally intended for sporadic store-and-forward data
communications but has evolved into real-time internet services. VSAT uses
existing satellite broadcasting technology with higher powered components and
antennas manufactured with higher precision than conventional satellite
television systems. The satellite antenna at the customer's location includes, in
addition to the receiver, a relatively high-powered transmitter that sends a signal
back to the originating satellite. A very small portion of a transponder is used
for each VSAT return path channel. Each VSAT terminal is assigned a
frequency for the return path which it shares with other VSAT terminals using a
shared transmission scheme such as time division multiple access.

An innovative feature of VSAT is that the technology has evolved to the

point that something that previously could only be done with large, high-
powered transmitting satellite dishes can now be done with a much smaller and
vastly lower-powered antenna at the customer's premises. In addition, several
return-path channels can co-exist on a single satellite transponder, and each of
these return-path channels is further subdivided using to serve multiple
customers.

Now days, nearly all VSAT systems are now based on IP, with a very broad
spectrum of applications.
History:
The first commercial VSATs were C band (6 GHz) receive-only systems by
Equatorial Communications using spread spectrum technology. More than
30,000 60 cm antenna systems were sold in the early 1980s. Equatorial later
developed a C band (4/6 GHz) 2 way system using 1 m x 0.5 m antennas and
sold about 10,000 units in 1984-85.

In 1985, Schlumberger Oilfield Research co-developed the world's first Ku

band (12/14 GHz) VSATs with Hughes Aerospace to provide portable network
connectivity for oil field drilling and exploration units. Ku Band VSATs make
up the vast majority of sites in use today for data or telephony applications.

A recent breakthrough in the VSAT technology has enabled us to use Ka

band frequency which further reduces the size of Antenna to 3 meters.

Configuration:
Most VSAT networks are configured in one of these topologies:

A star topology, using a central uplink site, such as a network

operations center (NOC), to transport data back and forth to each VSAT
terminal via satellite.
A mesh topology, where each VSAT terminal relays data via satellite
to another terminal by acting as a hub, minimizing the need for a
centralized uplink site.
A combination of both star and mesh topologies. Some VSAT
networks are configured by having several centralized uplink sites (and
VSAT terminals stemming from it) connected in a multi-star topology
with each star (and each terminal in each star) connected to each other in
a mesh topology. Others configured in only a single star topology
sometimes will have each terminal connected to each other as well,
resulting in each terminal acting as a central hub. These configurations
are utilized to minimize the overall cost of the network, and to alleviate
the amount of data that has to be relayed through a central uplink site (or
sites) of a star or multi-star network.

Advantage of VSAT Network:

VSAT is a satellite based communication service that offers a flexible
and reliable communication solution including Enterprise Wide Networking
with high reliability and reach that extends even to remote sites.
A VSAT Network provides:

Reliability in transmission of data (data, voice, video)

Allocation of resources to different users (bandwidth, amplification
power)
Fixed Network solution.
Provide point-to-multipoint (broadcast), multipoint-to-point (Data
Collection), point-to-point communication and broadband multimedia
services.
Provide communication to remote and inaccessible areas.

VSAT Frequency Spectrum Allocation

Frequency Area Foot- Delivered Rainfall
Band
GHz print Power effect
Band
3 to 7 Large Low Minimum
C
Band
10 to 18 Medium Medium Moderate
Ku
Band
18 to 31 Small High Severe
Ka

However, NTPC uses C Band frequency range (4GHz to 6 GHz). NTPC has
been assigned Transponder No. 3 in the recently launched satellite INSAT 3E
with uplink frequency range of 5.925 GHz to 6.425 GHz and downlink
frequency range of 3.7 GHz to 4.2 GHz. The central frequency range used by
NTPC to uplink and downlink its signals are 6025000Hz and 3800000 Hz
respectively.
The frequency at which satellite confirms its position by sending a signal is
called the Beacon Signal, and in case of INSAT 3E it is 4197.51 MHz which is
measured with a spectrum analyzer connected to antenna through the LNA.

