A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

FOR FOREIGN STUDENTS

Rmsed Edition

!Jy

c. E~ E,CKERSLBY

..

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

FOR FOREI'GN STUDENTS

Revised Edition

by

c. E~ ECKERSLEY

By C. E . .Eckersley and J. J4. Eckenfley

A COMPREHENSIVE ENGUSH GRAMMAR

A 'CO'N'CISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR For Foreign Students

BY

c. E. ECKERSLEY~ M.A.

REVISED EDITION

WITH ADDITIONAL EXERCISES

LONGMANS

LO:>:C:VIANS~ GIU~E~ AND GO L"tn ~S, Crosvene r Street, Lond on W. ~ - Assoeiated comp(I.m'e~·, [m::1J'j·ches and j·epr,e~<?.nlaH,;e·s

tJU"~ugh()ut th~ ~~or/ d CON TEN T S

PnFACE vii

INTRODUCTION IX

Second Edition @ C.E. Eckcl"Si~y 19')B

I. THE SEl"n:f.;CE

Simple and ml.J.itiple sentences, clauses, phrases

H. THE NOUN Klnds-G£nder-Number-Ca.s~-f)irect and Indirect Objects

m. The ADJECTIVE

Kinds-the Articles=Position oftbe A dject: 1Ie.Comparison-the Adjecri~"r!! used as a Noun

IV. THE ADVER.B

Kinds-s-Comparison=Place o/the Adverb

V. THE PRONOUN

Kinds - Personal- Possessive - Demonstrarive - Relative - RefleXive and Emphasizing - Interrogative - Distributive - lru:le-finite - Idiomatic Phrases

VI. THE VERB

Subjec.ts and Predicates-Com:;ord-Ccmjuga~ tion of o Regular Verb-s-Transitive and Intransilive Verbs=Tense=Uses of the Tenses-the Empna tic form-til e N egat i ye form- the f n t errogatlve form-QuesHQ1t Phrases-S1rong and Weak 'Verbs~jjp of !rreg~dar Veroi-VoiceMood-the Infinitive-the ParHciple-the Getund=Auxihary and Defective Verbs-

V

Firstpublisned "., " , _., .. __ _" .. _ 1933

Swnide{H~i!m" " _." _", _ .. , 1958

lV!/W", impre-ssions 1960; 'fI.196J; 1!41962;

oj 1.963 {l W~' ~~); ., 1964; .. 196-5 U\';L:iU} ,. l!l N Q uember 1966

1

4

12

21

25

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

"have", "be", "do", "can", "may'\ "must", H ought "-Direct and Indirect Speech

VII. THE: PREPOSITION 84

Principal Prepositions-Notes on some Prepo,si~ tiorts-PreposUiort.s ,after VerbS'~ a/re',. Adjec~ives

or Participles" after Nouns

VIII. THE CONJUNCTION 102

Co-ordinatingand Subordinating Conjunctions

IX. THE INTERJECTION 104

X. SOME COMMON ERRORS 101

Xl. WORDS FREQUENTLY CONFUSED' 119

REvIsION EXER,ClSES 133

Paects 'OR DICT A'fION P'ASBA(;ES 131

I'UNCfUATION ExERCLSE 140

EssAy SUBJECTS 140

EXAM[NATION PAPERS 142

INDKX 147

There are exercises to each secdon~ totaliLing, 49 p,!JIges

vi

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITfON

IN this new edition the text has beencompletely reset and a few minor corrections, have been made.

The chief criticism that readers made of the earlier edition was that tbere were too few exercises. In the present edition the number of pages has been increased from 1:28 to 160 and the whole of this extra: space has been devoted. to 'exercises.

A Keyl to the exercises is DOW available.

My thanks are due to MI. H. W., Acomb for most valuable assistance in the preparation of the additional exercises and the Key"

PREFACE

I N this book an attempt has been made to gi ve concisely all the essentials of English grammar, and though it is hoped that the English student, too, may profit from its pages, the main purpo se in the writer's mind has: been to approach the subjeet from the standpoint of the foreign student learning English. For that reason those, parts of grammar, e.g, the preposition, in which foreign students find many difficulties, have been given considerably fuller treatment than is usual in a hook for English students only" It will be found, teo, that the mistakes in the sentences given on pages 113 to 118 for correction, are ones that English students would not generally make; but all the sentences, there were actually Mitten in exercises and. com-

1 A Concise English Grammar for Foreign SiudenU. Key (with Now. ana Explanarlons) to the Exerelses (Lcngrnans),

vii

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAM MAR

positions byforeign students In my classes} and are therefore practical illustrations of the errors to which the foreign

student is naturally prone, -

The no rnenclatu I"e us ed is tha t reeomme nded by the J 0 i n ~ Committee on Grammatical TermInology.

C.E.E.

INTRODU CTION

viii

WHAT IS GOOD El'iG L.ISH?

Every teacher of English, particularly if he is teaching foreign students, must have been. asked. the question i~ What is the correct pronunciation of --?" or "Is it good grammar to write --?" and. on giving his answer must have been eonfronted with the reply "But I have heard many Bnglishmen pronounce it differently" or ~. But thisvery eminent nove]ist breaks that rule; who is fi 11 all y to decide which is right?!'t The answer, of course, is H No one", There is no Academy or other body in England to determine the correct form. The chief criterion of correctness is established usage. Correctness ill spoken. English is conformity to the speech usages of the majority of educated people; correctness in written English is conformity tcthe usages of the best modern writers. The rules, ofgrammar are like the laws of Nature" The laws were not made for Nature to obey. but are simply a few facts which wise men have observed as: to the way Nature acts. So the grammarian merely examines the language of the best speakers an d wri ters, all d de d uee s rules from their use of it.

Custom is the basis of these rules, and custom is always changing, Pronunciation changes from generation to generation, words decay and become obsolete, and newcomers thrust their way in; words acquire new meanings, sentences are COI1- str ucted on different lines" and even the syntax of the ~ anguage u ndergoes rnodifiea t io ns,

It often happens that different forms are in use at the same time, differences due to regional or class dialect, though owing to the modern ease of communication and consequen t

A* ix

AC K NO WLEDG MENT S

WE are indebted to The Times for permission to reproduce ~jIt Might be Worse", and to Messrs, Methuen & Co. ltd. for the extract from More Essays on. Books by Arthur elutionBrock.

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR intermingling of people, the spread of popular education, and the hearing of the" Standard English" of the B,B.C'j dialect dlff erences tend to di sa ppear,

Again, there is a difference between the language used in writing and that used in speaking. In written composition the words will naturally be chosen with more care and used with greater precision than is possible in rapid familiar conversation, and the sentences will tend to be longer, more elaborately constructed and more conservative in their avoidance of "colloquialisms" and slang, To write as we talk would be slipshod; to talk as we write would sound pedantic and unnatural.

It is the business of the grammarian to observe and record these changes and differences and to decide a s far as he can what is the form of language used by the majority of educated speakers and writers; and their usage is his only authority for saying what is "good" and what is '~bad 'I grammar.

CHAPTER I

THE SENTENCE

A GROUP of words which makes complete sense is a SENTENCE. The sentence may express.a STAT.ElMENTt e.g .• "The student is reading the bock", or it may ask a QUESTION~ e.g, "Where is the masler?"or it may give a COMMAND, e.g. ,j Open your books."

The SUBJECT of a sentence is the person or thing about which we make an assertion. The PREDICATE of a sentence is what we say about the SUbject, e.g.

Subject The student

Predicate

is re-ading the book.

x

When the action denoted by a verb does not stop with itself, but passes to some person or thing, the verb is said to be TRANg~TIVE and the word or words denoting the person or thing concerned is the OBJECT of the verb, e.g,

The sun rises. (The action stops with itself: there is NO OBJECT.)

The dog bit the marl. (The action passes from U dog" to ,., man": man is OBJECT of the sentence.)

A SIMPLE sentence is one containing one subject and one predicate, e.g. The. bird sings sweetly.

A DOUBLE or MUJ.. TIPLE sen renee is one made by two or more co-ordinate parts j oined by a conj unction or conjunctions, (CtN')ordinate means "of equal rarrk'") e.g, The student asked a question and the teacher answered. it.

A .sU190RDlNATE CLAUSE, is that pa.rt of a sentence equivalent to a Noun, Adjective; or Adverb. It has a subject and 1

A CONCISE:E:NGLISH GRAMMAR

predicate of its own. If it doest he w or k of an ad jective it is an ADJECTIVE clause, of a noun it is a NOUN clause, of an adverb it is an ADVERB clause. The clause upon which these others depend is the MiHN clause, e.g,

This is the book thai 1 want" (Adjective clause .. ) He said. that he wo~ld help me. (Noun clause.)

I saw him when I came in. (Adverb clause.)

The part of each of these sentences not in italics is the MAIN cia use; the other cla U ses are 81.11 S mmRDINA TB ones,

A COMPlEX sen tence con:sis~s of a main cia use and one or more subordinate clauses,

A .P'H_RASE is a" collection of words that does not make complete sense, e.g, o.n the bus, carry/~g a dog. A phrase has no verb in it, If thesephrases are combined with a verb they would make a sen tence, e. g.

He sat on the bus carryin gad ag.

The words, of a language are arranged into classes according to the work they do in a sentence. These classes are called the P'ARt:s ()F SPEECH. In English there ar-e eight of them: the nOUIl~ the adjective, the adverb, the pronoun, the verb, the preposition, the conjunction and the interjection.

We shall now proceed to examine each of these in detail,

TH.E SENTENCE

EXERC1S'ES

n. Construct .six sentences about the clneme, two 10 illus trate the Statement. ~WD to iUllstrate the Qll:$stion~ flndlWO to lllustra te the Command.

>l<Ill In, tbe following sentences, which words or groups of words

form the Subject and which tnePredicate?

0) Fish swim.

(2) The boys swim in, t.he river.

(3) Theyare t'lndinli it difIlcult to swimagamst the current, (4) The man ~ittln2in the garden is smokin,ga dg:arette, (5) What is he buymg in that shop?

IV. Construct two Double (or MuWple) Sentences,

"'V. Which. are clauses and which are; pmase$ in the foUorw.ing'

sentences?

(1) The captain of the football team MIS "~ry yOWlg.

(2) He p1;ayed in the same< position on the field j~ ,every match. (3) The team that beat .his team frequen tfy won matches.

(4) Rugby football is played ,everywhere in England.

(5) The man who is s.trongest does :Eml always pIa. y the best game.

VI. Make a eontinueus narrative usmG the foUowing phrasest along the road, with. a ba~ in his hand, the sun b~g ~ery hot~ to get home, in order to rest.

vn. How mi!Jny different kinds of Clauses are the lie and what are they called?

"'VIII. Give the names (Adje'Ctival~ Noun or Adverbial) of the

Clauses in the following sea tlences:

(1) He hoped that M should. work well.

(2) The boy who runs fastest will wln the race. (3) Because M was tiIedj I went to bed ear]y. (4) We deci.ded that we must visit London.

(5) This is the he-use that Ja~kbunt.

*lK. Arrange tbe following words in correct erder to .make one semenee:

The two oldest O:-;iord and Cambridge Wli.versities, are which rivals in England all ,gn:a t are mspoJts.

'liX W.ha t is the diffonmoe between:

(I) What ad vanced work an: they dQ:w:~7 (2) What advanced work: they are doting!

3

iii The answers to exerci8e:!l marked with Sin asterisk will be, found in Concise Engll.~h Gr{]ffrrtJtJl' for Foreign' Stude~/s, .Key (wllh Noterr ond El:rptancthms) 10 (he Exe:rdse:; (Longm!lns).

"'1.. m d~n.tify the fbUQwing sentences as Sta teme<nts, Ques'~iorns or

Commands: -

(J) England is an. island.

(2) u G[W~ me s orne more cab," said. the, greed y bo:y. (3) .. Are yo,u stUl hungry?" replied h]s mother ..

2

THE NOUN

CHAPIER H

Geodeii'

English, unlike most other languages, regards gender as a grammatical classification according to sex,

There are four genders:

(a) MASCULINE, used for an males" e.g, man, boy~ horse) lion.

(b) F.'?M1NINE~ for all females, e.g, woman, girl, mare, lioness.

(c) cot-mON, where the sex cannot be told from the form of the word, e.g. friend; cousin, parent.,

(d) }i.'EUTE.R~ for inanimate objects, e.g, table! book.

There are three customary methods of forming the feminine from the masculine:

(a) By USE OF ENDINGrS---chiefly H -ess ".

actor actress duke duchess

Jew Jewess marquis marchioness

master mistress tiger tigress

( b) By COM POS] T]ON- U suaHy by prefixin g or affixing a ward.

THE NOUN

A NOUN is the name of anything, e.g, book, desk, teacher, knowledge.

Kind,s of Nouns There are four k.inds of noun:

(a) A C2_MMON noun, i.e, a name common to all objects of the same kind, e.g. hat, boy, town.

(b) A PIWPER noun; i.e. the name of a PARTICULAR person, place or thing, e .. g. Dick, London.

(c) A C9L~CTIVE noun, i.e, the name of a number of things regarded as one, e.g. crowd, class, army.

Note:

Collective nouns take ~ singular verb if looked upon as denoting one whole, but a ]:!~ural verb if looked upon as denoting individuals. For example, if vle say: .~ The Government has decided to withdraw the Bill"! we are plainly thinking of the Government as one body and therefore the singular verb is used. But. if we say: "The Government are all wandering about like lost sheep n, we are regarding the Government as composed of many separate: individuals, and the verb is therefore plural,

(d) An ABSl"RACT noun, i.e, the name of a quality Or state, e. g. whiteness, manhood.

4

manservant turkey-cock landlord

maidservan t turkey-hen landlady

(c) By EMP'LOY]NG A DIFFERENT WORD.

gentleman lady bachelor spinster

husband wife bull cow

mare niece madam aunt

monk nun horse
king queen nephew
boy girl sir
ear] countess uncle Note a few IRREGULAR forms: executor, executrix; testator, testatrix; hero. heroine.

5

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Number

THE Nc..UN

N.D.-Words ending in -DO/' ~if!f,. -rh 11 take -s, e.g. roofs, chiefs, dwarfs, cliffs. Thief, thieves is an exception.

(e) Some words form the plural by vowel change, e.g .. man, men; tooth, teeth; goose; geese~ foot, fe'et~ mouse, mice; woman, women.

(f) Three words take -en or -ren: ox! oxen; child, childr.en; brother, brothers or brethren.

(g) Some words do not change: sheep; deer; fish (or fishes); heathen; grouse; species; salmon; trout.

(h) WORDS OF FOREIGN ORIGlN sometimes retain foreign plurals, e.g. crisis, crises; basis, bases; cherub, cherubim; datum, data; erratum, errata; phenomenon, phenomena; terminus, termini; oasis" oases.

Note:

(1) In compound words the sign of the plural is generally added to the principal word, e.g, passers-by: lookers-on; fathers-in-tow; courts-mantal.

(2) SOMB NmJNS HAVE DNO PLURALS:

brother-bra thers (li terally) ~ bre t hren (figura ti vel y); genius -geniuses. genii (magic spirits); index-indexes, indices (in mathematics); penny-p~nnies {coins}; p{mce (value).

(3) SOME NOUNS HAVE NO PL.URAL:

information, advice, knowledge, furniture, news, progress~ etc.

EXERCISES

·t Make a list of the nouns in the following passage and say to what cIa,5S of noun (Common, Proper, Collective or A bsrract) each belongs:

John Linron walked along the main street of the villase of Forborough. 'The .... eather was mild, and, though there we:e no great crowds in the street, many people were sitting in their gardens enjoying the tranquillity of Sunday and their repose after the week's work. Few looks were cast In his direction but he gave many anxious gian<;e:g to right and left, trying to. dlscover signs of reco gnition in the faces of those he sa. w.

-II. Form abstract nouns from the fonowing adjectives:

long, kind, short) hIgh, comfortable, pleasant, dee-p, joyous, generous, peaceful.

*I1l The fcllowlng nOUTIS are feminine. 'Nhat are their masculine counterparts?

goose. heiress, widow, spinster, nun, vixen, stepmother, actress, witch.

There are two numbers, SINGULJJl.. and Pl.URAL. Tile plural is formed:

(a) By adding -5 to the singular, e.g, boy, boys.

(6) By adding -es for words ending in a sibilant or o, e.g, church. churches; brush, brushes; box, boxes; potato" potatoes,

M.B.-Foreign words ending in -0 merely add s, e,g. plano, pianos.

(c) Words ending in ~y preceded by a consonant change my to -ies, e.g. lad)', lad/es; fly; flies.

(d) Words in 10r 1'e change to ~\les, e.g. leaf, leaves: ~ife~ wives, But note gulf;) safes, reefs,

6

(4) SOME NOUNS HAVE NO S]NtmLAR:

scissors, trousers, compasses, alms, billiards" clothes, contents, goods, oats, riches, thanks. wages, people, etc.

EXERCISES

-IrJ, Some nouns have two plurals l some have no p1urals <'I nd some have no singular, Give t-,., .. o examples of each kind ..

7

A CO N CI S:E ENGLISH G RA M MAR *11. What <Ire the plural forms of the fol1owing nouns?

railway, library" hoof, sanatorium, passer-by, automatcn, specta,tor, people.

III. In how many different ways can the plural of English nouns be fOormed? What is the form most frequently used?

Case

CASE is the relation in which a noun stands to some other word.

In modem English there are three cases: (a) NOMINATIVE.

(0) OsmC'IlVE (or Accusative for DIRECT object; Dative for INDIRECT object. See below).

(c) POSSESSIVE (or genitive).

The NOMlNA TlVE case is used:

(a) When the word is the SUBJECT of the sentence, e.g, The boy did the work. Here, boy is in the nominative case.

(b) After the verb to' he, if the nominative case had been used before the verb, e.g. It was he who spoke. Here, he is in the nominative case after the verb was.

The OBJECTIVE case is used:

(a) When the word is in the OBJECT (Le, after a transitive verb)~e.g. We saw him.

(b) When the noun or pronoun is governed by a prepcsition, e.g. 1 sent the book to him. Here, him is objective case governed by the preposition to.

.lndirec.t 0 bjec t

Transitive verbs occasionally take: two objects, one denoting a person. the other a thing, e.g, I taught him English. The word denoting the penon is the INDIRECT object, the one denoting the thing is the DIRECT 013JECT.

8

THE NOUN

The INDIRECT OBJECT is usually placed first. If the Direct object is placed first the indirect Object is preceded by a pre~ position; e.g. r taught English (Direct Object) to him (Indirect Object).

Formerly a DATIVE case with distinct inflexions was used in English to express direct objects, but now identical forms are used. for the accusative and dative, so the general term OBJEC~ TlVE is used to cover both.

The POSSESSIVE case is used to denote a possessor. It is formed by adding, -'s to singular nouns and to plural nouns which do not end in -s, e,g. the b2Y's cap~ the men's work, and by adding the apostrophe only, to plurals that do end in as, e.g, the boys' school, the ladies' dresse-s.

Note .-

(1) The possessive form is used chiefly in speaking of peI~ sons and sometimes of animals, but not usually of things, e,g. The girl's dress. the dog·oS tail, Dt;'T: the foot of the mountain.

(2) Where the last syllahle of a singular noun begins and ends with -s the apostrophe only, and not another s is added, e.g. Moses' laws. With such phrases as: ,. Sophocles' tragedies H, U Hercules' works", the apostrophe only is generally used; but for: ~. St. James's Park,"~' Venus's beauty", the regular

rule is followed. -

(3) With certain phrases denoting (a) TIME, (ll) SPACB~ (c) QUAN'ITIY., the possessive form is used, e.g, a dais journey, a weiJ(,ts holiday, three months' absence, a stone's throw, a needle's point, a: shHHng's worth, etc. It is used also in a. few familiar phrases such. as c s out of harm\.~' way", I' at his wirs' end", .. for goodness' sake", "at. his fingers' ends".

(4) The apostrophe has another use beside that of marking the possessive case, namely to show that a word is contracted. by the omission of til: vowel sound, e,g, don't=do not, [t's=it

is, etc.

9

A CONCISE ENHLISH GRAMMAR

EXERCISES

I. How mmly cases of nouns are used in modern English and wha t are they called?

U. Explain, with examples. the Direct and Indirect Object in an English sentence,

In. What rules govern the use of the Possessive Case and the Apostrophe? Give examples to illustrate your answer.

*lV.Vi1hkhare the, nOUD'5ln the following sentence and in what Case and. Number IS each noun?

The student, in his eagerness to make rapid progress, worked much too h~rd and, had a b~~down, His parents' thoughts were fm.ed with anxiety about bJ:5 health and tb.>eJ immediately sen.t their son money to come home. The boy's condi tion began to mtprove at once.

""V. Write down (a) ten common flO1.1..Us from the zoo, (b) ten from a railway station,. (c) ten from a grocer's shop, (d) ten from the gard.en,and (e:) ten from the ki tchen,

"'VI. Give a collective noun for each of the following:

0) 'COWS, (2) sheep; q) p~ople in a church listening toa sermon, (4) people, listening to a concert, (5) wolves, (6) wild beasts kept for exhlbltlon, (7) books, (8) fish, (9) stars, (10) soldiers, (1 1) bees, (12) saUDIS on a ship ..

*vn. Insert is or are ~ has or have, was or Ho>ere:

(1) The herd of cattle -- sold for a few pounds. (2) A flock of sheep ._- grazing allover the field. (3) Theoongre.gatioll -- just leaving the church. (4) The audience _- too large for this small hall.

(5) The a~di~nce _- very enthusiastic about the playing of

the PI<UlIst.

(6) A pack of wolves --- chasing the hunters. f7) A menagerie ._- just visited the (own.

(8) A library of good books -~ more valuable than wealth, (9) A shoal of fish -- just off the coast.

(10) A constellation of stars -- a glorious sight.

(11) The army -- gone into camp for summer tmining.

10

THE NOUN

(2) A swarm of bees -- buzeing round my head. ([ :3) The crew -- made up of thirty sailors.

(14) The crew -- scattered allover- the ship.

:1iVHL Name all the different kinds of nouns in the fcllcwlng, gj ,.jng reasons for your classifica tion:

"I pushed back the crowd, and, passing from the rear, walked down the living avenue of people until. I came in front of the semlcircle of Arabs where stood the white man with the grey beard. I would have run to him) only I was a coward in. the presence of such a mob. would h a ve embraced him, o.nly ~ being an E:.nglish~ man, I did not know how he would receive me, so ~ dfd what cowardice and false pride suggested, walked up to him, to-ok off my hat and said, 'Dr .. Livingstone, I presume?'"

"'IX. Form abstract nouns from the following:

infant; child, slave, coward, judge, traitor, enemy, paJi'ent~ friend. seaman, captain, brother.

'loX. Make sentences to show toot these psi rs of nouns are not

always interchangeable: -

Ca) hand, fist; (b) couple, pair; (c) flower, blossom; (d) road, street; (e) field, meadow; (j) roof. ceiling; (g) picture, portrait; (It) wind) breeze; (i) audience. spectators; (j) dis-ease, sickness; (k) journey, v·oya_gej (/) knowledge~ wisdom; (m) speech, conversation; (n) news, information; (0) beauty, prettiness.

oto Xl, Give nouns opposite ln meaning to:

youth, Uberty, hero, defeat. joy, question, failure, despair, storm. pain; descendant, haste.

*xn. What abstract nouns (i.e .. qualities) are likely to be used in speaking of the following?

music (e.g .. melody, rhythm, form. src.), a fire. a dog. a book, the s-ea, a cigarette, America, a flower, a king. a racehorse, a tiger, a child,

11

CHAPTER iu

THE ADJECTIVE

AN ADJECTIV.E is a word that qualifies a noun; it adds to its meaning, but Emits its applicaricn, e.g. The new book; the black sheep.

An adjective may be used (1) to qualify a noun, i.e, as an RPnllEr as in the examples above, or (2) to form. PART OF 'T'Hli.i PREDICATE and say what the person or thing denoted by the subject is declared to be, e.g. The book is 1'Iew.; the sheep is black. It is then said to be used PREDIC.<\.TI\'EL Y.

Kinds of AdJecHves

(I) A..DJECTI'VES OF QUAl.ITY~ which show WHAT K.IN[)~ e.g. a bMW! boy; a German student.

(2) .MJECTlVES OF QUANTITY: which tell how many or how m~ch. These may 'be:

(i) Definite., e.g, one, two.etc,

(ii) J1'2defiflite~ e .. g. all, some, several, half, no.

(3) Possassrvs ADJECIIVES~ which show possession, e.g. my, hUJ its. our" their, etc.

(4) DIS'TRIBUTlVE ADJECIIV.fS:1 which show that the persons or things. denoted by the noun are taken singly or in separate lots, >e.g. each, every, either, net/her.

Note:

Each is used f())f one of tWG~ or one of al'lY nurn bet exceeding two, e.g, Each one of the two boys gained a prjze, Every

, See also pp, 33, 34. 12

1

TlH E ADJTECTIYE

could not be used here. Every is used for any number exceeding two.

Distributive adjectives are always singular, e.g. ?very one of the boys has. done his work. Neither book is good.

(5) INTE:RROGATIVB AD-JECT[VES: which are used in questions, e.g, Which man did you see? What time is it?

(5) DEMONSTR}I, TrVE ADJECTIVES: which point out, e.g. this, that, these, those, a, an, the.

The .Articles

A and AN are sometimes known as the indefinite articles; Th'E is called the definite article.

A is used:

(1) before a, consonant, e.g.. a dog, a chair;

(2) before l~. ew~ eu~ when these have the phonetic sound [j u: ], e. g. a useful book, a ewe, a European;

(3) before 0' if sounded like [w]~ e.g. a one-eyed mao.

An is used:

(1) before a vowel, e.g, an orange;

(2) before a silent 11, e.g, an honest man;

0> before an unaccented syllable beginning with. h, e.g. an historical novel.

A or all must be used;

(I) to 'express a complement of the verb .~ to be", e.g.

He is Q Frenchman, a doctor, a scoundrel;

(2) to express the unit of measure, weight or time, e.g. three s billin gs a yard ~a shilling an hour; thre e times a dav:

.• ,

(3) before hunar.er.i, thousand, dozen, e.g, There were a

hundred. sheep in the field;

(4) with few and little, according to the meaning to be conveyed. h I. have a few friends" states that 1 have at 13

A CONCISE ENG.LISH GRAMMAR

least some, ~'I ha ve fe w friends" em phaslzes the, fewness. The same contrast is expressed in: ., I have a little money "<and ., I have liule money";

(5) to convey the meaning HOIle'\ e.g. Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note; birds. of a feather flock together,

Note the following idiomatic phrases 'where the use of the inde:limte article is often unlike the usage in other languages.

to have a headache, a pain, a eold, a cough (aur: to. have toothache, earache, rheumatism, influenza)

to be in a hurry to be in a rage

to be f 11 a temper

to fly in to a passion

to be alta loss what to do to give a guess' at

to he ve an opportuni ty to take a seat

to take a pride in all of a sudden on a lar ge scale: on an average

as a rule

it til a pity

many a man

THE is pronounced [~i:;] (Oi] before a WJrWEL or h mute, e.G. the apple, the honest man, but is pronounced i(6~] before a con's onant, e .. g. the man ) til e baH.

f~Tj,en is omitted:

(1) befor-e ABSTRACl nouns used in a general sense, e.g.

Life is real! life is earnest!

(2) before the names of MATERIAlS used ina general sense, e.g. Butter is made from cream .. Gold is found in A ustralia ..

(3) betore COMMON nouns in the plural when used in. a general sense, e.g. Books are true friends.

(4) usually before PROPER ~OUNS,. e.g, I saw KING GEOR.GE.

They went into HYDE PARK. He lived in ENGLAND 14

THE ADJ.EcnVE

(but note: the f)}lUED :STAns,. the EAST INDIES~ the wssr INDIES) the NHHE1l:.LANDS, the 'CRIMEA~ the CONTiNENT).. SUNDAY]S a day of rest. I walked down REGENT_ STREET (but the is used with ROAD, e.g. The :eDOWARE ROAD).. VESUVIUS is a volcano (but for Cl"W.NS OF MOUNIAIN"S th€ is used, e.g, The AL;PS~ Til e ANDES).

f t The" ~~S! u8ed.~

(1) before BJYERS and sus, e.g, The IHA:MES~ The AT.LANTIC OCEAN ..

(2) before the names of A FEW BUlU.)].NQS, e.g, The BANK OF FNGL-AND,. The MONUMENT ~ The MARBLE ARCH~ The SAVOY,

Position oj Uthe'~ and r~a~j .. the follows all, half. both, doub!e~ e.g,

It rained .all th« night

BUT: it rained the whole night.

Half fhe class are absent teday. 110 tit the boys were presen t

This book was double the price of the last.

a is used after many, such ~ quite~ e. g.

Many a flower is born to blush unseen ..

I have never done such. ,a difficult exer-cise. You are quite a stranger ..

EXERCISES

tExplain in. your own words what Is meant by the follow.ing expressions:

Adjective of Quality. Distributive Adjective, Dernoratrative Adjectives.

Giveexa mples of the use of each kind of adjecdve. l5

_ -ftJI-~,~'!;;;l:j et natIonality used in speaking cf me r6Uowi:ng~o"'Dt.ries?

Spain. Holland. Norway,. F.mJand.j Switlerland~ Perl!l,Monaoo.

Turkey, Wales~ Czechoslovakia.

'" Ill. Form adjectives from the following nouns:

crisis, truth, falsehood~ art, spert, Elizabeth, weariness, Moza:rt~ bankruptcy, hope.

·IV. '\.Vhat are the adjectives opposite in meaning to the following?

cl.ever,i.nteUig~t, hasty~ 1beautifw~ pcsslble, similar, prnc~ tica bltl'i, litera. tel reguJar. h~les5.

·Y. Pmdadjectives of ~de5niti@ qUlU:!tity to r·ep]ace 1he adjec-

tives of quantity in the following sentences:

(1) He failed the examiaatioa six t]m~.

(2) Three hWlidred spectators wa tcfued the, raoe. m There were, three applicants for the job.

(4) A sack ,of sa:nd contains millions of grains. (Sj He has six or seven pairs of :shoes.

VI. Make six. sentences in each of which an. adjective is used as a ELQ11.1:!l.

V1il. Jlil how many d.iJfuent ways can the oojecli ve few be ussd l'

Malee sentences to illustrate YOllr answers. -

VIll,. The, adj~tive nice is to~ fre~u~n.Uyus.cd in English eonversanon, Sugg.est five alterna t1 V~ ad Jec:t]'IIe5 and. use each. one in a senlioooo in its appreprla te sense.

"IX. CQPythe fcllew in:g kin tences, rep!a,.dng the dashes by Ii, ,Cln or the where neOOU;;3),TY:

(1) ~. boiling water is necessary for making --. good tea, (2) Wbile m was ill ---- London [visited. -- Tower and _. - Westminster Ab bay.

(3) -- radio and -- radar a re two impOf~ant aids to -'captain of -- ship.

(4) I wanted _. ~. hoUday but didn' r know whether _ to go on. -- elhubing holiday in -- Hgh1ands of -Soot]andor fot -- sea vcyage in -- Medi terranean .. ]6

THE ADJECTI VE

(5) John said he saw ~- veTY beautiful soene.ry du.rIng -tour in -- Argen.tine and in -- :Brazil. .

(6) 1 pass -- Marble Arch eV{:TY day in ~ bus that takes me to -- City.

(7) We flew from -- Hague early in -- mornin.g and reached -- Cairo on -_. ec'Jliening of -. - same day.

(8) At fivery comer there used to be -- pollceman who con~ trolled -- tr-affic, but rli.ow there Is -- <lutQmatic tr,affio signal which. does ~ work,

(9) -- teacner told all ~ eblldren to stop a t .~ .. signal where -- Ught wasred,

nO) We did. not sleep very we]] as ~~ hetel was in ~- ~ busy part of ~ town and ._-. noise of -- cars and _. --lorries weat on aU ~ time.

The P'Qsitiob oj t.he III dj.edi'Dlf3

The adj,ective.lREC-EDES its noun, e.g. The new book is a. good o·ne; but in til! few phrases it follows the noun, e,~, court martial, The T.heatre, ROy(ll~ The Princ-ess Royai,.rrom time immemoria/~ the heir app(Jrent~ the Poet Laureate.

'Cum, arisen of Adjectives

There are three d.egreesof comparison: POSfl'[VE!. CQMPARi\'WE, SlJlPERLA TIVE.

'The OOMPAAA1'IVE is forme,d:

(a) by addin~e:l' to the positive, e.g, clear, clearer;

(b) by usi:n.g~o,e l_Vlth the positive. e.g, more ·'o.e:auUful.

The S'lJP.mU •. A!WE is formed:

(a) by aJdding -est, e.g. clearesr;

(b) by using rrJ!'s.t;_ e.g .. most beautiful.

Method _(alhLg~m.era]1y used: •

(1) with moucsyllabie adjective-s;

(2) with disyllabic adjectives with the accent on the seeond syllable! e.g. polite:

A CONCISE ENGUSH GRAMMAR Method. (b) is. used:

(0 with disyllabic adjectives with the accent on the first syUable~ e.g. hcipefull Iearned;

(2) with all adjectives. of more than two syllables, e"g. won derful~ magnificen t.

:SOME

Positive Boad bad little

{much maDY late

lRREGUtAR COMPARiSONS

Comparative Superlative

better best

worse less more

worst least most

{later latter

{farther further

{la a test last

{farthest furthest

far

NQte.'.s ON: Com,Paj'ison, oJ AdjectifJes

Lauer means the second of two and is contrasted with fo'rmer" e.g, I studied. French and German; the former language

I speak well, but the latser one only imperfectly. .

Last is the final one, e.§ ... The Tempest ,. was, probably the las l play Shakespeare wrote.

Laten is the most recent, e.g. Have YOll read Agatha Tomlinscn's latest novel? It was published. a week ago.

Farther refers generally to distance, e.g. I cannot 'walk any farther (though funher could. also be used).

Further meansadditional, e.g. I wm give Y'DU furtller details later.

.Much is used with the singular, many~ith the pl1lral~ e.g. _. I have not much time", but" I have not manv friends."

"

18

THE ADJECnVE

The foUowing phrases are merlin comparison or adjeetives:

With the fOS[TIYE, as ... as, e.g, ] am. as old as you. With the COMPAR ATWE :

(1) than, e.g, This is better than that;,

(2) the ... the, e.g. The more th,e better;

(:3) none the, e.g. You are nOJI'H;1' the worse, for the experience;

(4) all tke, e"g. You will be all the better for a change of air.

TIM A dj,e'cUve used ,as a Noun.

When u sed a s a noun, the adjecti ve is singular in form 'Cut plural in meaning! e.g.

The rich have heJped the poor. The b lind are to be pitied.

EXERC1SlES

1, Wbrut are theu,des for fo.rmIng the Comparativ,e and Superlative of English adjectives? Gi ve one examp Ie of each i"l.d~.

U. Make a Hs t of an the ad jeetives you know which are in'egular and do not fellow the rules you have mentioned in ansmrm:g Question ]. Write the three forms (Positlv'e. Comparative and SuperJaUve) of each adjective in yo~r list.

II! III. Wha,t are the Comparative and SlJperJative forms .of' the following ad ject ives?

0) heavYt (1) intelligent. (3) late, (4) far,. (5) complicated, (6) unique.

"IV. E:xp1aJin the cliffe-rence of meaning 'between: en { .•. my .... yo. un,g.est brother

my youngeli brother

(2) {h~S last book

11J8 latest book

(3) {.further

fo'3!rlher

A CONCISE ENGLISH 'GRAMMAR

.. V. Give as ma_oy adjectives as yo,u. caJil that are opposite in meaning to the following:

fiercet clean, hard, strong, poor ~ wise, generous, thin, new, extravagant.

·V1. M,ab sentences toshow tha tthese pairs of ad jectives are not always interoha.n~eable:

(a) great, big; (b) small, trivial; (e) durable. perennial; (d) quick. abrupt; (eo) proud, insolent; (f) true" honest.

*VII. What adjectives would you use to describe (a) daffodils :in early spring; (0) an autumn sunset; (c) a racing car at full speed; (d) the sea in fury; (e) a fog?

·Vlll. What comment would you make on the ad jectives used in the following sentences:

(a) This is a most 1.IDique ornament; in fact it is the most

~rfect specimen I have ever seen.

(b) It took me all awfbl 'time to do the exercise, (c) The concert was a ghastly fuUlU'e.

(d) We are having nice weather now after a terrible amount of rain.

(In 1763 Boswell remarked it would. beterrible if he and Johnson could not soon return to london. as it might be rather dull at Helvoe1~luys.

Johnson: ~~DOD't~ slr, accustom yourself to use' big words. for li.tde ma tters, It. would not be terrible thou,gh I were detained here. The practice of USlrn,g words of disproportionate magnitude is no doubt too frequent everywhere, but I think most remarkable among the French. I ~)

I

CHAPTER IV

THE ADVERB

AN ADVEBB isa word that modifies the meaning of a verb. adjective or other adverb, e.g. The very good runner ran 100

quickly for me.

The prinei pal kinds of adverbs are of': (a)TThrn~ e.g, now~ soon, always~ often; etc. (b) PLACE, e.g. here, wnere, outstd«, etc.

(c) MANi\TER, e.g, b:adly; well. easily, etc.

(d) DEGREE, e.g, v.ery, !'OO~ almost, quite, etc.

(e) NEGATION AND AFFlRMATIOt.1. e.g. yes, lZ0, not, etc. (f) INmRROGATlON1 e.g. when, where~ why.,

Adverbs are formed from adjectives generally by adding -ly~ e.g.

He is ,a slow worker. (Adjective.) He works 8/:fnV'lY. (Adverb.)

The adverb corresponding to good is well.

Often the adjective and adverb have the same form:

ADJECIIVB

That is. s fas: train. He came from s.fo» country.

It is a s.rf,a~gh~' road. He had a low voice ..

ADVERB It goes very fast.

- '

He went/at.

It runs straight for roUes,.

He spoke low. (Note: lowly is all adjective. e.g, He is of lowly parentage.)

21

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR Frequently, both forms are used as adverbs,. often with different meanings. e.g,

ADJECT[VB

There is a bright moon. A cheap book.

A direct route.

ADVERB

The moon. shines brfgh t ~OR: bright '] I bought:h cheap~ OR: cheaply.

I sent the goods direct from A ... to B ... I wm. return. directly.

He works hard. He hardly works. The bird flies hfgh. He was highly praised.

He came late. News has .lately come.

Heeame near. I was nearly late. That is pre tty good, She spoke prettily.

He stopped short. He will come shortly.

He slept so:und~ OR:. soundly. He: was soundly beaten.

Keep your eyes wide open, They differed widely in their opinions.

I went wrong there, He was wrQing\.

Iy (wrongfully) accused, -

A fewadverbs are formed from. nouns~e.g .. hourly,. dafly~ bodily~ ashore, besides, sideways, backwards ..

He IS a hard worker. A high building.

A late arrival,

A near friend. A pretty girl.

A short journey.

A sound mind.

A wide door.

A wrong use of the word.

C,ompafj5JOn €If ArlYe:l'n Adverbs of q ualityare compared like adjectives :

0) !\_dverbs of one syllable, and often and early by -er and -est, e.g, p.ea:!\ !l!ea!'et~ llj!Qre~t; early, earlier, earliest.

(2) Adverbs of more than one syllable ])y more and most, e.g, bright1y~ more br.ighdy, most brightly.

22

THE AUVERB

(3) A few are irregular, e.g .. we!j~ better, best; b.ad/y,. WorSE?, worst; little, less, least.

(0 The adverb is. generaHy placed 1?efo.:I2Y._ ~dlectives, other adverbs and past participles, e.g. uHe wa~ very clever~a.l1d waS' exceedingly well educated. ,t But nonce enough which comes after the adjective, e.g, ~ 'That is good enough for me,"

(2) With a tlansiJive verb (see p, 47) it generally co_mes.aftre the object, e.g.i~He banged. the door notsity," But i~the object is an infinitive it may come before, e .. g, "They kmaJy asked me to stay at their house," This pI·eventsany am biguity in the, applies tion of kindly ..

(3) The adverbs I~ever,oftenj alw.ays~ seldom, sometimes, usually pr-ecede the principal verb .• e.g, 1 always DO th~t~ I have often DOt<.1:i that; they win neve-rDO !hat. But w¥th the verb 10 be they follow the verb, e .. g. He IS never at home.

(4) Adverbs of DEFINiTE nME~ e.g. yesterday, today, tomorrow, are placed at tbe .end of the sentence; or, if we wish to e:rn.plilaslze the time, at the beginning, e.g, I wen. t to his house yesterday; O:R: Yesterday, I went to his house. .

(5) If an ad verb of time and an .adverb of place are us~di together the latter precedes the former! e.g, Wi; went there }'e~t£rday.

.,..

~ l,tr~ "t J

EXERCISES

I. What work does an adverb do in a sen.tence? 'hplam fully. n. How are mest adverbs in llingHsb. formed? Give twoexemples. * HI. F orm adverbs from the foIJJJ,wing. nouns:

hour, moment .• earth, back, length,. shore. body, tirrw,side, day.

IV. How do you form the comparative and superlative of regular adverbs in En:g[iw.? Give examples of each rule.

D 23

I

A CONCWSB ENGLISH GJRAMMAR

.. V. '\VhaJ are the other forms ,of the following adverbs? better. least. more, furtb.est. fll, fast, won,

"'VI. Correct the position, where nece-ssary, of the adverbs: in the following sentences:

(1) He speaks \'ery well Englim.

(2) England will only remain pmspeI10tls as .kmg as she main-

tains her export trade .. (3) I often have -don.e that. (4) He is at home rarely.,

(5) They came ye-ste:roa.y to visit Us here;

!IIvn. What am the adverbs o'!lposlte in meaning to the fiJl ~ lowing?

often, Soe,]dom, contfnuously, prnden.Uy~ wj]]m~~y,

24

CHAFTER V

THE P R ON OUN

A PRDNQUN is. a word. that stands instead of a noun.

Kinds, of Pronouns

Pronouns are classifioo as fellows:

(a) PERSONAL. (j) INTElUUJGA'lIVE.

(b )POSS~SIVB. (g) DlS,llUBU1IVE.

(c) DEMONS1RATlVE. (h) JNDEnNI"m.

(d) RELATiVE. (.i) EMFHASIZJNG.

(e) ll,BF[.EXIVE.

The Personal .Pronoun

PERsONAL PR.ONOUNS 'may he in the,!J9~m,inativelO 'tbe~Qb]eetive or the possessive case, e:.g.

.Possesl&il!~' p()~8f!:!l's'I'II'e

Nom. Objc'Ctlve Adj~clives PrQllouns

I have a name) it was given to ~, It !:s tW [larue} the name is mine. 1'Iiol.i)bast a: na.m.Cl. it was .c:iv!o to'J.'hece, it is thy name, the name is thJne. He has a name. it was given to Itlm~ it is l~iJ Il!ame~the name is liia.

She has a name. it WM gl¥e:n to net', it is her name" thename i~, Ji'ltr~.

11 has a name, it was given to it, it fs its nam.e.1 --

We have a name, it was giv¢I). to lJS, It IS olJ.rnal'Dt!;., the name is I~UN.

You have a name. it was given to. you, it is your name. the nam.eis..vouriil'., Tiley have a name, H was given to them, it is their name, tllJ~nam~l:s tlleftJ'.

1 The pos~ssi ve prOIlQUn~. e. g. "the name is iss", is. pradically I1everu®ed.

25

~ ...... tlit.f- ~n . ..-i • I ~~ .Lt( n~""", -!' I -,

-':';;'''

_... .... ,. L'l'jL...-_"- r

t '1'( I'

.~. r".; I

'_ .

[.,' ...

NOUS ON PERSONAL PRONOlTNS

(I) 1]8 always written with a capital Ietter, but not me or we or us.

(2) Thou and thee and thine are very rarely used in modern English,

(3) He, hfm~hisMe used for males; sne, her, hers for females.; it for things and as the IMPERSONAL SUE!JECr~ e.g, 11 has been aoo.e day.

(4) The plural we Instead of the singular I is used in royal

prcclamaticns and by editors in. their editorlals, .

The PQs.sessiv'eP"oH!oun

The POSSESSIVE PRONOUN stands instead of the noun, the POSSESS]VEADJRCnV E qualifies the noun.

(I) The Possessive Pronoun, like the Pcssessive Adjeetive~ chang.es its form according to the n urn ber a ndgender of the possessor, and not~a::sin some other langlllsgesJ according to the thing possessed, e,!. The boy lost his book; the girl lost her 'book.

52). The form of the p:rOJ10Un. or adjective does not change W].th tile number of the word. qliHll1fied! e,g, The bay lost his book; the boy lost his boo ks,

(3) The possessive form is used in Engllsh whereoften the. definite. article would 'be used. in other languages, e.g .. ~ have had my hair cut; he hurt his foot; she has changed her mind.

(4) Own is sometimes, added to make the possessive more emphatic, e.g. ~~A man may do as he likes with his own gocds ; they are his own. t> The i.diomatic phrases On my own, on his own~ etc., mean alone or unaiaed,.e.g. I W.8.S on my OW11 all day yesterday. I did. that wo.rk: OtJ my .own.

(5) The form of mine. Qf his, 0/ y()urs~ etc." is frequenUy used, e.g .• , A friend ofyourscaUed to see me .. " "That brother of mi,re has been in trouble again." There is a: difference III 26

THE PRONOUN

meaning between: (a) On the desk were som,e leiters oj m;ne~ ANt!: (b) 0.0. the desk: were some of my letters. SelMence (a) states that some letters were there; sentence (h) states that tnese]eUeu were only a part of thetotal number.

The Demon&trativ'e Pt-vnoun

THE DEMONSTIU!,:nVE .PRONOUNS are this~ that (singu1ar)~ these ~ those (p~W'al)~ the former I' t/j.e lauer and .such. TboseJ when used with ncuns, can also be demonstrative adjective.1, The former is used tor the :!!irs t of two J the latter fOI the second of two, e.g, Sha.ke.spea[le aad Goethe were both great po ets; the Jorffl'er was an En..glishman" lhe latter a German.

Sz.tah~s used predi.cad vely to mean 8:0 gr,eat or of that kind~ e.g. Such :is, the power of the P.ress; such is the state of man.

Note the f:oHowmg .idiomaHc expressioes in which demo.D.strative pronouns or adJoo6vesare used:

(a) Have you been helpiDI your m.other?Tha{'s a g;ooi gUt

(~) Th.is much I do ka ow.

(c) He told me to go to such C1rJd such a place at such and such a time and I wOiuldmeet Mi.- S(}~and~so, B.ut when m got there there was no mch person,

EXERCISES

!Ill.. Rewrite the fO]]Qwmgp<lssage In, two ways:

0) ehanglng flrst pe:rson prOIlOUlils to second person. {2) chan,gingfirst person pronouns t D thin! person,

As I was going down the road ill met twO' frIends. We spoke f~r a few minutes and they told me theM: plans forllieir holidays.

Make any other chan.ges rendered neces sary ];)1 the ,chamges of peerson,

27

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

. ,., n. In each of the. fOUOwm,g sel~wncesthereare.two prnnouns j[l brackets. Choose the CG;rreCE O,I:IJe:to USe whe.re the blank spare

ha-s been. left. . . .

0) My uncle ~oo~ my brother and ~-~- tome theatre (1j me). (2) Is tha .. t John ]I). the, "'arden? Yes it's oertaiIdy' ~ , ..... '"

him), 11:> • '. V~"'I

(3) ~~onh COi~~' people, speak very plainly (We~ Us). (4) The prJ.7!e was dml<:I()d between George and -- (I~ me). (.5) You ~d - of wen pla y tennis together (hfll, him).

(6) My s~s~.:r and -- are: going abrQi\lid. this summer (sh~ her).

'.JI1. Revnlte the. following sellt~DI.Oes, where necessary with

tOl1'ect order of words aJnd Without mlstakes in graI1'1l!rla:r: '

(1) Tom lli,nd you must help me ,vitO. my homework. (2) He and you are mu.ch betrsr at Eng,Ush 'than me. (3) The Johnsons and "We Iives in the same house.

(4) T~h:re is only a fte,w people here toni,ght.

{5) Nelther Mar-y n.or you. have learnt yet to swim"

The RelativePt'ol':l>OUH

TIm RELA T1VE PR:ONO[J'I>'~' are lMho (nominative), who.m (objecti.ve)lj, whose (P(),55!es&~ve), wMcl2~ that! what and occasiona]1y as Ina but. They nave the same form for singular cr plural,

The relative pronoun stands instead of a. uounand also joins sentences, The no-unto which it refer'S is called its ANTilCBDENt.

JVho~ whom and whose are used of persons) ,e.g.

TfI.e man who spoke was my brother,

The man whom you saw was my brother. He is: a 'writer whose styleis mostattraetive,

,Whichasa lela tive pron oun is used only of THINGS air ANIMA.u:~ e.g.

The current, which j ill very rapid, makes the river dangercus,

My dog, which was lost, has been found. 28

THEPltONOUN

N()"';~ :

Which is u.sed. for D.on-definilil~ that for defining clauses, WMclt may also be used to stand for an endre selllt~ce~e.,g.

The bofs wC!r.k was praised, which plieasedl.hlm. very much.

Wi th collective :IlOUOS denoting persons, which is used with the singular, but who with the, plural, e.g,

The 'London team, wh tch played SJQ well last season., has done badly this season,

The team, who are just getting their tickets, will mett on tbe p~atform at 2.30.

ThCJt is 'Used. far persons o-r thlngs~e.g ..

MJbl'othel\-l~4.t is in. Paris has sent me a letter,

This: is the house th'at Jaek:b1L'lil~.

Note:

(a) ThaI' cannot .~o]low a prepOISiUOD, e.g. Hete is the 'book that I told you of, IIUT: Here is the book ,of which 1 told you.

Cb) That has a RBSrRlcnVB sense 'which sometimes makes it impossible as 8. substitute for who or which~ e.g:. I can. say ~! I have heard fEom m ybrother Ihatls in America j'~ because I may have s,everal brothers and the relati ve p:ro~ noun that fte!trictsthemearung to one of them; but I eaenot say: "I have heard from my wii~ that is in Amarica t t because the; .restrictive cla use 'would. infer I had. m.ore:~h an one wife. I could use who herebecause who i.s OONTlt>.IDA TJ:\liE and would mean emd she.

(c) That is used after SUPERLATIVES (m.cliIJding first and ,last) and INDEf.lNlTE FR.DNOUNS~ e.g.

Shakespeare is the creates t P ad that England has ever had. U We weR the firs.! that ever burst mnto that sile.n t sea ."

(Cole.ridge,. Ancient Mariner.) 29

] will tell you some thing that Y'Oll didn't knowbefore, A If that glitters is not gold.

Nothing that he does is badly done.

(d)Where the antecedent is both a person and a thing,. lira t ~ not who or which is used, e.g,

He talked brilliantl y of the men and boob lhatm.terested him,

(e) .That follows the opening j'mt is ... " e.g.

'i It's a. long lane that has no tux.m.cg .. u (PROVERB.)

What is, used where the antecedent is not expressed, e .. S;.

Tell me what you want to know~ b:utNOIl: Te]]J me the things what you want to know.

As is used as a [Ida tive ]?fOnOUIl!. after same and ,su,ch, e.,g.

My book is not the .same as yours is.

U We He; such stuff as dreamsare made en,' (S.hakespea",~ Tn:eT:empe.sI . .)

But is, B. relative pron.oun in eeetain :l1'are negative eonstmetiens, .e.g.There is no one here I;,ut wishes you welt But w.i£hes= who does 1i:ot wish. (See also page] 02.)

O:MlSSION O~ UlEREtAllVB PRONOUN

The relative is frequcnUy omi ited whooJ .if it were ex,ressedt it w:olddbe in the objective case, e.g,

I went to the p'],a y A you told me abeut, The man A we met~s the teacher.

IHERELAT!VE PR'ClNOIJN Awn trs .A..Nll!lCEDBNT

The relative pI'onoun should be as near its antecedena as po:sisfble. Thls will avoid absurdities such aSI U Aft_u the weddmg the bride and bridegroom left in a mctor-ear fOO' Leaden wIlie]). was lent for the occasion. by Mr .-~' j oe: ~ i She took ber hat from her head which she 'was wea:dng.~'

30

THE PRONOUN

The RE'FLEXlVE PRONOUNS axe:

SING'U i.A.R

m yself himself

thyself herself

yQune If i tsel f

PLURAL ourselves youne.lv,es themsel ves

oneself

They show that the action perform~d by the deer passes back to him; so the subject and the object. ,of the sentenceare the same pefson~ e.g. He hurt himsell The. reflexive p:rOl1LOlllD:!3, should not be confused with the EMPHAS]ZJNG PRONQUNS. Both have the same form but their fuecticns are differe~l, Compare: He hurt Mmself (Re.flexive Pronounl AND: He flimse>lj (Emphasizing Pronoun) hurt the do~.

EXER.CISES

I, Make a list of the relative pronoum used in En;lish and explain nCJi\l!!' each one shou ld be used,

II. VflIat do you ea U a noun to. which a. relati ve prone nn refers, and a clause intra dneed by are-lain ve pronoun.?

"'1[L Mab One sentence from each of the 'fbUowingpairs of sC'p tences by using relatlve pronouns:

(1) It was a very fine summe]'. Everyone enjoyed it... . _ ~ (2) In France the weather was very hot. Many tounsrs found

it v.e:ry u:yilng, .. .'

(3) That is the man. I mentioned hun to you yesterday. _

(4) U nele John gave. Tommy ill bicyde. He was very pleased whh it (Two forms pcssible.)

(5) HeN is nie exercise. John wrote it.

"'IV. Om:aplete each of ·the, following sentences by insertiug a

rela ti ve pronoun:

(0 He is the Jl1<1n -. -. telephoned t'hl S J.llQrTI mg. (2)h,ly father, ~ is very eld, is ill,

Il:*- 31

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (3) mo is the friend to -- you wrote last nig.ht? (~) The 'egg -~- I ate this morning was not go ed, (5) All -- - m a-sk is J ove,

(6) Nothing -- .he told me W3:S true.

(7) The house -- :s lands at 'the corner was burnt down la st night.

(8) She is the lady -~ cia ugh ter you met a t the par~y. (9) You can ask her .-- 'ifOU like.

U 0) He is the fastest runner -~ the school has ever produced. (11) We often spoke of the people and. p.lnces --. we had

visi!ed together. - - -

(12) ]I's a poor heart ---- never r-ejoices.

n 3) Yom grammar b a ok is not the same -- mine is,

H4) The man .~- broke the bank at Monte Carlo is now dead.

:>!iy. CO(l:'teCt the fenowmg sentences:

U) The, man. which stole the watch has been eacgh t. C2} Th~ dog who was .aocidMlaUy shot ruts died.

(3,) My father that wen t to London has retumed.

(4) ~ili'OO]y (-hUd that was so clever had .f:ailled his Gamlnation. (5) The orchestra which lost their instruments in the fire have

beea eempensated, -

Vl Explaim the use himself in the f-oU ow.in!; sentences: (1) He cut rums~lf,

(2) He hfrn~lf cut ·m.e wedding cake,

_VII ... V1hich pron(l1.llls are reflexive and which emphasizing in the

following sentmces:

U) T.h@Quem. herself decera ted him. (2) He deccrated the hocse himself.

(3) We need not worry ourselvesabout 111m.

(4) The two brothers themselves b;uilt u.p this business ..

(5) Take esre of yourself. ..

'l'h:e .Ef,fte¥ro:y-ati'Ve P,onoun

THE ]NTn.ROGATIV!E FRONOUNS a:rewho, whose! which and

what. They are used. to ask que-stions.· .

Who and whose are used for personst e.g. Who are you?

WlwlS'e is this bo ok?

32

l"HEPRONOUN

Which is selecti ve; it can 'be used. for persQ ns Or things when. on e or more out of a number is referred tc, e, g.

Which of these words is the: light one to MS--e? Which of these men did you see?

What is general in meaning, e.g. Whm did he :say? Jf'htU

are yoo doing? .

Cempare: U What shall we read?" and U W Men of Sb akespears's plays sha.U we read? ~~

No~e:

H the question is an indirect one the verb ls not inverted,

Compare; .• 1 What are you doing?" (Direct) and: U He asked me what: 1 was doing." (Indlrect.) uWhere do you live in London?" (Direct.) and: !! He asked me where I Itved in London. n (Indireet.)

The lJist'f'ib'u~if)e PI'-olJloun

Tim DlSTR.1BtJnv~ PRONOUNS are each! either and neither ..

They are very similar to the distributive adj ectives (see p. illJ).. The difference .is that when they stan.d instead of the noun, they are pronouns; when they qualify the nouns th~yMe ad jectives, e, g.

Each of the men received a reward, (Pronoun.) Each msn received a reward. (Adjective.)

Each is similar i 111. use a nd meaning to ellery; but, in ,add~tion to the differeno~ In use explained on page 12} each can be used as a. pronoun, every cannct, e.g.

Give each of the men a drink. (C orfeer.) Give every of the men a. drink. (lucorrect.)

Each ()ther and OlH? another sse used after transitiveverbs to express reelprocal acticn, i.e, that the feeling is mutual, With each other there are two people concerned, e.g.

The two brothers love each Olher. 33

A CONCISE ENGLlSH GRA.M",fAR With one another there are more people concerned, e.g, .~ Little children, love one another:"

This usage, however, is not invariably observed.

Etther means one or the other of two, e.g.

I have two books here, either- would suit you quite wen.

Either can also have the meaning both of two, but it is only used adjectivally with this meaning, e.g.

.~ On either side the river lie

Long fields of bar ley and of rye. ,~

Tennyson, Lady of Shalatt.

Neither means none of two; e.g.

He gave me two novels, but neither is, very good. (Pronoun.)

NeitHer book Vilas what I wanted, (Acijectil'e.)

Neither and either like all the Distrlbutives take singular verbs,

Tile Indefillite P'i'lonoun

THE l}"lJEFINITE PRONOL1~S are: all • some, a}jy~ om"" they (in" they say"), something) nobody, etc.

They refer to things or people in a vague or general way.

All, some, any, one, can also be used adject iva Ily,. e.g,

Yesterday, two pupils were absent; today all are present. (Pronoun.)

Ali the students are here today. (Adjeclh·e.)

" Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some

have greatness thrust L1pO-u them." (Pr0110ull.) Some men are born great. (Adjective.)

Did you meet many people? I didn't meet any. (Pronoun.) I haven't any time for amusement, (Adjective.)

They say that Mr. Brown's house cost :00,000.

34

THE PRONOUN

One c-annot always be: sure what is the best thing to do, (Pronoun.)

I must have seen him at one time or another. (A,djective.) All can be used in the singular or the plural, according to the meaning, e.g,

AU are present today, (Plural.) All is lost, (Singular.)

all the w.hQle

These two expressions are ver)' similar in meaning, but Ail England generally means the inhabitants; the whole: of England generally means the country itself.

!t should be noted that all may also be used adverbially in. such a phrase as •• The all-important thing.'

some any

Students occasionally find difficulty in the use of these words. The following points should be noted:

Some is used in AHIRMAT[\'E sentences, e.g. Have you any news? Yes, I have some.

Any is used:

(1) In NEGATIVE SENTENCES, e,g.

Have you any news? NOt I haven't any.

(2) In. INTERROGATIVE sentences, e.g ..

I had s orne letters this morning; had you any? He asked. me if anything was the matter,

Have you any work to do? (Adjective,)

But where an affirmative answer is implied. some is often used in negative questions, e.g,

Didn't you send me some books today? Haven't you some work to do?

Here I expect the answer ., Yes". 35

A CONCISE ENG.LlSH GilAMMA~

Arain~ tmy is wider in its application than. some, being used to express the meaning no matter who, Of which, e. g.

Wmchbook may I have? Oh. you can have any YOll. want. ANyone can come to the meeting-it doesn't matter who he is.

·one

One is chiefly used to express a general truth, e .. g.

One cannot always do the rigbt thing,

Frequently you or .they is used Indefinitely instead of oue~ e.g, They sa.y there will bea general election so 0111,

You shouldn't believe aU yfm hear.

Idiomatic: Phrases

'The fo]lowlng phrases should be noted, in which words which have been discussed as pronouns are used, sometimes es other parts of speech:

You willbe ali the better for doing this work.

He js none the worse for hi's unfortunate experience. Every other week.

Every nowand then.

A.ll Olver the room.

A.!l at once,

I feU hot all oller.

A t one arne there were no rail wa ys, There were :some fifty people present. $omew.here about. 1800 •..

That cost somethin.g like £500,

You are somewhat late.

There is one too mtIny here.

011 e zoo few.

He Is much the same.

I might go: on the orher hand J might not. Tbait"s all very well, but . . .

36

THE PRONOUN

EXERCISES

"'I. Comple~~ the ~onowjng sentences by adding the correct

i nten"ogatlvo pronoun; (]) _. are you?

(2) -- do )tou.caU ilia t ]]1 English?

(3) -- of you have visit>t;d .Eng]aIld before?

(4) -. _. is the name of the town. where you live?

(5) -- is your tea.Ccher? .

(6) With ._- are you st1ili:ym; m. London? (7) -- is the way to the aLl port?

(8) ~-.is thls book?

(9) To ~~ are you writing that leta? (10) '-_. is the best rOOM in the house? (l]) -. do you do on S1.lllldays?

oi!II. Comp]~te the following sentences by adding tll>e correct

dis tribative prMoun:

(0 -- of these must be. done.

,(2) We paid the same price for --. (3) ~ of these wi]] do?

(4) The two enemies hate -. - ..

(5) AU the rnem hers of that fami] y love -- very much.

(6) 1 ]ook!e.d. at both houses but -_ pleased me. .

en You can. do --- of these, 'exercises but -_ is very difficult.

"'ill. h this mt~rcl&e. supply th~ mdefimte pronouns necessary: cn -- are a\Va y on holiday,

(2) In thisl ifcj• -~ have all the luck.

(3) 1 lIstened to several records but I didn't like --., (4)1 ~- mus:taJwaiYs drive on the len in En.gland.

(S) -- is do-ne by patience.

(6)-_. say that (here is always fog in L'Ondon. (7) ] fuwen't - to do today.

('8) You 'Work very hard. Yes~ J generaIIy ha ve .-~ to' do, bur today I haven 't ~-.

(9) - .. _. J S perfect.

(10) Have you left -- behind?

(11) ~- can 'Visit this museum without payment.

(] 2) Thereare .1 number of books here; you ean b errow -you would like,

37

A CONCISIE ENOUSH GRAMMAR

"'IV. Call you supply the COnID."Ion expression necessary in each

of these senteh.~s?

en He looks - - .~ for his hOliday.

(2) They were - - ~ for tbeir accident. (3) !hey have an English lessen -- day. (4) That wHl C:OiSt you - - 10£.

(5) He can go out if he likes but ~ - - - I should prefer him to stay a.t home.

·V, Refer to its class each of the pronouns in the foUowin,G:

"Who steals my purse steals trash; 'til; something, nothing;

'Twas mime" 'Us his, and has been slave to thousands; -

But he that fiic,h.es from me my good nam.e

Robs m~ of that which not enriches h lm

Andma~es me poor ind.eed." (Shakespeare OJne/lo)

!liVI. What is wrong with the pronoiulIS in the foUowing~

(O U your child has a bad cough give it Corny's Cough Cure and it vanishes,

(2) The F',dme MII'Iiister"'"ent by aeroplane to Geneva whJcll was supplied by :Britisb European Airways.

(3) The [egs of the oarsmen are bare, Wheniliey are cold they wear scarves.

(4) The tickets for t.h.e dance are five shillings including ref.re5h~ ments, These should be taken some days. in advance,

(5) Th.ere goes, John with both his dogs 00 ei therside of him.

·vn. Link up the fbUowLng pairs of sentences by means of re~a.t]'!Ie pronouns. Chan~e the com tructl em. where necessary.

(1) This is the house. Jack built lt,

(2) We planted some trees in. spring. They have not produced

a sin!1:re.appr~. .

0(3) ~~ThQU hadst a voice, Its sound was like the sea."

(4) "You have beenpleased to take notice of my Jab 0 UIS. n it

had been early it had been. kind." .

(5) Let us be thankful for fools. But for them the rest of Us ceuld n,ot succeed.

'''"'\lUL Make qn i te clear the exact meaning of each of the foUowing sentences, Show that in each pair (a) is different from (1;),

CO (0) The hery" Who had not answered pl'f~;vi(m.sly> now gave the best answer.

38

THE PRONOUN

(b) The boy that had not ilnswer,ed p!i·eviousiy now ,gave

the best anSwt:;r. ~

m ra) I will wear no elothes, which will dis,Hng;u:is:hme from my fellow men,

(b) ']" wIU wear no Clothes that win distinguish me from

:roy fellow rneu, -

(3) Ca) The fortune, which I Inherited, I win leave to, my son, (b) The fortune [hat ~ inherited I wi]] leave to my SOn.

I

CHAPTER V[

THE VERB

A v~'.is a word with which we can make anassertionc Whar is asserted is either an AC:1l0N or a SlATE!~ e,g. I hit the ball (action). He is asleep (state).

Subjects a:ndl P.r,ed~eaw:

The person. or thing about which we make the assertion is called the SlJ];]:f!CT ·of the verb, and. what we say (or "predicate") a b out the subject is caUed the iPRID.]CA TIl. A pr-edicate must contain! verb; :in fact the verb is often, referred to as the predicate of a :subject.

~.uWlECT The clouds Nelson That you are late (Y1ou)

PREDICil.TiE moved. aCIOSS the sky. was agreat sailer, is, not my fa. ult.

Open the door ..

Concord of Subjed ueB Verb

The vel b agrees witb .it .. s subject in. n nm ber and person, e.g, I am (Iet persoIiL singular)

We are (1 stperson plural)

He .. is (3rd person singular)

They are (3.rd person pl ural)

0) Two 01 more subjects, connectedby aHd take a plural ver'b~ e.g,

Th.e boy and his dog are 11 ere. 40

TlfE, VERB

>(2) But if the second noun is merely part of a phrase Iquali ~ F)'wgthe first singular noun the verb is singular, e.g,

The boy with his dog is here.

(3) Singular S ubjeets joinedlby or or neil her . . . not take a singular vel' b, e g.

A Cig:ilf or a cigarette is nryenjoyable. Neither Mr. Smith nor Mr. Brown has come ..

(4) A OOlL(.EcnVE noun takes a singular verb when the sense is singular; a. plural verb when: the sense is plural, e .. g,

The jury consists of twelvepersons, (Singular.)

The jury are havin~ dinner together. (Plural.)

EXERCISES

I. Define a verb and give two sentences to illustrate your d.etinidon.

U. What]S the rule for the agrwment (conooro)betw£\m subject and verb? Illustrate yOW' answer with sentences,

.,[[1. Whi"h are the verbs in the foUowIng passage?

~~ Friends and fellow s oldlers, the, tirn;o of :my departure .has ROll' arrived, and 1 discharge, with the eheerfulness of a ready de bwl' I' the demands, of na ture, I have learned from philosophy how much the soul ls IT! ore excellent than the body and that the separation of the nobler substance should be the subject of joy rather than of affliction, and. ! accept. as a fa "our of th~ gods th.e mortal, stroke that seCUI'tIS me from the danger of dIs,grnciQg a, character '!.vhich has hitherte been supported by virtue and. fortitude, I die withou t remorse as I have lived without guj]t. I expoaM my person to the; dangers ofwai'. with the dear' foreknowIf:dgtl that ] w~s destined to faU by th~ sword. I now arreF my tribute of gratitude to the .Eternal Being who has not suffered me to P~( ish by the cruelty of a 1;)'Tant. ~Y t~e s.e~ret da~er of conspiracy, or by the slow tortures of hngenng disease, H~ has give~ me. in. the midst of. a,n honourable ~r~r ~ spkncUd and. glmiOus departure from thls wodd; and I hold It equally

41

I

A CONC1SE ENOLISH GRAMMAR

absurd, equally base to solicit. or to decline, the stroke ()f fate.' ~ (The dying speech of the Emperor Julian, A.D, 36.3, from Gibbon's Deelille a}~d Fall of the Roman Empire.)

*IV. AF~ the verbs in the following sentences correct? If not.

correct them.

(I) The man and his brother is here.

(2) Either this book or that are e.:llsy to read.

-(3) A red wine or a white are supplied for dinner. (4) Neither he nor his brother speak. English well, (5) A football team consist of elevec pla yets"

il'V. In the foUowing sentences which words form the predicate·? (1) Go home at once.

(2) He often borrows my books.

(3) Ch urchin was a great leader during the war. (4) You must do your hOmC\VOi k regularly,

(5) Foreign students often do not like English food"

CONJUGATION OF A REGUL·AR VERB

ACTIVE VOICE

INFIr..'ITIVE MOOD

Preselflt Perfect

JP-re8:i:Ilt fSirUclple and G erlHlIli Past Pa.rticiple

To help Tohave helped Helping Helped

INDICATIVE MOOD PRESENT

CmlntUI!lIOll8

] am helping you are help.ing he is helping

.. ve are helping you are helping they are help~ng

·f } Slimp.b.! I help you hel.pl he helps we help you. help they help

Perfect

.I have help.ed you have helped he lias_heJped

we h~ive helped you haY'0 helped they have heJp.ed

1 The second person singular is, in modem usage. the same as the second person plural; !Jle archaic forms, "thou hel~%St''' "thou art j1e!pingll" '.iliQ_1.I \l.!!!thelped". "thou werehelping", etc" art not ru;eli except ill poet!)' or-poetic: prose,

42

- Simp.l.e

I helpedyou helped be helped we helped you helped they helped

(A) surunrrv I shall helpyou will help he will help we shall help you win help they wi]] help

THE VERB PAS]'

Continll eus I was helping

yo u Were helping he was hdping we We re helpl [Ig ~IOU were helping lney Were helping

FUTURE Si]l~p[e

(B) D.ETERMHof A liON

", I will help you shall help he shall help we will help you shall help, they shall help

"-{ 'Perfect

I had helped -

you had help1l!d ','. h·('! had heiped

we had helpM

you had helped they had h.elped

Continlilolls1 ~ :rerlectl

I shaU be helping I shan have helped

you wi!] be helping yO!.1 win have helped

be win he helping he will ha V'e h.e]ped

we shan be he! P LIIg we shall have helped

you will be helping youwill have helped

they will be helping they will have helped

CONDITIONAL OR FUTURE IN THE PAST

':-t_.. _Sim:(!Ie

:E should help you would help he would help we shou Id hel fl you WOll ld help they would he] p

Cont:inli01!'lS

I should be helping you would be helping. he would be helping we should be helping yon would be ht:lipillg t.hey we ul d be helping

. r.,} Perfect

I should have. helped _',

you would have helped

he would have hel ped

we sh ou ld 11 ave helped

you wou ld h ave helped

tile)" would have helped

1 Tile same changes occur here :IS ill the Simple ir (A) Futurity or (B) Derermlnation, etc., is implied. (Se-e p, 31.)

43

.. ..

A CONC]SE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

~. IMPERATIVE MOOD

" ,

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD PRESENT

:5im.ple

(If) I help (If) you help (If) he Ite~p Uf) we help un you heJp (If) th~y hel pi

",erfect

(If) ] have helped (H) you haw heiped (10 he fl.!!. ~ie hel]}ed ([0 we, bEl. ve he] ped ClQy'01.I ha ve helped (If) they have hc[ped

PAST

Simple

(Ff) I halped (IF) you hel ped. (If) he helped (If) w,~ h.elped Uf) you helped (If) they helped

, . Perfect

Of) I had helped (1'f) YOli had hclpsd Uf) he had ru::ipe:d UO we had helped (If) you Iud helped (If) the}' !tad hj!lped

PASSIVE VOICE

INFINITJ!VE MOOD

PiI'C51!IlIt P,etfe~t

Prese:nt Pl:liIjUclp~e !lind GefU!T!,dI Past Pat1i~jlPle

To be heJped

To have been helped Bein g belped

H: a vil1Jl!l been hel psd

INDICAT.IVE MOOD PRESENT

Siltlll]e

I am helped you a:r~ helped hais helped wea r~ ~el ped you. are helped t]]~y a re h~!ped

COlliUnl[0US

I am b~il'!g helped you are be] n g helped he is, being helped

w.e are be Lng he Iped you are b(l.~ng helped they are 001 ng helpe d

44

THE VERB

- P·ert"ed

I have been helped you have been hel ped he h,as been he iped

~\'e ha ve 'been ~dped you have been helped t:h~y have b~e.n helped

.

I "

PAST

Sjmp~e 1 was helped

you were helped ~ h~ WflS helps;d.

we were h~lped }IOU Were helped they were helped

CQntinl]OllS

:m wa'S beiDg helped! you were being h~lped he was being helped W~ were being helped }'iOU wore being ne]pcd th,~:t were being helped

Pen:e~t

I 1'1 ad been heiped

yo II hadbeen hel.ped h.e had b~en hetp~d

we hriH1. been helped

YO(l had been hei~d.

theY had been hel:ped

FUTURB Sj]j1,p]e

(0) P[T~RMINATtOl>l

,~ ~ (,. I wm br:l h~iped

you. shall he h~lped he shall ~ IultpeeJi we wlll he helped you flnll.H. be hel.ped they shaUbe helped

(A) :nrr-URlf'f

I sh.aU be helpec:'l you will be hi~lped he wim be h~l.p~d we shan be helped! you win be h,elpoed they wiU be hel ped

(.'(ll:1inl'!l!l,~1iISl

I shall be beimg hel p(l;d yOll will be: being be Iped he will be being he:l~d we sua 11 bL'!i:lelng llelpe-d you wm be being bel~d they win be being h.elped,

, [Pe.rfectl

E shall have been helped .'.,. ~ )'01.1. will have b~~n helped

ll,e win have been I'udpedl

we sha U navebeen helped

:,'011 will h<t'l'e been helped

t hey will have been MlpedJ

1 The same cllal'lge8 occur here as in Ute Simple future if .(A) Futurity er (II) Delermlnatio.n, ete., is implied. (Seep. ~ 1.)

45

I

~ • ~·r

"t,"; .. ',,:

t- I

A CONCISE ENGUSH ORA M MAR CONDITIONAL OR .fUTURE IN THE PAST

-. Slm,le c ';(..'.

I should be helped you woul.d be helped he would be helped we: should be h(l:lped you would, be helped they 'Would be helped

C~nti.l1'UOu.s

.~. shccld be being helped you would bef;J.eing heJped he would be being Ilelp(id we s,hould be being he I pe d you would be being helped! they would. be being helped

- Pelifed

I should ha Vril been he lped. you wou I d h ave been hel ped h~ woutd have been hl!liped we should J1atV~ been helped you would have been h~~ped they would. have been helped

I IMPERATIVE MOOD

SJngular Betheu belped

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD PRESENTl

Simple ,

(If) r b$ helped (If) you be helped Uf) he be helped (If) we be h~ped (10 yOl:! be hel pad (if) they be helped

Perf~d

un ] RSi\l\r;: b~en helped (If) you ha \Ie:, been helped (If) he have been hel ped (If) we have been helped (If) you luI. ve been helped (If) t.be.y have been helped

PAST

,- Simple « '

(If) I were .beilp~d

(U) yoU were h,elped (m he were b.e;lped ([f) we were helped ([f) you. were helped U f) they were hel pea

r~ z ""Perfe~t"

{l0 f bad beea help~d {If} you J!na!d been helped (If) he had Oeef.! Ite]p~d (If) we had 'been helped (If) you had been hilp~d (If) they had been helped.

;. "'II

I II ....

- ,( I ......

1: Prac t icalJy obsolete,

r 46

;:.L1f. I ~ ~I

""r

r r "l.

to.

. ,

l

E"; I .. '

..

I ...

~ , +

THr.E VERB

TmEiri:'Ve aDd Intransitive Verbs

An action may pass ovel\' from Ell subject to an. object, 'e.g. in the sentence 1 hit the ball, the action of hitting:.is not confmed tc the doer a.my I. but goesover from I to the ball" A verb of this kind is called a 'IRANSlTIVE verb. In the sentences;

The sun rose, The cmldcrled .. A leaf feU.

the actions do not go b~yond the peTS.oDS or objects. performing them. The verbs in these sentences are, called INrnANSlTlViEl verbs.

Sometimes the same verb may be used transitively or iDtran!!liti.ve~y~ e,g ..

INl'P.ANSffiVll TRANSI1'fW

'Th~ ooU rings. The walter rm,.gslM ben.

The window f)Iloke with the frost. He broke the window.

ne dooli' opened. He opened the door.

The boy rQr.! well. She rall hH car mtothce garage.

Sometimes a cliffe·rent form of the verb is. used. to mark the difference: between the transitive and the intransitive form, e.g ..

'The tree/dl. (Vru'b to fall) The woodma.ll!/elledthfl tr¢C. (V~rb to/ell)

The ma)'lor VII iU lay 'the fou.ndation stOl:lIe:. (Verb to/a.y)

FIe, T~Js.f!·d his head. (Ve[oto .rllA;$~)'

The. bock Jezy OIl the, ta.b~e. (Ve~b t(J iie)

'The sun rM'e$ :m tlle east, '(Verb 1'0 ,.rse)

Tb.eyaU S'tlt dawn, (Yei:b to sit)

He s-el his house in order. (Vei!'b IQ s~.t)

A preposition prebea to an intransitive verb generally makes it transiti ve, Compare stand and unde,stand~ run and

EXERCISES

"'1. In the extract from Gibbon on pa.ge 41~ which verbs are transitIve and which are :il'lu:an:s~Hve?

47

A CONCmS.E ENGLISH GRAMMAR

:u. M,:~'e sentences in which each of the following verbs is used (a) tran.sdlv~y; (0) :intransitivl\Ily:

taJ!k~ ring, b:r·w.,Wlite, rest~open> return, Sdg.

li<lU. What are !be finite verbs in .tb,e following passage:

. He had. hoped to do. well in .ms exaI'l1in!'!ldon) but,beca US(l he had not \\'01 ked. well during the year, he failadl.&nd was. o'bJ:iged :0 tah i: again,. !his elisa ppoI.nOOd rum. verymuchj but it also caWl.ed him. to fuink. mOire seriOUSly about hls studies. He~s hQpmg fOl' better results now.

Can. you namethe renses of these &.i te verbs?

'I',ense~

The tense of a verb is tbe form used to denote the rIMe of the action an.d. its COMPLETENESS or incompleteness. TheIle are three times M w web. an action ean take place, viz. Present, Past and Future, and in each of these there are three stages of oomp]eteness or ill.compiet€n.ess.

S~mple ~ill:tm~QUI PCriecl

PRIl3;!lN1' I sJ:Je~k

.I im ~peakin,g I bav~ ~poken

11U'fl1:D i shall speak:

] shaH be s],Jeaking I shaH have spobn

PAST ~. spoke

I Was speaking Ih.ad spoken

TEz e U sea ,ojtile];eHses THE SIMPLE PRESENT .]:5 used;

(a) for a: general truth, e.g. Actions speak louder than

words, .

(b) Foran. habitual orrepeated action~ e.g, I speak to my students every week,

(c) To introduce a quotation, e.g, Shakespeare Irays:

"N either a b orrower nor a lender be.' ~ .

THE CONTiNUOUS TENSES areused:

(0)1 To express an action which is not. y,et complete, e.g, 1 am list'ening to what you say.

(b) To denote ®n action in the future, e.g, m am going to Berlin next week.

48

THE VERB THE PUSENT .PERF.ECT is used;

(a) For an action which has just concluded, e.g, A minute ago, 1 was working, but now ill hcrve finished.

(b) For an action in. the past oontinuing into the present, e.g. I have taught this class now far ten yean and am still teaching it. Com pare this with: ~! I taught that class ten years a~,o,bu t I am. not teaching it now."

(c)\Vhen the time is inoe:finitet e,i,.E have seen tbe Queen.

Compare with: "I saw the Queen two yeus age."

THE SIMPLE JP'AST. as can be seen fromthe above examples, is used to express en action wholly completed in. the past,

THE PAST ,PERFEct is. l1S00. for an action which was completed bercre another, ex:press·ed in the Past Tense, begani e.,S. I had studied English before I left Germany.

II! I. Complete the following sentences with the correct tense of the verbs in brackets. Use the simplePresen:E; Past. or Coo tmuous l'ellSes.

(nWhen she is in London, the Queen (live) in Buckingham

Pa.lace.

(2) He (go) to France ~w.ry year for his holldays, (3) Truth. (be) stran~I than fiction ..

(4) He aJw,ays (say) that E.ngUsh grammar is, v~ry sfn1.plc. (5) The moon (s..h.ine) at night.

U. How irs the present continuous tense in ]English c:onslruct.ed.?

Give two sentences to Ulustra te your explana tlo:rn.

.. HI. Complete the following sentences and name tae tense used in each one,

0) He generally (gO) to bed very late,

(2) We (sit) in tbe classroom and WSWIll) to the teacher, (TWlJ

forms possible.). .

(3) He (.read) the ~wspaper; he a lways (read) i~ at breakfast. (4) The man who now (paint) OUf house (travel) n.ere by bus.

49

A CONClISE BNGLISH GRAMMAR

(5) vrhy you (go) away this wtlek·end? Because the weather

(be) fine, -

(6) M (want) a new Sill t.

(7) It t,s ,difficult. to understand what he (mean). (8; TIus exemdse, (seem) ,simpl'e ..

(9') I always (believe) what he tens me, (10) He (see) us comms: a]an~ the street.

"lV. Add the correct verbs (Perfect Tenses) to these sentences

and name the tense used,

(.1) M (be) there several times.

(2) ,He (tJ.Qt. do) .h1s h~ework yet. (3) The .t:rrun (not arnve) yet.

(4) She just (dedde) to gal horne tomorrow. (:5) We (not finish) dinner yet.

(6) They (not write) to me since Christmas. (1) You (answe9 my question 00 rree tly . -

(8) Wb0re you (put) your book? -

(9) His family (own) this bouse for many yean. 0.0) .Her new book (accept) by the pub]isherliL

.'iiV. Put the verbs in these sentences In thepresf:lnt pert~c:t con-

tinuous tense. -

(1) They (learn) English t:or six years.

(2) lOry) to find you ali the morning.

(3) You are very late! we (walt) for jrm,:] since slx o'clock. 1(4) J 0110 (J~okJ everywh~o for his pen.

(S) Mary (s~eep) all the a:ftemQ.on.

'4!VI. , Complete these sent~ces with the a pprop-iate tenses (Simple

or Perfect Past) of the verbs In D.E,ackets. . -

(I) This ,s_~n,rant is v~ careless; she (brook) two cups yesterw y. (2) The tram (leave) aefQr-e'~ got to 'the station,

(3), He ooly (fin[sh) half his work. when. he wasjnteJ"rup~ed. (4) Last w~ we (go) to the theatre tw.ice.

(5) I (see) him at the clublast night.

~5)' They refused to beUevethat he (steal) the money_

(7) Mter. same snow (fru]) the weather became warmer.

(8) 'fomh.asa~'i~ aPfetite: he (e.lt) Sfx: eggs for b~akfast. (9) The sailor (jump) m~o the sea to save die drOl'vning man,

(]O) She agree after I (ask)' her several times.

50

THE VERB

THE FUTURE TENSES

For the future tenses two auxiliaries ar-e used, VlZ,~ shalt and witl. There are two forms:

(A) which expresses mere futurity;

(ll) whichexpresses, inaddinon to futurity, a feellng of determination, command or promise in tbe mind ,of the speaker. (A) MERE FUTWtrrY

(ll) DoFFERMINAT[ON, COM-

I shall thouwilt he will we shall you will they win

MAN[), PFWMISE [ will

'thou shalt

he shall

we will

you shall

they shall

So ~n the sentence: U I will read. your letter and thenI shall understand what you want me to do", the wHldenotes pl'omi~a or intention, while the shall expresses merely future time.

The time-honoured example of the wrong use ,of shall and wm is. of the man. who, fen into deep water and cried: i "I win be drowned, no one shan sa. ve me".

J, ,-:or I

.BxceptioH$ tQtne general ndt!, for ~~3h"II~J and '~will'J

(n It should be noted that the form given in. ,Jj above is used when the feelinG: of determsnarlcn, etc., 'is in the mind of the speaker, If the feeling is in. the mi nd _ of the person spoken about, then. wil! is used in all cases, T~us, HHe shall do that" meana"I, the speaker, am determined to make him do It", but: ~IHe will do these silly things, though everyone has tried to reason withhlm' ~ means the determina don is, inthe mind of the person spoken of. Note. teo, the proverbial

.Boy.s will be boys. Accidents will happen.

51

/

A CONCISE ENOLISH GRAMMAR

(2) If a clause introduced. by that follows ~'ntend" deslre~ dflllUlna, or be anxious~ then. shall Is used for ali persons. Compare:

I hope the t he will be successful,

(Inti;- I amanxiousthat he shall foe successful.

or;' It is intended that this book shall be of use to fo,relp students.

Tense after jutrue verb,s

When theverb of the principal sentenceis in the future. the verb in the subordinate sentence should be in the Simple Present, the Present Con,tinu.oiIJs~ or the Presen t Perfect Tense •. In this 'the English usage differs froom the usage in some other languages, e.g.

I' shall see YOli1when I come (not: ~~ I shall come' )~O' Paris. We shall go, as soon as we are (not: ~j shall be ~~) ready.

WOU1.D' and SHOUl.D' are used to, express U) a condit~mli (2) rut ure in the past \'IIhge W]LL is used in the 8impTefl!ltme WOULD' is used in the con.ditional; where SHAlL is u sed in the simple future SHOULD is used in the conditienal:

(A) {.I·I shall know hln;t if.M see. h.i 'm:

hmRE I should know holm If I saw him,

FUl'UlUn" {He will know me if he sees me.

He would know me if he saw me ..

(.8)

JN1'EN'flONOr {l will help, you U I can.

V01U]ON I 'WofJ.ld belp you Ifill could.

Should also expresses a, moral ob]iga tlon (less empha.tic

than o'ugh t to)~ e .. g. _

I know I should war k harder, but I have is (I little time. You s}u)Uld look before you leap.

52

'lHE VERB

Should is used after the phrases;

It is bdter that . . . It is natural that . . .

It is go ad that . . ., 1[t is curious that . .. "

It is well t'h,at ., . . It is im portan t that ., . •

It is stra'Dle that . • .

e.g, It is natural that he Sh.DUld want to know who 1 am ..

I t is curious that you should hive asked me tha t quesnen.

FurnJRE, EN Ttm PASt is 'used to describe an action, that at some, time in the-past was regarded as future, e.~.

I thoug,M tnat he would write.

I ,

~

EXERCISES

I. What ideas can be ~n.pressed by the rutOR, tense, and which a~liades Should be used wlim the (Uffe~t persons of the tense to.

express, them?

*[(. Whilt work is done by the luxmaries in the follo,wing.

senteJ.l«:s 1

(1) I shall be in Lomllon t~m~rrow~ _ .

(2) You :sluilln.ot marry my da:Ughtel. ,

(3) You shaH have a rise in }XI-y n.ex t month. (4) He shan have a new ovefCo~t v~rr s~on.

(5) Th.18 time next week !they will be ill Canada.

IU. Th.e ordinary tiorm.o:f the future. T!~ can 'be rep!aced by twO other forms. Explain tho~ fOm'lI, gWl:ng seIl.~e,noes to lllustra t.e

their use and namiing the two forms.

:fEV. Insert U ii<haJl~' Of U will n .in the following oon tences:

(1) He ~ have au WXiident if he does oot drive mere care-

tully.

(2) I - __ . begin my new job ,tomorrow. , ' .,' .'. '., " (3) If he -_ - n't Clean his lbJcycle 1 ~ l1~ve te d.o ~t myse]f.

(4) You ~ n't go home'vi't~o:ut anysuppet. .

(5) I'm affa~,d they -_ __ mIt enjoy t:ll...at film vety mum.

.V. Put the correct verbs :lnto the blank spalOesin these s~ntences ~ U) We shall meetagam when we -_. in London.

53

A CO NCISE ;eNGLISH (HiAMMAlR

(2) He will go t? the :statfo.D as soon es he .-- Jleady ..

(3) They are gQ,l!tlg to the theatre ss SiO-Gn as. dioner ~. over,

,"'VI. Change tl1e'i WOrdi~,g of these Sientenc~ by wjng the ordinary

fu ture forms of the verbs If'! braCk.ets. -

(1)'W0u1d you like some: more tea? (have)

(2)\"011 .a~ to stay hereuQJil; the ra!n has: stopped. (stay) (3) M promise you >II, good holiday thlS $~r. '(have)

(4) Alette:r has been se'lll~ ~o them to ~n-ive tomorrow. (g,el) (5) He has arran~d to VUi~t m.tIily places inE.n.gland. (virJl:)

The Em,batic Form

The emphatte form of the verb is conjlllgated with do~ 'e.g.

PRlESENT {I do speak

He does speak, etc.

lAST {I did speak

, We ,did speak, etc.

IMPERA TIV'E Do speak.

These are the only puts of the veto in which {his form. is used and it is indicated in speech. by a stress on the auxlliary,

The Neg~U1'e Fo,rm

The fiega.ti~e form of the verb is shown:

(a) for tenses con~aininian ,aUXma(ry, by not after the auxjJial!'Y~ e.g,

I am not going, he should not go, he has not gone, he has not beenhere;

(b) for other psrts of the verb by the use of do and not, e.g,

M do Hot go, 1 did not go" don't go, Not«:

Instf,a:~ of the do form, a nega~i'Ve pronoun or adjective may sornenmes be used, e .. g.

54

TIIDB VERB

m know no reason for disagreeing, She knows notllingabout Engljs.h. M met no.body to cia y.

The double negative, e.g, I did not meet nobody. must never be used-though it may tie, heard in the speech of uneducated people.

The InterrQga.the Form.

The interrogative form is shown:

(a) In. tenses containing an auxiliary by an. inversion of

the subject and verb, e.g.

DECLAlLI!!.lIVB SENTENCE '[N'fERROQAT[VE! SENTENCE

You. are here, Are you here?

He Is a teacher. 13 he ateacher?

He should speak. Should he speak?'

(b) In. other verbs 'by the use of do with the ]NFINlT!VE:

You go. Do you go?

He spe aks, Doe s he speak?

J went. Dtd I go?

He wrote. .Did he wrl toe?

I wri te, Do I w:dte?

Note:

Sometimes do, is not used. if the sentence beihu wjth an j nterro glti veprenoun orad jective, 'e. I.

Who reads the classics nowada ys? Whose dog ran away?

What helps you to underst and English?

What book helped you to understand English? f>ut'.:What book do they use at school?

EXERCISES

"'1. Make the following sentences stronger in meanlng by using the emphatic form",

(I) I U~e to be beside the seaside,

c 55

I

I

A CONCISBENGLISH GRAMMAR (2) He Speaks like that.

(3) We gave rum your message, (4) Come to' tea ~t Sunday. (5) .Please write to me soon.

*n ". Make the :fbJlowing sentences negative. (I) He speaks English.

(2) Slle, can. walk home.

(3) We must invite Rosie to our pw1;v.

(~) I am ~ure they are English. (two forms). (5) They have ,s,poken to' us before .

. *nI., Form n~ati.!W.·. answers .to the fOi.Lo .. wing .. ;q.' uestions in two

different ways~ using contracted forms where possible.

(1) Is there any chance of their coming tonight?

(2) ?o you ~ee any rea~on why he should not agree? (3,) ~lilhom(hd you see UI. town this m-ornm:g?

(4) How much does she know about mathematics1 (5) What C31l. you tell us a bout them?

IiIIV •. Use, where possible. the. short forms in ans,wer.ing the fol-

Jawing questioru in the negative (e.g. I win not=1 won't).

(1) Can you eat meshreoms?

(2) Ought you to buy this exr:-nsive present? (3) ~u-st you leave early tomght?'

(4) Do, you like U modern" music?

(5) Were there a Jot of people in the. streets today? (6) May 1 borrow this book?'

(7) Dare you. look down from a gt',eat height? (8) Should I take an umbrella?

(9) N~d you do any more work this evening? (10) Used you to live in Paris,?

. V. Construct three interrogative sentences without using ~~ do •• ~!does" or "did". ' ."

. "'VI. ~e fbDo,wing sen1:e:nces are all answers to' questions, W~ite the questions ..

{l) Yes; he likes London very much.

(2) No, there are still three more people to come. (3) y es, ] can play tennis,

(4) Yes, he posted the idter.

(5) NQ, they said they could not promise to come.

56 .

TH.E VERB

Question Phrases

In conversation, question phrases like the French rl est-ce pas, or 'the Germ.an 7J.icht wahr. are frequently used, but wbereas, the Fr-encb or German phrases are not changed; the Engllilh ones vary ,according to the verb in the 'main statement. The

oonstructio,ns are:

(1) Wi.th AmdBary veriJs

An a.ffin:native verb ill the statement has the corresp Oll.,ding negative form in the question phrase, e.g.

Affirmative St.atement ,,"fV,egative Qu,e.stion PMG.s:e'

I run invited to, the party, aren,'t J?1

You are going, too, are,,; t you?

fred. isinv:ited~ Isn!t he?

John has worked hard, hasn~t hel' You have finished now ~ havent t yori!' He can spea.k English~ cant t he!

Mary will come to the party ~ won't she?

I ought to answer the letter ~ ou,gh.tn~ t l?

Negative' Stat,ement A.ffirmative Q'uestion Phrase

lam not invited to the party" am 1?

You are not going. a're' you?

Fred, .isn~t invited, is he?

He-my" hasn't worked. hard, .w he?

You haven't finished y,etj have you?

He can't speak Spanish~ Ciln he?

Mary won tt go to' the party ~ will she?

He ougb.tn't to, answer that letter, ought he?

• lib! Scotland, aMli't 17·

57

I

A CONCI8EENGLlSH GAAMMAIiI. (2)1 With all 'tfiler v,erbs

do (daes • .did, doesl~~t. didn't) ~s used; e.g,

Affirmative Statement Negative Question Phra.se

l.know him, don't III

.He speaks lEnglish~ d08511·1' he?

They invited him to the party ~ dtdn't they?

Negative Statement AjJirmative Questio'fi Phrase

I don't knowhim~ do I?

. He doesn't spes 10:: .spanis.h~ does he."! They didn't invite him to the party, did they?

EXERCISES

-r." Complete theroUowiD.,g sen tenees with. question phr'liles" (1) It's \',eery co.ld this morning .~ _ ?'

(2) He's been here few a long time ~ _? (3) I've rome too ea.riy ~ ~ ?

(4) You've .mushed your work new, __ l' (5) Tlwttre meet!ng Us to.nigh.t~ ~ _ ?

(6) You used (0 live in London, _ ~ ?

(7) I'm working better this term, __ ?

(8) That book. isn tt very interillsting, ~ ~. ? (9) Th~ won't com.e now, ~_?

(l0) She hasn ttMe:pboned, ye;~. ~ _ ?

(1 l,J T_he postman. hasn't been yet,. ~ _ ? (]2) Henry knows John, __ ?

(13) He doesn.'t know George, __ ?

(14) You d?n'! came ]w.re every day, ~_? (] 5) You. dIm" t come, here yesterday., _ ~ ? (16) You went eo tho pa:r~y.- ~ ?

..• ~ .. Wbat answers (~ffirmative or negative) wouhi, you espeer to b? given to' the foUcwmg q UestklFl:S? ]f two awwers are possible

grve both. .

en He ha.sOOen to Paris, hasn't he?

(2) 'fhe~ are twenty shiilm.e;g in a pound. aren'r there? (3) Enghsh 1i;["a:rrurwr is eas ier than French. is,!) '1. it?

(4) The decimal system 1$ not used for English m.oney~ is it? 58

THE VERlB, (5) I did post tlli3!t l~ttGr, didn't n

(6) You don't have classes on Saturday j. do you?

Strong and Weak Verbs

A WEAJ::.ver'O is one that forms Its past tense and past participle by adding -d, -ed, or ~t~o the pie.S~l1I ~ Oill by remaining unchanged, e.,I.

PRESENT dance walk dream cut

PAST danced wa1ked dreamt

" ..

PAST PARTICIPLE dan oed walked dreamt

cue

Note:

(1) The m,ed'in the past tense is pronounced lid] after a stem ending in -d and -i, e.g, defended~ waited.

(2) tt is pronounced [d] afte.m: verbs ending in vowels and voiced consonants other than -0, e.g, paid~ armed, sujJe"'(Jd~ dazed.

(3) It is prcnounced I[t] after verbs whose stan ends in a voiceless consonant. e.g, danced, liked, laughed. reached, passed.

. A s,'m.ONG verb is one that does not form Us past tense and past partidple in this 'way~ but generally by a 'Vowel change, e.g.

PRI8SBNl speak know drink

PAST spoke knew drank

PAST Ii A.R'nCFPLE spoken l,mow.u drunk

Irregular V,erbs;

The following are the principal irregular verbs, weak. Slnd st:rcng:

P~iNT abide,

31lSe

PAST a,bode arose

PASI PA.R. nCWLE abode

arisen

59

J

PREsENT awake be

hem beat become begin bend beseech bid bind bit'e bleed blow break, breed bring build, burn burst buy

cast catch chide choose cling dothe come cost cr,eep crow

cut

deal

dig

PAS']' PARTIC[lILE awoke or; awaked been

borne, bortl, 'beaten become begun

bent besou.ght biddeo, bid oound bitten

bled

blown, broken

bred bro'Ught 'built

burnt

burst bought

east

caught chidden chosen clung

clothed or: clad come

cost

crept

crowed

cut

dealt

dug

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR,

P'AST awoke was

bore beat became began bent besought bade, bid bound bit

bled

blew brukie bred brQU.ght built burnt burst bought cast caught chid chose clung

clothed or .. clad. came

cost

crept

crew or: crowed. cut

dealt.

dug

6,0

THI! V:ERB

PRESENT do

draw dream drink drive dwell

eat

fall

feed

feel

fight

find

flee

fling, flow

:fly forbid forget forgive forsake forswear freeze get

give

go

grind grow hang have hear hew hide

bit

PAST did

,drew dreamt drank drove dwelt

ate

~cll

fed

felt fought found fled

flung flowed fl,ev'! forbade forgot forgave forsook forswore froze got

gave went ground. grew

hung, banged had

heard

hewed

hid

hit

61

P A.ST FAR TlC]PLE done

drawn

dreamt

drunk. drunken driven

dwelt

eaten

fallen

fed

felt

fought

found

fled

Hung

flowed

flown forbidden forgotten forgiven forsaken forsworn frozen

got

given

gone

ground.

grown

hung, hanged had

heard

hewed or: hewn hidden

hit

PRESENT hold hurt keep kneel know ray

lead lean

Jeap learn leave lend

Je~

He

]je

light

lose make mean meet mistake

mow outdo overcome overdo overdraw overhear partake pay

put

read

rid

ride

A CONCISEENGUSH GRAMMAR

PAST .held burt kept Knelt knew laid

[eel

leantt leaned leapt

learn t, learne d ]eft

lent

let

lay

lied

lit 0,. .. !igh'ted lost

made

meant

met

mistook mowed outdid overcame overdid overdrew overh.eard partook

paid

put

read

rid

rode

62

PAST FARnCJPu held

hurt

kept

knelt

known

laid

led

lean t. leaned leapt

learnt, learned left

lent

let

lain

lied

Iit or; ligbted lost

made

meant

met

mis,ta.kcn mown outdone OVl:1f\Come overdone overdrawn over]H~'ard partaken

paid

pm

read.

rid

rlddeu

p]UlS.!EN1' ring rise

lot

rtm

saw

say

see

seek sell send

set

sew shake shave shear shoo. shine shoe shoot show shrink: shrive shut slng sink.

sit

slay sleep slide sling slink slit smell

c·

PAST rang rose rotted ram sawed said. saw SCfulht sold sent

set sewed shook shaved sheared shed shone shod. shot showed shrank shrove shut sang sank. sat

slew s~ept sl.id slung slunk slit smelt

THE VERB

63

PAST PARTICI~U rung

risen

rotted, rotten no

sawn.

said

seen.

sought

sold

SJent

set

sewn

shaken

shavsd, sha ven sheared, sh om shoo

shone

shod

shot

shown

shrunk, shrunken. shriven

shut

sung

sunk, sunken sat

slain

slept

slld

slung

slunk

slit

smelt.

PR1!SEN1' smite sow speak speed speJl spend spm spin spit split spoil spread spdng stand starve steal stick st~1 stink: strew stride strike string strive swear sweep swell swim swing take teach tear

teE

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

P.:\ST smote sowed. spo~e sped spelt spent spilt

span (Jrl' spun spat

split

spoilt, spoiled spread

spran.g

stood

stove or: staved ssole

stuck

stung

stank

strewed

strode

struck

strung

strove

swore

swept

swelled

swam

swung

took

taught

tore

lo]d

64

PAS'T'PMnC]]?LE smitten.

SQWn.

spoken

sped

spelt

spent

spHt

spun

spet

split spoi1t~s:poUed spread

sprung

stood

stove or .. staved, stolen

stuck

stung

stunk

strewn or: strawn stridden

sttucl<: or: stricken strung

striven

swam

swept

swelled or: swollen swum.

swung

taken

taught

tom

told

TUE VERB

pP,BSENT think thrive tMOW thrllst tread wdtrgo underlie, understand undertake wake

wear weave weep

win

wind 'Withdraw withhold wit'bstand

wrm.,

write

PASt tho'~!llt throve, thrived threw

thrust

trod underwent underlay understood undertook woK.e

wale

wove

wept

won

wound. vn'thdrevr witWlheld withstood 'Wrung

wrote

PAST PARTlCDU thought thriven, thrived thrown

tluust

trodden undergone underlain lmderstood undertaken waked

worn.

woven

wept

won

wound withdrS,WB withheld. withstood wrung

written

NOhlS on Some I"f'egular Verbs Bom= given biirth to',

B;orne~tmrioo. pm du eed, en.dur,edi.

Bld~ bwie~ bidden means to say) or invite, or commaad, e.g.

He bade me faJieweU.

I was bidden to the wooding. I bade him go.

Bid~ bid~ bid means to make an. ·offer at an a uetion. Hang!. hanged~ hanged refers tor death by hanging) e.g.

The murderer was hanged.

Hang, hung~ hung is used for all other meanings. 6S

A. CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR Lie, lay~ lain is the intransirlve verb ..

Lay. laid, laid is the transitive verb.

Lie, lied, lied is to tell an un tr uth,

Swollen is the usual past participle from swelled, except in the

phras:e •• a swdled head" . .

, The pastparUCiple of rot is rotted, but when used adjootivaUy the form isrouenj• e.g,

The wood had. roued away.

The wood was quite rotten.

The same USR'p'.·e applies to sha 'fie.· d. "' ..... ~, meii:» r, do' k

o 1'" ... ".~...... meu, won,"" nn

and. $hri'nk~ e.g. .

I M ve sha ved twice today. He is c]ean-snaven.

TIle farmer has sheared his sheep. This, pressure has sheared the rivets.

"God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb."

The snow has m:elted.

The mould was fined with molten. metal,

They have worked well,

The gates were made Ofwfcuign t iran.

The dr-unk.eu man had drunk too much wine,

There are Dot many film stars who have shrunk from publicity.

The shrunken cheeks of the man showed how iU he was.

EXER.CISES

!i!'I. The Co,:I,lo:wmg words are all past tenses. Give the infini t.i ve ~d p<iS t part ~Clpre.s of the verbs to which they belong and for each pij st. tense wntea !)e~ntence showing .1 ts lneanJng;:

bore, caught,. Iied, lay. flew, :fie~,t1owed, went, put 66

THE VERB

II. In whar ways do (a) weak verbs and (b) strong verbs form

their past tenses?' Give two e.;(amp~es of each. -

IU. Explain when the -ed at the end of past tenses and past parHdpLes is proncuneed as .(a) [~d]" (b) h~]. (~) [-t], Give two examples of each.

"IV. Comp]ete the fbUowJng sentences by adding the past tense

or past participle of the verbs in brackets: (1) The ream was (beat) ir: the masch,

(2) These cattle wen (breed) in Scetiand, (3) The' prisoner was (bind} to the tree, (4) 'The dogatlways (bite) strang!}rs,

(.5) The er (d~g) a holein the ground.

(6) The had been Wght} in the grate.

(7) The mother {forbid) the childr-en to play in the street (8) He (put) the money in. his pocket

(9) We (dng) the: front-deer bell.

(H)'I1le boy (s:>Wlug) on the trapeze.

(]]) The trees (shed) their leaves very eady last year.

V. Make sentences to show how th.e foUow~n.g pair1J. of words should be used:

(a) melted, molten; (b) drunken, drunk; (c) rott~d> rotten; (d) sheared], shorn; (e) worked, wrought

*Vr. Give tl1:e infinitive of each verb [0 italics in the fonowing

senten.ces, :

(I) T bes:ought them to help me. (2) The wound bled very freely,

(3) The knight was. dad in shin.lng armour. (4) He dutve his car much too f.\lst.

(5) The tennis court was rough beca use nobody Mid. 1110 WIj it

for a week.

(6) After the rain" th.,e river flowed very rapidly. (7) Theaemp lane fte WI above the clouds,

{8) 'fhe ll'efttge>es fiecir,o' s.afety. . (9) Because he was hungry', he ate a very large meal,

(l0) ] sawed all that wood yesterday..

{t l) The criminal was strieken with remorse, (l2) She wmng her haJnds with grief.

67

A CONCISE, ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Voice

VO[CE is the form ortbe verb which shows whether the SlllbJect of the sentence is the doer of the action or the receive! of the action expressed by the veli'!".

'If th@ subj ect is tile doer o,.f the action, the verb is in the ,A.C'fI'Im voice. U the. ;s,ub§ect is the receiver of theaction.jhe wrb ism the PASSn.'Evoice ..

The auxiliary verb TO !IE is used to change the aotlve into

the pusi ve, e.g,

He teaches French. CActi ve.) French. is taughr bynim. (P~s:si ve.) Th:e dog kil:fed the fat. (Acti ve.)

Thl!; rat was killed by the dog. (Passi ve.) GW1"ge wt/l meet us. (Aetive.)

We shall be met by George. (Passive.)

'\¥here there are two objects, in the active! two forms are

poss:i Me in the passl ve, e.g.

Mr. Brown gave us a. lesson. (Active.)

A lesson was gtve1t us, by Mr. Brown. (Passive ((2).) We were given a lesson by Mr. B:wwn. (passive (b).)

1D, each case one object appears In thepassive form; this is known as the RET MN£D OIDEC1.

EXERCISES

1. lDe:fine the expres.sfo.fi~ "active YOlce" and • ~paSiSjye voice",

II, Explain what .happens in a senfiellOO Wh~H'I the verb is .changed .from a,ctive voice topassive voice. Give two examplesto ilb.!strate yout~l'.

m. Wfia t is a retained object and in what kind of senlence, do you expect to find one?

"''IV.. Name the, yoke of me Vle:l'Os in ·tM~OUDWing sentences: (1) W@ shall go to Londlon ,on Monday.

68

THE YE,RB

(2) My brot:h~lI ~as v~ry ~mdly r~~d ]n Swed~~ .. (3) A lot of oil IS nay-being brou.,ht~rorn America.

(4) Have y,ou 'e<vertned to team to SWIIll?, .' .

(5) The Sovereigns of En1jland are crowned 1lI. West:l:l:lblster

Abbey.

-v .Whef.e possible change the fo:Uowing sentences ,so t.lu!it the verbs are in the passive voice:

0) He took us. for a drive. in his c~r" ,

(2) The headmaster offered a PrJze to the boy who got. the

best marks.

(3) We must pay the rent at the (ina of ~ch q uarter. (4) Inquisitive people .ask a lot of 'que!lt~ons.

(5) They reques led us to show our paS:5pcYt1S.

'VI. Remit.e: the following sentences with the verbs in th~ active

voice:

(]) He was made to work very hard !by his ~~.cher.

(2) They were obli gedl by 'lhernmase:r t? leave the hotel

(.3) The Cf\Qiwd was dispersed by the police. , .'

(4) The, kifldn.ess ·of tt:ie nurses was much apprec,iJated. by tbe

patients.

(5) The home team was beaten by tile visitors.

Mood

MOOD is the form of a verb which shows the mode or manner 10 which the action is. represented.

There are three meeds:

(I) INOICATIVI::. (2) lMPERAT1V!E. (3) SUEJUNCTiVE.

The IN01CA,TIVE mood is used: (a) to mate statements;

(b) to aSK. questions;

(c) to ~xpress suppositions in which the events. aile treated.

as if they were f:acts.

Examples,: .

(a) Tbe student is learning &gJish. (b) Is the student learning EngUsh?

ee) If the' IStuderu wo.rks hard he will le~rn English. 69

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

_Tbe lli-lPERATJ:VE mood is used to 'express commands or entreaties; e.g.

Open the door . Help me.

Jhe SUBJUNCTIVE mood as a Be-palate ve-rb form has practi'caUY- died out. In common usage it survives only in the following cases:

(1) "If I were"'; "if he were'" ete., used to express a supposmON that is virtually a negative.

Compare:

(Subjunctive): If he w,ere- here he would answer you (= but he is not here),

(l'mJlcative) ,; If he was here yesterday he must have seen my friend (= he may, or may not have been here),

(2) _To express a W1SH or a REQUEST, e.g.

God save the Queen.

It is requested that answers be written legibly.

(3) In a few phrases like:

"Come what may", "Be that as it may", ,. Far be it from me topersuade you", I. I shan be fifty come Friday",

_F or other forms of the subjunctive t~he 'y~.fb is not inflected. but a SUbjunctive equivalent, e.g, the auxiliary may or might~ is, used instead, e.g.

I have told you this so that you may take precautions. 1 worked hard 5,0 that I might be successful.

The Infinitive'

The INHNITIVE is the form of the verb which denotesacrions or states without reference to number, person or case.

In English it general ly occ urs with to before it, e. g.

I asked him to come .. It was time to go.

.. To err is human, tojorgiv€ divine." 70

THE VERB

To is omitted:,

(a) After all auxiliaries (except ought). e.g,

I may go, J shall speak. He let me speak.

(b) After verbs expressing sens arion, e. g .. See'. hear, feel,

etc" and after the verbs need, make, dare, watch.

I S;'l,W him co me, I dare not go.

He made me listen.

Hut if these verbs are used in the passive the to is used, e.g,

He was heard to speak.

They had been made to work.

(c) After certain phrases" e.g, had better, need hardly, etc.,

as in the foHowing sentences:

You had better go,

I need hardly I ell you it is :5 o, I had rather starve than beg.

We cannot but admire the work you. do. He can but .say how sorry he is.

They do nothing but complain whenever \'N~ see them.

A frequent construction is THE IWFrNlTlVE W]TH THR

ACCUSATIVE (objective)! e.g.

I saw her come in.

1 beUev,eci him to be honest

My friend wants: me to write to you.

EXERCISES

I. What are the names of the moods of Engl.ish verbs and what do the moods show?

"'II. How many of the verbs in the following passage are in the infiniti V0?

Feeling his way through the dar~ness. fh~ t:a veller tried to find the entrance to the castle. Weaned by hIS Journey and almoSt

71

A 'CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

e.xhaus.&d,. hes,taggere,d . on, hoping every momen t to touch. ID.e han.d1e of the dOOJ":,,hich would admit. him, but 11a ving found it. ,b~ wa,s ,overClQrne WIth. disappointment when. bealing On It with his st~k~ . he ~ear-do~y the echo of his frantic knockinJil" He let. fall 1m stlck !in despair.

!lim: .Mab ~~e ofthese sentences stronger by putting the

verbs .mf.o the Jmperatlve mood.

0) Will you please go home now, (2) ~ need help.

0) Please do not make SQ' roucn.nol se. (4) We want to come in.

(:5) You should giw~ him brandy.

·IV. ~e infinitive. in ,E.ngHsh .is g.e.ne:ra.lly preceded by" to " .

Artier which of th.e foUowmg verbs can It be omitted? maketwatth, help, may, dare, should" decide, ought" bad beUet, let.

De Pafodple

The participle ~ a VERBAL ADJECTIVE and is the form of the verb that is used:

(a) to help to form a tense, ,e.g. I am speakb1g. He had written,

(b) as a:nadjective qualifying a noun. OF its equivalent, e.g, the ~illging bird; the broken bottles, being tired of work, the men went home.

Care should be taken that the participle is correctly related to its noun or pronoun:

WaJklllg down the street, J looked into the windows.

: ., .... , •• " '.,., •••• ,.'" ,. ""' •• , ... 0 •• J (C orrectly relared.)

Walkmg down the street; my hat blew off.

: ••••• ,0 ••••••••• n •••••• ' .. '" '" , __ ., •••• ,.: (Misrela ted partieiple.)

Th~, NOMINATIVE A.l'!IDLlITE, construction with a panlcipleis

occasionally found in English, e.g.

Weather permitting! we shallsee you tomorrow. G en.<erally speaking, I understand all he says.

The wOi'kfinj'shed~ we were able to enjoy our noHday., 12

The Gemmill

The ie/rond is a VER18AL NOUN endin.,g in -ing~ e.g, Seeing is beUevt'ng,

If it is :formoofrom a transitive verb it may take an. obj'oot,

e.g,

He is fond of reading ncwels,

Since it is ill noun in function it shculd be precOOled 'by ,th1e possessive adjective or the possessive form of the noun, e.,g.,

Pi'ease ,excuse my interrupting you.

I hope my fdend' ~ com tng has not inconvenienced you.

The gmmd, shoUld be used. after theVf:li l;)IS:

,avoid~ ,can't help~ dmYJ enjoy, dcmtt mind (in inte.rrogaUve and .negative' oSIentenoes), finish, give ti~, keep on~ leave off, mfss, .omit, J'0.stp('me~ practlse ~ pll.'t off, recoltecf! rfsk, srop~ .suggestj• and after the phrases: is wo,th~ itt:; no use.

The gerund. ,or tibebiJdtive can be used after ~

,b,egin, c,ease, continue~ can't boor,. dislike, drea~~. hate; - intend, like, love, reflect, of!ut, prefer, r.emrnnbert

star t,! try.

With verbs in this, se:ctkm. tho principle: lsthat the gerll:nd is used. for a general stateme:rnt" the infinitive fora spoomc

case.~e.,g,

I like going to thetheatre~ and I should like very m~cb to go' to the The.atre Royal to see the new prodlllctJ,on

of nHamleta,

As the gerund does the work ,of a noun, it. is used after

prepositions! e.g,

1 am fond, of swimming and boxing. You can"ttive vii thoue (!at'.ing.

. 73

EXERCISES

1. Comp.!ete each of the fOUow.!ug phrases in two different ways !ising 0) a present panidpre. and (ij) <I pas ~ participle;

(l)a ~ man. (2) a ~ car. (3) a __ bi.rd.

(4) a -. ~. photograph, (5) a +-r-rccm.

'iln, Correct the folJowmg sentences whe:r,e n~e8'&1!ry;

(1) S~ngjngall day, 'the woods were fiUeod with the rnu.8.ic of the bin:is.,

(2) :8'ejng .\'lunday, aU the thea tr-es were closed ..

(3) TUrning on (he Wir-eless.very kmd.ry. complaints came from the,nejg'h.bm"trs,.

(4) Hoping [0 get Ultough qufcldy, the telepho.ne was used. (5) Considered as a strong candidate, .hls det:e:a.t at the ,elect~M was very humma ting"

In. Make a list of six verbs after which (he gerund shoUld be used, and II se each ina sentence,

"'IV. Comph~,te, these :s;enfences with the correct forms of the

verbs in b:rackets.

(1) I prefer (Mlik) to (run),

(2) Can you rernem~r (posE) that Jetter?

1~j ¥he;~~;et;~I~~~~~~.mQnili ago.

(5) He hop~s, (go) to the liniversf~y.

J.lI'reglilla F AuxiU:ades an d Defectjve V.:rihs HAVE

(1) To have as a PIHNCJPAL verb denotes possessJon. e.il.

E have a pencil.

(2) As an AtiXlUA.RY it forms. the perfect tenseS.j e'l. He has d one the work.

(3) It may .bave the meardng mus,t~ e.g,

I have to work very hard to do aU M' Want to,

(4) It Is used idfo.maticaUy in one form only, i.e, had with bener, !''ather, e.g ..

74

TH.lE 'VERB

You had better go and see what is the matter. I had rather not go.

BE

To be as 3" ;PRINCIPAL verb denotes existence, 'e.g.

God. ts. I trunk; therefore I am.,. _

. . .... ..... . d to be is almost always used a,s an

But this use IS very rar;e~an .~~. ses and. the nassive voiee,

. iliarv to form conunucus !l.l;;]1". .• a i- _'. •.. . ..

auxi UI J. . .' . neeessiry obllaation or dut.y~ e,g.

It may also express a....~, . ~ .'.. .. .

~..' ..... 1'·, ·h·· ere' thiS roomlS pnvate,

You are no t to come l... . . ~ .

t eet L.i """"I a t 'n .... ker Street.

We are 0 mee IhlLU . JIJ~_

~. interroS'adon, emphasis ill.

To do (l) expresses negallwiOn~ 0

principal verbs, e.g, .. .

M do not kn.ow him. (Negatl;on.~

Do you know him? (In terrega tien.) I do work hard, (lEmphaSlJ;")

(2) is used to avoid repetition of a verb:

You know that as well as M do.

CA:N

• '. f.' . .'. ..1.i. Its presen t tense is can.~ its past

Can IS a de e.cnv,e: ve~ 1;), . '.. • _ -'. '.' be abk,..,

tense could. AU other forms are supplied l:ly to

MAY

M, )11 is also defective, having mrgh t for its past tense and

.1:.' a..... "tted or allowed for its other forms,

to ,r.;,e permr.. . _ .

It is, used to expr:e:ss, ; (a) PER1USSION~ e.g.

Mal} I g10 home? . . .'

.. ,/ .. . .. "1-] ..' ,'. !I\!' in this cormeetton,

(Can is ctteu used somewhat il oglca~. ~ .:

hould t. •. used ratber to express ability.)

Can 5u011 ce u 75

A CONCISB ENGLISH G.RA M MAR (b) ntOJU.JULlTY or .FOSSlBll.tri' ~

.He m~}colme 'today,but I doubt it very much. I went fut so tha t I mi,ht catch him up.

MUS"

M ust is used only in thep.rtsent~e,[ilse, For other tenses h'QV€ to is used.

It ,expre-lses a NECBSSl.lY :

Must J go flOW'?' Yes, you rnwt"

Ol1GIiT

Ought has the same :form fO'f presen t and past tease, n has no othe.r parts.

It expresses a~oral DUTY or OB:t[GAnON ~ Youo~g:lu to pay YOW" debts"

,EXERCISES

T. .~ how ~y differe.nt seoses can. the verb "to have "be ~d?

EX,pJa,m 'them and, fot eaeh, wrhe a sentenoo to Hi:Wltratc your I!!lSWC:r.

!I!ID. ~ewrhe ~~ :foU~wm_g sente.ncos~ introducing mtQ ,each an

cxpressmn contammg tl\J.everh ~jbave .';

(1) He owns t~ motO:r-cars.

1(2) We ru~ys dd~k coffee for OI~St.

(3) Is itD~' fo.:!' me to wait for an amwer? (4) Ow: house is' bring red~ofalted,

(5) We must leave early tomorrowmor~. (6) They were obHged to pay .hirn.tlLe mo:oey.

(7) n was not necessary to me to ,go them ,after aU.

(8) You know you are notaUowed to touch iliOcso books. (9~ He mUS!fin.is·h those letters tonight.

(10)' They needn't do 'that imnIediarely.

TIl; Make two. sentences in whioh the verb "te be, ~. as a priucipm: ve.rb!s used to ;~p'r,ess necessity or obHgatfon--one in tful, atfuma.tive fOm1J and one m 'the negaHV'e.

76

THE VERB

"'IV. Complete th~ foll1owing sentences with the, correee ~ense of the verb can or be ah.te:

(1) l'he.re is n.o hurry; you --. give it, t,o me tom~f[Gw. . ' ,(2) ] have no classes, on. Sa tmday. so ] --_ to V'mfiemy ~5Bay

then, .

(3) He said. 1-- usehis telephone at any t~me,

(4) I -- to buy the book yesteI1day beeausehis shop ~~ closed. (5) He -~ understand, that ~oQk !a~t ~. booaUli~ 11 was too

. dif'ficult, bu t now IDtI.t his Englisb ~s .improvmg he soan ~ do so easily.

·V . Use •• mary '\ ~" mlgh'P' ~ 'I~ must" or ' , ought" to. compret~

the fono~ sentences.

(1) - I tome to ·sec you next SWliday? . . .'.

(2) I -- go to .Londcl'lll tomo.rrow oo~ [ have not yet dJecJ.ded. (~) You ,-- not to .smokesomafiY'Cl~arette.s,

(4) ~ YOIl finish ail those Jetton wl:lIg_ht? ••. ., .

($)1 She 1Q]d me that she - te1ephom dds ~n:mg but aluld nat promtlse to do, so,

DUcct aDd Iodireet S,eech

In DntECl speech we have the 'exact words of the speaker, e.g, He :said "I am lea:rmng English. ~~

Ia INmRJiCl'~ or ImF'()R.TED speech we give the same meamnl bet with. a different form to indicate that the w,ards have been reported .~m:llirectly by another speaker, e.g.

He s aid that he was learning EngHsh.

When" as usu.aUy happens, the reported speech is inU'()Qluced by a. verb im the past tenses, the fol[owing changesta~ place.: (0 V,eru. V,erbs inthe direct speech are changed ]n~o, then'

ccrrespe awn! past tense, Thus:

S:i:mple Presen t becomes Simple. Past

Sim.:ple Past H Plupe!."fect.

Pus,e;nl CO:llti[llll,Qus!~ Part Continuous

Present Perfect ~,Past Perfect

Future

n Condiitio,.o& 77

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR Examples :

U I am the teacher. I' He said that he was the teacher. tEACHER.: U The boys are working hard." The teacher said that the boys were wor kin g hard. '~I have finished readin g the btl ok." He said that be hadfinishe.d reading the book.

UM,ary wm take the children horne." She said that Mary w()Uid take the children h ome.

'¥here the direct speech expresses a UNIVERSAL PACT the verb is, not changed into the past tense. e.g.

DIRECT: The lecturer said. "The earth moves round the sun."

lNDmECT: The lecturer said that the earth mO'fes round the sun,

(2) Pronouns and possessive ailjecthes. The pronoun is

changed in FERSON from. first and second to third. Thus;

I becomes he or she

we n they

you u he, him, her or them

e.g. DIRF!CT: "I have finished my work."

]NDlRECT: He said that he had finished his work. IJJ.RJ::CT : U You have done your 'Work wen. ~!

rNDlEECT: He told them that they had done their work: wen.

If, however, the person referred to in the: reported speech is the reporter himself, the second person in the. direct speech will become first person in the indirect speech, e"g.

D-TRECT: • ~ I win see you later."

INDIRECT: He said tha t he would see me later.

(3) Adjectivl~$ :KnQ ad'lr'erbs. Words denoting neatness in time or place become the corresponding words denoting remoteness. so:

i8

THE V.I2.RB

this

these

now ,today

last night tomorrow here

becomes that those

then that day

on the previous li.ight

the next day, the .day aftet there

meet you here either todav or to-

e,.g. DlRECT: "1 cannot .... ~ :7

mQrrDW.,"

INDIRECT: He said that he could not meet them there

either that day or the next.

(4) QuesdoiDs. Question.s should be introduced. by a word

U ke a~ked, inquired~ etc., 'e. g. pnmcr; H Wha t do you want?"

INDIRECT: He .inquir€d what they wanted. .

DIRECT: The teacher said •• , Are you sure yOIl have all

understood me?" .

]NlDlRECT: The teacher asked if they were sure they had all

understood him.

(.5) Commands. Commands should be introduced by a. word! like ordered, cO'mmanded~ told, ete., followed by the

infiniti ve,

DIRECT: ., Let me go."

INDU'tE'cr: He ordered them to let him go.

DlRECT: The officer said to the sentry. "Stay here til1 you are relieved,';

INDIRE-CT: The officer told the sentry to' stay there till be

was relieved,

Mn changing a pas sage from the direct to the indirect care should be taken to avoid amblguity, e .. g.

DIREct: Tom. said, "Harry, you have won the prize." . rNDIRECT; Tom told Harry that he had won the first puze" 79

A CONCISE ENGLISH GR.AMMAR

Here "he" may be Tom 01(' Harry. Ambiguitymay be avoided by writing:

Tom told Harry that he (Harry) had won the first prize, Of.'

Tom told Harry that Harry had won the first prize, or:

Tom told Harry that the latter had won the first prize.

EXERCISES

'*l. Rewrite the folIowin:g sentences changing preseru tense to

pastand, wh.er.e possi ble, smguhu to plural;

m He lies awake for a while and then sleeps again. (2.) The bird builds its nest and[ EeOOs its young.

(3) She bids me goad-bye and weeps,

(4) The d,og bites the burglar and dings to him with its teeth. (S) He teacbesthe girl to' understand w3lat she reads,

(6) He drinks some of the wa ter and ftmgs the rest away. (7) The bird. :fiies high and si:n~ while the sun shines,

('8) The spider sp1ins- a web and. strives to catch a tly.

(9) The hen lays me egg and goes away.

(10) He always meana what he says.

*]]. Wlwlt is wrong with the following sentences?

(1) The sprin.g flowers are now in bloom and. crocuses and daffo dils may be seen. vmJking in Hyde P·ark.

(2) Elizabeth s~t on a stool. by then.msery tire. