GeotechnicaI Eng i neering -

A Historical Perspective

F t l r e n g i n c c r i n gp u r p t l s c s s. o r l i s c l e l i n c da s t h e u n c e m e n l e d
a g g r c g a t eo l m i n e r a l
g r a i n sa n d c l c c a y e d. r g i r n i c m a t t c r ( s o l i c lp a r t i c l c s )w i t h
l i q u i d u ' n i g a sr n r h c e m p t y
s p a c e sb c l w c e n t h c s o l i d p a r t i c l c s .S o i l r s u s e da s a c o n s t r u c t i o n
n r a t e r i a li n v a r i . u s
c i v i l c n s i n c c r i n g p r o i c c t s 'a r r d i t s u p p o r t ss t r u c t u r a lf i r u n c l a t i o n s' l.
hus,civil cngi-
t t c c r sn r u s ts t u d y t h c p r o p c r t i c so l s o i l .s u c ha s i t s o r i g i n ,g r a i n - s i z c
c l i s t r i b u t i o na, b i l -
i t y t o c l r a i n w a t c r ' c t l m p r c s s i b i l i t ys. h c a r s t r c n g t h .a n c l l o a c l - b c a r i n g
c a p a c iI y .S r i l
r t r e c l t u r t i Li s" tt h c b r a n c h o l s c i c n c ct h a l c l c a l sw i t h t h c
s t u c l yo f t h e p h y s i c a lp r o p er -
t i e s o l ' s o i l a n c lt h c b eh a v i o r t l l ' s o i l m A S S cssu l - l . i c c t ct o
d v a r i o u st y p c so l ' f o r c c s .S ' r l / s
c t t g i n c c r i n gi s t h c a p p l i . c a t i o no l ' t h c p r i n c i p l c so l ' s o i l r r c c h a n i c . s
t e p r a c t i c a lp r o b -
lcnrs' (icr'rlct'hnit'ulcnginccringis the subclisciplincol'civil
cnginccring that involves
n i t t u r a ln . r a t c r i a lfsi r u n d c l o s ct o t h e s u r l a c co l t h c e a r t h . I t
i n c l u c l e st t c a p p l i c a t i o n
t l l ' t h c p r i n c i p l e so l ' s t l i l m c c h a n i c sa n c lr o c k m c c h a n i c st o
t h e c l e s i g no f f o u n d a t i . n s ,
r c t a i n i n gs t r u c t u r c s a . r - r cela r t h s t r u c t u r c s .

1.1 Geotechnical Engineering prior to the Igth century

f h c r c c o r d t l l ' a p c r s o n ' .fsi r s t u s co l ' s o i l a s a c o n s t r u c t i o n
natcrial is lostin antiquity.
I n t r u e c n g i n c e r i n gt e r n l s . t h c u n c l c r s t a n c l i nogl ' g e o t e c h n i c a l
e n g i n e e r i n ga s i t i s
kn.w'r today beea. c.rly in the lgtl'ccntury
l . s t e m p t o n ,l 9 t 3 - 5F ) .o r y e a r s t h e a r t o f
g c o t c c h n i c a cl n g i n c c r i n gw a s b a s e do n o n l y p a s t c x p c r i c n c c s
througha succession
o l e x p e r i r n c n t a t i o nw i t h o u t a n y r c a l s c i c n l i f i cc h a r a c i e r B . a s c do n t h o s ee x p c r i m e n -
t a t i o n s ,m a n y s t r u c t u r e sw e r e b u i l t - s o n t eo f w h i c h h a v e
c r u m b l e d .w h i l e o t h e r sa r e
still standing.
R e c o r c l e dh i s t o r yt c l l s u s t h a t a n c i c n tc i v i l i z a t i o n sf l o u r i s h e d
a l o n gt h e b a n k so f
r i v e r s ,s u c ha s t h e N i l c ( F g y p t ) . t h c T i g r i s a n c rE u p h r a t e s( M e s . p o t a m r a ) ,
the Huang
H o ( Y e l l o wR i v e r .c h i n a ) , a n d t h e I n d u s ( I n c l i a ) D . y k e sa a t i n gb a c kt o a b o u t2 0 0 0s . c .
wcre built in the basin of the Indus to protect the tow'
of il4ohenjo Dara (in what
b c c a m e P a k i s r aanf t c r 1 9 4 7 ) . D u r i n g r h o c h a n c l y n a s r y i n c h i n a ( 1 l 2 b e . c . t o 2 4 9 e . c . )
many dykes wcre built for irrigation purposes.There is
no evidencethat measures
were taken to stabilizethe foundations or check erosion
causedby floods (Kerisel.
Chapter 7 GeotechnicalEngineering_A Historical perspective

#i'.
'',$;.

Figure 7.7 Lcaning-lirwcrol' pisa.Italv

l9{l-5)'Ancient Greek civilization usedisolatedpad

footings and strip-and-raftfoun-
d a t i o n sf o r b u i l d i n gs t r u c t u r e sB
. e g i n n i n ga r o u n c r2 i 5 0 s . i . . , t h e f i v e m o s t
important
pyramids were built in Egypt in a period of less
than a century (Saqqarah,Meidum,
Dahshur South and North, and chcops). This posed
formidatre chalrengesregard_
ing foundations.stability of slopes.and construction
of undergroundchambers.With
the arrival of Buddhism in china <luringthe E,astern
Hun ainurty in 6g a.n., thou_
sandsof pagodaswere built. Many of these structures
were consiructed on silt and
soft clay layers.In some casesthe foundation pressure
exceededthe load_bearingca_
pacity of the soil and thereby causedextensive
structural damage.
one of the most famous examplesof probremsrelated
to Joil-bearingcapacity
in the construction of structuresprior to the 1g,r,
."n,u.f L-irr" L.aning Tower of
P i s ai n l t a l y . ( S e eF i g u r e 1 . 1 . )C o n s t r u c t i o no f t h e
t o w e r b e g a ni n l t l z x . o . w h e n t h e
 1.1 GeotechnicalEngineering Prior to the lgth Centurv

li
wH
{

...\
.t!:,

ff-: h,iil{
4t
- \ I
$ x : ;I

F i g u r e 7 . 2 T i l t i n go l G a r i s e n dlab w e r ( l c l t ) i n B o k r s n al,t a l v

Republic of Pisawas flourishing and continueclin various stagesfor over 200 years.
The structure wcighs about 1-5,700 mctric tons ancl is supported by a circulai base
h a v i n ga d i a m e t e ro f 2 0 m ( : 6 6 f t ) . T h c t o w c r h a st i l t e d i n t h c p a s tt o t h e e a s t ,n o r t h ,
west and, finally, to the south. Recent investigationsshowed that a weak clay laycr
existsat a depth of about 11 m (: 36 ft) below the ground surfacecomprcssion,which
causedthe tower to tilt. It is now morc than 5 m (: 16.5ft) out of plumb with the
54 m (: 119 ft) height. Figure 1.2 is an example of a similar problem. The towers
shown in Figure 1.2 are located in Bologna, Italy, and they wcre built in the 121h cen-
tury. The tower on thc left is usually referred to as the GorisentluTswer. It is 48 m
(: 157ft) in height and has tilted severely.
After encountering severalfoundation-relatedproblems during construction
over centuries past, engineers and scientistsbegan to address the properties and
Chapter 1 GeotechnicalEngineering-A Historical Perspective

behavior of soils in a more methodical manner starting in the early part of the 18'n
century. Baseclon thc cmphasisand the nature of study in the area of geotechnical
engineering,the time span extendingfrom I700 to 1927 canbe divided into four ma-
j o r p e r i o d s( S k e m p t o n ,1 9 8 - 5 ) :

1. P r c - c l a s s i c a( l1 7 0 0t o 1 7 7 6a . o . )
2. C l a s s i c asl o i l m e c h a n i c s- P h a s eI ( 1 7 1 6t o 1 8 5 6a . n . )
3. C l a s s i c asl o i l m e c h a n i c s- P h a s eI I ( 1 t t - 5t6o 1 9 1 0n . n . )
4. Mirdern soil mechernics (1910 tct 1927,+.o.)

Brief descriptionsof some significantdevelopmentsduring each of these lour peri-

ods are discusscdbelow.

1.2 PreclassicalPeriod of Soil Mechanics

(1700-1776)
'l-his
p c r i o d c o n c e n t r a t c do r r s t u d i e sr c l a t i n gt o n a t u r a ls l o p c a n d u n i t w e i g h t so f v a r -
ious typcs of soilsas wcll as the semiempiricae l a r t h p r c s s u r ct h c o r i e s .l n l T l l a
F r c n c hr o y a lc n g i n ee r , H c n r i G u r t t i e r( 1 6 6 0- 1 7 3 7 )s, t u c l i e dt h e n a t u r a ls l o p e so f s o i l s
w h e n t i p p c d i n a h e a p I ' o rl ' o r m u l a t i n gt h e d e s i g np r o c e d u r e so [ r e t a i n i n gw a l l s .T h e
rttttttrulslopc is what wc now rcfcr to as the ungle ofrcposc. According to this study.
the natural slope (see Chapter I l) o| t:lcundry sund and,ordinarv carth were 31" and
2 1 5 'r. c s p c c t i v e l yA. l s o , t h c u n i t w e i g h t o l ' c l c a n d r y s a n d ( s e c C h a p t c r 3 ) a n d o r d i -
n l r r y c l r r l h w c r c r c c ( ) m n r e n d c d l o hIcklNl Ji n . t r ( l l 5 l h / f t ' ) a n d l 3 . 4 k N / m ' ( l { l. b5 / f t r ) .
rcspcctivcly.No tcst rcsults on clay werc rcportcd. ln 1721), BernarclForest de Beli-
d o r ( 1 6 7 1 - 1 1 6 1 )p u b l i s h c da t c x t b o o k l ' o r m i l i t a r y a n d c i v i l e n g i n c c r si n F r a n c e .I n
the book, hc proposecln thcory for lateral earth pressureon retaining walls (see
C h a p t c r l 2 ) t h a l w a s a l o l k r w - u pt o G a u t i e r ' s( l 7 l 7 ) o r i g i n a ls t u d y .H c i t l s os p e c i l i e d
a s o i l c l a s s i f i c a t i o sr ry s l c m i n t h e m a n n e r s h o w n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l c . ( S e e C i h a p -
t e r s3 a n d 4 . )
Unit weight
Classification kN/m3 lb/ft3

Rock
Firm or hardsand 16.7 to 106to
(iompressiblesand I u.4 117
Orclinarv earth (as found in clry locations) r3.4 8.5
Soft earth (primarily silt) 16.0 102
Clay 18.9 120
Pcat

The f,rst laboratory model test resultson a 76-mm-high(: 3 in.) retaining wall
built with sandbackfill were reportedin 1146by a French engineer,FrancoisGadroy
(170-5-1759),who observed the existenceof slip planes in the soil at failure. (See
Chapter 12.) Gadroy's study was later summarizedby J. J. Mayniel in 1808.
 1.4 ClassicalSoil Mechanics-phase il 0g56_tgl0) 5

t.3 ClassicalSoil Mechanics-Phase I (1776-1956)

D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , m o s t o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t si n t h e a r c a o f g e o t e c h n i c ael n g i n e e r -
ing came from engineersand scientistsin France. In the preclassicalpcrio<1,practi-
c a l l y a l l t h e o r e t i c a lc o n s i d e r a t i o n su s c c li n c a l c u l a t i n gl a t e r a l e a r t h p r e s s u r eo n r e -
t a i n i n gw a l l sw e r e b a s e do n a n a r b i t r a r i l yb a s e df a i l u r es u r f a c ci n s o i l . I n h i s f a m o u s
p a p e r p r e s e n t e di n 1 7 7 6 .F r e n c h s c i e n t i s tC h a r l e sA u g u s t i n C o u l o m b ( 1 7 3 6 - 1 8 0 6 )
u s e d t h e p r i n c i p l e so f c a l c u l u s1 ' o rm a x i m e a r n c lm i n i m a t o d e t e r m i n c t h c t r u c p s s i -
t i o n o f t h e s l i d i n g s u r l ' a c ei n s o i l b c h i n c la r c t a r i n i n gw a l l . ( S e e C h a p t e r 1 2 . ) I n t h i s
a n a l y s i sC ' o u l o m b u s c d t h e l a w s o f f r i c t i o n a n c lc c l h e s i o nf o r s o l i d b o c l i c s .I n l f i 2 0 .
specialcascstlf Coulomb'.swork wcre stuclicdby French cngincer JacqucsFrcclcric
F r a n c a i s( 1 7 7 - 5 - 1 u 3 3a)n d b y F r e n c ha p p l i c c m l c c h a n i c sp r o l ' c s s oC r l l a u c lL ee u i s M a -
r i e H e n r i N a v i e r ( l 7 t t - 5 - l t i 3 6 ) .T h e s c s p c c i a lc a s e sr e l a t c c lt o i n c l i n c d b a c k t i l l sa n c l
b a c k f i l l ss u p p o r t i n gs u r c h a r g c I. n l l J 4 0 .J e a n V i c t o r P o n c c l e t( l 7 U u - l t j 6 7 ) .i t n z r r m v
c n g i n c e r a n d p r o f e s s o rc l l ' n r c c h a n i c sc.x t c r r c l c cCl l o u k l l b l s t l t e o r y b y p r o v i c l i n gi r
g r a p h i c a lm c t h o d I ' o rd e t c r m i n i n gt h c r n a g n i t u c loc I l a t c r a lc a r t h p r c s s u r ce n v c r t i c a l
a n d i n c l i n c c rl e t a i n i n gw a l l sw i t h a r b i t r a r i l yb r o k c n p o l y g o n a ls r o u n c ls u r f ' a c c sp.6 n -
c c l e t w a s a l s o t h c f i r s t t o u s c t h e s y r r b o l y ' rl b r s o i l I ' r i c t i o na n g l c .( S c c C h a p t c r l l . )
H e a l s o p r o v i d c c lt h c I i r s l u l t i r n a t cb e a r i n g - c a p a c i ttyh e o r y l r l r s h a l l o wl i r u n c l l t i o n s .
( S e c C h a p t e r l - 5 . )I n l u 4 6 A l c x a n c l r cC - ' o l l i n ( l l l 0 l J l l . i 9 0 ) a. u c n g i n e c r -p. r 6 v i c l c ctlh c
d e t a i l s1 ' o rd e c p s l i p s i n c l a y s k r p c s .c r - r t t i n ga. n c lc r n b a n k n r c n t s(.S e c C . h a p t c r1 4 . )
C l o l l i nt h c o r i z c c tl h a t i n a l l c a s e st h e f a i l u r c t a k c sp l a c ew h e n 1 l . r n c r o b i l i z c ccl o h c s i o n
c x c c c d st h c e x i s t i n gc o h c s i o no l t h c s o i l . H c a l s oo b s c r v c ctlh a t t h c a c t u a lI ' a i l u r cs u r -
I'accscoulclbc approxir.natecl as arcs of'cycloids.
T h e c n d o l ' P h a s eI t t l ' t h c c l a s s i c asl o i l m c c h a r . r i cpsc r i o c li s g c n c r a l l ym a r k c c lb y
t h e y c a r ( l u - 5 7 )o l ' t h e f l r s t p u b l i c a t i o nb y W i l l i a m J o h n M a c q u o r n R a n k i n c ( 1 g 2 0
1 8 7 2 ) ,a p r t l f c s s o ro l ' c i v i l e n g i n e c r i n ga t t h e L J n i v c r s i t oy l ' C i l a s g o wT. h i s s t u c l yp 1 r -
vicleca l n o l . a b l et h e o r y o n c a r t h p r c s s u r ca n d e q u i l i h r - i u r no l ' c a r t h m a s s c t .( S " "
c h a p t e r 1 2 . )R a n k i n e ' .tsl " r e o r yi s a s i m p l i r i c a t i o no l ' c o u l o r n b ' sl h c ' r - v .

1.4 ClassicalSoil Mechanics-phase II (Ig56-IgI0)

S c v e r a le x p c r i m c n t a lr e s u l t sf r o m l a b o r a t o r yt e s t so n s a n i .al p p e a r e di n t h c l i t e r a t u r c
i n t h i s p h a s e .O n e o 1 ' t h ec a r l i c ' s a
t n c lm o s t i m p o r t a n t p u b l i c a t i o n si s o n c b y F r e l c l . r
e n g i n e e rH e n r i P h i l i b e r t G a s p a r dD a r c y ( 1 8 0 3 - l l 3 - 5 t 3I n
) . l 8 - 5 6h. e r r u b l i s h e cal s t u d v
o n t h c p e r m e r r h i l i toyf s a n cfl i l t c r s (. S e eC h a p t e rh . ) B i r s e do n t h o s e . t e s t D s .i r r c yd e ,
fined the Ierm coe.fftc:ient of lternteubititl,(or hydraulic conductivity) of soil. a very
useful parameter in geotechnicalengineeringto this day.
S i r G e o r g c H o w a r d D a r w i n ( 1 8 4 , 5 - 1 9 1 2a) .p r o f c s s o ro [ a s t r o n o m y .c o n d u c t e d
laboratory teststo determine the ovcrturning moment on a hingedwall retainingsand
in loose and dense statesof compaction. Anothcr noteworthy contribution, which
was publishedin 1885by JosephValentin Boussinesq(1942-1929),was the develop-
ment of the theory of stressdistribution under loaded bcaring areas in a homoge-
neous,semiinfinite,elastic.and isotropic medium. (SeeChapter 9.) In ltittT,Osborne
Reynolds (1842-r912) demonstratedthe phenomenon of dilatencv in sand.
ChapterlGeotechnicalEngineering-AHistoricalPerspective

Table 1.1 ImportantStudieson Clays(1910-1927)

lnvestigator Topic

Albert MauritzAtterbcrg 1911 Consistencyof soil, that is, liquid.

(1U46-1916 S)w, e d e n
JeanFrontard
( 1 1 3 8 4 - 1 9 6F2r)a. n c e
A r t h u r L a n g t r YB c t l
( 1 1 3 7 4 - 1 9 5E6 n) .g l a n d
Wolmar Fcllcnius
(1tt76 1957)S , wedcn
Karl Tcrzaghi
( I l3lt3- I 963). Austrta
plastic,and shrinkageProPertrcs
(Chapter 3)
1914 Doublc shear tcsts (undraincd) in
clay under constantvertical lond
( C h a p t e r1 l )
r9l5 Lateral prcssurennd resistancetlf
clay (Cihaptcr12);bcaring capacrty
of clay (Ch:rptcr 1.5);and shear-box
tcsts for mcasuring undrained shear
strcngth using undisturhedspecimens
(tlhaptcr I I )
IrlIti. Slip-circleanalysisof saturatedclay
1926 s l o p c s( C h a P t e rl 4 )
'fhcory
I 925 o( consolidationftlr clays
(Chapterl0)

1.5 Modern Soil Mechanics (1910-1927)

in which thc
In this period, results Of rcsearchconducteclon clays wcre publishecl '['he
ilnd parametcrs of clay werc established. most notablc
fundamcntal propcrtics
p u b l i c a t i o n sa r c g i v e n i n T a b l c l . l .

1.6 Geotechnical Engineering after I 927

by Karl Ter-
The publicat it'n of Erdbaumachanik auf'Botlenphl'sikalisher Gnmdlage
in the devclopment of soil mechanics' Karl Ter-
,agtri in 1925gavc birth to a new era
soil mcchanics, and rightfully so. Terzirghi
,u!ni i, known as thc father .f modern
in Prague, which was thcn the capital of
(Figure 1.3) was born on October 2, 1883
he graduated from the Technische Hoch-
ihJnrrt.iun province of Bohemia. In 1904
engineering'
schule in Graz. Austria, with an undergracluatedegree in mechanical
the Austrian army. Following his army ser-
After gracluationhe served one year in
on geological subjects' In Janu-
vicc, T-erzaghistucliedone more year, concentrating
of Technical Sciences frclm his alma mater
ary 1912,hJreceiveclthe degrceof Doctor
position at the lmperial School of Engineers
in Graz. In 1916, he acceptecla teaching
at the American
in Istanbul. After the end of World War I, he accepteda lcctureship
There he began his research work on the be-
Robert Collegein Istanbul (1918-1925).
(see Chapter 10) and on the failure due to pip-
havior of soilsanclsettlementof clays
The publication Erdbattmechanik is pti-
ing in sancl under dams (see Chapter 8).
marilv the result of this research.
-

1.6 GeotechnicalEngineering after 1927

Figure 7.3 Karl Tcrzaghi(llJt33-1963)

(phorocourtesyof RalphB. peck)

In 192-5, Terzaghi acceptcda visiting lccturcship at MassachusettsInstitute of

Technology,where he worked until t929. During that time, he becamerecognizedas
the leader of the new branch of civil engineeringcalled soil mechanics.In October
1929he returned to Furope to accepta professorshipat the Technical University of
Vienna, which soon became the nucleus for civil engineersinterested in soil me-
chanics.In 1939he returned to the United Statesto become a professorat Harvard
University.
The first conferenceof the International Societyof Soil Mechanicsand Foun-
dation Engineering (ISSMFE) was held at Harvard University in 1936 with Karl
Terzaghi presiding. It was through the inspiration and guidance of Terzaghi over the
preceding quarter-century that papers were brought to that conferencecovering a
wide range of topics,suchas shearstrength(chapter l l), effectivestress(chapter g),
in situ testing (Chapter 17), Dutch cone penetrometer (Chapter 17), centrifuge test-
ing, consolidation settlement (chapter 10), elastic stressdistribution (chapter 9),
Chapter 1 Geotechnical Engineering-A Historical Perspective

Figure 1.4 ltalph B. I)cck

prcloading l'or soil irnprovcntcnt,I'rostaction.expansivcclays.archingtheory of earth

pressure,arrdsoil dynanticsand earthquakcs.For the next quarter-century,Terzaghi
was thc guiding spirit in the clevelopmentol'soil mechanicsand geotechnicalengi-
'I
neering throughout the world. o that effect.in 1985.Ralph Peck (Figure 1.4) wrote
that "few pcople during Terzerghi'.s lifetime would have disagreedthat he was not
only the guiding spirit in soil mcchanics.but that he was the clearing house for re-
searchand application throughout the world. Within the next few yearshe would be
engagedon projects on every continent save Australia and Antarctica." Peck con-
tinued with, "Hence, even today, one can hardly improve on his contemporary as-
sessmentsof the state of soil mcchanics as expressedin his summary papers and
presidential addresses."In 1939.Terzaghi dclivered the 45thJamesForrest Lecture
at the lnstitution of Civil Engineers, London. His lecture was entitled "Soil Me-
- A New Chapter in Engineering Science."In it, he proclaimed that most of
char.rics
the foundation failurcs that occurred were no longer "acts of God."
 7.6 GeotechnicalEngineering after lg27 g

Following arc some highlights in the development of soil mechanicsanil geo-

technicalengineeringthat evolved after thc flrst conferenceof the ISSMFE in tg:e:
' Publication of thc bctok Theorelical Soil Mcchttnicsby Karl Terzaghi in 1943
(Wiley. New Ycrrk);
r Publication of the book Soll Mechunit'sirt Engineering
Prar:ticeby Karl Terzaghi
a n d R a l p h P e c k i n 1 9 4 8( W i l e y .N e w y o r k ) ;
o Publication ol the book Ftrndamentolstf' *til Mechunit's
by Donald w. Taylor
i n l ( ) 4 u1 W i l c y .N c w V r r k ) :
' S t a r t t r f t h e p u b l i c a t i o no f G c o t e t ' h n i r 1 utch,c i n t e r n a t i o n a lj o u r n a l
ol'soil me-
c h a n i c si n l 9 4 l Ji n E n e l a n c l ;
r P r c s e n t a t i o no i t h e p a p e r o n - 0 c o n c c p tf ' o rc l a y s
d b y A . w . S k e m p t o ni n
l 9 4 t t ( s c e C l h a p t c rI l ) ;
' P u b l i c e r t i oonl ' A . w . S k c m p t o n ' .psa p c r o n , z la n d B p o r c w a t c r p r c s s u r ep a r a m _
e t e r si n 1 9 . 5 ,( 1s c eC h a p t c r I l ) ;
r Publication tll'thc bo<lk Tlrc Mau.rrrrunutt o.f Soil I'ntpt,rtic.s' '['riu,riul
irr tha Tc5t
b y A . W . l S i s h o pa n d B . J . H c n k c l i n l 9 - 5 7( A r r r o l d . L o n c l o n ) .
. A S C E ' . sR e s c a r c hC ' o n f 'rec n c eo n S h c a rS t r c n g t h
o l ' C o h c s i v eS o i l sh e l c li r r
BoulclerC , ' o l o r a d o i.n 1 9 6 0 .

S i n c ct h c c a r l y c l a v st,h e p r t l l ' es s i o no l g c o t c c l r n i c acl n g i n c er i n g h a sc o m e u l o n s

w a y e t n chl a s m a t u r c d . I t i s n o w a n c s t a b l i s h e cblr : r n c ho l c i v i l c n g i n e e r i n g a. n c lt h e u -
s a n c l so l ' c i v i l c n s i n c c r sc l c c l a r cs c o t e c h n i c acl n t i n c c r i n g t o b c t h c i r p r c l ' c r r c da r e a
ol'specialitv.
S i n c et h c f i r s t c o n l ' c r c n c ci r r l g 3 6 .c x c c p t l i r r a b r i c l i n t c r r r - r p t i ocr -l u
r r i n gW o r l d
War II. the ISSMFE conl'crcncch s a v e b c e n h c l d a t l i l u r - y c a r i n t c r v a l s .I n 1 9 9 7 t. h e
I S S M F E w a sc h a r l g c ct lo I S S M ( l E ( I n t er n a t i o n a lS o c i c t yo l S o i l M c c h a n i c sa n d ( ] c s -
t c c h n i c a lE n g i n c c r i n g )t o r c f i c c ti t s t r u e s c o p c .T l . r c s ci n t er n a t i c l n a l c o n f ' c r e n cheas v e
b c e n i n s t r u m c n l a l i r r c x c h a n g eo l ' i n l i r r m a t i c l nr c u a r c l i n gr r c wc l e v c k r p n r e n a t sn d e n -
g o i n g r e s c a r c ha c t i v i t i c si n g c o t e c h n i c acl n q i n c c r i n g '.l h b l c 1 . 2g i v c st h c l s c a t i 1 ; na n d

r a b l e 7 . 2 D et a i l so l ' I S S M F E( 1 9 3 6 l c l 9 7 a) n d I S S M C E( l 9 r ) T , p r c s c ncr .)o ncf r c n c c s

Conference Location Year

I I l a r v a r c lU n i v c r s i t v B
. o s t o n .L J . S . A . I 936
II Roltcrdarn. tlrc Nctherlancls Ir)4u
III Zurich,Switzcrland I 953
IV London.Eneland 1957
Paris,Francc l96l
VI M o n t r c a l ,C a n a c l a lc)65
VII Mcxico Cii{y,Mexico I 969
VIII Moscow. U.S.S.R. t973
IX Tokyo, Japan 1977
X Stockholm. Swcden 19rJ I
XI San Francisco.tJ.S.A. 198-5
XII Rio dc Janciro, Br:izil 1989
XIII New Delhi, India r991
XIV Hamburg, Germany 1997
XV lstanbul, Turkey 2001
10 Chapter 1 GeotechnicalEngineering-A Historical Perspective

of ISSMFE(1936-1997)
Tabte1.3 Presidents and
ISSMGE( 1997-present) Conferences

Year President

1936-1957 K . T e r z a g h i ( U .S . A . )
1957-1961 A. W Skempton (U. K.)
1961-196.s A. Casagrande(U. S. A.)
1965-1969 L. Bjerrum (Norway)
t969 1973 R. B. Pcck (U. S.A.)
1973,1977 J. Kerisel (France)
I977-I9U1 M. Fukuoka (Japan)
I 981- l9rJ5 V. F. B. deMello (Brazil)
I 98-5- 19139 B. B. Broms (Singapore)
1989, I 994 N. R. Morgenstern (Canada)
1994-t99'7 M . J a m i o l k o w s k i( l t a l y )
199'72001 K . I s h i h a r a( J a p a n )

Table 1.4 ISSMGE Tcchnical Comrnitteesior 1997-2001(bascd on Ishihara. 1999)

Committee
number Committee name

TC-I Instrumcntation l'or GetttcchnicalMonitoring

'fcl-2 Centril'ugeTcsting
TC].4 Earthquakc Gcotcchnical Engineering
TC-.5 Environmental Getttcchntcs
'I'C-6 lJnsaturatcdSoils
'failing
TC],7 Dams
TC-ti Frost
TC.9 Gcosyntheticsand Earth Reinltlrcement
TC-IO CicophysicalSitc Charactcrization
TCr-ll Landslidcs
TC-I2 V a l i d a t i o no l C o m p u t e r S i m u l a t i o n
TC.I4 O f l ' s h o r c( i e o t e c h n i c l lE n g i n c er i r l g
TC-l-5 Pcat and Organic Soils
1 ' C -l 6 Ground Propcrty Charzrctcrizirlionlrom In-situ Testing
TCr-17 Ground Improvcment
TC.I8 Pile Foundations
TC-I9 Prcscrv:rtionof Historic Sites
TC-20 ProfessionalPractice
TC-22 Induratcd Soils and Soft Rocks
TC.23 Limit Statc Design GeotechnicalEngineering
TC.24 Soil Sampling,Evaluation and Interpretation
TC-2-5 Tropical and Residual Soils
-fc-26 CalcareousSediments
TC.28 Underground Construction in Soft Ground
TC.29 Stress-strainTesting of Geomaterialsin the Laboratory
TC-30 CoaslrlCcotechnicaE l nginecring
TC-3I Education in GeotechnicalEngineering
'tc-32 Risk Assessmentand Management
TC.33 Scour of Foundations
TC-34 Deformation of Earth Materials
 References 11

year in which each confercnce of ISSMFEiISSMGE was held, ancl rable 1.3 gives
a list of all of the presidentsof the society.In 7997,a total of 30 technical commit-
tees of ISSMGE was in place.The names of these technicalcommitteesare siven in
Table 1.4.

References
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'Ionc."
zitiit de International Mitteilungen ftir Bodcnkunde. Verlag.f'iir Fuchlitarutur.
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Bnt.rtrcrt<.B.F. (1729). Ltr St:icnt'cdes Ingenicurs rluns lu Condttitc tlcs'l'ruvau-rtlc Rtrtifit'ation
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B p : t . t -A, . L . ( l 9 l - 5 ) . " T h e L a t c r a l P r c s s u r ea n d R e s i s t a n c o c f C l a v .a n d S u p p o r t i n sP o w c r 6 [
clay Foundations," Min. Pntccading o.l'In.stitutcof'Civil Enginccrs, Vol. 199, 233 2j2.
BIstrtrp,A. W. and HttNrcttt.,B. J. (1957). T'hc Mcusurcnttnt o.f soil Prcpertiesin thc 7-riuriul
Zc.r'1, Arnold. London.
B<rttssrNt:stf. J. V. (lllll-5).Applicution dcs Potenticlsi L'F.tudc dc L'i:tluilibrc ct tlu Mortvt,-
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C'<ll-r.tN,A. ( lil46). Ilacharthas ['.,rp(rintcntult'ssur la.s(]li.ssurturts Sporttune.sda.t 7-crrains
Argilatrx Attttntpugn(es dc (lonsid(ruliorts strrQucltlut,s I'rint'iltcs da lu M(t'uniqua'll,r-
rcs/rc,('arilian-Cioeury.Paris.
C o t t l . < l n ' t l tC, ' . A . ( 1 7 7 6 ) . " E , s s a si u r u n c A p p l i c a t i o n d c s R D g l c sd e M a x i n t i s c t M i n i r n i s i j
Quclqucs ProbldnrcscleStatiquc Rclatils i'rL'Architccturc," Minutirc.stlc lu Muthinru-
Iiqrrcat da Phisitltrc,prdscnt6stj I'Acaddrric Royale dcs Scicnccs.par divcrs savans.el
l0s dans s6sAsscmbldcs,De L'lrnprin'rcric Royalc. Paris.Vrl. 7. Annee 1793,3,13382.
Dnt<t'v. H. P. G. (11356).Las litntuirtcs ['rrbliqtrcsrlc IuVillc tla Dijon, Dalrnont. Paris.
D n t r w t N , G . H . ( 1 8 8 3 ) . " O n t h c H o r i z o n t a' lI ' h l u s t o [ a M a s s o l ' S a n d ,] "' n t c c a t l i n t : s , I n s t i t u t c
o l ' C ' i v i lE n g i n c c r s .l - o n d o n ,V r l . 7 1 . 3 5 0 3 7 S .
F t ' t - t - t , N t t r sW. . ( l 9 l l J ) . " K a j - o c h J o r d r a s c nI G r i t c b o r g . "' l ' c k n i . s k ' l ' i t l , s k rVi fr' lt..4 l J , l 7 - 1 9 .
FR^N< ,a,ls.J. F. (1u20)."Rcchcrchcssur la Pouss6cdc 'l'errcs sur la Formc ct Dimensionsdes
Rcvetmcntsct sur la Talus D'Excavation," M(nutriu! dc L'Offit'icr du ()(nie, Paris,Vrl.
IV. 1.57-206.
F t r c r N t , r n r >J, . ( 1 9 1 4 ) ." N o ( i c c s u r L ' A c c i c l e n tc l c l a D i e u e d e C l h a r m c s , "A n n s . P o t t t sc t
(lhuus.s(t::;9't'Sar.,Vol. 23. 173,2()2.
Gnrrtrtrv, F. (1746).M(moire strrlu Pousstatles'l.crrcs,summarizedby Maynicl. 1tt0t3.
Gntlr'rnn. H. (1717). Disscrtutionsur L'Epaisseurdas ()ul(cs tles I'ottts... sur t,'Eftlrt et ul
['e.suntettrde:; Arrhe.s... el sur lcs f'roliles dc Mutonnt'rie qui Doivent Sultporter des
'l'errasses,
Churtss(es,des et des Rempurl,r.Caillcau, Paris.
I s u t t t a n R , K . ( 1 9 9 9 ) .P e r s o n acl o m m u n i c a t i o n .
KF.ntsrt-,J. (198-5)."The History of GeotechnicalE,ngineeringup until 1700."Prot'eetli1gs,
XI lntcrnational Conlercnce on Soil Mcchanics and Foundation Enginecring, San
F r a n c i s c oG . o l d c n J u b i l c cV c r l u m cA . . A. Balkema.3-93.
MavNter, J. J. (1808). Truit! E.rperimentale,Analytique et PratiqLrctle la Poussi tles Terres.
Colas. Paris.
Navten, C. L. M. (1839). Legons sur L'Apltlication de lu Micanique d L'Establissenlentdes
Corrstructionset des Muchine.s,2"d ed., Paris.
Pp.cr. R. B. (1985)."The Last Sixty Years,"Proceedings,XI Intcrnational Conferenceon Soil
Mechanicsand Foundation E,ngineering,San Francisco,Golden Jubilee Volume. A. A.
Balkcma.123 l.l-1.
PclNcnLE'r,J. V. (1840). Mlmoire sur la Stabilitt des Rev€tmentset cleseursFsrttlutiols. Bache-
lier. Paris.
12 Chapter 1 G eotech n ica I Eng i n ee ri ng -A H isto rica I Pe rspective

R,rNrrNr. W J. M. (llJ57). "On the Stability of Loose Earth," Philosophical Transactions,

Royal Society.Vol. 147.London.
RuyN1;lr-ps,O. (1887). "E,xperinrentsShowing Dilatency. a Property of Granular Material
PossiblyConnccted to Gravilation." Proceaditrgs,Royal Society. London, Vol. I 1, 354-
363.
S x n u p l c t N . A . W . ( 1 9 4 8 ) ." T h e r [ - 0 A n a l y s i so f S t a b i l i t ya n d I t s T h c o r e t i c a lB a s i s . "P r o -
t'eatlincs,ll Inlernational flonlerencc on Soil Mechanicsand FoundaticlnEngineering,
Rottcrdarn. Vrl. 1. 72-71t.
Srr:nrpr<rN.A. W. (1954). "-I'he Porc PressurcCoeliicicnts,4 and 8," ()etttet:hnique, Vol.4,
t43 t17.
Sxr,vrgr'<rN. A.W (19u.5)."A History of soil Propcrties. l7l7 1927,"I'roceerlirrg.r, XI Inter-
n a t i o p a lC o n l ' c r c n c c o n S o i l M c c h a n i c sa n d F o u n d a t i o nE n g i n e r
e i n g . S a n F rancisco,
G o l d e n J u b i l c c V r l u n t e , A . A . B a l k c n r a . 9 - 5l 2 l .
-l-;rvt.otr.
D. W. ( l91E).I:undurncntulstt.l'SoilMctlturtfts,John Wilcy, Ncw York.
'l'lrrz,qc;r Ciruntllugc,Deutickc. Vicnna.
rr,K. ( 192-5). [..rtlbutttrtt't ltunik uu.f'tsodurphysikulishcr
' l ' r , n z n i ; r r r . ( 1 9 3 9 ) ." S o i l M c c h a n i c s A N c w C h a p t e r i n E n g i r r c c r i n gS c i c n c e , "l n s t i t u t c
K.
o f ' ( i v i l [ i t r g i t t c L ' r s . l r t r r r nLuol n, d o n . V r l . 1 2 ,N o . 7 . 1 0 6 - 1 4 2 .
' l ' t , t < z n < ; t r r . ( 1 9 4 3 ) .' l - h c o r c t i < uSl t t i lM < ' t h u n i t sJ, o h n W i l c y . N c w Y t r r k .
K.
'l
1rrz.t<;rrr.K. ancl Pr,r'r. R. B. (194u). Soil Mctlrunit's itr lingirtL't'ritrgI'ructica,.lohn Wiley,
Ncw Ytrrk.
Origin of Soil and Grain Size

I n g c n e r a l .s o i l sa r c l ' o r r n c db v w c a t l " r c r i nogf r o c k s .T h e p h y s i c a lp r o p e r t i e sc l l a s o i l

a r c d i c l a t c d p r i n l a r i l y b y t h e m i n c r a l st h a t c o n s t i t u t ct h e s o i l p l r t i c l e s a n d . h c n c c ,
thc rock I'rorr which it is dcrivccl.This chaptcr proviclcsan outline of the reck cvclc
a n c lt h c o r i g i n o l ' s o i l a n c lt h c g r a i n - s i z cd i s t r i b u t i o no f p a r t i c l c si n a s g i l l r r r s s .

2.1 Rock Cycle and the Origin of Soil

T h c n l i n c r a l g r a i n st h a t l i l r r n t h e s o l i c lp h a s co l ' a s o i l a g g r c g i l t ca r c t h c p r o d u c t 1 ; l
r o c k w c a t h e r i n c . ' l ' l r cs i z c t l l ' t h c i n d i v i c l u agl r a i n sv a r i c s< l v c ra w i c l er a n g c .M a n y o f
t h c p h y s i c a lp r o p c r t i c so l ' s t t i l a r c c l i c t a l c cbl y t h e s i z e .s h a p c ,a n c lc h c m i c l l c o m p e -
s i t i t l no l ' t h c g r a i n s .' f o b c t t c r u n d c r s t a n dt h c s cl a c t o r s .o n c m u s t b c I ' a m i l i a rw i t h t h e
b a s i ct y p c s o l ' r o c k t h a t l o r n ' rt h c c a r t h ' . sc r u s t , t h c * r c k - l i r r r r i ' g m i ' c r a l s . a n d t h e
w c i r t h c r i n gp t ' ( ) c c \ \ .
On thc basisol their ntttclcol'origin, rocks car'rbc cliviclecl into three basictypes:
il4trcrttt's, scdintentury,artdrtretumorphit'.F igurc 2. I showsa cliagramof the fclrmalion
c y c l co l ' d i l l c r e n t t y p e so l ' r o c k a n d t h c p r o c e s s c a sssociatew 'fhis
c li t h t h e m . iscallecl
L h er o c ' kc v c l c .B r i e l ' d i s c u s s i o nosl ' c a c h c l e m c n t o l ' t h c r o c k c v c l c f o l l o w .

lgneous Rock
Igncous rocks are forr.ncdby thc solidilication of n.roltenmullnlu cjectcd from deep
within the earth'.smantle. Al'ter cjection by either,Ttssure erttption or vttlt.LtrtiL crup-
I i o r i ,s o m c o f t h e r n c l l t e nm a g m ac o o l so n t h e s u r f a c co f t h e e a r t h .S o m e t i m e sm a g m a
ceiisesits mobility below thc carthlssurlacc and cclolsto form intrusiveigneousrocks
that are calledplutons. Intrusive rocks krrmeclin the past may be exposcdat the sur-
face as a result of the continuous processo1'erosionof the materials that once cov-
cred them.
'rhe
typcs of igneousrock ftrrmed by the cooling of magma depend on factors
such as the composition of the magma and the rate ol cooling associatedwith it. Af-
ter conductingseverallaboratory tests,Bowen (1922)was ablc to cxplain the relation
of the rate of magma cooling to the formation of different types of rock. This expla-
nation - known as Bowen'sreaclittnprinciple* describesthe sequenceby which new

13
14 Chapter 2 Origin of Soil and Grain Size

i r \ _ , i

Sedimentary
,
/ rOCK
- . t ,
r

€
C ..;!i:..,;.r;!r.]r

j;. - ,
' r \ ' -

Metamomhic
, / r rocK :
-,t
f_.
"
a l t : ' . : , , ,. . .

4"
,4vi,,
,,t.! ,
I,tUg; "

i , t ; ' " ' bt l r ,

Figure 2.7 Rock cyclc

Crystallization
[ - o w c rr e s i s t a n c e lt highcr
1 ow e a t h c r i n g tomperaturc

(potussiumI'eldspar.t

V
I
Muscovitc
( w h i t er n i c a )

H i g h e rr c s i s t a n c e t
I Crystallization
to weathering Quartz at lower
temperature

Figure 2.2 Bowcn'.sreaction serles

 2.1 Rock Cycleand the Origin of Soit 15

Table2' 1 compositionof MineralsShownin Bowcn! ReactionScries

Composition
Olivine (Mg. Fe),SiOa
Augite Ca. Na(Mg. Fc, Al)(Al. Si2Oo)
Hornblende Cornplcx i'erromagnesiansilicateof
Ca.Na. Mg, Ti, and Al
Biotite (black mica) K(Mg. Fe)lAlsiroro(OH)r
plasiocrrrsc{ calcium .lc,lclsp.r Cla(AllSi,O*)
Isofl1x6lcldsPar Na(AlSi3O5)
Orthoclase (potassiumfeldspar) K(AlSirOs)
Muscovite (white mica) KAlrSirOro(OH)r
Quartz sior

mlnerals are formed as magma cools.T'ht:mincral crystalsgrow larger anclsome ol'

t h e m s e t t l e .T h e c r y s t a l st h a t r e m a i n s u s p e n c l c i<nl t h c l i q u i d r e a c t w i t h t h e r e m e r i n -
i n g m e l t t o f o r m a n e w m i n c r a l a t a l o w c r t c n t p c r a t u r c '.l ' h i sp r o c e s sc o n t i n u e su n t i l
t h e c n t i r c b o d y o f n t e l t i s s o l i d i f i e d I. J o w e nc l a s s i f i c ct hl c s cr c a c t i o n si n t o t w o g r o u p s :
(1) discontirutous.ferrutntagnesiurt reut'tion st:nc.r,in which thc mincrals forrnccl arc
d i f T e r e n itn t h e i r c h e m i c a lc o m p o s i t i o na n c lc r y s t a l l i n es t r u c t u r c ,a n d ( 2 ) < : o n t i n u o u , r
plugilrclase .fcld'spurrcut'liott scrft's, in which the ntinererlsl'ormed have dill'erent
c h e m i c a lc < l r n p o s i t i o nwsi t h s i m i l a r c r y s t a l l i n cs t r u c t u r e s F . i g u r e2 . 2 s h o w sB o w e n ' . s
r e a c t i o ns e r i c s .T h c c h c m i c z tcl o m p o s i t i o n sc l l ' t h cm i n c r a l sa r e g i v e ni n T a b l e 2 . 1 .
T h u s ' d c p e n d i n go n t h c p r o p o r t i o n so 1 ' r r i n c r u l sa v r r i l a b l ed, i l ' l e r e . nt ty p e so f i g -
neous rock arc I'ormed.Granilc, gabbro, anci baserltarc some of the common types
o f i g n e o u sr o c k g e n c r a l l ye n c o u n t c r e di n t h c l i e l d . f a b l e 2 . 2 s h o w st h e g e n c r a lc o m -
position clf some igneousrocks.

Table2.2 Compositionof SomcIgneousRocks

Name Mode of
of rock occurrence Texture Abundant minerals Lessabundant minerals
Granite Intrusive Coarse Quartz, sodiunr l'clclspar. B i o t i t c ,m u s c o v i t c ,
Rhyolite Extrusive potassiurntcldspar hornblcnde
Finc

Gabbro Intrusive Coarse Plagioclasc. Hornblendc. biotite.

Basalt Extrusive pyroxincs,olivinc magnetlte

Diorite Intrusive Coarse Plagioclasc, Biotite, pyroxenes

Andesite Extrusive hornblende (quartz usually absent)
Fine

Syenite Intrusive Coarse Potassiumfcldspar Sodium feldspar,

Trachyte E,xtrusive biotite, hornblende

Peridotite Intrusive Coarsc Olivine. pyroxenes Oxides of iron

16 Chapter2 Origin of Soil and Grain Size

Weathering
Weathering is the processof breaking down rocks by mechunicul and chemical pro-
ce.r.res into smaller picces.Mechanical weatheringmay be causedby the expansion
and contraction of rclcksfrcn.rthe cclntinuousgain and loss of heat, which resultsin
ultimatc disintegration.Frequently,water seepsinto the pores and existing cracksin
rocks. As the tempcrature drops, the watcr freezcs :rnd expands.The pressureex-
erted by ice becauseof volume cxpansionis str"clng cnough to break down even large
rocks. Other physicalagentsthat hclp disintesratcrocks arc glacicr ice.wind. tl.rcrun-
ning water of streamsanclrivcrs. and occzrnwaves.It is important to realizc that in
m e c h a n i c aw l e a t h e r i n gl.a r r g cr o c k sa r c b r o k e n d o w n i n t o s r n a l l e rp i c c e sw i t h o u t a n y
c h a n g ei n t h e c h en t i c a lc c t m p o s i l i o nF. i g u r e2 . 3 s h o w ss e v e r a cl x a m p l c so f m e c h a n i -
c a l e r o s i o nd u c t o o c c i l n w a v e sa n d w i n d a t Y c h l i u i n T a i w a n .' f h i s a r e a i s l o c a t e da t
a l t l n g a n c ln a r r o w s c ac a p ea t t h e n o r t h w e s ts i c l eo f K c e l u n e ,a b o r - r[t- 5k i l o m e t er s b e -
t w e e n t h e n o r t h c o a s lo f ' C h i n S h a na n d W a n l i .
I n c l . r c n r i c awl e a t h e r i n g ,t h e o r i g i n a l m c k r n i n c r a l sa r e t r a n s l ' r l r m c di n t o n e w
m i n e r a l sb y c h er n i c a lr e a c t i o n .W a t e r a n d c a r b o nd i o x i d e l l ' o r nt h c a t r r o s p h c r el i l r m
c a r b o n i ca c i d .w h i c h r e a c t sw i t l . rt h c c x i s t i n gr o c k m i n c r a l st o l i r r n ' rn c w m i n c r a l sa n c l
s o l u b l es a l t s S. o l u b l cs a l t sp r e s e n ti n t h c g r o u n c l w a t car r r do r s a n i ca c i d sl i r r m c d f r o m
c l e c a y e colr g a n i cn t a t t c r a l s t tc a u s cc h c m i c a lw c a t l r c r i n g .A n c x a r n p l co l ' t h c c h e m i -
c a l w e a t h c r i n go l ' o r t h o c l a s ct o l i l r r l c l a y m i n c r a l s ,s i l i c a .a n d s o l u b l cD o t a s s i u rcna r -
b o n a t el i r l k l w s :

H'o + t'"'1,:,":.t]:,,in + (Hco'})

2 K ( A l s i r O s )+ 2 H ' + H , C ) - + 2 K ' + , l S i O , + A l . S i r O s ( O H ) r
orlrr.crrts'lr Siric':r
,.,1i'l]lilll,,,,,
M t l s t o f ' l h c p o t a s s i u t rito n s r c l c a s c cal r c c a r r i c c la w a y i n s o l u t i o n a s p o t u s s i u mc a r -
b o n a t ei s t a k e n u p b y p l a n t s .
'l'l.rc
cher.nicalwcathering ol' plagioclascI'eldsparsis sirnilar to that oI ortho-
c l a s ci n t h a t i t p r t t d u c c sc l a y r r i n c r a l s .s i l i c a .a n d c l i f l ' c r e nst o l u b l c s a l t s .F e r r o m a g -
n c s i a n m i n c r a l sa l s o l i r r n t t h e d c c o m p o s i t i < l n p r o d u c t so l c l a y m i n c r a l s ,s i l i c a ,a n c l
s o l u b l es a l t s .A d c l i t i o n a l l y t. h e i r o n u n d m a g n c s i u r ni n f e r r o m a g n e s i a nm i n e r a l sr c -
s u l t i n o t h c r p r o d u c t ss u c h a s h e n " r a l i l ca n c l l i n t o n i t c .Q u a r t z i s h i g h l y r c s i s t a n tt o
w c a t h e r i n ga n d o n l y s l i g h t l ys o l u b l c i n w a t c r . F i g u r e2 . 2 s h o w st h e s u s c c p t i b i l i t yo f
rock-f<lrmingminerals to wcathering. 'fhc minerals formecl at higher remperarures
in Ilowcn'sreacticlnseriesarc lcssrcsistar.rt to weatheringthan those formed at lower
tcmperatures.
Thc wetrtheringprocessis not limited to igneousrocks. As shown in the rock
c y c l e ( F i g u r e 2 . 1 ) , s e d i m e n t a r ya n d m e t a m o r p h i cr o c k s a l s o w e a t h e r i n a s i m i l a r
manner.
Thus, from the precedingbrief discussion,we can seehow the weatheringpro-
cesschangesscllidrock massesinto smaller fragmentsof various sizesthat can range
from large boulders to very small clay particlcs. Uncemented aggregatesof these
small grains in various proportions form different types of soil. The clay minerals,
i :, :*i:...
'
a.. l:

v 6f":*
,,rffi{&
Figure 2.3 Mcchanical crosron
duc to ocean wavcs
and wind at Yehliu.
'faiwan
Figure 2.3 (Continued)

18
 2.1 Rock Cycleand the Origin of Soil 19

which are a product of chemical weathering of feldspars,ferromagnesians,and mi-

cas,give the plastic property to soils.There are three important clay minerals: (1) kao-
linite, (2) illite, and (3) montmorillonite. (We discussthese clav minerals later in this
chapter.)

Transportation of Weatheri ng Products

The products of weathering may stay in the same place or may be moved to other
placesby ice, water. wind, and gravity.
The soils formed by the weatheredproducts at their place of origin are called
residual srtils.An important characteristicof residualsoil is the gradation of particle
size.Fine-grainedsoil is found at the surface,and the grain sizeincreaseswith depth.
At greatcr depths,angular rock fragmentsmay also be founcl.
The transported soilsmay be clitssifiedinto severalgroups,dependingon their
m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o na n d d e p o s i t i o n :

l. Gluciul soil.s- formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers

2. Alluviul soil.s- transported by running water and depositedalong streams
3. Lourstrine soils- formed by deposition in quict lakes
4. Murine soils- formcd by clcpositionin the scas
5. Aaolian.roil,r- transported and depositedby wind
6. Colluvialsr.,lls- formed by movemcnt of soil from its original place by gravity,
s u c ha s d u r i n g l a n d s l i d e s

Sedimentary Rock
The depositsof gravcl, sand,silt, and clay formcd by wcathering may bccome com-
pacted by overburden pressurcand cemcnted by ergents like iron oxide, calcite,dolo-
mitc, and quartz. cementing agents are generally carried in solution by ground-
watcr. They fill the spacesbelween particles and form sedimentary rock. Rocks
formed in this way are called tletrital .sedimentoryrr.,cks.Conglomeratc, breccia, szrncl-
s t o n e ,m u d s t o n e ,a n d s h a l ca r e s o m e e x a m p l e so f t h e d e t r i t a l t y p e .
Sedimentary rock can also bc formed by chemical processes.Rocks of this
type are classifiedas chemiculsedimentaryrocl<.Limestone, chalk, dolomite, gyp-
sum, anhydrite, and others belong to this category.Limestone is formed mostly of
calcium carbonate that originates from calcite deposited either by organismsor by
an inorganic process.Dolomite is calcium magnesiumcarbonateIcaMg(coj)2]. It is
fbrmed either by the chemical deposition of mixed carbonatesor by the reaction of
magnesiumin water with limestone.Gypsum and anhydrite result from the precipi-
tation of soluble CaSoa becauseof evaporation of ocean water. They belong to a
class of rocks generally referred to as evaporircs.Rock salt (Nacl) is another ex-
ample of an evaporite that originatesfrom the salt depositsof seawater.
Sedimentaryrock may undergo weathering to form sedimentsor may be sub-
jected to the processof metamrtrphismto become metamorphic rock.

Metamorphic Rock
Metamorphi.sruis the processof changing the composition and texture of rocks, with-
out melting, by heat and pressure.During metamorphism,new minerals are formed
 Chapter 2 Origin of Soil and Grain Size

and mineral grains are sheared to give a foliated texture to metamorphic rocks. Gran-
ite, diorite, and gabbro become gneissesby high-grademetamorphism. Shalesand
mudstones are transformed into slatesand phyllites by low-grade metamorphism.
Schists are a type of metamorphic rock with well-foliated texture and visible flakes
of platy and micaceousminerals.
Marble is formed from calcite and dolomite by recrystallization.The mineral
grainsin marble are larger than thosepresentin the original rock. Quartzite is a meta-
morphic rock formed from quartz-rich sandstones.Silica enters into the void spaces
between the quartz and sand grains and acts as a cementing agent. Quartzite is one
of the hardestrocks. Under extreme heat and pressure,metamorphic rocks may melt
to form magma, and the cycle is repcated.

2.2 Soil-ParticleSize
As discussedin the preceding section, the sizesof particles that makc up soil vary
over a wide range. Soils are gencrally calledgravel,sand, silt,or c/ay,depending on
the predominant size of pnrticles within the soil. To describesoils by their particle
size, sevcral organizations have developcd particle-size classifications.Table 2.3
shows the particlc-sizeclassificationsdeveloped by the MassachusettsInstitute of
Technology,the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the American Associationof State
Highway and Transportation OfTicials,and thc U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. In this table, thc MIT systemis presentedfor illustra-
tion purposesonly. This systemis important in the history of the developmentof the
size limits of particles present in soils; howcver,the Unified Soil ClassificationSys-
tem is now almost universallyacceptecland has been adopted by the American So-
ciety for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
Gravals are picces of rocks with occasionalparticles of quartz, feldspar, and
gther minerals.Sand particlesare murdcof mostly clnrLz and feldspar.Other mineral

Table 2.3 Particle-SizcClassilications

Grain size (mml

Name of organization Gravel

Massachusetts Instituteof Technology 2 to 0.06 0.06to 0.002 <0.002

(MIT)
U.S.Departmentof Agriculture 2 to 0.05 0.05to 0.002 <0.002
(USDA)
AmericanAssociation of State 76.2to 2 2 ro 0.07,5 0.075to 0.002 <0.002
HighwayandTransportation
Officials(AASHTO)
Unified Soil ClassificationSystem 76.2to 4.75 4.75to 0.075 Fines
(U.S.Army Corpsof Engineers, U.S. (i.e.,siltsandclays)
Bureauof Reclamation.and American <0.075
Societyfor Testingand Materiais)
No/e: Sieveopeningsof 4.75 mm are found on a U.S. No. 4 sieve;2-mm openingson a U.S. No. 10 sieve;0.075-
mm openingson a U.S. No. 200 sieve.SeeTable 2.5.
 2.3 Clay Minerals 21

grains may also be present at times. Sl/t"rare the microscopicsoil fractions that con-
sist of very fine quartz grains and some flake-shaped particles that are fragments of
micaceousminerals. Cloys are mostly flake-shapedmicroscopicand submtroscopic
particles of mica, clay minerals,and other minerals.
As shown in Table 2.3, clnys are generally delined as particles smaller than
0.002mm' However.in some cases.particlesbctween 0.002and 0.005mm in size are
also referred to as clay. Particlcsclassifiedas clzryon the basisof their size may not
neccssarilycontain clay mincrals. Clays have bcen defined as thosc particles ,.which
d e v e l o pp l a s t i c i t yw h e n m i x e d w i t h a l i m i t e d a m o u n t o f w a t e r , '( G r i m , 1 9 5 3 ) .( p l a s _
ticity is the puttylike property of claysthat contain a certain amount of water.) Non-
clay soils cerncontain particlcs of quartz. fcldspar,or mica that are small enough to
be within thc clay classification.Hence, it is appropriate for soil particle, ,11ull",
than 2 microns (2 pm). or -5microns (-5pm) as defined unclercliffcrentsystems,to be
called clay-sizedptrrticlesrather than clay.Cilayparticles are mostly in the colloidal
size range (< I g,m). and 2 pm ilppcitrsto be the upper lirr-rit.

2.3 Clay Minerals

C l a y m i n e r a l sa r c c o m p l e xa l u m i n u ms i l i c a t c sc o m p o s c col f t w o b a s i cu n i t s :( l ) s i t i c a
letrtthedrcnand (2) uluminu ot'tohcdnttr.E,achtctrahcclronunit consistsoI four oxv-
g c n a t o m ss u r r c l u n d i n ga s i l i c o na t o m ( F i g u r c 2 . 4 t ' r T ) .h c c r t m b i n a t i o no f t e . t r a h e c l r a l
silica units givesa silic'ushcct (Figurc 2.4b).Threc oxygcn atoms at the base of each
t e t r a h c d r o na r e s h a r c d b y n e i g h b o r i n et c t r a h e c l r aT. h c o c t a h e d r z rul n i t s c o n s i s to f
s i x h y d r o x y l ss u r r o u n d i n ga n a l u m i n u m a t o m ( F i g u r e2 . 4 c ) ,a n < lt h e c o m b i n a t i o no f
the octahedralalun.rinumhydroxyl units givesan ottuhctlrul sheet.(This is also called
a gibbsitcsheat- Figure 2.4c1.) Sonretimesmasncsium replacesthe aluminum atoms
i n t h c o c t a h e d r a lu n i t s ;i n t h i s c a s c ,t h c o c t a h e d r a sl h c e ti s c a l l c d a b r u c i t es h e e t .
I n a s i l i c as h e c t ,e a c hs i l i c o na t o n rw i t h a p o s i t i v ec h a r g eo f f o u r i s l i n k e d t o f o u r
oxygen ertomswitl"ta total negativechargc of cight. But each oxygen atom at the base
o f t h e t e t r a h e d r o ni s l i n k c d t o t w o s i l i c o ni l t o m s .T h i s m c a n st h a t t h e t o p o x y g e na t o m
of each tetrahedral unit has a negativechzrrgcof one to be counterbalanced.When
thc silicashcet is stacked<lverthc octahedralsheetas shown in Figure 2.4e,theseoxy-
gen atoms replace the hydroxyls to balancetheir charges.
Of the three importzrntclay mincrals, kaolinita consistsof repeating layers of
elemental silica-gibbsitcshectsin a 1 : I lattice as shown in Figures2.5 and 2.6a. Each
layer is about7.2 A thick. Thc lerycrsarc held togerherby hydrogen bonding. Kaolin-
ite occursas platele-ts, each with a lateral dimension of 1000to 20,000A and a thick-
nessof 100to 1000A. ttre surfaceareaof the kaolinite particlesper unit massis about
15 m2lg.The surface area per unit mass is defined as sp'ecificsur.iace.Figure2.7 shows
a scanningelectron micrograph of a kaolinite spccimen.
I//ite consistsof a gibbsitc sheetbonded to two silicasheets- one at the too and
another at the bottom (Figures 2.8 and 2.66). rt is sometimescalled ctay mic.i. The
illite layersare bonded by potassiumions. The negativechargeto balancethe potas-
sium ions comesfrom the substitutionof aluminum for ro-" rili.on in the tetrahedral
sheets.Substitution of one element for another with no change in the crystalline
Chapter 2 Origin of Soil and Grain Size

ffi a f-) o*yg"n o & Silicon

(a) (b)

a f-) Hydroxyl
ffi
(c)

;t o'r/ '
,jt t
1 i
_L/

ffi o*yg"n
Hydroxyl

@ Aluminum
# Silrcon
(e)

Figure 2.a @) Silica tetrahedron;(b) silicasheet;(c) alumina octahedron;(d) octahedral

(gibbsite)sheet;(e) elemcntal silica-gibbsitesheet (after Grim, 1959)
 2.3 Clav Minerals 23

h',,'\ @'ri \
l")
i/K
^

_L/',,

db o*yg"n

Hydroxyl

@ Atuminr,''

6D 0 Siticon
Figure 2.5 Atomic structure ol kaolinitc (altcr
Grim. l9-59)

\-%---___-7
Silicasheet
\ /
I-----------*{
Gibbsite sheet
I I
Silica sheer
,,2 \
Il . Potassium 1 nH.O and exchangeablecations
Basal
I I spacing
I OA variable-fiom
,lL
Gibbsite sheer
I 9.6A to complete

I I separatlon

Lr __L
\d/ (tr)

Figure2.6 Diagramof the structuresof (a) kaolinite;

(b) ilrite; (c) montmorilronite
 d*

Figure 2.7
Scanningelectron
micrograph of
a kaolinite speci-
men (courtesyof
U.S. Geological
Survey)

i)f
K\

/ / ,q\\ \ /

;(,,\
r*?@_l /o'r-'
h'{}
d-----_ # Oxygcn

,.,,,,ii H y d r o x y l

@ Aluminum
{ t Potassium

Figure 2.8 @ i3 Siticon

Atomic structure
of illite

24
 2.3 Clav Minerals 25

# o^yg"n
{*-:@_) @

t:tut
@ Aluminurn,
iron,
magneslull)
E x c h a n g c a b lcca t i o n s
nH.o
o o Silicon,
occasionally
a l um i n u n r

Figure2.9 Atonticstruclureof montmorillonite

(af'tcrGrim. I9-59)

form is known as isrtmorphous substitLrlion.lllite particles generally

have lateral di-
mensionsrangingfrom 1000to 5000A anclthicknessesfrom -50to sog
A. rne specific
surfaceof the particlcs is about 80 m2ls.
Montnnrillonite has a structure .similarto that oi illite - that is,
one gibbsite
sheet sandwichedbetween two silica sheets.(See Figures2.9 and2.6c).
lnmontmo_
rillonite there is isomorphous substitution of magnJsium and iron for
aluminum in
the octahedralsheets-Potassiumions are not present as in illite, and
a large amount
of water is attracted into the spacebetween the layers.Particlesof
montmorillonite
have lateral dimensionsof 1000ro 5000A and thicknessesof 10 to 50
A. The s|eci6;
surfaceis about 800 m2is.
Besideskaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite, other common clay
mineralsgen-
erally found are chlorite, halloysite,vermiculite, and attapulqite.
Chapter 2 Origin of Soil and Grain Size

+ + +

+ - + + +

a
- +
a
+ + + - + -

+ + + +
a
O
+
+ - + - +

Distancefiom the clay particle

(a)

Figure 2. 10 Diffusedoublelayer

The clay particles carry a net negativecharge on their surfaces.This is the re-
sult both of isomorphoussubstitution and of a brcak in continuity of the structure at
its edges. Larger negativc chargcs are derived from larger specificsurfaces.Some
positivelycharged sitesalso occur at the edgesof the particles.A list of the recipro-
cal of the averagesurfacedensitiesof the negativechargeson the surfaceso[ some
clav minerals follows (Yong and Warkentin, 1966):
Reciprocalof average
surface density of charge
Clay mineral (A2lelectroniccharge)

Kaolinite 25
Clay mica and chlorite 50
Montmorillonite 100
'75
Vermiculite

In dry clay,the negativecharge is balancedby exchangeablecations like Ca2*,

Mg2*, Na*, and K* surrounding the particlesbeing held by electrostaticattraction.
When water is added to clay, these cations and a few anions float around the clay
particles. This configuration is referred to as a diffuse double layer (Figure 2.10a).
The cation concentration decreaseswith the distance from the surface of the particle
(Figure 2.10b).
Water molecules are polar. Hydrogen atoms are not axisymmetric around an
oxygen atom; instead,they occur at a bonded angle of 105'(Figure 2.11).As a result,
a water molecule has a positive charge at one side and a negative charge at the other
side. It is known as a dipole.
Dipolar water is attracted both by the negatively charged surface of the clay
particles and by the cations in the double layer. The cations, in turn, are attracted to
the soil particles. A third mechanism by which water is attracted to clay particles is
 2.3 Clay Minerals 27

Hvdrosen ' /
t"t
u

Figure 2.11 Dipolar characterof water

lrydrogen bonding, where hydrogen atoms in the water molecules are shared with
oxygen atoms on the surfaceof the clay.Some partially hydrated cations in the pore
water are also attractcd to the surfaceofclay particles.These cations attract dipolar
water molecules.All thesepossiblemechanicsof attraction of water to clay are shown
in Figure 2.12. Thc lorce of attraction between water and clay decreaseswith dis-
tancc from thc surfetceof thc particles.All the watcr held to clay particles by fbrce
of irttraction is known as double-luyer woter.The innermost layei of double-layer
water' which is hcld vcry strongly by clay,is known as aclsorbecl water.This water is
more viscousthan free water is.
Figure 2.13 showsthe absorbedand double-layerwater for typical montmoril-
lonite anclkaolinite particles.This orientation of water around the clay particlesgives
c l a ys o i l st h c i r p l a s t i cp r o p e r l i c s .
It needsto be wcll recognizedthat the presenceof clay minerals in a soil aggre-
gate has a great influenceon the engineeringproperties of the soil as a whole. When
moisture is present,thc enginecringbehaviclrof a soil will changegreatly as the per-
centageof clay mineral content increases.For all practical purposes,when the ilay

+ _
Dipolar
6
+
water
moleculc

{p
molecule

{-l
\$t

Figure 2.12 Attraction of dipolar molecules in diffuse double laver

Chapter 2 Origin of Soil and Grain Size

tI
200A
Adsorbedwater\ I
t
\
.+ <-+ r0A
r\
\
\\
*T-
\\Double-layer \\ I
Montmorillonite 200A
watet crystal
\
\ *
I
T y p i c a lr r o n t n r o r i l l o n i tpea r t i c l e .l 0 t ) 0 A b y l 0 A
(tr)

t
400 A
\
\ Double-layerwater*\
. t
1
t,::,

I
I
t "
1m0A
'
'ilff-
'Kgolinite'

I
I
II
J
t \
400A \ Adsorbed water

l
T y P i e rkl r r , ' l i r t i t . ' p ; r r tlioc'l{.)' '( Xn ) h 1 l { X ) {A}
(b)

Figure 2.13 Clay watcr (redrawn al'tcr Larnbe. l95ll)

content is about 50% or more, the sancl ancl silt particles float in a clay matrix, and
the clay minerals primarily clictate the engineering properties of the soil.

2.4 Specific Gravity (G,)

Specificgravity is defined as the ratio of the unit weight of a given material to the unit
weight of water. The specific gravity of soil solids is often needed for various calcu-
lations in soil mechanics.It can be determined accuratelyin the laboratory.Table 2.4
shows the specific gravity of some common minerals found in soils. Most of the
valuesfall within a range of 2.6 to 2.9.The specificgravity of solids of light-colored
sand, which is mostly made of quartz, may be estimated to be about 2.65; for clayey
and silty soils,it may vary from 2.6 ro 2.9.
 2.5 Mechanical Analysis of Soit

Table2.4 SpecificGravity of CommonMinerals

Specific gravity, G,
Quartz 2.65
Kaolinite 2.6
Illite 2.8
Montmorillonite 2.65-2.80
Halloysite
Potassiumfeldspar t.) /
Sodium and calcium feldspar 2.62-2.76
Chlorite 2.6-2.9
Biotite 2.8-3.2
Muscovile 2.76-3.1
Hornblende 3.0-3.47
Limonite 3 . 6- 4 . 0
Olivine

2.5 Mechanical Analysis of Soil

Mechanical analysisis the dctermination of
the size range of particles prescnt in a
soil, expressedas a percentageo1 the totar
dry weight. i*,, metnoos are generally
used to find the particle-sizcdistribution of
soij: (l) sieveanalysis _fbr particle sizes
larger than 0.075 mm in dianeter, and (2)
hydrcmetar unarysi.s_fbr particre sizes
smaller than 0.07-5mm in diametcr. 'Ihe traslc
principles oiri"u" anarysisand hy_
drometer analysisare briefly describedin the
folrowing two sections.

Sieve Analysis
Sieve analysisconsistsof shaking the soir sampre
through a set of sievesthat have
progressivelysmaller openings.U.S. standarcl
iicve nu.i"., and the sizesof open_
ings are given in Table 2.-5.
The sicvesused for soir analysisare generally
203 mm (g in.) in diameter. To
conduct a sieve anarysis,one must lirst ovJn-dry
t'he soil oni th"n break all lumps
into small particles.The soil is then shaken
through a stack of sieveswith openings
of decreasingsize from top to bottom (a pan
is pliced below the stack). Figure 2.r4
shows a set of sievesin a shaker used for conducting
the test in the raboratory.The
smallest-sizesieve that should be used for this
type of test is the U.S. No. 200 sieve.
After the soil is shaken,the massof soir retained
on each sieveis determined. when
cohesivesoils are analyzecr,breaking the
lumps into individual particles may be
difficult. In rhis case,rhe soil may bJmixed
with water to-;l; a slurry and then
washed through the sieves'Portions retained
on each sieveare collectedseparately
and oven-dried before the massretained on
each sieveis measured.
1. Determine the massof soil retained on each
sieve(i.e.,Mr, Mz, . . . M,)and in
the pan (i.e.,M,,).
2 . D e t e r m i n e t h e t o t a l m a s s o f t h e s oM
i l :t +
M2+ ... + M, t ... * M,+ Me:
Chapter 2 Origin of Soil and Grain Size

Table2.5 U.S.StandardSieveSizes

Sieve no. Opening (mml

4 4.75
5 4.00
6 3.35
'7 2.130
t5 z.-1r)
I0 2.(\')
12 1.10
l4 1.40
l6 t . lu
llJ 1.00
20 0.8-50
25 0 . 7 01
30 0.600
3-5 0.5(x)
40 0.425
-s0 0.35-5
60 0.2-50
70 0.2t2
u0 0.Iu0
100 0.I50
120 0 . 12 5
140 0.I06
no 0.090
200 0.07-5
2'70 0.053

Determine the cumulative massof soil retained above cach sieve.For the ith
s i e v e i,t i s M , + M z * ' " * M i .
'
4. T h e m a s s o fs o i l p a s s i n g t h e i t hs i e v ci s > M - ( M t + M z * " + M ) .
5 . The percent of soil passingthc lth sieve(or percentJiner) ts

M - ( M t+ M 2 +" ' + M , )
F '_ > x rco
>M
Once the percent fincr for each sieveis calculated(step 5), the calculationsare
plotted on semilogarithmicgraph paper (Figure 2.15) with percent finer as the ordi-
nate (arithmetic scale) and sieve opening size as the abscissa(logarithmic scale).
distrihution curve-
This plot is referred to as the particle-siz,e

Hydrometer Analysis
Hydrometer analysis is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil grains in wa-
ter. When a soil specimen is dispersed in water, the particles settle at different ve-
locities, depending on their shape,size,and weight, and the viscosity of the water.
 2.5 MechanicatAnalysis of Soil 31

Figure 2.14 A set of sievcslbr a test in thc laborarorv

l 0.5
particle size (rnnr)_ log
scale

Figure 2.15 Particle-size

distributioncurve
32 Chapter 2 Origin of Soil and Grain Size

For simplicity,it is assumedthat all the soil particles are spheresand that the veloc-
ity of soil particles can be expressedby Stokes' law, according to which

p, - p1n
u: pz (2.r)
r8T

where u : velocity
p, : density of soil particles
p,,,: dcnsity of water
4 : viscosityof water
D : diameter of soil particles

Thus,from Eq. (2.l),

D : (2.2)

Dislancc L
whcre r -
Time t
Note that

P,: G,P,,, (2.3)

Thus. combining Eqs. (2.2) and (2.3) gives

(2.4)

I l ' t h e u n i t so f 4 a r e ( g ' s e c ) / c m 2p,, , ,i s i n g i c m r ,L i s i n c m , t i s i n m i n , a n d D i s i n m m ,

thelr
-ttr'r
D(_TI'): [(e.r".y.ff] T llc )
l0 ( C , - l ) 1 , , , . 1 g / c mV
',1
/(ni'n) \ 60
()r

r " 3(\"
D : Vt-- fL.
..-tl,V ;
Assume p,,.to bc approximately cqual to 1 g/cm3,so that

L (cm)
D(mm):6 /7 5\
r (min)

where

3oa
(2.6)
(G, - 1)
-

2.5 Mechanical Analvsis of Soil 33

Table2.6 Valuesof K tiom Eq. (2.6),'

Temperature c.
('c) 2.45 2.60 2.70 2.75 2.80
16 0.01510 0.01-505 0.01481 0.014-57 0.0143.5 0.0141,1 0.01394 0.0137 4
77 0.01511 0.014rJ6 0.01462 0.01439 0.01 417 0.01 396 0.01376 0.01356
18 0.01492 0.0146l 0.01443 0.01421 0.0I399 0.0I 378 0.01 359 0.01 339
l9 0.01474 0.01449 0.01425 0.01403 0 . 01 3 u 2 0 . 0 1 316 0.01342 0.01323
20 0.014,56 0.01431 0.0140n 0 . 0 I3 8 6 0.0I 36-s 0.01344 0.01 325 0.01 307
21 0.01438 0.01414 0 . 013 91 0.01 369 0.01 348 0 . 0I 3 2 8 0.01309 0.01291
22 0.01421 0.01397 0.01374 0.01353 0.01 332 0.01 3 12 0.0t294 0.01276
L-) 0.01404 0.013[iI 0.0I 1.513 0.0I337 0.013t7 0.01297 0.0t279 0.0t261
24 0.013u8 0.0136-5 0.01342 0.0I321 0.01 301 0.01 2u2 0.01264 0.01246
25 0.01372 0.01349 0.01327 0.01306 0.012116 0.01267 0.01249 0.0t232
26 0.013.57 0.01334 0.01312 0.01291 0.0t272 0.0t253 0.0123-5 0.0121t3
27 0.01342 0.0l3l9 0.0t29'/ 0.01277 0.0I2.sti 0.0I 239 0.01221 0.01204
28 0.01327 0.01304 0.012133 0.01261 o.ol244 0.01225 0.0t201J 0.01191
29 0.01312 0.01290 0.01269 0.01249 0.01230 0.01212 0 . 0 11 9 - s 0 . 0 11 7 u
30 0.01298 0.01276 0.012-56 0.01236 0.01217 0.01199 0.01ltt2 0.01t69
"AfterASTM (1999)

Note that the value of K is a function of G, and 4, which are depenclenton the tem-
perature of the test. Table 2.6 givesthc variation o1'K with the test tempcrature and
the specificgravity of soil solids.
ln the laboratory, the hydrometcr test is concluctcclin a sedimentationcylin-
der usually with 50 g of oven-dricclsample. Sometimes 100-gsamplescan also be
u s e d .T h e s e d i m e n t a t i o nc y l i n d c r i s 4 - 5 7m m ( 1 8 i n . ) h i g h a n d 6 3 . , 5m m ( 2 . - 5i n . ) i n d i -
ameter. It is marked for a volume of 1000ml. Sodium hexametaphosphateis gener-
afly used as the dispersingugent.The volumc of the clispersedsoil suspensionis in-
c r e a s e dt o 1 0 0 0m l b y a d d i n gd i s t i l l e dw a t e r .F i g u r e2 . 1 6s h o w sa n A S T M l 5 2 H t v p e
of hydrometer.
When a hydrometer is placed in the soil suspensionat a time t, measuredfrom
the start of sedimentationit measuresthe specificgravity in the vicinity of its bulb at
a depth L (Figure 2.17).The specificgravity is a function of the amount of soil par-
ticles present per unit volume of suspensionat that depth. Also, at a time r, the soil
particlesin suspensionat a depth L will have a diameter smaller than D as calculated
in Eq. (2.,5).The larger particles would have settred beyond the zone of measure-
ment. Hydrometers are designedto give the amount of soil, in grams, that is still in
suspension.They are calibrated for soils that have a specificgravity, G., of 2.65;for
soils of other specificgravity, a correction must be made.
By knowing the amount of soil in suspension.L, and /, we can calculatethe per-
centageof soil by weight finer than a given diameter.Note that L is the depth mea-
sured from the surface of the water to the center of gravity of the hydrometer bulb
at which the density of the suspensionis measured.The value of L will changewith
time /. Hydrometer analysisis effective for separating soil fractions down to a size of
Chapter 2 Origin of Soil and Grain Size

I
i
I

L l

I L

j 6 0

L1

Figure 2.16
A S T M l 5 2 H h y d r o n r c t er
( c ( ) u r t c s )t r l S o i l t c s t .I n c . .
L a k c B t u l l ' .I l l i n o i s ) Figure 2.17 Definition o1/- in hydrometertest

about 0.-5pm. The value of L (cm) 1or the ASTM l52H hydrometer can be given by
t h c e x p r e s s i o n( s e eF i g u r e2 . 1 7 )

L : L r+. ( t ,+ ) (2.1)

where L, : distancealong the stem of the hydrometer from the top of the
bulb to the mark for a hydrometer reading (cm)
L, : length of the hydrometer bulb : 14 cm
I/a : volume of the hydromcter bulb : 67 cml
-A : cross-sectionalarea of the sedimentationcylinder : 27.8 cm2

The value of l,, is 10.-5cm for a reading of R : 0 and 2.3 cm for a reading of R : 50.
Hence, for any reading R,

r r 0.5- 2.3) :
Lr : 10.5- 10.5- 0.164R(cm)
-R
 2.5 Mechanical Analysis of Soit 35
Table 2.7 Variation of L with Hyclrometer Reading -
ASTM 152H Hvdrometer

Hydrometer Hydrometer
reading, fl I (cml reading, fr L (cml
U 16.3 31 tI.z
I 16.1 l l.l
2 i6.0 33 10.9
3 l-5.tt -)4 I0.7
4 1.5.6 3-5 10.6
5 1.5.5 36 10.4
6 l -5.3 37 to.2
7 15.2 38 I0.l
8 15.0 39 9.9
r)
14.8 40 9.7
l0 I4.l 4l 9.6
ll 14..5 42 L).4
t2 1,1.3 4-1 9.2
l3 14.2 44 9 .1
t4 r4.0 45 8.9
l5 l3.tt 46 ti.tt
l6 t3.7 41 6.6
T7 I3.-5 4tt 8.4
l8 I -).-) 49 u.3
l9 13.2 50 ,1.I
20 13.0 .)l 7.9
2l t2.9 52 7.8
22 12.7 1.1 1.6
L-) 12.-5 -s4 7.4
1 /,1
12.4 5-5
25 t2.2 -56 1.1
26 12.0 57 7.0
27 I1.9 -5u 6.tt
213 t1.7 -s9 b.o
29 I l.-s 60 6.-5
30 I1.4

Thus, from Ecl. (2.1),

L- to..s lsaqn+l/ - 67\ to,zv 0.164R (2.8)

2(14
where R : hydrometer reading corrected for "the
-.n):
meniscus.
on the basisof Eq. (2.8), the variations of L with the hydrometer readinss R
are given in Table 2.7.
In many instances,the results of sieve analysisand hydrometer analysis
for
finer fractions for a given soil are combined on one graph, iuch as the one
shown
in Figure 2.18.When these resultsare combined, a discontinuity generally
occursin
the range where they overlap. This discontinuity occurs UecausJsoil particles
are
generally irregular in shape.Sieve analysisgives thc intermediate diminsions
of a
36 Chapter 2 Origin of Soil and Grain Size

Unified classification

Sand Silt and clay

Sieve Sieveanalysis Hydroneter analysis

no. l0 16 30 40 60 100 200
100

o Sieveanalysis
t Hydrorneteranalysis
tsoo

d +r,

(,
'5 2 I 0s 0(x)2
000r
l],1,,.1i'.,il,i.,'",,,,\'#"t""""t
distributioncurvc- sicveanalysis
Figure2.18 Parlicle-size and hydrometeranalysis

particlet hydrometer analysisgivesthe diametcr of an equivtllentsphere that would

s c t t l ea t t h e s a m c r a t c a s t h e s o i l p a r t i c l c .

2.6 Particle'Size Distribution Curve

A particle-sizeclistribution curve can be used to determine the following four pa-
r a m e t e r sf o r a g i v c n s o i l ( F i g u r c 2 . 1 9 ) :
l. 8.fl'ectivesiz,e(D11):This parameter is the diameter in the particle-sizcdis-
tribution curve correspondingto l0% Iiner. The effectivesize of a granular
soil is a good measureto estimatethe hydraulic conductivity and drainage
t h r o u g hs o i l .
(C,,): This parameter is defincd as
2. IJniformity ctte.ft'icient

..tt : le
c, es)
Dn

where D66: diameter correspondingto 60% finer'

3. Coefficient of gradation (C ,): This parameter is defined as

D4" (2.10)
..:#;
 2.6 Particle-Size Distribution Curve

80
75

b 6 0

E
g
ol +o
30
25
20

t0

(,
l0 5 | 0.-5
P a r t i c l es i z c( m n r )

Figure 2.19 Detinition of D7., Dnu. Dtr l)2., and D1,,

Sorting coefficient(s,,):This parameter is another measureof uniformitv and is

generally encounteredin geologic works and expressedas

6;
S ,: ,V r ^ (2.r1)

The sorting coefficientis not frequently used as a parameter by geotechnical

engineers.

The percentagesof gravel,sand,silt, and clay-sizeparticlespresentin a soil can

be obtained from the particle-sizedistribution curve. As an example,we will use
the
particle-sizedistribution curve shown in Figure 2. lg to determine the gravel,
sand,
silt, and clay-sizeparticles as follows (according to the Unified Soil Classification
System- seeTable 2.3):

Size (mm) lo tiner

76.2 100
4.75 1 0 0- 1 0 0 : 0 % g r a v e l
100
0.075 1 0 0- 6 2 : 3 8 %s a n d
62
62 - 0: 620/osllt and clay
U

The particle-sizedistributioncurve showsnot only the rangeof particle sizes

presentin a soil,but alsothe type of distributionof various-size
pirticlei. Suchtypes
of distributionsare demonstratedin Figure2.20.CurveI representsa type of soii in
38 Chapter 2 Origin of Soil and Grain Size

100

H 6i)
E
b 4 0
o

20

2 | 0.-5 0.2 0.| 0.05 0.02 0.0| 0.005

Ptniclc diamcter (nllr)

Figure 2.20 Dilferent typesol pirrticle-sizcdistributioncurves

which most of the soil grains zrrcthe same size. This is called poorly gradad soll.
Curve II representsa soil in which the particle sizesare distributed over a wide range,
termed well grtrtled.A well-gracledsoil hasa uniformity coefficientgreaterthan about
4 for gravclsand 6 for sands,and zrcoefficicntofgradation bctween 1 and 3 (for grav-
els and sands).A soil might havea combinationof two or morc uniformly graded frac-
'Ihis
tions. Curve lll reprcsentssuch a soil. type ol'soil is tcrmed gap grudcd.

Example2.1
calculationsand
Followingare the resultsof a sieveanalysis.Make the necessary
draw a particle-sizedistributioncurve.
Mass of soil retained
U.S. sieve size on each sieve {gl

4 0
10 40
20 60
40 89
60 140
80 tzt
100 21.0
200 56
Pan T2

Solution
itr"hff.*i"g tablecannowbe prepared.
 2.6 Particle-Size Distribution Curve 39

Mass Cumulative mass

u.s. Opening retained on retained above Percent
sieve {mm} each sieve (gl each sieve (gt
(1) finero
{2t {3} {4) t5)
A
T 4. tJ 0 0 100
10 2^00 40 0+ 40:40 94.5
20 0.850 60 40+60=100 86.3
40 0.425 89 100+89:189 74,1
60 0.250 140 189+I40-329 54.9
80 0.180 \22 329+122-451 3E.1
100 0.150 270 45I+210=661 9.3
200 0.075 56 661+56=717 1.7
Pan I2 7 1 7+ 1 2 : 7 2 9: 2 M 0
. > M - col.4 x 1oo:Z*U
2M 729
* ,uo
The particle-sizedistributioncurveis shownin Fisure 2.21.

100

b6()
E

I +tl

t0
= fl.15 n.'t,t
1)111
(,
t0 5 3 I 0..5 0.3
Particlcsizc(mrn)

Figure 2.21 Particle-size distribution curve

Example2.2

For the particle-sizedistributioncurveshownin Figure2.21,determine

e. Dro,D.ro,
and Doo
b. Uniformity coefficient,C,
c. Coefficientof gradation,C.
40 Chapter 2 Origin of Soil and Grain Size

$olution
a. From Figwe2.27,
Dro : 0'15mm
D3s: 0.17mm
D6r,: 0.27mm
b . c , D^,,
, : n :O27:
n s -tt . _
'':#o*:#ffib-o'71

For the particle-sizedistributioncurve shownin Figure2'21, determinethe per-

centagesof gravel,sand,silt, and clay-sizeparticlespresent.Use the Unified Soil
ClassificationSystem.
Solution
From Figure2.27,wecan preparethe followingtable.
Size (mml % finer,

76.2
4.75
0.075
l[]3,= 100* 100= 0o/oEravel
100* 1.7 * 98.3olo sand
1.7 - 0 = l.7o/osilt and clay

2.7 Particle Shape

T'hc shape of particles present in a soil massis equally as important as the particle-
sizc distribution becauseit has significantinfluence on the physical properties of a
given soil. However, not much attention is paid to particle shapebecauseit is more
difhcult to meersure.The particle shape can generally be divided into three major
categories:

l. Bulky
2. Flaky
3. Needle shaped

BuLky particles are mostly formed by mechanical weathering of rock and min-
erals. Geologists use such terms as angular, subangular' rounded, and subrounded
 2.7 Particle Shape 41

Figure2.22 Eleclrttnmicrograplr
ol'sontcIinc subar-rgular quartzsand
and subroundccl

t o d e s c r i b et h e s h a p e so f b u l k y p a r t i c l e s .F i g u r e 2 . 2 2 s h o w s a s c a n l i n s c l e c t r o n
micrograph of some subangularancl subroundeclquartz sarrd.'l-hc ungtiluritv,A, is
dcfincd as

AM$9 t9'dillolggMtt a'd edscs

o : (2.12)
Radius ol'the maximu- inr.titre.t rph"t.

The sphericityoi bulky particles is defineclas

__ D,
.t- ( 2 .r3 )
L

whcre Q, - equivalent diameter of the particle - 6V

T
I/ - volume of particle
L,, : length of particle
Flaky purticleshave very low sphericity- usually 0.01 or less.Thesc particles
are predominantly clay minerals.
Needle-shapedparticles are much less common than thc other two oarticle
types. Examples of soils containing needle-shapedparticlesarc some coral deposits
and attapulgite clays.
42 Chapter 2 Origin of Soil and Grain Size

2.8 Summary
In this chapter, we discussedthe rock cycle, the origin of soil by weathering, the par-
ticle-sizedistribution in a soil mass,the shape of particles,and clay minerals. Some
important points include the following:

1. Rocks can be classifiedinto three basic categories:(a) igneous,(b) sedimen-

tary, and (c) metamorphic.
2. Soils are formed by chemical and mechanicalweathering of rocks.
3. Based on the size of the soil particles,soil can be classifiedas gravel,sand, silt,
or clay.
4. Clays are mostly flake-shapedmicroscopicand submicroscopicparticles of
mica, clay minerals,and other minerals.
5. Clay minerals are complex aluminum silicatesthat develop plasticity when
mixed with a limited amount of water.
6. Mechanical analysisis a processfor determining the size range of particles
present in a soil mass.Sieveanalysisand hydrometer analysisare two tests
used in the mcchanicalanalysisof soil.

Problems
2.1 For a soil with Do,,: 0.42 mm, D11y : 0.21 mm, and D',, : 0.16 mm, calculate
thc uniformity coefficient and the coeflicientof gradation.
2.2 Rcpeat Problem 2.1 with the following values: : 0.27mm' Dj1,: 0.41
D 111
mm, and :
1),,,, 0.lll mm.
2.3 Following arc the resultsof a sievc analysis:

tn""'"h'liff:",Ti'
U.s. no.
sieve
4 t )
l0 18.5
20 53.2
40 90..s
60 81.8
100 92.2
200 58.5
Pan 26.5

a. Determine the percent finer than each sieve size and plot a grain-size dis-
tribution curve.
b. Determine Dy,, D.u. and D611 from the grain-sizedistribution curve.
c. Calculate the uniformity coeflicient C,,.
d. Calculate the coefficient of gradation, C-.
2.4 Repeat Problem 2.3 with the following results of a sieve analysis.
 Problems

Mass of soil retained

U.S.sieve no. on each sieve (g)

1 0
l0 41.2
20 5.5.1
4t) 80.t)
60 9l.6
100 60.-s
200 3-5.6
Pan 21.5

Repeat Problem 2.3 with the following resultsfor a sieveanalysis.

Massof soil retained
U.S.sieveno. on eachsieve(gl
4 0
6 (.,
l0 20.1
20 19.5
40 2I0.-5
60 135.6
l(x) 22.7
200 I .5.-5
Pan l-1.-)

Thc particle-sizecharacteristicsof a soil are given in this table. Draw the

p a r t i c l e - s i z ed i s t r i b u t i o nc u r v c .
Size(mm) Percent
finer
('t.425 l(x)
0.033 90
0.018 t30
0.0I 7o
0.(x)62 60
0.0035 50
0.001r.i 40
0.00I 35

Determinc the percentagesof gravel,sand, silt, and clay:

a. According to the USDA system.
b. According to the AASHTO system.
2.7 Repeat Problem 2.6 with the following data:
Size(mm) Percent
finer
0.425 r00
0.1 92
0.052 84
0.02 62
0.01 46
0.004 JL

0.001 22
Chapter 2 Origin of Soil and Grain Size

2.8 Repeat Problem 2.6 with the following values:

Size(mm) finer
Percent
0.425 100
0.1 19
0.04 57
0.02 48
0.01 40
0.002 35
0.001 33

2.9 Repeat Problem 2.6 with the following data:

Size(mm) finer
Percent
0.425 100
0.07 90
0.046 80
0.034 70
0.026 60
0.019 -50
0.014 40
0.009 30
0.(x)54 20
0 . ( x )9t l0

2.10 A hydromcter test has the following results:G, : 2.'7, tempcrature of water :
24"C. and l, : 9.2 cm at 60 minutes after the start of sedimentation.(See
Figure 2.17.)What is the diameter D of the smallest-sizeparticles that have
settled beyond the zone of measurementat that time (that is, r : 60 min) /
2 . l l R e p e a tP r o b l e m 2 . 1 0w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n gv a l u e s :G , : 2 . 7 5 , t e m p e r a t u r eo f
watcr : 23"C. t : 100 min. and L : 12.ucm.

References
nNo Mxr'trt<r,qn ( 1999).ASTM Book ofStandards,Sec.4,
Avenrr',qN S<rc'rely rron'l'Es'r'rNc;
Vol. 04.08.West Conshohocken,Pa.
BcrwEN. N. L. ( 1922)."The Reaction Principles in Petrogenesis,"Journal of Geology, Vol. 30,
l7'7-198.
Gnrv, R. E. (1953).Cluy Mineralogy, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Gnrv, R. E. ( l9-59)."Physico-ChemicalPropertiesof Soils:Clay Minerals,"Journal of the Soil
Mechanicsand FoundationsDivision, ASCE. Vol. 85, No. SM2, 1-17.
LnMsE, T. W. ( 1958)."The Structure of Compacted CIay," Journal of the Soil Mechanics and
Rtundations Division, ASCE, Vol.84, No. SM2, 1655-1 to 16-55-35.
YoNc;, R. N., and WanreNttN, B. P. (1966).Introduction of Soil Behavior, Macmillan, New
York.
 Weight -Vo Ium e Relati onshi ps,
Plasticity,and Etructure of Soil

Chapter 2 presentcd the geologic processcsby which soils are formecl,the descrip-
t i o n o f l i m i t s o n t h e s i z e so f s c l i lp a r t i c l e s a, n d t h e m e c h a n i c aal n a l y s i so f s o i l s .I n n a t -
ural occurrence,soils are three-phasesystcmsconsistingof soil solids,water, and air.
T h i s c h a p t e r d i s c u s s e st h c w e i g h t - v o l u m e r e l a t i o n s h i p so f s o i l a g g r c g a t e sa, l o n g
w i t h t h c i r s t r u c t u r e sa n d o l a s t i c i t v .

3.1 Weig ht -Vo I um e Relati o n ships

F i g u r e3 . l a s h o w sa n e l e m e n to f s o i l o f v o l u m c 7 a n d w e i g h t W a s i t w o u l d e x i s ti n a
natural state. To develop the wcight-volume relationships,wc must separate the
t h r e e p h e r s e(st h a t i s , s o l i d , w a t c r , a n d a i r ) a s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 3 . l b . T h u s , t h e t o t a l
volume ol a given soil santplecan be cxpressedas
V:V"{V,,-V,+V,,,+V,, (-1r)
whcre 7, : volumeof soil solids
l/,. : volumc clf vclids
7,,,: volume of water in the voids
i /,, : volume of air in the voids
Assuming that the weight of the air is negligible,we can give the total weight of the
s a m p l ea s
w:w,+w,,, (3.2)
where W, : weight of soil solids
I4l,": weight of water
The volume relationships commonly used for the three phasesin a soil element
ate void ratio, porosily, and degreeof suturation. Void ratio (e) is defined as the ratio
of the volume of voids to the volume of solids.Thus.

v,
(3.3)
V,

45
Chapter 3 Weight-Volume Relationships,Plasticity, and Structure of Soil

f|
t
t
r
l
|
t
: i

'
"

'ir

.
:
'i'

,, i.:r.:i,,,"lii
: :

: : r ; : , : : 'i : r : : r , r i : '

.
f
I

I
l
l

r
l
l
{1
ii
l{
t : l

t . l

i1
T r r t r l , . ' . . , ,' ,: li 'r' , r : , ' , r ' ' . , , , . i i i ] , : , , : ' t lt ir.t,a. 't , , ' l
'l
w c i g n t l ' , . . ' ' ' : i l . . l . l i : : i , , , i : , , , , i : ; lv o l u m e
-Y -v
' ,i ''

1
I r ..:r. ,r, l.r ,. 1 I
t l
t l
t l

I
': r'r' il"ir:'r-'..rlr;
| ].: l'r' iil:i'l:ri' I
I ' t:: ' V,
I ;l'::'l -r:l'r:"1"'':'r''' ' I
'-t: -:ilr, I . "' ',.

I
.,t. ,ri. , .t; .,,..' ,.. .,,.l
I I
t l
t l

Y
t .
l
Y
(r) (b)

F i g u r e 3 . l ( a ) S o i l e l e n r c n t i n n a t u r asl t a l e ;( b ) t h r e e p h a s e s o f t h e s o iel l e m e n t

ktntsity (rr) is delined as the ratio of the volume of voids to thc total volume, or

n =V,v (3.4)

The degreeo.l'suturution(S) is dcfined as thc ratio of the volume of water to the vol-
ume of voids. or

t:?, (3.-5)

It is commonly expresscdas a percentage.

The relationship bctwecn void ratio and porosity can be derived trom Eqs.
( 3 . 1 ) ,( 3 . 3 ) ,a n d ( 3 . 4 )a s f o l l o w s :

V" V" (+) n

' - ( + )' - n
- (3 6)
V, V -V,,

Also,from Eq. (3.6),

t:
n : - (3.7)
t - t e

The common terms used for weight relationships are mctisturecontent and unit
weight. Moisture content (w) is also referred to as water content and is defined as the
ratio of the weieht of water to the weight of solids in a given volume of soil:
 3.7 Weight_VolumeRelationships 47

W
u;:ff. (-r.8)

Unit weight (7) is the weight of soil per unit volume.

Thus,

w
' V (3e)
The unit weight can also be expressedin tcrms
of the weight of soil solids,the mois-
t u r e c o n t c n r .a n d r h e t o t a l v o l u m e .F r o m E q s . ( 3 . 2 ) ,
( 3 . 8 ) ] a n d( 3 . 9 ) ,

w w,' y,. w
" . 1l, r' .\ fwt. ' ) l
l: ) ) : t v, ,\(' l_, "r r, . )
7: V (3.t0)
S o i f se n g i n e c r ss . m e t i m e s r e r c r t . t h c u n i t w c i g h t
c l c f i n e dh y t r q . ( 3 . 9 ) a s t h cm r i s l
unit weight.
o f t e n . t ' s r l v e e a r t h w o r kp r o b l e m s , . n e m u s t k n o w
t h c w c i g h tp c r u n l l v o r u n r e
of soil, cxcfudi'g water.This weighr is rel'errccrto
as the ,try ,,rrit'irigrtt, y,1.Thus,

w,
V ( 3 r. l )

F r o m E q s .( 3 .l 0 ) a n d ( 3 .I l ) . t h c r c l a t i . n s h i p. f u n i t
w c i g h t ,c l r yu n i t w e i g h t ,a n d m o i s _
t u r e c o n t e n tc a n b c g i v c na s

-
l,t (3.12)
liilr
U ' i t w e i g h t i s e x p r e s s e di ' E , n g r i s hu n i t s ( a g r a v i t a t i o n a r
s y s t e r no f m c a s u r e _
m c n t ) a s p o u n d sp e r c u b i c f o o t ( l b / f t r ) . t n S I ( S y s t d m e
I n t e r n a t i o n a l ) ,t h e u n i t u s e c l
is kilo Newtons pcr cubic rncter (kNirns). Because
the Newton is a derivedunit, work_
i n g w i t h m a s sd e n s i t i e s( p ) o l ' s o i l m a y s o m c t i m c s
b e c o n v c n i e n tT . . h eS I u n i t . f m a s s
is kilograms pcr. cubic metei (kg/m,). w. .un
9:nr.1,v *.it" ine Jensity equarions
[ s i m i l a rt o E q s . ( 3 . 9 )a n c l( 3 . 11 ) l a s

M
V ( 3 .t 3 )
and

M.,
P,t : (3.14)
V
where p : density of soil (kg/m3)
p,t : dry density of soil (kg/m3)
M : total massof the soil sample (kg)
M. : massof soil solidsin the sample
ikg)
The unit of total volume, V, is m3.
 Chapter 3 Weight-Votume Relationships,Plasticity,and Structure of Soil

The unit weight in kN/m3 can be obtained from densitiesin kgimr as

, g P ( k g im r )
y (kN/m') -
r'OO
and
sPlkg/t I
v,7(kN/mr;-
1000
where I : ercceleration clueto gravity - 9.81m/sec2.
Nore that unit weight of water (7,") is equal to 9.81 kN/m3 or 62.4lbift3 or
1 0 0 0k g f i m r .

3.2 Relationships among Unit Weight, Void Ratio'

Moisture Content, and Specific Gravity
To obtain a relationship among unit weight (or density), void ratio, and moisture
contcnt. let us considera volume of soil in which the volume of the soil solidsis one,
as shown in Figure 3.2. I1 thc volume of the soil solidsis one, then the volume of voids
is numerically equal to the void ratio, e [from Eq. (3.3)1.The weights of soil solids
and water can be given as
W,: G,7,,,

W,,,:'tDW, :'tDG.,y,,,
where G, - spccificgravity of soil solids
w - m o i s t u r cc o n t c n l
y,,,- unit weight of water

W ei g h t Vrlumc

l
I 1, l
''r""'
W,,= n,C,y,,

I I
l l

tv,
1 I
Yr= I

l
Figure 3.2
l"''"
'fhree
I
separate phasesof a soil element with volume of soil solids equal to one
3.2 Relationships among lJnit Weight, Void Ratio, Moisture Content, and Specific
Gravity 49

Now, using the definitions of unit weisht and drv unit weight
( 3 . 1l ) ] . w e c a n w r i l e [Eqs. (3.9) and

w w,- + w,,, c,l* * uc,y. (1 + w)G,y,,

'
y : - :
v v : _ 1,*e
( 3.1s)
li.e

and

W, - G.rYu,
(3.l6)
V L * e

G.y.,,
(3.l 7)
fa

Becausethe weight of water for the soil element under consicleration

is w G,y,,
t h c v o l u m c o c c u p i e dh y w a l c r i s

v,, y - [9!" -- tuG,

7r,, 7,,,
Hence, from the delinition of degree of saturation
[eq. (3.5)],
V,,, toG.
s^ - ; , -
;,
or

Se: wG, ( 3 . 18 )

This equation is useful for solving problems involving three-phaserelationships.

If the soil sampleis saturated- that is, the void spacesare completelyfilleh
with
water (Figure 3.3)- the relationshipfor saturatedunit weight (7.,,,)can
be derived in
a similar manner:

. : w - w ' * w * - G,y* * ey*

n/sar : %
(G, + e)y*
(3.1e)
v v I + e \ * e
l

Also, from Eq. (3.18)with S : 1,

e = u)Gs (3.20)

As mentioned before, due to the convenienceof working with densitiesin

the sI system,the following equations,similar to unit-weightrelationshipsgiven
in
Eqs.[3.15],[3.16],and [3.19],will be useful:
Chapter 3 Weight-Volume Relationships,Plasticity,and Structure of Soil

Weight Volume

I
W,, = e"1,.
I
'l="
i
1
T
II t/- t (

Vr= I
*='"'t'

I
I I
Figure 3.3 Saturatedsoil element with volumc of soil solidsequal to one

. (l + ru.')G,p,,
D c n s i t- yP - - (3.21)
l+e

. G,p,,
D r y d e n s i t y- p , r - - , - (3.22)
r l e

-
(G.,+ e)p,,,
S r t u r a t c dd e n s i t y p ' r r - (3.23)
l ' f e

whcre p,, : density of water : 1000kg/m3.

Equation (3.21) may be clerivedby rcferring to the soil element shown in Fig-
ure 3.4, in which the volume of soil solids is equal to 1 and the volume of voids is

iI
1
Mr, = vtC,p,
Vr=e

I
I I
,,=
1 i
t / - l

lo,r,
T I relationship
Figure 3.4 Three separatephasesof a soil elementshowingmass-volume
 3.3 Relationshipsamong tJnit Weight, porosity, and Moisture
Content 51

equal to e. Hence, the massof soil solids,M", is equal to

G"p..The moisture content
has been defined in Eq. (3.8) as

w,,, (massof water) . g

w :
w, ( m a s so f s o l i d ) . g
Mu,
M.
where M, : mass of water.
Since the massof soil in the element is equal to G the massof water
"p,,,
Mu,: toM,: wGrpu,
From Eq. (3.13),density

M M, + M,,, G,pr, * 'tt)G,p,,,

'o : -
V V,+V,, I * e

_ (1 + u;)G'p,,,
l'te
Equations (3.22) and (3.23) can be derived similarly.

3,3 lelatignships among lJnit Weight,

Porosity, and Moisture Content
The relationship among_unit weight,porosity, ancrmoisture contentcan
be developed
in a manner similar to that presentedin the preceding section.
Consiclera soil that
has a total volume equal to one, as shown in Figure 3.1. From
Eq. (3.4).
V,,
n : -
v
Weight Vtlume

1
Wn,,=wG.,y,,(l- n)

It
I
I l z . = G " T , " ( l- n )

I
I
I
Figure 3.5 Soil element with total volume equal to one
52 chapter 3 weight-volume Relationships,Plasticity,and structure of soil

Weight Volume

t
I
w,, = ttY"
t ,
I
l ,

W,=G,y,,,(l-rr)

I
I
ffi"1 l
.
:ffi'"'1
I
soilelcmentwith total volumeequalto onc
Figure 3.6 Saturated

: 1 - n' The weight of soil solids (W")

If V is equal to 1, thcn V" is equal to n, so V,
and the weight of water ( W,,,)can then be expressedas follows:

W , : G , y , , , (-l n ) (3.24)
- n)
W,,,: 'uW,: utG,Y,,,(l (3.2s)

So,the dry unit weightequals

W, G,7,"(l n) (3.26)
'd- v
: G,y,r(l - n)
1

The moistunit weightequals

, -Y+!i: G , 7 , ,-, (n1) ( t+ T , ) (3.21)

Figure 3.6 showsa soil samplethat is saturatedand has I/: 1. According to this
figure,

W, + W,, (l - n)G,Y",I /t1,,,

^ l : - :
: f (1 - n)G, * n)y,,,, (3.28)
/sat
v

The moisture content of a saturated soil sample can be expressedas

Wr, ftTu, n
w -- - - - - (3.2e)
(t - n)y,,.G, (l - r)G,
lt
w,
 3.4 Various Unit-Weight Relationships

3.4 Various Unit-Weight Relationships

In Sections3.2 and 3.3, we derived the fundamental relationshipsfor the moist unit
weight, dry unit weight, and saturatedunit weight of soil. Severalother forms of re-
lationshipsthat can be obtained for y,y,1,and 7.o,are givenin Table 3.1.Some typical
values of void ratio. moisture content in a saturatedcondition, and dry unit weight
for soils in a nerturalstate are given in Table 3.2.

Table3.1 VariousFormsof Relationshipsfor y, y,,,and 7".,r

Moist unit weight (y) Dry unit weight (7a) Saturated unit weight (y.",)
Relationship Given Relationship Relationship
(l + ur)G,7,. v (G, + e)y,,,
w, G,, e y, tr ;-, l t P
I t e I t1l) I t c
(G-,+ Sc)7,,, (),1 ,,, G, .t t - n)G,* n)y
S, G,. E (r,. C l(t ,,,
, -1-
l * c I c
(r" r'tr'" / l + u . . , \, _ .
(l + u.')G-,r" (i,, tt G,y,,,(l - n) \. r ,1r,,,c, /G'7,
w, G,. S
toG, G.rt... r,,,,\
l+ :l o,. w,.l / " \/l-
s t"r'!/.rr
/ r|o. \ \,u.,,/\ rn" /7,,
l + l l
w,G,,n G,y,,(l - n)(l + r.') \ . s /
,. tr,.t /1+'rr'_,,\
S,C,. n G,y,"(l - n) t nSy,,, r'Sv.. n\
t'. nr. s ,r* )y,,
(l + c)ttL
. ( e \
(7,u ft.(' 7 , r I [ , - ' c , /l y ,
lt^t,C \ t
Tsrt ---
t i e
f tt,n yd I nyu,
-
7*rr. fl lsar fll ,t
/ r \
(7,"r - 7,,,)G, 7,r.S I\ l - ; ](y, ,, /, + y , , .
V . . , .( r .'
(.;, l) Trr",,,)
yi1,wsrt 7,r(1 *

Table3.2 Void Ratio,MoistureContent,and Dry Unit Weight

fbr SomcTypicalSoilsin a NaturalState

Natural moisture
content in a Dry unit weight, 7a
Void saturated
Type of soil ratio, e state (%) lb /ft3 kN /m3
Loose uniform sand 0.8 30 92 14.5
Densc uniform sand 0.45 16 115 18
Loose angular-grained
silty sand 0.6-5 25 102 l6
Dense angular-grained
silty sand 0.4 15 l2l l9
Stiff clay 0.6 21 108 77
Soft clay 0.9-1.4 30-50 73-93 11.5-14.5
Loess 0.9 25 86 13.5
Soft organic clay 2.5-3.2 90-r20 38-51 6-8
Glacial till 0.3 10 t34 21
54 Chapter 3 Weight-Volume Relationships,Plasticity,and Structure of Soil

Example3.1
For a soil, show that

,..,: fe)(*3)r.
\tr/ \ 1 + e / "-
Solution
FromEqs.(3.19)and(3.20),
(G, * e)y,o
f'*: (a)
1y,
and
e ='tDG,
or

G' , = 'lt)
L (b)

CombiningEqs. (a) and (b) gives

( e \
\ i
: --lli* " ) Y " = /e\ll+rv\
7*u' \;/\1 * " \t"

Example3.2
The massof a moistsoil samplehavinga volumeof 0.0057m3is 10'5kg. The mois-
ture content(w) and the specificgravityof soil solids(G") were determinedto be
1"3%and 2.68,respectively.Determine
a. Moist density,p (kg/mr)
b. Dry density,pa (kg/m')
c. Void raIio, e
d. Porosity,n
e. Degreeof saturation,S (7o)
Solution
a. From Eq. (3.13), :
M 10.5 -
P =;: ,mr
11842
kg/m3l

b. From Eqs. (3.21) and\3.72),

p IB42 :
Pa: 1 a *: t3
163okgim'l
I T W .| t J
'* |

too
 3.4 VariousUnit-WeightRelationships 55

c. From Eq. (3.22).

G,1,, - l : ' (2.68X1000)

l^ 10\/1A A A '

. ' _ , ' - 1 : 0 . 6 4
Pa 1630

d. From Eq. (3.7),

0'64
n: =3- - = 0.39
7!-e 1+0.64

e. From Eq. (3.18),

w- -G- ,r (0.13)(2.68)
S(%): x 100 x 100: 54.4o/o I
e (').64

Example3.3
The saturatedunit weight,7.u,,of a soil is 19.5kN/m3,and the specificgravity of
soil solidsis 2.65.

a. Derive an expressionfor 7,iin termsof 7uo,,

7r, and G..
b. Using the expressionderivedin part (a), determinethe dry unit weightof
the soil.
Solution
a. From Eq. (3.19),

Gry r, * ey.u,
/sar-
l+e

_ GrTruI eI* - 7 , : Gryu,i e^l- - lw - €Tu, yr,(G" - 1)

Tsat*7u: :
l F" 1+, 1*,
* 1)G, ya(G, - 1)
7,,(G"
1,-^. - v-.-
(l + e;C, G,

or

(y,u,- y,)G" :
t,t:
6, 1

b. Giventhat 7.u,: 19.5kNlm3 and G, :2.65,

(y,n,- y*)G, (19.5- 9.81X2.65)

nt:- :15.56kN/m3 r
G,-i 2.65-t
56 Chapter 3 Weight-Volume Relationships,Plasticity,and Structure of Soil

Example3.4
In its natural state,a moist soil hasa vnlumeof 0.33ft3 and weighs39.93lb' The
oven-driedweightof the soil is 34.54lb. If C, : 2.67,calculate
a. Moisture content(%)
b. Moist unit weight(lb/ftr)
c. Dry unit weight(lb/ft:l)
d. Void ratio
e. Porosity
f. Degreeof saturation(%)
Solution
a. From Eq. (3.8),
-_3.4.s4
3e.e?
* :ryw.. * 34.s4
= rs.6%
(1oo)
b. From Eq. (3.9),
w 39.93
v:;=ffi-r21'rbtrt3
c. From Eq. (3.11),
w, 34.54-
,o: i: 104'7
lb/ft3
ffi
d. The volumeof solidsis
w
"' : "7-4' 5
' '4 , : 0 . 2 0 " 7 f 1 3
V:
G,7,, Q.67)(62.4)
Thus.
Vo=V *V,:0.33 - 0.207 =0'123ff
The volumeof wateris
wu' * 39 '93- - 34'54
v* : : 0.086ft3
lu, 62.4
Now, refer to Figure 3.7.From Eq. (3.3),

-:r,: qg : o.se
" v, 0.207
e. FromEq.(3.a). r
v., 0.123 i
':i:.-:o'37
f. FromEq. (3.5),

s :9:v,, g* : o.6ee
0.123
: Ge.ea/o
 3.4 VariousUnit-Weight Relationships

Weight (lb) Volu[te r ( t t .

I'
i t / - , 0 .I

I i
v,, 086

I ).33

I
- I ) l /
207

II
I

For a saturated
soil,givenw : 40"/:andG" : Z.Tl,determine
thesaturated
and
dryunitweighrsin lb/ft3andkN/m3.
Solution
For saturated
soil,fromEq. (3.20),
e : u)Gs: Q.4)(2.71): 1.084
From Eq. (3.19),

* (G, * e)y* (2.7t+ r.084)62.4

= 1"13.6tb/ft3
/ sat
I * e I + 1.084
Also,

y,,r: (ri 36) ( ;T) : tt.*u kN/mJ

From Eq, (3.16),
C,T* Q3l)(62.4)
i
n:

Ta:1a, lb/ftl
l.lJg4:81'l
Also,
1 q R 1\
Ya: (81.1)t
' ' \ 6+2 . 4|l : 12.75kN/m3
58 Chapter 3 Weight-Volume Relationships,Plasticity,and Structure of Soil

Exa mp l e3 .6

The massof a moist soil samplecollectedfrom the field is 465grams.and its oven
dry massis 405.76grams,The specificgravityof the soil solidswasdeterminedin
the laboratoryto be 2.68.If the void ratio of the soil in the natural stateis 0'83,
find the following:
a. The moist densityof the soil in the field (kg/m3)
b. The dry densityof the soil in the field (kg/m')
c. The massof water,in kilograms,to be addedper cubicmeter of soil in
the field for saturation
Solution
Part a
46s -J!1.76:
u,: Yn - 405.76
++
405.76
: 14.6o/o
M"
From Eq. (3.27),
+ w)
G,pu,* wC,p* - G"p,,,(1 (2.68X1000)(1.146)
:----133
e: r+e 1+,
- 1678.3 kg/ml

Part b
From Eq. (3.22),

po: gb * (2.6q)!Looo)
: 1468.48
ks/m3
1* e 1.83
Partc
Massof water to be added* P"nt* P
From Eq. (3.23),
G,p,o* epu, p,u(G,+ e) (1000X2'68+ 0.83)
^ : } :
Psat
l*e \*e 1.83

So the massof water to be added- 1918-1678.3- 239.7kg/m3. I

3.5 Relative Density

The term relative density is commonly used to indicate the in situ densenessor loose-
nessof qranular soil. It is defined as

^o"- e
-e^^,
D ', : (3.30)
-
€*u* €min
 3.5 Relative Density Sg

where D,: relative density, usually given as a percentage

e: in situ void ratio of the soil
em,": void ratio of the soil in the loosesrstate
emin: void ratio of the soil in the denseststate

The values of D, may vary from a minimum of 0% for very loose soil
to a max-
imum of 100% for very.densesoils.Soils engineersqualitativelydescribe
the granu-
lar soil depositsaccordingto their relative densities,asshown in Table
3.3. In-place
soils seldom have relative densitiesless than 20 to 30"/o.Compacting granular
a soil
to a relative density greater than about g5% is difficult.

Iable 3.3 QualitativeDescriptionof GranularSoil Deposits

Relativedensity (%l Description of soil deposit

0-1.5 Very loose
I5-50 Loose
.50 70 Mediunr
70- u-5 Dense
tt5- t(x) Very dense

The relationshipsfor rclative densitycan also be definedin terms of porosity,

or
[,r,,,

I -
(3.31)
4nrn^

finri,r
(nrin:
(3.32)
I - fi,.i't

n
l - n
(3.33)

where n,".,^and rmi,,: porosity of the soil in the loosestand densest

conditions,re-
spectivcly.Substituting Eqs. (3.31),(3.32),and (3.33)inro Eq. (3.30),
we obtain

p-: (l - - n)
' -
( h - u *" ' nn) (^"i ,) *( 1 , - n ) (3.34)

By usingthe definition of dry unit weight givenin Eq. (3.16),we can express
rera-
tive density in terms of maximum and minimum possibli dry unit weights.
Thus,

I r I- f1 l - 'l
D,:
tt'rrri Lt] I f ,r |/ar^in1 i y,i,,.,,'l
(3.3s)
f r I- t r l - i l
L 7,i',nrr, 7,i1rin1
JL
- l
7,t l
tt'rrrl Lt^"rl
: dry unit weight in the loosest condition (at
where 7rr1mrnl a void ratio of e.u,)
:
7a in situ dry unit weight (at a void ratio of e)
: dry unit weight in the densest condition (at
7r./(max) a void ratio of e-in)
chapter 3 Weight-vo!ume Relationships,Plasticity,and structure of soil

ASTM Test Designation D-2049 (1999)provides a procedure for determining

the minimum and maximum dry unit weights of granular soils so that they can be used
in Eq. (3.35)to measurethe relativedensity of compaction in the field. For sands,this
procedure involves using a mold with a volume of 2830 cmr 10.1ftr). For a determi-
nation of the minimum clry unit weight, sand is loosely poured into the mold from a
funnel with a 72.1mm (l in.) Oiameterspout. The averageheight of the fall of sand
can then be
into the mold is maintained at about 25.4mm (1 in.). The value o[ 7,i(n'in)
calculatedby using the following equation

-
w, (3.36)
Td(nin)
n,

where llr'. : weight of sand required to fill the mold

V,,, : volume of the mold

The moximttnt dry unit weight is determined by vibrating sand in the mold for
8 min. A surchargeof 14 kN/m2 (2 lb/in2) is added to thc top o1'thesand in the mold.
The mold is placedon a table that vibratesat a frequencyof 3600cycles/minand that
has an amplitude of vibration of 0.635mm (0.02-5 can be de-
in.). The value of 7ri1n',x1
termined at the end of the vibrating period with knowlcdge of the weight and vol-
ume of the sand. Severalfactors control the magnitude of 7,4,,,,,*y;the magnitude of
acceleration,the surchargeload. anclthe geometry of acccleration. Hcnce, one can
than that obtained by using thc ASTM standardmethod
obtain a larger-valu€7,/(r.u*)
describedearlier.

For a givensandysoil,€^ax:0'82 and €n1in: 0'42'Let G" = 2'66'In the field' the
soil isiompacted to a moist densityof 1720kg/m3at a moisturecontentof 9o/o.
Determinethe relativedensityof compaction.
$olution
From Eq. (3.21),
(1 * w)C,p*
P: r-_e
or
J

G,p*(L + w) + 0.09)j
(2.66X1oooX1
€ : - - L : I : 0.686
p 1720
From Eq. (3.30),
€otu"--e 0.82- 0.686:
D,' =
* 0.335: 33.s%
€^u*
.- €min 0.82- 0.42
 3.7 Liquid Limit (LL) 61

Shrinkage P l a s t i cl i m i t , Liquid
limit, SL PL l i m i t ,Z l

Stress-strain
diagramsat
van0us states a

Figure 3.8 Attcrberg Limits

3.6 Consistencyof Soil - Atterberg Limits

When clay minerals are present in fine-grainedsoil, the soil can be remolded
in the
presenceof some moisture without crumbling. This cohesivenature
is causedby the
adsorbedwater surrounding the clay particles.In thc early 1900s,a Swedish
scientist
named Atterberg devcloped a method to describe the consistency
of flne-grained
soils with varying moisture contents. At a very low moisture cont;nt,
soil behaves
more like a solid. When the moisture content is very high, the soil and
water may flow
like a liquid. Hence, on an arbitrary basis,depending on the moisture
content, the
behavior of soil can be divided into four basic states-solid, semisolicl,plastic,
and
liquitl- as shown in Figure 3.g.
The moisturc content, in percent, at which the transition from solid
to semi-
solid state takcs place is defined as the shrinkagelimit. The moisture
content at the
point of transition from semisolid to plastic state is the plastic limit,
and,from plastic
to liquid state is the liqLtid limit. These parameters are also known
as Atterberg lim-
irs. In the following sections,we describethe proceduresfbr laboratory
determina-
,tion of Atterbers limits.

3.7 Liquid Limit (LL)

A schematicdiagram (side view) of a liquid limit deviceis shown in Figure
3.9a.This
device consistsof a brass cup and a hard rubber base. The brass cup
cln be dropped
onto the base by a cam operated by a crank. To perform the liquid limit
test, one must
place a soil paste in the cup. A groove is then cut at th" centei of
the soil pat with the
standard grooving tool (Figure 3.9b). By the use of the crank-operated
cam, the cup
is lifted and dropped from a height of 10 mm (0.394 in.). The moisture
content, in
 7

62 Chapter 3 Weight-Volume Relationships,Plasticity,and Structure of Soil

cs
- 50ll :
par I

(a)

l.-506nr+l
nl*
* l'
Inlll'

- - - \ - , I nim
i +
:2
nln
:-*-*- 27"
*m**#*#mm*-I t
(b)

Section

+t i,l"r--
,,+ '
reffiffi'*'' 8mm
ffis'
+l l+ T
2mm

Figure 3.9 Liquid limit test:(a) liquid limit device;(b) groovingtool; (c) soil pat before
test;(d) soil Pat after test
 3.7 Liquid Limit (LL)

Figure 3. 10 Liquid limit testdeviceandgroovingtools(courtesyof Soiltest,Inc.,Lakc

Bluff"Illinois)

percent, required to close a distance of 12.7mm (0.5 in.) along the bottom of the
groove (see Figures 3.9c and 3.9d) aftcr 2-5blows is delined as the tiquitl limit.
It is difficult to adjust thc moisturc content in the soil to meet the required 12.7
mm (0.-5in.) closure of the groove in the soil pat at 2-5blows. Hence, at least three
testsfor the samesoil are conductedat varying moisture contents,with the number of
blows, N, required to achieveclosure varying between l-5 and 35. Figure 3.10 shows
a photograph of a liquid limit test device and grooving tools. The moisture content
of the soil, in percent, and the correspondingnumber of blows are plotted on semi-
logarithmic graph paper (Figure 3.11).The relationship between moisture content
and log l/ is approximated as a straight line. This line is referred to as the.flowurrve.
The moisture content corresponding to N : 25, determined from the flow curve,
gives the liquid limit of the soil. The slope of the flow line is defined as the flow index
and may be written as

lt)l -
. lI)2
/,: (3.37)
/lVl
'ttI
nr/
where 1o : flow index
?or : moisture content of soil, in percent, corresponding to N1 blows
?rz : moisture content corresponding to N, blows
Chapter 3 Weight-Volume Relationships,Plasticity,and Structure of Soil

r0 20 25 30 40 50
Numberof blows.N (logscale)

Figure 3. 11 Flow curve for liquid limit determination of a clayeysilt

Note that w2and Irl are exchanged to yield a positive value even though the slope of
the flow line is negative. Thus, the equation of the flow line can be written in a gen-
cral form as

u;: -lp logN + C /i 1R\

whereC:aconstant.
From the analysisof hundredsof liquid limit tests,the U.S. Army Corps of En-
gineers(1949) at the WaterwaysExperiment Station in Vicksburg, Mississippi,pro-
posed an empirical equation of the form
/ ry),.,,u
tr : utN\U ,r.rrD
1
where ly' : number of blows in thc liquid limit device fot a l2.l mm (0.5 in.)
groovc closure
w1y: correspondingmoisture content
t a n p : 0 . 1 2 1 ( b u t n o t e t h a t t a n B i s n o t e q u a l t o 0 . 1 2 1f o r a l l s o i l s )

E,quation(3.39)generallyyieldsgood resultsfor the number of blows between20 and

30.For routine laboratory tests,it may be usedto determine the liquid limit when only
one test is run for a soil. This procedure is generally referred to as the one-point
method and was also adopted by ASTM under designationD-4318.The reason that
the one-point method yields fairly good resultsis that a small range of moisture con-
tent is involved when ,Ay' : 20 to l/ : 30.
Another method of determining liquid limit that is popular in Europe and Asia
is thefatl cone method (British Standard- BS1377).In this test the liquid limit is de-
fined as the moisture content at which a standard cone of apex angle 30' and weight
of 0.78 N (80 gf ) will penetrate a distance d : 20 mm in 5 secondswhen allowed to
drop from a position of point contact with the soil surface (Figure 3.I2a). Due to the
difficulty in achieving the liquid limit from a single test, four or more tests can be con-
ducted at various moisture contents to determine the fall cone penetration, d. A
semilogarithmic graph can then be plotted with moisture content (w) versus cone
 3.8 Plastic Limit (PL)

W e i g h t ,W = 0 . 7 8 N

l0 20 40 60 80 t00
r/ (ntnt)
Penetration.

(b)

Figure 3.12 (a) Fall cone test (b) plot of moisture content vs. cone penetration for determi-
nation of liouid limit

penetration d. The plot results in a straight line. The moisture content corresponding
to d : 20 mm is the liquid limit (Figure3.12b).From Figure3.12(b),theflow index
can be definedas

, wz(%)- ru,(%)
Ir'<: (3.40)
.og,t,_ l"gd

where wt, w2: moisture contents at cone penetrationsof d1 and d2,respectively.

3.8 Plastic Limit (PL)

The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content in percent, at which the soil
crumbles, when rolled into threads of 3.2 mm ({ in.) in diameter. The plastic limit is
Chapter 3 Weight-Volume Relationships,Plasticity,and Structure of Soil

'br,,-

F i g u r e 3 . 7 3 P l : r s t i c l i m i t t e s t(: l ) e q u i p m e n t ; ( 2 ) b e g i n n i n g o l ' t e s t (; 3 ) t h r e a d b c i n g r o l l e d ;
(4) crumbled soil (courtesyol Soiltcst,Inc., Lakc Blufl, Illinois)

the lowcr limit of the plastic stageof soil. The plastic limit test is simple and is per-
formed by repeatedrollings of an ellipsoidal-sizesoil massby hand on a ground glass
plate (Figure 3.l3). The procedure for the plastic limit test is given by ASTM in Test
D e s i g n a t i o nD - 4 3 1 8 .
As in the caseof liquid limit determination, the fall cone method can be used
to obtain the plastic limit. This can be achievedby using a cone of similar geometry
but with a massof 2.35 N (240 gf ). Three to four tests at varying moisture contents
of soil are conducted,and the correspondingcone penetrations(d) are determined.
The moisture content correspondingto a cone penetration of d : 20 mm is the plas-
tic limit. Figure 3.14 shows the liquid and plastic limit determination of Cambridge
Gault clay reported by Worth and Wood (1978).
The plasticity index (PI) is the difference between the liquid limit and the plas-
tic limit of a soil. or

PI=LL*PL (3.41)

Table 3.4 givesthe rangesof liquid limit, plasticlimit, and activity (Section3.11) I
of some clay minerals (Mitchell, 1976;Skempton, 1953).
!
i
I
t!
 3.8 Plastic Limit (PL) 67

iV= 0.78N
a
B a s e do n
Worth and Liquid
Wood ( 1978) lirnit
t^
/ L ()llr- welgnt
1 6 0 t d lV = 2.3-5N
i t
/*__)
Plastic/
I i m i t/
.= 50 /o
a

Figure 3.14
L i q u i d a n d p l a s t i cl i m i t s
a for Cambridge Gault
5 l{} l clay detcrmincd by fall
(ione penetration,r/ (rn)
cono test

Table 3.4 Typical Values of Liquid Limit. PlasticLirnit. and Activitv ol'Some CllavMincrals

Mineral Liquid limit, L{_ plastic limit, pt Activity, A

Kaolinite 3.5-I00 20 40 0 . 3- 0 . 5
Illite 60 120 35 60 0 . . 51 . 2
Montmorillonitc 100 9(x) 50-I(X) t.5 7.0
Halloysite (hydratcd) 50-70 40-60 0.1-0.2
Halloysite (dchydratcd) 40-5-5 30 4-5 0.4 0.6
Attapulgite I -50-250 r ( x )1 2 5 0.4 1.3
Allophane 200 2.s0 I 20- l-50 0.4 I.3

B u r m i s t e r ( 1 9 4 9 )c l a s s i f i e dt h e p l a s t i c i t yi n d e x i n a q u a l i t a t i v cm a n n c r a s f o l l o w s :
PI Description
t.l Nonplastic
S l i g h t l yp l a s t i c
-5-10 Low plasticity
l0 20 Mcdiun.rplasticity
20 40 High plasticity
>40 Vcry high plasticity

The plasticity index is important in classifyingfine-grainedsoils. It is funda-

mental to the Casagrandeplasticity chart (presentedin Section 3.12),which is cur-
rently the basisfor the Unified Soil classificationSystem.(See chapter 4.)
Sridharan et al. (1999)showedthat the plasticity index can be correlated to the
flow index as obtained from the liquid limit tests (Section 3.7). According to their
study,
PI (%) : 4.I2lF("/") (3.42)
and
PI (%) : 0.141F(.f/") (3.43)
 Chapter 3 Weight-Volume Relationships,Plasticity,and Structure of Soil

Shrinkage Plastit
limit limit
Moisturecon(ent(%,)------t

Figure 3. 15 De{inition ol shrinkagc lirnit

3.9 Shrinkage Limit (SL)

Soil shrinks as moisture is gradually lost frcm it. With continuing loss of moisture, a
stage of equilibrium is reached at which more loss of moisture will rcsult in no fur-
t h e r v o l u m c c h a n g e( F i g u r e3 . 1 5 ) .T h c m o i s t u r ec o n t e n t ,i n p e r c e n t ,a t w h i c h t h e v o l -
ume o[ thc soil massceasesto changc is defincd as the shrinkagelimit.
Shrinkage limit tcsts (ASTM Test DesignaLionD-421) are performed in the
l a b o r a t o r y w i t h a p o r c e l i r i nd i s h z r b o u t4 4 m m ( 1 . 7 5 i n . ) i n d i a m c t e r a n d a b o u t
l 2 . l m m 1 | i n . ; n i g n .T h e i n s i d eo f t h c d i s h i s c o a t e dw i t h p e t r o l e u mj e l l y a n d i s t h e n
filled completely with wct soil. Exccss soil standing above the edge of the dish is
struck ofT with a straightedge.The mass of the wet soil inside the dish is recorded.
The soil pat in thc dish is thcn oven-dricd.The volume of the oven-driedsoil pat is de-
termined by thc displaccmentof mercury. Becausehandling mercury may be haz-
ardous, ASTM D-4943 describesa mcthod of dipping the oven-dried soil pat in a
melted pot of wax. The wax-coatedsoil pat is then coolcd. Its volume is determined
by submergingit in water.
By referenceto Figurc 3.15,thc shrinkage limit can be determined as

SL : tpifl") - L'tt ("/") (3.44)

where n, : initial moisture content when the soil is placed in the shrinkagelimit
dish
Aw : changein moisture content (that is, between the initial moisture content
and the moisture content at the shrinkaeelimit)

However.
M,-M.
ut,(%) --ntj x too rt 45\
 3.9 ShrinkageLimit (SL) 69

\ 7
\Porcellin/

(a) d is h (b)

Figure 3. 76' Shrinkagelimit test: (a) soil pat before drying; (b) soil pat aftcr drying

where M1 : massof the wet soil pat in the dish at the beginning of the tcst (g)
M 2 : m a s so f t h e d r y s o i l p a t ( g ) ( s e eF i g u r e3 . 1 6 )

Also.

ylyl!!
Lut(o/l : , rco (3.46)

w h e r e 7 r : i n i t i a l v o l u m c o f t h e w e t s o i l p a t ( t h a t i s . i n s i d ev o l u m e o f t h e c l i s h c, m r )
: volunte of thc oven-dried soil pat (cm])
[
p , , - d e n s i t yr l l ' w l r l c r( g / c m r . ;

F i n a l l y ,c o m b i n i n gE q s . ( 3 . 4 4 ) ,( 3 . 4 5 ) ,a n d ( 3 . 4 6 )g i v c s

', : (Y;#)r'onr (#)(p,,)(1oo) (3.41)

A n o t h e r p a r a n t e t e rt h a t c a n b e d c t e r m i n c d f r o m a s h r i n k a g el i m i t t e s t i s t h e
sltrinkage rutio, which is the ratio of the volume changeof soil as a perccntageof the
d r y v o l u m e t o t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n gc h e r n g e
i n m o i s t u r ec o n t c n t ,o r

/ ^ vt \
t t
/ r- v \ l
\vt / \v, / _ lt
-
) l (
j - . _
(3.48)
/AM\ (LVp,,\ y,p,,
\u,) \ , r 2 .)
where AV : changein volume
LM : corrcspondingchangein the rnassof moisture

It can also be shown that

G. .l (3.4e)
- /sr \
SR \ roo/
where G. : specificgravityof soil solids.
 Chapter 3 Weight-Volume Relationships,Plasticity,and Structure of Soil

Followingare the resultsof a shrinkagelimit test:

o Initial volumeof soil in a saturatedstate : 24.6cm3
o Final volumeof soil in a dry state* 15.9cm3
. Initial massin a saturatedstate : 44 g
. Final massin a dry state : 30.1g

Determinethe shrinkagelimit of the soil.

Solution
From Eq. (3.47),

: (W)r'oor (L#)(p,,)(1oo)
"
Mt : 44g Vi: 24.6 cm3 pro = 7 glcm3

Mz: 30.79 / r : 1 5 . 9c m 3

/ ++- :o.t\ / zq.o- 15.9

\
r. : /(rxloo)
[-r;,,./(roo)
: 46.18- 28.9:17,28%

3.10 Liquidity lndex and Consistency Index

The relativeconsistcncyol'a cohesivesoil in the natural statecan bc defined by a ratio
callcd the lkluidity index, which is given by
,U;- PL
I'r- (3.s0)
t2- pL
wherc w : in siltr moisture content of soil.
The in .sllumoisturc content for a sensitiveclay may be greater than the liquid
l i m i t . I n t h i s c a s e( F i g u r e 3 . 1 7 ) ,
LI>1

PL LL
+PI+1 Figure 3.77 Liquidityindex
 3.11 Activity 71

These soils, when remolded, can be transformed into a viscous form to flow
like a
liquid.
Soil deposits that are heavily overconsolidated may have a natural moisture
content lessthan the plastic limit. In this case(Figure 3.17),

LI <O

3.11 Activity
Becausethe plasticity of soil is causedby the adsorbedwater that surrounds
the clay
particles,we can expectthat the type of clay mineralsand their proportional
amounts
in a soilwill affect the liquid and plastic limits. Skempton (19-s3)'observed that the
plasticity index of a soil increaseslinearly with the pircentage of clay-size
fraction
( % finer than 2 pm by weight) present (Figure 3. I 8). The corielations of p1 wirh
the
clay-sizefractions for different claysplot separatclines.This differenceis due to
the
diverseplasticity characteristicsof the various types of clay minerals.On the basis
of
these results, Skempton defined a quantity callecl,activity, which is the slope of
the
line correlating PI and o/nfiner than 2 pr,m.This activity may be exDressedas

PI
A : (3.s1)
(%of clay-sizefraction,by weight)

where,4 : activity.Activity is used as an index for identifying the swellingpotential

of clay soils.Typical valuesof activitiesfor variousclay minbralsare givenin Table
3.4.

o Shellhavcn
clay
A = 1.33

London clay
A = 0.95
u 6 _ O-
E

.:- Wcald clay

A = 0.63
i 4 0

Horten clay
A = 0.42

0
Percentageof clay_sizefraction (<2 pm)

Figure 3.18 Activity (basedon Skempton,1953)

 Chapter 3 weight-volume Retationships,Plasticity,and structure of soil

ol'clay-size
Percentagc (<2Uln)
lraction

of clay-size
betwcenplasticityindcxand percentage
Figure 3.79 Simplifiedrelationship
fractionby weight(al'tcrSecd,Woodward.and Lundgren. 1964b)

Seecl,Woodward, anclLundgren ( 196aa)stucliedthe plasticpropcrty of several

artificially prepareclmixturcs oI sancland clay.They concludedthat although the re-
lationshipof the plasticityindex to the perccntagcof clay-sizcfraction is linear,as ob-
serveclby Skempton,it may not alwayspassthrough the origin. Thus, thc activity can
be redefined as in Eq. (3.52),viz..
PI (3.s2)
% ' o l ' c l e t y - s i z e I ' r a c t i t l nC '

where C' is a constant for a givcn soil. For the cxperimental results of Seed et al.
( 1 9 6 4 a )C. ' : 9 .
Further works ol Seed,Woodward, and Lundgren ( 1964b)showedthat the re-
lationship ol the plasticity index to the perccntagcof clay-sizefraction present in a
soil can be rcprescnted by two straight lincs. This finding is shown qualitatively in
Figurc 3.19.For clay-sizefractionsgreater than 40%, the straight line passesthrough
the origin when it is proiected back'

3.12 Plasticity Chart

Liquid and plastic limits are determined by rclativcly simple laboratory tests that
provide information about the nature of cohesivesoils.Engineershave usedthe tests
extensivelyfor the corrclation o[ severalphysicalsoil parametersas well as for soil
identificatlon. Casagrande(1932) studied the relationship of the plasticity index to
thc liquid limit of a wide variety of natural soils.On the basisof the test results,he
proposed a plasticity chart as shown in Figure 3.20.The important feature of this
: 0.13(LL - 20). An
.t-ruit ir the empirical,4-line that is given by the equation PI
A-line separate.s the inorganic claysfrom the inorganicsilts.Inorganic clay valueslie
above the A-line, and valuesfor inorganic silts lie below the A-line. Organic silts plot
in the same region (below the A-line and with LL ranging from 30 to 50) as the in-
organic silts of medium compressibility. Organic clays plot in the same region as
 3.13 Soil Structure

I n o r g a n i cc l a y s
of highplasticity

E+o I n o r g a n i cc l a y so f '
a
'E r r c d i u mp l a s t i c i t y
r.'

E I norganic
c l a y so f l o w
p la s t i c i t y
I n o r g l n i cs i l t so 1 '
n r e t l i u l nc o n r p r c s s i bi ti ly
Cohesionless
a n d o r g a n i cs i l t s

I n o r g a n i cs i l t so l l'tqutcl intit
low conrprcssibility

Figure 3.20 Plasticitychart

i n o r g a n i cs i l t s o f h i g h c o m p r c s s i b i l i t y( b e l o w t h c A - l i n e a n d L l , g r e a t e r t h a n - 5 0 ) .
'lhe
i n l o r m a t i o n p r c l v i d c di n t h e p l a s t i c i t yc h a r t i s o l ' g r c a t v a l u e a n c li s t h e b a s i sl b r
t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i oo
n f f i n e - g r a i n c ds o i l si n t h e L J n i f i e dS o i l C l a s s i l i c a t i o nS v s t e m .( S c e
C h r p t e r4 . )
N o t c t h a t a l i n c c a l l c d t h c u - l i n e l i c s a b o v et h e A - l i n e . T h e U - l i n c i s a p p r o x i -
m a t e l yt h e u p p e r l i n t i t o f t h e r c l a t i o n s h i po l ' t h e p l a s t i c i t yi n d c x t o t h e l i q u i d l i m i t f o r
a n y c u r r e n t l y k n o w n s o i l . ' f h c e q u a l i o n l b r t h e u - l i n e c a n b c g i v o na s

Pt -).t)(Lr.-rJ) (.3..s-1)

3.13 Soil Structure

Soil structure is dcfined as thc geometric arrangementof soil particles with respect
to one another. Among the many factors that affcct the strucLurcare the shape,iize,
and mineralogical composition of soil particles,and the naturc and composition of
soil water. In general,soilscan bc place<linto two groups:cohesionlessand cohesive.
The structuresfound in soils in each group are clcscribeclnext.

Structures in Cohesionless Soil

The structuresgenerally encountered in cohesionlesssoils can be divided into two
major categoties: single grainetl and honeycontbetl.ln single-grained structures, soil
particles are in stable positions,with each particle in contact with the surroundins
ones.The shapeand sizedistribution of the soil particlesand their relative positioni
influencethe densenessof packing (Figure 3.21);thus, a wide range of void ratios is
possible.To get an idea of the variation of void ratios causedby the relative positions
74 Chapter 3 Weight-Volume Relationships,Plasticity,and Structure of Soil

lr:iri
i:i:.;r;

;i];il!11'1'.
,:.,.
...lir,
.a

, .'..:
:.,'
'lj:r.

- Soil solid

(a) (b)

structure:(a) loose;(b) dense

Figure 3.2? Single-grained

l-*--l
l l

I
V',
I
I
II
\ i-- ri ti d,/r
I
\
L _ _ _ _ _i i I
(a) (b)

Figure 3.22 Mode of packing of equal spheres( plan views): (a) very loose packing
( e - 0 . 9 1 )(; b ) v e r yd ensc packing (c - 0.35)

of the particles,let us consider the mode of packing of equal spheresshown in Fig-

ure 3.22.
Figure 3.22ashowsthe caseof a very loose stateof packing. If we isolate a cube
with each side measuringd, which is equal to the diameter of each sphere as shown
in the figure, the void ratio can be calculated as
V,, V-V"
V,
w h e r e V - v o l u m eo f l h e c u b e = d l
% : volume of sphere (i.e.,solid) inside the cube
Noting that V : d3 and 7, : z'd3l6 yields
" /ndl\
d' -\-^
\ o ) :U'9
(: I
/ -i l^U r \
I \

\ 6 /
 3.13 Soil Structure 75

:i:!.::j;. ;;

: " :
Soil solid

\,':r':
' ';:l';.... '
.1:,'

Figure 3.23 Honeycombcdslructurc

Similarly, Figure 3.22b showsthe casc of a very densestate ol packing. Figure

3.22b also shows an isolateclcube, for which cach side measures;tvZ. tl cai t"
s h o w n t h a t , f o r t h i s c a s e .c - 0 . 3 5 .
R e a l s o i l d i f T e r sf r o m t h e e q u a l - s p h c r em s o d c l i n t h a t s o i l p e r r t i c l ensr e n e i t h e r
e q u a l i n s i z en o r s p h e r i c i t lT. h e s m a l l e r - s i z p e a r t i c l e sm a y o c c u p yt h c v o i d s p a c e sb e -
t w c e n t h e l a r g e rp a r t i c l e s t, h u s t h e v o i c lr a t i o o f s o i l si s d e c r c a s e dc o m p a r c cw l ilh that
f o r e q u a ls p h e r e s H . t l w e v c r ,t h e i r r c g u l a r i t yi n t h c p a r t i c l es h a p e sg c n e r a l l yy i e l d sa n
i n c r e a s ei n t h e v o i d r a t i o o [ s o i l s . A s a r e s u l to f t h e s et w o f a c t o r s .t h e v o i d r a t i o se n -
countcred in real stlilsI.raveapproximatelythe samerangc as thosc obtained in cqual
spheres.
I n t h e h o n c y c o n b e d s t r u c l u r c ( F i g u r e 3 . 2 3 ) .r e l a t i v c l yf i n e s a n d a n c ls i l t 1 , o r m
s m a l la r c h e sw i t h c h a i n so f p a r t i c l e sS . o i l st h a t e x h i b i ta h o n e y c o m b c ds t r u c t u r eh a v e
large void ratios. and they cerncarry an ordinary static load. Hgwevcr, under a heavy
l o a d o r w h e n s u b j e c t c dt o s h o c kl o a d i n g ,t h c s t r u c t u r cb r c a k sd o w n . w h i c h r e s u l t si n
a l a r g ea m o u n t o l s e t t l e r n e n t .

Structures in Cohesive Soils

To understand thc basic structurcs in cohesivcsoils,we need to know the types of
forccs that act betweenclay particlessuspcniledin water. In Chapter 2. wc discusscd
the negativecharge on the surfaceof the clay particlcs and the diffuse doublc layer
surrounding each particle. When two clay particlesin suspensioncome closeto each
other, the tendencyfor interpenctration of thr: diffuse double layersresultsin repul-
sion between the particles.At the same timc, an attractivc force exists between the
clay particles that is causedby van der Waals forces and is independentof the char_
acteristicsof water. Both repulsive and attractive forces increasewith decreasins
distancebetween the particles,but at different rates.when the spacingbetween thl
particles is very small, the force of attraction is greater than thqforce of repulsion.
These are the forces treated by colloidal theorics.
The fact that local concentrationsof positivechargesoccur at the edgesof clay
particles was discussedin Chapter 2. If the clay particlesare very closeto each
other,
the positively charged edgescan be attracted to the negativelycharged facesof the
particles.
Let us consider the behavior of clay in the form of a dilute suspension.When
the clay is initially dispersedin water, the particlesrepel one another.This repulsion
 !

Chapter 3 Weight-Volume Relationships,Plasticity,and Structure of Soil

,;,;:;:,:.:.;
::::::;ji
i ,

""..
:'t .t
'
!1:*!i
!!-.

'iit"*u+fi"
'ttt:,,".,
.-,,,.,1r'
"..."..

:"
i| :i
t : . : t i
: ; " .. : i . i I '
... .'';.- i;
'11..."' ,i,'
i.'

(c) saltfloccula-
(b) nonsaltflocculation;
Figure3.24 Scdiment.tru.tul'j., (a) clispcrsion;
tion (adaptcdfrom Lambc.19.5t3)

occursbeceruse with largcr interparticle spacing.thc forces of repulsion betwecn the

particles are greater than the forccs of zrttractiitn(van der Waals forccs).The force
q f g r a v i t yo n e a c hp a r t i c l ei s n e g l i g i b l eT. h u s , t h e i n d i v i d u a lp a r t i c l e sm a y s e t t l ev c r y
slowly or rcmain in suspensittn.undcrgtling Browniun motion (a random zigzagmo-
'l'he
tion of colloidal particles in suspension). sedimcnt formcd by the scttling of the
individual particles has a disperscd structure, and all particles are oriented more or
lcss parallel to one anothcr (Figure 3.24a).
If the clay particles initially dispersedin water come closeto one another dur-
ing random motion in suspension,they might aggregateinto visible flocs with edge-
to-face contact. In this instance,the particles are held together by electrostaticat-
traction of positively charged edgesto negativclychargedfaces.This aggregationis
known as flocculation.When the flocs become large, thcy settle under the force of
gravity.The sedimcntformed in this manner hasa flocculentstructure (Figure 3.24b).
When salt is adcledto a clay-watersuspensionthat has been initially dispersed,
the ions tend to depressthe double layer around the particles.This depressionre-
duces the interparticle repulsion.The clay particles are attracted to one another to
form flocs and settle.The flocculent structure of the sedimentsformed is shown in
Figure 3.24c. In flocculentsedimentstructuresof the salt type, the particle orientation
approaches large degree of parallelism,which is due to van der Waals forces.
a
Clays that have flocculent structures are lightweight and possesshigh void ra-
tios. Clay depositsformed in the sea are highly flocculent.Most of the sediment de-
 3.13 Soil Structure

***' ,i:il.,|] oo,"u,n

*it!'''; 'r:-4

,.:'""h Cluster

i \
- -,
, ]
L - -:lr,
Micropore .:
r'j
\""""''i'Ji':'l :::rrr
ieltqqlassd*;'q'
*\
sir,

(il)
(b)

Figure 3.25 Soilstructurc:(a) arrangemcnt

of pedsanrJmacroporespaces;
(b) arrange-
mento1domainsand clustcrswith silt-sizcoarticres

posits formcd fronl freshwaterposscssan intcrmcdiate structure bctween dispersed

and flocculcnt.
A d e p o s i tc l l ' p u r ec l a y r . n i n e r a liss r a r e i n n a l u r e .W h e n a s o i l h a s5 0 7 oo r m o r c
particleswith sizesof 0.(X)2mm or less,it is gencrally termed c'lay.Studieswith scern-
ning electron microscopcs(Collins and McGown, 1()74;pusch, l97tt; yong anclShec_
ran. 1973)havc shown thertindividual clay particlestend to be aggregatedor floccu-
Iirted in submicroscopicunits. 'fhcse units are rclerrecl to as tloiuins. 'fhc clomains
then group togcther,trnd thesc groups nre called clustcr.s. Clusterscan be secn under
a light microsc<lpe.This groupins to form clustcrs is causedprinrarily by interpar-
ticle forces.The clustcrs,in turn, group 1clf <trmpetls. peds can be scen without a mi-
croscope.Groups of peds are macrostructuralfeaturcs along with joints and fissures.
Figurc 3.2-5ashowsthe arrzrngcmentof the peclsanclmacropore,pu."r. The arrange-
m e n t o f d o m a i n sa n d c l u s t e r sw i t h s i l t - s i z ep a r t i c l e si s s h o w n i n F i g u r c 3 . 2 - 5 b .
From the precedingdiscussicln, we can sec that the structure of cohesivesoilsis
highly complex.Macrostructureshavean important inlluenceon the behavior of soils
from an enginecring viewpoint. The microstructure is more important from a fun-
damental viewpoint. Tablc 3.-5summarizesthe macrostructuresof clav soils.

Table3.5 Structurcol ClavSoils

Remarks
Dispcrsedstructures Forrncd by settlcment of individual clay particles.More or
lcss parallel oricntation (sce Figure 3.24a).
Flocculentstructurcs Formed by settlemcnt of llocs of clay particles(see
Figures3.2.1band 3.24c).
Domains Aggregatcd or flocculated submicroscopic units of clay
particles.
Clustcrs Domains group to form clusters.Can be seen unclerlisht
m icroscope.
Peds Clustersgroup to form peds. Can be seenwithout microscooe.
78 Chapter 3 Weight-Volume Relationships,Plasticity,and Structure of Soil

3.14 Summary
This chapter discussedthree major componentsin the study of soil mechanics.They
are (a) weight-volume relationships(Sections3.1 to 3.5),(b) plasticityof soil and re-
lated topics (Sections3.6 to 3.12),and (c) structure of soil (Section 3.13).
Wlight-volume relationshipsinclude relationshipsamong parameterssuch as
void ratio. porosity.degreeof saturation,moisture content, and unit weight. The pa-
rameters are fundamental to the study of geotechnicalengineering.
Liquid limit, plastic limit, and shrinkage limit tests of flne-grainedsoil are in-
dicators of the nature of its plasticity.The difference between the liquid limit and
plastic limit is callcd the plasticity index. Liquid limit and plasticity index are re-
quired parametersfor classificationof fine-grainedsoils.
The structure of cohesionlesssoils can be single grained or honeycombed.
Honcycombed structures are encountered in relatively fine sands and silts. The
macrostructureof clay soils cernbc broadly divided into categoriessuch as dispersed
structurcs.flocculcnt structures,domains,clusters,and peds.

Problems
3.1 For a givcn soil, show that
8. 7.,,r: 7,t * n7,,,
/ | - rr'-.,\
b . y , , ,-, , t ... )y,,
\ l{ ','r /

where w.,,,: moisturc content at saturatedstate

-
e57,"
C. Yr
(l I t')tt'
3.2 For a given soil, show that
-
Tsar 7l
c
-lr'r,uIl,u
f,t
3.3 For a given soil. show that
/ sal

7,,,
- a ) r , , , ( 7 r u ,- 7r,)
3.4 For a given soil. show that
fl|,,
il'.,,r -
- ttl,,
I'r
3.5 For a moist soil, given that
r Volume of moist soil : 0.25ft3
. Weight of moist soil - 30 lb
. Weight of dry soil : 26.1lb
t G,:2'63
calculate
a. Moisture content
b. Moist unit weight
c. Dry unit weight
d. Void ratio
 Problems 79

e. Porosity
f. Degree of saturation
3.6 For a moist soil, given that Volume : 5660cm3;Mass: 10.4ks; Moisture
i content : I0%: G, : 2.1. calculatethe following:
I a. Moist density (kg/m3)
i b. Dry density (kg/m3)

I c. Void ratio
d. Porosity
e. Degree of saturation (7")

II 3.7
f. Volume occupicd by water (m3)
The saturatedunit weight of a soil is 126lb/ft3. The moisture content of the
s o i l i s l U . 2 % .D e t e r m i n e t h e 1 o l l o w i n g :
I a. Dry unit weight

I
b. Void ratio
c. Specificgravity of soil solids
3.8 The unit weight of ersoil is 14.9kN/m3. The moisture content of this soil is

II 17"/"when the degree of saturation is 60%. Determine

a. Saturated unit weight
b. Void ratio

II
c. Specificgravity of soil solids
3.9 For a soil, the following erregiven: G, : 2.6j, moist unit weight y : 17.6
k N / m 3 .a n d m o i s t u r ec o n t e n tw : 1 0 . U % .D e t e r m i n e
a. Dry unit weight

I
I
b. Vcrid rzrtio
c. Porosity
d. Degrce of saturation
I
3.10 Rcl'er to Problem 3.9. Dctermine the ntassof water. in kilograms,to be
i added per cubic meter of soil for
a. l.l0'lodegree of serturation
h . l ( X ) % d e g r e eo f s a t u r a t i o n
3.11 Thc moist unit weight of a soil is 10-5lb/ftr. Given that w : 15% and G" :
2.7, determinc
a. Dry unit weight
b. Porosity
c. Degrecof saturation
d. Weight of water, in lb/ftr, to be added to reach full saturation
3.12 The dry density of a soil is 1760kg/m3. Given that G, : 2.66,what would be
the moisture content of the soil when saturated?
3.13 The porosity of a soil is 0.3-5.If G, : 2.69, calculate
a. Saturatedunit weight (kN/m3)
b. Moisture content when moist unit weight - lj.6 kN/m3
3.14 A saturatedsoil has w : 28"/oand G, : 2.66.Determine its saturatedand
dry unit weightsin lb/ft3.
3.15 A soil has e : 0.15,w : 27.5"/o,and G, : 2.jI. Determine
a . M o i s r u n i r w e i g h r( l b / f t r )
b. Dry unit weight (lbifr3)
c. Degree of saturation (%)
80 Chapter 3 Weight-Volume Relationships,Plasticity,and Structure of Soil

-- :2'65'
3.16 Repeat Problem 3.15with the following e 0.6,w :6o/o, and G,
3.17 The moist densities and degrees of saturation of a soil are given in the fol-
lowing table:
p{kg/m3} s (%)
1690 50
1808 75

Determine
a. G,
b.e
3.18 Refer to Problem 3.17.Determine the weight of water, in kg, that will be in
70.8 x 10-3 m3 of the soil when it is saturated.
3.19 For a given sand, the maximum and minimum void ratios are 0.78 and 0.43,
respectively.Given that G. : 2.67, determine the dry unit weight of the soil
when the relative density is 65% (in lb/ftr;.
3.20 For a given sandy soil, e.n* : 0.75,e.;n :0.46, and G. :2.68. What will be
'78"/"
the moist unit weight of compaction (kN/m3) in the field if D, : and
w :9"/"'!
3.21 For a given sandy soil, the maximum and minimum dry unit weights are
108Ib/fC andg2lb/ftr, respectively.Given that G. :2.65, determine the
moist unit weight of this soil when the relative density is 60% and the mois-
ture content is 8%.
3,22 A loose,uncompactedsand fill 2 m in depth has a relative density of 40"/".
Laboratory testsindicated that thc minimum and maximum void ratios of
the sanclare 0.46 and 0.90,respectively.The specificgravity of solids of the
sand is 2.65.
a. What is the dry unit weight of thc sand?
b. If the sand is compactedto a relative density of 157", what is the decrease
in thicknessof the 2 m flll?
3.23 A soil at a constant moisture content showsthe following properties when
compacted:
Degreeof DrYunit
saturation(%) weight (lb/ft3)

Liquid limit test:

Numberof Moisture
blows,N content(%l
15 42
20 40.8
28 39.1

Plastic limit : 11.27"

 References 81

a. Draw the flow curvc and obtain thc liquid limit.

b. What is the plasticity index of the soil?
3.25 Refcr to Problem 3.24 Determine the liquiclity index of the soil
when the in
sirrrmoisturc content is 30%.
3,26 Repeat Problem 3.24 with the followins values:
Number of Moisture
blows, /V content (%)
l3 33
llJ 27
29 22

P l a s l i cl i m i t : 1 5 . . 5 o 1 ,
3 . 2 7 D c t e r n l i n et h c l i q u i d i t y i n d c x o f t h c s o i l r c f e r r e dt o i n p r o b l e m
3 . 2 6w h e n
t h e i n s i t um o i s t u r ec o n t c n t i s l 1 % , .
3 . 2 t 1 A s a t u r a t c ds t l i l u s e dt o d e t c r r l i n e t h e s h r i n k a s el i m i t h a s i n i t i a l v o l u m e ,
Vi : 20.2cntr, linal volumc. V : 14.1.,r.. ,.,-lar-., of wet soil, M, : 34 g, and
r
m a s so l ' d r y s o i l . M : - 2 4 g . D c t e r m i n e t h c s h r i n k a c cl i m i t .

References
A l a t , t t l r l ' t NS t r < ' t t ' t v t ' ( ) t < ' l ' t , s I r N t,i r N D M n | I i r < r n r - s( l ( ) ( ) ( ) )A. n n t r u l
l J t x t k o . fA S T M S t u n -
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Procecdings,
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