A VSAT System can be broadly classified into two segments.

 Space Segment.
 Earth Segment.
 Earth Segment Space Segment

Space Segment:
This segment is primarily the satellite that is used for communication. The
satellites used are exclusively in the Geo-Stationary orbit, Located on an arc
36,000 km above the equator. This segment is available from the organizations
that have procured satellites, arranged launch and who operate these satellites
on commercial basis. In addition to international agencies, a number of private
players have emerged who own or lease satellites which are used to carry their
own or their customers‟ data traffic.

Ground Segment:
This is primarily called the Earth Terminal segment, The Earth terminal (or
equipment at the customer‟s premises) can typically be divided into two parts

1. Outdoor unit
2. Indoor Unit

The outdoor unit is generally, ground or even wall mounted and the indoor
unit, which is the size of a desktop computer, is normally located near existing
computer equipment in your office.
Satellite communication concept

Note:

HPA – High Power Amplifier (Earth Station equipment that amplifies the
transmit RF signal)

CPE – Customer Premises Equipment (eg. Telephone, PABX, Ethernet hub,

host server etc.)

VSAT Specifications

Antenna diameter: 11 m

Traffic Capacity: 9.6 kbps – 2 mbps

Diagram

Frequency Bands:

C-Band (4/6 GHz)

Ku-Band (12/14 GHz)

Ka-Band (20/30 GHz)

Network: Point-to-Point
Configuration: Point-to-Multipoint

Equipment List:

 Antenna;
 Outdoor Unit: HPA, LNA, SSPA(Solid State Power Amplifier)
 Indoor Unit : Chassis

Note:

Antenna size is used to describe the ability of antenna to amplify the signal
strength;

Outdoor unit (ODU) is connected through a low-loss coaxial cable to the

indoor unit (IDU) called IFL (Inter-facility Link).
 Typical VSAT System
Outdoor Unit:
The antenna system consists of a reflector, feed horn and a mount. The size
of the antenna varies from 1.8 meters to 3-8 meters, 7.8 meters or 11 meters.
The feed horn is mounted on the antenna frame at its focal point by support
arms. The feed horn directs the transmitted power towards the antenna dish or
collects the received power from it.

Antenna size is used to describe the ability of the antenna to amplify the
signal strength.

Up converters and High Power Amplifiers (HPA) used for converting and
amplifying the signal before transmitting to the feed horn. Extended C band,
down converter receives the signal at 4.5 to 4.8 GHz and the up converter
converts it to 6.725 to 7.025 GHz.

Antenna varies – antenna size is describe the ability of the antenna to

amplify the signal strength feed-horns directs transmitted power to antenna dish
or collects the received power from it.
Cassegrain Antenna System:
1. A Double reflector system
2. Works on the principle of cassegrain optical telescope. Employs a
parabolic contour for the sub dish.
3. Permits a reduction in the axial dimension of the antenna.
4. Greater flexibility in the design of the feed system.
5. Used for monopulse radar, satellite communication and eliminates the
need for long transmission lines.

Radio Frequency Terminal (RFT):

RFT is mounted on the antenna frame and interconnected to the feed horn +
Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) + down-converters. LNA – minimize signal noise.
Noise temperature is a parameter used to describe the performance of LNA.

Indoor Unit (IDU):

The IDU consists of modulators that superimpose the user traffic signal on a
carrier signal. This is then sent to the RTF for up conversion, amplification and
transmission. It also consists of demodulators which receive the signal from
the RFT in the IF range and demodulates the same to segregate the user traffic
signal from the carrier.

IDU also interfaces with various end user equipments, ranging from
standalone computers, LANs, routers, multiplexes, telephone instruments,
EPABX as per the requirement. It performs the necessary protocol conversion
on the input data from the customer end equipment prior to modulation and
transmission to RFT.
Block Diagram of a VSAT System
Antenna Control Unit:
This unit works to receive and transmitting signals from the satellite using
antenna and tracks antenna when required.

1. Beacon Signal Receiver

The satellite sends a self generated signal named beacon signal to the
earth station so that the antenna can track the signal. This signal is 4197
MHz for NTPC. This receiver the 4197 MHz signal can convert it to 70
MHz signal for antenna tracking.

2. Antenna Tracker
This checks the voltage level of the signal and when reduced
automatically moves the dish antenna to track the maximum strength.

Tracking modes (For checking):

a) Time mode – The antenna tracker checks for the voltage level after every
10 sec, 20 sec or whatever time is.
b) Signal Mode – The antenna tracker tracks the antenna to obtain the
maximum signal strength whenever there is a difference of 3dB.
c) Time and Signal mode – It is the combination of both the above modes.
The antenna tracks the signal whenever the signal strength decreases.

Half Power Beam Width (HPBW) – It is a parameter to check the strength of

the signal. The width of the beam when the there is a difference of 3 dB from
the maximum point of the gain i.e. beam width at that point of half power.

Given by

HPBW = 70λ/DxD where λ = Wavelength

D = Diameter of antenna

λ=V/n V = Velocity of the wave

As the antenna size is decreased HPBW increases as D is inversely

proportional to HPBW. Hence tracking in small antennas is not required but in
case of antennas with big diameter, tracking is essential.
Antenna Control Unit
High Power Amplifier:
These are also known as Vacuum Tubes (Valve) Amplifiers or Tube
Amplifiers, while semiconductor amplifiers have largely displaced valve
amplifiers for low power applications, valve amplifiers are much more cost
effective in high power applications such as RADAR, countermeasures
equipment, or communication equipment. etc.

Now we‟ll compare two types of HPA which were used in our training

TWT High Power Klystron II

Amplifier
1. Used where power required is less, 1. Used for high power
i.e. for less power rating around requirements, eg. 1kW, 3kW
100W, 400W, 750 W
2. No tuning required as the signal is 2. Needs tuning so that maximum
wide band signal gain is achieved at a particular
frequency. Narrow band signal.
3. Suitable for NTPC as power rating 3. Also used. NTPC CSES has got
is low both types of High Power
Amplifiers.

Both run each at a time to avoid

burnout. So to avoid heating up
we use Klystron II & TWT HPA
alternatively.
4. 4.
Working of Travelling Wave Tube (TWT):
This device is an elongated vacuum tube with an electron gun (a heated
cathode that emits electrons) at one end. A solenoid coil wrapped around the
tube creates magnetic field which focuses the electrons into the beam, which
then passes down the middle of a wire helix that stretches the length of the tube,
finally striking a collector at the other end. (In Lower power devices, the
solenoid coil can be replaced by permanent magnets)

A directional coupler, which can be either a waveguide or an electromagnetic

coil, fed with low powered radio signal that is to be amplified, is positioned near
the emitter, includes a current into the helix.

The helix acts as a delay line, in which the RF signal travels at the same
speed along the tube as the electron beam. The electromagnetic field due to the
current in the helix interacts with the electron beam, causing bunching of the
electrons (an effect called velocity modulation), and the electromagnetic field
due to the beam current then induces more current back into the helix (i.e. the
current builds up and thus is amplified as it passes down).

A second directional coupler, positioned near the collector, receives an

amplified version of the input signal from the far end of the helix. An attenuator
prevents any reflected wave from travelling back to the cathode.

The bandwidth of a broadband TWT can be as high as one octave, although

tuned (narrowband) versions exist, and operating frequencies range from
300MHz to 50 GHz. The voltage gain of the tube can be of the order of 40
decibels.

A TWT integrated with a regulated power supply and protection circuits is

referred to as a Travelling Wave Tube Amplifier (TWTA).

Working of a Klystron II Tube:

Klystrons are used as an oscillator or amplifier at microwave frequencies to
produce both low power reference signals for super heterodyne radar receivers
and to produce high power carrier waves for communications and the driving
force for linear accelerators, It has the advantage (over the magnetron) of
coherently amplifying the reference signal and so its output may be precisely
controlled in amplitude, frequency and phase. Many Klystrons have a
waveguide for coupling microwave energy into and out of the device, although
it is quiet common for lower power and lower frequency klystrons to use
coaxial couplings instead. In some cases a coupling probe is used to couple the
microwave energy from a klystron into a separate external waveguide.
 A klystron makes use of speed-controlled streams of electrons that pass
through a resonating cavity. Electrons in a klystron are accelerated to a
controlled speed by the application of several hundred volts. As the electrons
leave the heated cathode of the tube, they are directed through a narrow gap into
a resonating chamber, where they are acted upon by a RF signal. The electrons
bunch together and are directed into one or more additional chambers that are
tuned at or near the tube‟s operating frequency. Strong RF fields are induced in
the chambers as the electron bunches give up energy. These fields are ultimately
collected at the HPA alternatively.

NTPC CSES has got both types of HPAs. Both are run each at a time to
avoid burnout. So to avoid heating up we use Klystron II & TWT HPA
alternatively.

Low Noise Amplifier:

The Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) is a special type of electronic amplifier
used in communication systems to amplify very weak signals captured by
antenna. It is often located very close to antenna.

Using a LNA, the noise of all the subsequent stages is reduced by the gain of
the LNA and the noise of the LNA is injected directly into the received signal.
Thus, it is necessary for a LNA to boost the desired signal power while adding
as little noise and distortion as possible in the later stages in the system.

LNA is rated with Noise Temperature Rating. Lower the noise temperature
better the quality and more is the cost,

Here at CSES NTPC we have LNA of 37 K rating.

Other NTPC sites generally have LNA of 54 K rating.

Make : NEC

: Paradise make

Down Converter
 UP Converter

UP/Down converter:
They are used to convert signals from low to high frequency or from a high
to low frequency respectively. Up converter are used while transmitting, to
increase the frequency, while down converter are used to decrease the frequency
while reception.

The center frequency of up converter is 6025 MHz and Down converter is

3800 MHz. In C band, up converter converts 70 MHz frequency to 5.9-6.4 GHz
and just the opposite occurs in down converter while reception.
Block diagram of up converter
Modem:

Modem is a combination of two words Modulation and Demodulation. This

is a device which modulates the transmitting signal and demodulates the
receiving signal. A communication device that converts one form of signal into
another that is suitable for transmission over communication circuits, typically
from digital to analog and then from analog to digital.

Modulation means superimposing the baseband signal on a carrier of high

frequency so that it can be transmitted and demodulation is just vice versa of it
i.e. it extracts the message signal from carrier wave at receiving end.

Modulation techniques used:

QPSK – Quadrature Phase Shift keying.

QAM 16

Forward Error Correction (FEC) – this is a parameter determining the output

of QPSK & BPSK. This is represented in fractions eg. ½, ¾, 7/8. etc.

Multiplexer: Multiplexer is a device that allows multiple logical

signals to be transmitted simultaneously across a single channel.

Works in the following manner:

Quantization + Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) + Compressor.

 Quantization – Quantizing refers to use of a finite set of amplitude levels and
a selection of level nearest to a particular sample value of the message signal as
the representation for it.

Multiplexer

Pulse Code Modulation – In PCM system, the message signal is sampled and
the amplitude of each sample is rounded off to the nearest one of a finite set of
allowable values, so both „time and amplitude‟ are quantized.

Compressor – It reduces the output frequency (compresses) to optimum

level.
Block Diagram of MUX & Modem
networking
Router:
A device or setup that finds the best route between any two networks, even if
there are several networks to traverse, such a device is called router. Like
bridges, remote sites can be connected using routers over dedicated or switched
lines to create WANs.
There are data ports in router known as DTE ports. It is a 25 pin data port.
When two routers are connected i.e. same ports then there is a cross connection.
But when different ports are connected like port of router with DCE port of
MUX then there will be straight connection.

Router Exchange

Exchange:
A workplace that serves as a telecommunication facility where lines from
telephone can be connected together to permit communication is called
Exchange.
The voice signal from modem + mux is sent to exchange so that it can
distribute it to its telephone subscribers.
In NTPC 184 trunk lines are possible.
Parameters: -
Route Number – It specifies NTPC site which has to receive data.
Trunk number
Transmission network
Lens number – Combination of Module, unit, group (chord) & circuit
number.
Communication between two Sites via VSAT:

CSES NOIDA
VSAT Topology:

STAR – the hub station controls and monitors can communicates with a
large number of dispersed VSATs. Generally, the Data Terminal
Equipment and 3 hub antenna is in the range of 6-11 m in diameter. Since
all VSATs communicate with the central hub station only, this network is
more suitable for centralized data applications.

Mesh – a group of VSATs communicate directly with any other VSAT in

the network without going through a central hub. A hub station in a mesh
network performs only the monitoring and control functions. These
networks are more suitable for telephony applications.
 Hybrid Network – In practice usually using hybrid networks, where a
part of the network operates on a star topology while some sites operate
on mesh topology, thereby accruing benefits of both the topologies.

TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access):

When numerous remote sites communicate with one central hub, this
design is similar to packet switched networks.
Because of competition with one another for access to the central hub, it
restricts the maximum bandwidth in most cases to about 19.2 kbps.
All VSATs share satellite sources on a time slot basis.
Usually used in star topology as a transmission technique.
Offered to domestic needs.
 The VSAT Hub communicates with all dispersed VSATs (typically a 1.8 m
diameter parabolic shaped dish) on an outgoing channel of up to 512 kbps based
on the TDM scheme. The incoming or return channel from the dispersed
VSATs uses the TDMA channel technology that enables a large number of
respective VSATs to share this single return channel.
The incoming routes typically operate at 128kbps, and can go up to a
maximum bandwidth of 256 kbps.

Petrol stations, information providers, retail chains, financial institutions and

many large corporation that requires transfer of low to medium rate data
applications between its head office and, local and outstation branch offices.
Example of Point of Sales (POS transactions), Credit Card Verification,
Reservations Systems Financial and Banking Applications (tellers, loans, ATM)
etc.

SCPC (Single Carrier Per Channel)

SCPC-based design provides a point to point technology, making VSAT
equivalent to conventional leased lines.
Dedicated Bandwidth up to 2 Mbps
Usually using an international VSAT service in Asia Pacific.
 SCPC overview

In the Hub-to-Remote configuration, one end of the VSAT link (normally the
customer‟s HQ) is connected to the 11m VSAT Hub (Earth Station) via a
terrestrial leased line. A VSAT antenna at the remote end or the distant end
(normally the branch office) of the VSAT link is then interconnected to the
VSAT hub via the satellite.
 VSAT links with a Remote to Remote configuration bypass the VSAT Hub
and has a stand-alone VSAT antenna at both ends of the link. Typical VSAT
antenna size ranges from 1.8m to 2.4m.

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

Oldest method of channel allocation.

The satellite channel bandwidth is broken into frequency bands for
different earth station.
The earth stations must be carefully power controlled to prevent the
microwave power spilling into the bands for the other channels. Here, all
VSATs share the satellite resource on the frequency domain only.

3 Types:

PAMA (Pre Assigned Multiple Access)

DAMA (Demand Assigned Multiple Access)
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

PAMA (Pre-Assigned Multiple Access)

The VSATs are pre-allocated a designated frequency. Equivalent of the

terrestrial (Land Based) Leased line solutions.
 PAMA solutions use the satellite resources constantly. Therefore, no call-
up delays in the interactive data applications or high traffic volumes.
PAMA connects high data traffic sites within an organization

DAMA (Demand Assigned Multiple Access)

The network uses a pool of satellite channels, which are available for use
by any station in that network.
On demand, a pair of available channels is assigned, so that a call can be
established. Once the call is completed, the channels are returned to the
pool for an assignment to another call.
Since the satellite resource is used only in proportion to the active circuits
and their holding times, this is ideally suited for voice traffic and data
traffic in batch mode.
DAMA offers point-to-point voice, fax, and data requirements and
supports video-conferencing. Satellite connections are established and
dropped only when traffic demands them.

CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access):

Under this, a central network monitoring system allocates a unique code

to each of the VSATs. Enabling multiple VSATs to transmit
simultaneously and share a common frequency band.
The data signal is combined with a high bit rate code signal which is
independent of the data,
Reception at the end of the link is accomplished by mixing the incoming
composite data/code signal with a locally generated and correctly
synchronized replica of the code.
Since this network requires that the central network management system
co-ordinates code management and clock synchronization of all remote
VSATs, STAR topology is the best one.
Mainly used for interference rejection or for security reasons in military
systems.

VSAT Characteristics and Advantages:

Reliability: Reliable satellite transmission of data, voice and video

between an unlimited number of geographically dispersed sites or from
these sites to headquarters.
 Flexibility: The VSAT networks offer enormous expansion capabilities;
On the other hand, VSATs offer unrestricted and unlimited reach.
Additional VSATs can be rapidly installed to support the network
expansion to any site, no matter however remote.
Network Management: Network Monitoring and control of the entire
VSAT network is much simpler than a network of leased lines, easily
integrates end-to-end monitoring and configuration control of all network
subsystems.
A low mean-time to repair: Few hours, compared to leased lines which
extend up to a few days. Essentially, lesser elements imply lower MTTR.
Up time of up to 99.5 % is achievable on a VSAT network. This is
significantly higher than the typical leased line uptime of approximately
80-85%.
Cost: VSAT network offers significant savings over 2-3 years timeframe.
The service charged depends on the bandwidth which is allocated to the
network in the line with customer requirements.
Link Budgets: RF equipment would cater to the requirements of the
network topology and satellite modems in use. The link budget estimates
the ground station and satellite EIRP (Effective Isotropic Radiated
Power) required.

VSAT Services

Interactive real time application:

o Point of sale/retail/banking (eg. ATM)
o Corporate data
Telephony
o Rural: individual subscriber
o Corporate Telephony
Intranet, Internet and IP infrastructure
o Multimedia delivery (eg. Video streaming)
o Interactive Distant Learning/ Training
Direct-to-Home
o Broadband internet access for consumers and businesses

Opportunities in VSAT Technology:

Voice over IP (VoIP) via satellite

Frame Relay via Satellite
ATM via Satellite
 Video-on-Demand via satellite
Multimedia Application
o Internet/e-mail connection
o Telemedicine
o Distance Learning

LAN/WAN:

A computer network that spans a relatively small area is called LAN. Most
LANs are confined to a single building or a group of buildings. However one
LAN can be connected to other LANs over any distance via telephone lines and
radio waves. A system of LANs connected in this way is called a Wide-Area-
Network (WAN).
Most LANs are connected workstations and personal computers. Each node
(individual computer) in a LAN has its own CPU with which it executes
programs, but it is also able to access data and devices anywhere on LAN. This
means that many users can share expensive devices such as Laser Printers, as
well as data. Users can also use the LAN to communicate with each other, by
sending emails or engaging in chat sessions.

LAN WAN

Leased Circuits:
A leased circuit is a dedicated link provided between two fixed locations for
the exclusive use of the customer. A Leased circuit may be speech may be
speech circuit, a data circuit or telegraph circuit.
Leased Line charges are uniform in all cases and are same as applicable to
point to point leased circuit. In addition to above installation charges are also
leviable.
 Minimum hiring period for all regular leased circuit is one year.

Leased Line Circuit

E-mail:
Shorter for electronic mail, the transmission of messages over
communication networks is called e-mail. The message can be notes entered
from the keyboard or the electronic files stored on the disk. Most mainframes,
minicomputers, and computer network have an e-mail system. Some e-mail
systems are confined to single computer systems or network, but others have
gateways to other computer systems, enabling the users to send electronic mails
anywhere in the world. Companies that are fully computerized make extensive
use of e-mail because it is fast, flexible and reliable.

Proxy Server:
A server that sits between a client application, such as web browser, and a
real server is called Proxy Server. It intercepts all real requests to the real server
to see if it can fulfill the requests itself. If not, it forwards the request to the real
server.

Proxy Server
Hubs:
A common connection point for the devices in a network is called hub.
Hubs are commonly used to connect the segment of LAN. A hub contains
multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports
so that all segments of the LAN can see all the packets.
A passive hub serves simply acts as a conduit for the data, enabling it to go
from one device (or segment) to another. So called intelligent hubs include
additional features that enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing
through the hub and to configure each port in the hub. Intelligent hubs are also
called manageable hubs.
A third type of hub, called a switching hub, actually reads the destination
address of each packet and then forwards the packet to the correct port.

A Diagram showing Hub connecting nodes

Switches:
In networks, a device that filters and forwards packets between LAN
segments is known as switch. Switches operate at the data link layer (Layer 2)
and sometimes the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI Reference Model and
therefore supports any packet protocol. LANs that use switches to join segments
are called switched LANs or incase of Ethernet networks, Switched Ethernet
LANs.

Switch
Routers:
A device that forwards data packet along with networks is called Router. A
router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or
a LAN and its ISP‟s network. Routers are located at gateways, the places where
two or more network connect.

Routers use headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path for
forwarding the packets, and they use protocols such as ICMP to communicate
with each other and configure the best routes between any two hosts.
Very little filtering of data is done through routers.

Router

Mobile Communication:
In a mobile communication system at least one of the transceivers is mobile.
It may be on board a vehicle that can move at high speeds, or it may be a
handheld unit by a pedestrian.

Mobile communication
Wireless Network:
In networking terminology, wireless is the term used to describe any
computer network where there is no physical wired connection between sender
and receiver, but rather the network is connected by radio waves and/or
microwaves to maintain communications. Wireless networking utilizes specific
equipments such as NICs, APs and routers in place of wires (copper or optical
fiber) for connectivity.

Radio Paging Overview:

On site Pagers provide a fast and flexible means of communication between
fixed installations and mobile packet pagers. They can be used to transmit tones,
text message and alarm conditions and, unlike public systems, no call charges
are incurred once the system has been installed.

Radio paging
Applications of Radio Paging:

Industrial Site Paging

Alarm Monitoring
Security Systems
Warehousing
Hotels and Restaurants
Medical Facilities
Environmental monitoring
Retail Checkouts

Local Area Network (LAN):

The Local Area Network (LAN) is by far most common type of data network.
As the name suggests, a LAN serves a local area (typically the area of the floor
of a building, but in some cases spanning a distance of several kilometers).
Typically installations are in industrial plants, office buildings, college or
university campuses, or similar locations. In these locations, it is feasible for the
owning Organization to install high quality, high-speed communication links
interconnecting nodes. Typical data transmission speeds are one to 100
megabytes per second.
A wide variety of LANs have been built and installed, but a few types have
more recently become dominant. The most widely used LAN system is Ethernet
system developed by Xerox Corp.
Intermediate nodes (i.e. repeaters, bridges and switches) allow LANs to be
connected together to form larger LANs. A LAN may also be connected to
another LAN or WANs and MANs using a “router”.

In summary, a LAN is a communication network which is:

Local (i.e. one building or groups of buildings)

Controlled by one administrative authority
Assumes other users of LAN are trusted
Usually high speed and is always shared

LANs allow users to share resources on computer within an organization,

and may be used to provide a (shared) access to remote organizations through a
router connected to a Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) or a Wide Area
Network (WAN).
 The photograph shows some of the networking equipment at the center of the
LAN used by the Communication Group in the Department of Engineering.
Unshielded Twisted Pair cabling (UTP) enters the rack from the five such
laboratories and is terminated on the patch panel (housed in the bottom box).
Each outlet is connected via a colored patch lead to either 10 or 100 Mbps
Ethernet Switch (blue, above the patch panels).
Access to the remainder of the campus network is controlled via a TCP/IP
Internet Router (blue, with cables connected at the rear). A second switch/router
may be used to connect other equipment (white) forming separate experimental
test LANs. The two smaller boxes on the top are Ethernet Hubs for connecting
groups of workstations, similar hubs also provide connection for the fiber optic
links to other parts of the work area.

Wireless Network Topologies

Topology: The physical (real) or logical (virtual) arrangement of elements.
In our case, this refers to the arrangement of nodes (i.e. computers, network
printers, servers, etc.) in which the network is connected. There are five major
topologies used today in wired networks: Bus, Star, Ring, Tree, and Mesh, but
only two make sense in a wireless environment. These include the star and mesh
topologies.
The Star topology, which happens to be in widest use today, describes a
network in which there is one central base station or Access Point (AP) for
communication. The information packets transmitted by the originating node
and are received by the central station and routed to the proper wireless
destination node.
 This station can be a bridge to a wired LAN giving access to other wired
clients, the Internet, other network devices, and etc. From our review system,
Complex‟s SoftBridge program provides a “software bridge” to wired clients
and services without specialized hardware or AP.
With this software, any computer that is connected to the wired network has a
wireless Network Interface Card (NIC) can act as bridge.

The mesh topology is a slightly different type of network architecture than

the star topology, except that there is no centralized base station. Each node that
is in range of one another can communicate freely.
Advantages of Networking:

Sharing Resources

#Software
The ability to share both a software application and the files it creates
amongst all of your computers is the primary reason for setting up a network.
Not only will you see an increase in your employees‟ productivity, but an
increase in the organization of their computer files as well. No longer will you
have to copy files to floppies and carry them from another computer to yours for
processing. Opening files on a computer across your office will be as simple if
they were stored on their own machine.

#Printers
Sometimes the printer connected to your machine doesn‟t have the
capabilities of another printer of your office. ; i.e. color or laser quality. To
print on another printer in a non networked situation, you have two options.
First, you can disconnect your printer and install the new printer on your
computer. Second, you could copy the file to a floppy disc and load it into the
computer with connected printer.
In a networked situation it is easy to select the printer in the network.

#Internet
Most of the employees in the office can increase their productivity with
access to internet. Using a technology such as Roadrunner and a cable/DSL
router combined with a network allows multiple computers to share the same
account.

#Logging
Every time something happens on your network, an entry to the server‟s log
is added. Some examples include:
1. Logging in or out of workstation.
2. Opening or closing a file.
3. Creating or deleting a directory.
4. Copying a file or files.
5. Errors or problems on the server or network.
6. Files printed and by whom.
7. Virus Scan results.
These log files can be then analyzed and to detect and solve the problems
and weaknesses in your network.

#Security
Windows NT uses a file system called NTFS, which has an ability to permit
or deny the use of a file, folder, or drive based on the user‟s access level.
#Centralization
A Server-based design which increases the organization of the network in
many important ways, including:

#Dedicated File Server

Throughout a business day, your employees produce many electronic
documents. A server is built with enough storage space to save all of your
company‟s important files at one location. The job of the server is to give or
“serve” these files to whatever user, with the proper security requests them.

#Redundancy
All Networks, Inc servers are built with mirrored storage for increased up
time. If there is a network problem accessing a drive, the information that is
needed will be accessed from the mirrored drive without any interruption to the
user.

#Disaster Recovery
The server provides a central location for saving files and thus a central
location for backing them up. Daily or Weekly backup tapes of the entire server
can be produced and placed in a fireproof save or take off-site as a precaution
for a natural disaster or theft. If a user accidentally deletes a file, the file can be
replaced by using the copy on the latest backup.

#Virus Scanning
Every computer should have a virus scanner installed. When dealing with
more than one computer in an office environment, the task of stopping viruses
and updating virus patterns can waste a lot of human and computer time. A
virus scanner on the server can be setup to scan and repair all the files on the
server regularly, and watch for new viruses on the network.
When the user tries to open any new file, the server scans the file and can
actually restrict access to an infected file and alert the administrator with a
popup message.