c





  

     
 
    
 




  



Surface mount electronic components

—
 is that branch of science and technology which makes use of the controlled motion
of electrons through different media and vacuum. The ability to control electron flow is usually
applied to information handling or device control. Electronics is distinct from electrical science
and technology, which deals with the generation, distribution, control and application of
electrical power. This distinction started around 1906 with the invention by Lee De Forest of
the triode, which made electrical amplification possible with a non-mechanical device. Until 1950
this field was called "radio technology" because its principal application was the design and
theory of radio transmitters, receivers and vacuum tubes.

Most electronic devices today use semiconductor components to perform electron control. The
study of semiconductor devices and related technology is considered a branch of physics,
whereas the design and construction of electronic circuits to solve practical problems come
under electronics engineering. This article focuses on engineering aspects of electronics.




[hide]

 Electronic devices and components

ΠTypes of circuits
› Œ  Analog circuits
› Œ Œ Digital circuits
Ñ Heat dissipation and thermal management
ÿ Noise
½ Electronics theory
a Computer aided design (CAD)
] Construction methods
V See also
3 References

Further reading
 External links

[edit]Electronic devices and components

An electronic component is any physical entity in an electronic system used to affect the
electrons or their associated fields in a desired manner consistent with the intended function of
the electronic system. Components are generally intended to be connected together, usually by
being soldered to a printed circuit board (PCB), to create an electronic circuit with a particular
function (for example anamplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Components may be packaged
singly or in more complex groups as integrated circuits. Some common electronic components
are capacitors, resistors, diodes,transistors, etc. Components are often categorized as active
(e.g. transistors and thyristors) or passive (e.g. resistors and capacitors).

[edit]Types of circuits
Circuits and components can be divided into two groups: analog and digital. A particular device
may consist of circuitry that has one or the other or a mix of the two types
[edit]º 

ë

    

Hitachi J100 adjustable frequency drive chassis.

Most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations
of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a continuous range of voltage as opposed to
discrete levels as in digital circuits.

The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a 'circuit' can
be defined as anything from a single component, to systems containing thousands of
components.

Analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in
analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include
vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, operational amplifiers and oscillators.

One rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog. These days analog circuitry may use
digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve performance. This type of circuit is usually
called "mixed signal" rather than analog or digital.

Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have
elements of both linear and non-linear operation. An example is the comparator which takes in a
continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit. Similarly, an
overdriven transistor amplifier can take on the characteristics of a controlled switch having
essentially two levels of output.
[edit]
 
ë

 

  


Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. Digital circuits
are the most common physical representation of Boolean algebra and are the basis of all digital
computers. To most engineers, the terms "digital circuit", "digital system" and "logic" are
interchangeable in the context of digital circuits. Most digital circuits use two voltage levels
labeled "Low"(0) and "High"(1). Often "Low" will be near zero volts and "High" will be at a higher
level depending on the supply voltage in use. Ternary (with three states) logic has been studied,
and some prototype computers made.

Computers, electronic clocks, and programmable logic controllers (used to control industrial
processes) are constructed of digital circuits. Digital Signal Processors are another example.

Building-blocks:

[ Logic gates
[ Adders
[ Binary Multipliers
[ Flip-Flops
[ Counters
[ Registers
[ Multiplexers
[ Schmitt triggers

Highly integrated devices:

[ Microprocessors
[ Microcontrollers
[ Application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC)
[ Digital signal processor (DSP)
[ Field-programmable gate array (FPGA)
[edit]Heat dissipation and thermal management
ë

 c      
 
   

Heat generated by electronic circuitry must be dissipated to prevent immediate failure and
improve long term reliability. Techniques for heat dissipation can include heat sinks and fans for
air cooling, and other forms of computer cooling such as water cooling. These techniques
use convection, conduction, & radiation of heat energy.

