Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Prepared by
1|Page
EVOLUTION OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS: CONGRESS OF
VIENNA TO THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Rationale for the International Organisations:
2.3 Evolution of International Organisations:
2.3 Philosophical Roots of International Organisations:
2.4 Institutional Evolution of International Organisation:
2.4.1 Congress of Vienna (1814-15):
2.4.2 The Hague Conferences (1899 and 1907):
2.5 The Creation of the League of Nations:
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Some Useful Books
2.0 Objectives:
This chapter is not intended to be a comprehensive analysis of the history of the international
organisations but rather a glimpse at the evolutionary processes that were a responsible for creating a
base for their existence in today’s world. After going through this chapter you should be able to:
• know the rationale for the existence of international organisations
• identify the different phases of the evolution of international organisation
• develop an insight on the role and importance of Congress of Vienna and the Hague
Conferences as well as the creation and failure of League of Nations
2.1 Introduction:
In the previous lesion, we have discussed the meaning, nature, scope, classification, functions and
importance of international organisations. As we saw, international organisations (intergovernmental
or international nongovernmental) play a decisive role in an era of globalisation. They have become
indispensable in today’s growing interdependence of global community. However, these important
2|Page
international players do not exist in vacuum nor they are without roots. They have definite historical
background. We cannot understand their role in the present world, if we are not equipped with the
historical and philosophical basis of the international organisations. The understanding of the historical
and philosophical roots of these organisations may help us to shed light on their future evolution.
3|Page
Although rooted in power, international organizations and regimes generally serve the interests of most
participating nations and usually endure even when hegemony wanes. Most countries share mutual
interests, yet find it hard to coordinate their actions for mutual benefit because of the lack of a central
authority. Nations also face the temptation to bend the rules in their own favour. For example, it is in
everyone’s interest to halt production of chemicals that damage the earth’s ozone layer. However, a
country can save money by continuing to use those chemicals. The coordination of efforts to write new
rules and monitor them requires an international organization. For example, the United Nations
Environment Program helped countries negotiate a treaty to stop producing ozone-destroying
chemicals. Thus, nations find it useful to give international organizations some power to enforce rules.
Most countries follow the rules most of the time.
5|Page
purposes; no interference by one state in the internal affairs of another; the right of self-determination;
and world citizenship and freedom of movement between countries based on a universal law of
hospitality.
Prior to the creation of League of Nations, William Ladd, an American Quaker, in his Essay on a
Congress of Nations (1840) advocated the establishment of a Congress of Nations and a Court of
Nations with legislative and judicial powers to develop and apply international law. The congress
would develop law by unanimous decision in the form of treaties. The court would hear cases
submitted with the mutual consent of the contending states and would apply principles of international
law, and in their absence, principles of equity and justice. He also advocated the abolition of standing
armies.
Despite the existence of sound philosophical basis discussed above, the growth of international
institutions has come only in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The reasons could be many. First,
the ideas were not necessarily dominant or exclusive in their impact upon the ruler’ thoughts and
behaviour. Second, unlike today the conditions of their age were not conducive to an increased
emphasis on international cooperation.
6|Page
Roman Church grew in power and remains to this day a powerful international nongovernmental
organisation.
The Middle Ages witnessed several alliances and associations. A famous group concerned with the
promotion of trade, which took on some political aspects as well, was the Hanseatic League. In 1315, a
treaty among the Swiss cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden gave rise to a confederation.
As the medieval system disintegrated and new developments—the Reformation, Renaissance, the
scientific innovations, industrial revolution and the consequent expansion of trade and commerce—that
took place in the fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries changed the whole complexion of
international relations. Political, economic and diplomatic relationship became more widespread. As
the world started becoming closer, new complexities of interdependence emerged that gave birth to
extended diplomacy in the form of international conferences, treaties and formal peace. The first
significant event in this context was the Congress of Westphalia (1648) that closed the Thirty Years'
War and readjusted the religious and political affairs of Europe by creating sovereign and independent
states.
In the 18th century, German philosopher Immanuel Kant and French philosopher Jean-Jacques
Rousseau broadly outlined the concept of a global federation of countries resembling today’s UN.
However, nations joined the first intergovernmental organisations in the 19th century. These were
practical organizations through which nations managed specific issues, such as international mail
service and control of traffic on European rivers.
2.5.1 Congress of Vienna (1814-15):
Congress of Vienna (1814-15), which was called to re-establish the territorial divisions of Europe at
the end of the Napoleonic Wars after the downfall of Napoleon, is treated as the first systematic effort
to regulate international affairs by means of regular international conferences. Though the attempt to
restore the world order was successful only partially and temporarily, the foundation was laid for a
political and international system which lasted for practically a century and shaped the course of world
affairs, particularly European. The principal architect of the peace settlement devised at the conference,
Austrian foreign minister Prince Klemens von Metternich, believed that the key to making peace
durable was the balance of power. According to this diplomatic principle, the major nations of Europe
should distribute power relatively evenly among themselves to deter any one of them from seeking
dominance over the continent. If any country were to attempt to disturb the balance of power, the
others would oppose it as an alliance. The central agency to enforce the Vienna settlement was the
Quadruple Alliance of Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia; it became a Quintuple Alliance in
7|Page
1818 when France joined it. The Congress also evolved the procedure of having a presiding officer and
committees for the conduct of its business. It also provided a threefold classification of envoys and laid
down the principle of the basic equality of all the states Furthermore, it went beyond its political
business to consider a variety of socio-economic issues as well.
The Congress of Vienna is to be regarded a milestone in the evolution of international organisations for
several reasons. First, despite the hostilities, the alliance, which was formed in this conference,
continued to enforce peace. Second, there were frequent periodic conferences. Third, despite the
suspicions of the smaller powers it was generally agreed that the maintenance of peace depended on
this sort of big power collaboration. These notions were carried over into both the League of Nations
and the United Nations.
The Vienna Congress set the similar patterns of informal consultations and conferences and occasional
concerted action. Britain, France, Russia, Prussia, and Austria were now dedicated to a European
territorial settlement maintained by a new mechanism called the Concert of Europe. Any changes
would have to be made by prior consultation among the five major powers. The Eastern Question
revolved around the fear that one of the European powers would upset the balance of power by taking
advantage of any internal changes made in the domains of the Ottoman Empire. The Concert of Europe
preserved the peace until the outbreak of the Crimean War in 1853. Several other conferences took
place right down to 1914. The Paris Conference of 1856 and the Berlin consultations of 1871 dealt
with the problems of the Balkans. The Congress of Berlin in 1878 dealt with the issue of Turkey. The
concert of Europe, however, was not able to cope with the nationalistic rivalries and divisive
tendencies which led to the World War I.
2.5.2 The Hague Conferences (1899 and 1907):
Another important events which was regarded as a landmark in the development of international
organisations was the two international peace conferences known as The Hague Conferences. The first
conference was called on the initiative of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia for the purpose of bringing
together the principal nations of the world to discuss and resolve the problems of maintaining universal
peace, reducing armaments, and ameliorating the conditions of warfare. Twenty-six countries accepted
the invitation to the conference issued by the minister of foreign affairs of the Netherlands.
The delegates to the conference entered into three formal conventions, or treaties. The first and most
important one set up permanent machinery for the optional arbitration of controversial issues between
nations. This machinery took the form of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, popularly known as The
Hague Court or Hague Tribunal. The second and third conventions revised some of the customs and
8|Page
laws of warfare to eliminate unnecessary suffering during a war on the part of all concerned, whether
combatants, non-combatants, or neutrals. These two conventions were supplemented by three
declarations, to stay in force five years, forbidding the use of poison gas, expanding (or dumdum)
bullets, and bombardment from the air by the use of balloons or by other means.
Despite the failure of the conference to limit armaments, or to provide for compulsory arbitration of
international disputes—the great nations refused to adopt compulsory arbitration because it infringed
on their national sovereignty—the conference was one of the most significant international conferences
of modern times, because it was the first multilateral international conference on general issues since
the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and pointed forward to the later League of Nations, forerunner of the
United Nations.
The idea of holding the Second International Peace Conference was first promulgated by U.S.
Secretary of State John Milton Hay in 1904, and it was called three years later on the direct initiative of
the Russian government. The conference took place at The Hague from June 15 to October 18, 1907,
and was attended by representatives from 44 countries. The second conference resulted in 13
conventions, which were concerned principally with clarifying and amplifying the understandings
arrived at in the first conference. In particular, new principles were established in regard to various
aspects of warfare, including the rights and duties of neutrals, naval bombardment, the laying of
automatic submarine contact mines, and the conditions under which merchant ships might be
converted into warships. The second conference recommended that a third conference be held within
eight years. The government of the Netherlands actually began preparations for such a conference, to
be held in 1915 or 1916; the outbreak of World War I, however, put an end to the preparations. After
1919, and until the formation of the UN in 1945, the functions of the Hague conferences were largely
carried on by the League of Nations.
From the middle of nineteenth century on wards, there was a considerable growth in administrative
international institutions, at both intergovernmental and non-governmental levels. For example, the
European Commission for the Danube (1856). Other institutions too came up, such as: the Geodetic
Union (1864); the International Telegraph Union (1865), later renamed as International
Telecommunication Union (ITU); the International Meteorological Organisation (1873); the General
Postal Union (184), later renamed as Universal Postal Union (UPU); the International Copyright Union
(1886); the Central Office for International Railway Transport (1890); and the United International
Bureau for the Protection of Intellectual Property (1893). Such organizations proliferated in the 20th
9|Page
century to cover a wide variety of specific issues. At the same time, the scope of international
organizations expanded, culminating with the creation of the League of Nations in 1920.
11 | P a g e
objectives: international technical cooperation. Under its auspices, in fact, considerable number of
conferences, intergovernmental committees and meetings of experts were held in Geneva, in areas as
diverse as health and social affairs, transport and communications, economic and financial affairs and
intellectual cooperation. This fruitful work was validated by the ratification of more than one hundred
conventions by the Member States. The unprecedented work on behalf of refugees carried out by the
Norwegian Fridtjof Nansen from 1920 should also be stressed.
The concept of international organization was however firmly embedded in minds and on the 1st
January 1942, the President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, announced the term, United
Nations. On 26 June 1945, the Representatives of fifty countries meeting in San Francisco adopted the
Charter of the United Nations, founder of the new international organization. The United Nations
Organization was born officially on 24th October 1945 when the signatory countries ratified the
Charter. Dissolved at a final Assembly held in Geneva in April 1946, the League of Nations handed
over its properties and assets to the United Nations Organization.
In spite of its political failure, the legacy of the League of Nations at the same time appears clearly in a
number of principles stated by the Charter and in the competencies and experiences developed in the
area of technical cooperation: the majority of the specialized institutions of the United Nations system
can in fact be considered the legacy of the work initiated by the League of Nations.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: Use the space given below for your answer. Also check your answer with the model answer
given at the end of the Unit.
Q. 1 What factors were responsible for the creation of the League of Nations?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q. 2 Write a short note on the philosophical roots of international organisations.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
12 | P a g e
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
13 | P a g e