[edit]Noise

ë

  
 
 

Noise is associated with all electronic circuits. Noise is defined[1] as unwanted disturbances
superposed on a useful signal that tend to obscure its information content. Noise is not the
same as signal distortion caused by a circuit. Noise may be electromagnetically or thermally
generated, which can be decreased by lowering the operating temperature of the circuit. Other
types of noise, such as shot noise cannot be removed as they are due to limitations in physical
properties.

[edit]Electronics theory
ë

 ë 
  
  


Mathematical methods are integral to the study of electronics. To become proficient in

electronics it is also necessary to become proficient in the mathematics of circuit analysis.
Circuit analysis is the study of methods of solving generally linear systems for unknown
variables such as the voltage at a certain node or the current through a certain branch of
a network. A common analytical tool for this is the SPICE circuit simulator.

Also important to electronics is the study and understanding of electromagnetic field theory.

[edit]Computer aided design (CAD)

ë

  
 
 
 

Today's electronics engineers have the ability to design circuits using premanufactured building
blocks such as power supplies, semiconductors (such as transistors), and integrated
circuits. Electronic design automation software programs include schematic capture programs
and printed circuit board design programs. Popular names in the EDA software world are NI
Multisim, Cadence (ORCAD), Eagle PCB and Schematic, Mentor (PADS PCB and LOGIC
Schematic), Altium (Protel), LabCentre Electronics (Proteus), gEDA, KiCad and many others.

[edit]Construction methods
ë

  
 


Many different methods of connecting components have been used over the years. For
instance, early electronics often used point to point wiring with components attached to wooden
breadboards to construct circuits. Cordwood construction and wire wraps were other methods
used. Most modern day electronics now use printed circuit boards made of materials such
as FR4, or the cheaper (and less hard-wearing) Synthetic Resin Bonded Paper (SRBP, also
known as Paxoline/Paxolin (trade marks) and FR2) - characterised by its light yellow-to-brown
colour. Health and environmental concerns associated with electronics assembly have gained
increased attention in recent years, especially for products destined to the European Union, with
its Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive(RoHS) and Waste Electrical and Electronic
Equipment Directive (WEEE), which went into force in July 2006.

c 
This page covers practical matters such as precautions when soldering and identifying leads.
The operation and use of transistors is covered by the Transistor Circuits page.

Types | Connecting | Soldering | Heat

sinks | Testing | Codes | Choosing | Darlington pair
Also see: Heat sinks | Transistor Circuits



Transistors  
, for example they can be used to

amplify the small output current from a logic IC so that it can
operate a lamp, relay or other high current device. In many
circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current to a
changing voltage, so the transistor is being used to  
 

.

A transistor may be used as a  (either fully on with maximum current,

or fully off with no current) and as an  
 (always partly on).

The amount of current amplification is called the 


, symbol hFE.
For further information please see the Transistor Circuits page.

c
 

There are two types of standard

transistors,   and  , with different circuit
symbols. The letters refer to the layers of
semiconductor material used to make the transistor.
Most transistors used today are NPN because this is
the easiest type to make from silicon. If you are new to Transistor circuit symbols
electronics it is best to start by learning how to use
NPN transistors.

The leads are labelled

(B), 
 (C) and

 (E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in
understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels!

A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high

current gain.
In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are 



  which are usually referred to as —cs. They have different circuit
symbols and properties and they are not (yet) covered by this page.





Transistors have three leads which

must be connected the correct way
round. Please take care with this
because a wrongly connected
transistor may be damaged instantly
when you switch on.

If you are lucky the orientation of the

transistor will be clear from the PCB
or stripboard layout diagram,
otherwise you will need to refer to a
supplier's catalogue to identify the
leads.

The drawings on the right show the Transistor leads for some common case styles.
leads for some of the most common
case styles.

Please note that transistor lead diagrams show the view from

 with the
leads towards you. This is the opposite of IC (chip) pin diagrams which show
the view from above.

Please see below for a table showing the case styles of some common
transistors.
j 

 Crocodile clip
Photograph © Rapid Electronics.
Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering
so if you are not an expert it is wise to use a heat sink
clipped to the lead between the joint and the transistor body. A standard
crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink.

Do not confuse this temporary heat sink with the permanent heat sink (described below)
which may be required for a power transistor to prevent it overheating during operation.

è


Waste heat is produced in transistors due to the current

flowing through them. Heat sinks are needed for power
transistors because they pass large currents. If you find
that a transistor is becoming too hot to touch it certainly Heat sink
needs a heat sink! The heat sink helps to dissipate
6hotograph © Rapid Electronics
(remove) the heat by transferring it to the surrounding
air.

For further information please see the Heat sinks page.

c

  

Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering or by misuse in a circuit.

If you suspect that a transistor may be damaged there are two easy ways to
test it:





 

Use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery,
resistor and LED) to check each pair of leads
for conduction. Set a digital multimeter to
diode test and an analogue multimeter to a low
resistance range.

c

 

  (six tests

in total):

 The



— junction should Testing an NPN transistor

behave like a diode and conduct one
way only.
 The


 junction should behave like a diode
and conduct one way only.
 The 


— should not conduct either way.

The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The
diodes are reversed in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be
used.

Œ




 


 

Connect the transistor into the circuit shown on
the right which uses the transistor as a switch.
The supply voltage is not critical, anything
between 5 and 12V is suitable. This circuit can be
quickly built on breadboard for example. Take
care to include the 10k resistor in the base
connection or you will destroy the transistor as
you test it!

If the transistor is OK the LED should light when

A simple switching circuit
the switch is pressed and not light when the
to test an NPN transistor
switch is released.

To test a PNP transistor use the same circuit but reverse the LED and the
supply voltage.
Some multimeters have a 'transistor test' function which provides a known
base current and measures the collector current so as to display the
transistor's DC current gain hFE.

c 


There are three main series of transistor codes used in the UK:

 




º
 


The first letter B is for silicon, A is for germanium (rarely used now). The second letter
indicates the type; for example C means low power audio frequency; D means high
power audio frequency; F means low power high frequency. The rest of the code
identifies the particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system.
Sometimes a letter is added to the end (eg BC108C) to identify a special version of the
main type, for example a higher current gain or a different case style. If a project
specifies a higher gain version (BC108C) it must be used, but if the general code is
given (BC108) any transistor with that code is suitable.
 




c 
 
c  º
TIP refers to the manufacturer: Texas Instruments Power transistor. The letter at the end
identifies versions with different voltage ratings.
 





 


The initial '2N' identifies the part as a transistor and the rest of the code identifies the
particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system.


  

Most projects will specify a particular transistor, but if necessary you can
usually substitute an equivalent transistor from the wide range available. The
most important properties to look for are the maximum collector current IC and
the current gain hFE. To make selection easier most suppliers group their
transistors in categories determined either by their  
or   

rating.

To make a final choice you will need to consult the tables of technical data
which are normally provided in catalogues. They contain a great deal of useful
information but they can be difficult to understand if you are not familiar with
the abbreviations used. The table below shows the most important technical
data for some popular transistors, tables in catalogues and reference books
will usually show additional information but this is unlikely to be useful unless
you are experienced. The quantities shown in the table are explained below.

NPN transistors

Case IC VCE hFE Ptot Category Possible

Code Structure
style max. max. min. max. (typical use) substitutes

BC107 NPN TO18 100mA 45V 110 300mW Audio, low power BC182 BC547

General purpose, low BC108C BC183

BC108 NPN TO18 100mA 20V 110 300mW
power BC548

General purpose, low

BC108C NPN TO18 100mA 20V 420 600mW
power

Audio (low noise),

BC109 NPN TO18 200mA 20V 200 300mW BC184 BC549
low power

General purpose, low

BC182 NPN TO92C 100mA 50V 100 350mW BC107 BC182L
power

General purpose, low

BC182L NPN TO92A 100mA 50V 100 350mW BC107 BC182
power

BC547B NPN TO92C 100mA 45V 200 500mW Audio, low power BC107B

General purpose, low

BC548B NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 220 500mW BC108B
power

Audio (low noise),

BC549B NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 240 625mW BC109
low power

General purpose, low

2N3053 NPN TO39 700mA 40V 50 500mW BFY51
power

General purpose,
BFY51 NPN TO39 1A 30V 40 800mW BC639
medium power

General purpose,
BC639 NPN TO92A 1A 80V 40 800mW BFY51
medium power

TIP29A NPN TO220 1A 60V 40 30W General purpose,

 high power

General purpose,
TIP31A NPN TO220 3A 60V 10 40W TIP31C TIP41A
high power

General purpose,
TIP31C NPN TO220 3A 100V 10 40W TIP31A TIP41A
high power

General purpose,
TIP41A NPN TO220 6A 60V 15 65W
high power

General purpose,
2N3055 NPN TO3 15A 60V 20 117W
high power

Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which are not entirely consistent! Most of
the discrepancies are minor, but please consult information from your supplier if you require precise data.

PNP transistors

Case IC VCE hFE Ptot Category Possible

Code Structure
style max. max. min. max. (typical use) substitutes

BC177 PNP TO18 100mA 45V 125 300mW Audio, low power BC477

General purpose, low

BC178 PNP TO18 200mA 25V 120 600mW BC478
power

Audio (low noise),

BC179 PNP TO18 200mA 20V 180 600mW
low power

BC477 PNP TO18 150mA 80V 125 360mW Audio, low power BC177

General purpose, low

BC478 PNP TO18 150mA 40V 125 360mW BC178
power

General purpose,
TIP32A PNP TO220 3A 60V 25 40W TIP32C
high power

General purpose,
TIP32C PNP TO220 3A 100V 10 40W TIP32A
high power

Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which are not entirely consistent! Most of
the discrepancies are minor, but please consult information from your supplier if you require precise data.
Structure This shows the type of transistor, NPN or PNP. The polarities of the two types are
different, so if you are looking for a substitute it must be the same type.

Case style There is a diagram showing the leads for some of the most common case styles in
the Connecting section above. This information is also available in suppliers'
catalogues.

IC max. Maximum collector current.

VCE max. Maximum voltage across the collector-emitter junction.

You can ignore this rating in low voltage circuits.

hFE This is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain). The guaranteed minimum
value is given because the actual value varies from transistor to transistor - even
for those of the same type! Note that current gain is just a number so it has no
units.
The gain is often quoted at a particular collector current IC which is usually in the middle of
the transistor's range, for example '100@20mA' means the gain is at least 100 at 20mA.
Sometimes minimum and maximum values are given. Since the gain is roughly constant
for various currents but it varies from transistor to transistor this detail is only really of
interest to experts.
Why hFE? It is one of a whole series of parameters for transistors, each with their own
symbol. There are too many to explain here.

Ptot max. Maximum total power which can be developed in the transistor, note that
a heat sink will be required to achieve the maximum rating. This rating is
important for transistors operating as amplifiers, the power is roughly IC × VCE. For
transistors operating as switches the maximum collector current (IC max.) is more
important.

Category This shows the typical use for the transistor, it is a good starting point when
looking for a substitute. Catalogues may have separate tables for different
categories.

Possible substitutes These are transistors with similar electrical properties which will be suitable
substitutes in most circuits. However, they may have a different case style so you
will need to take care when placing them on the circuit board.
  
 

This is two transistors connected together so that the

amplified current from the first is amplified further by
the second transistor. This gives the Darlington pair a
very high current gain such as 10000. Darlington pairs
are sold as complete packages containing the two
transistors. They have three leads (,  and —) which
are equivalent to the leads of a standard individual
transistor.

Ëou can make up your own Darlington pair from two transistors.
For example:

 For TR1 use BC548B with hFE1 = 220.

 For TR2 use BC639 with hFE2 = 40.

The overall gain of this pair is hFE1 × hFE2 = 220 × 40 = 8800.

The pair's maximum collector current IC(max) is the same as TR2.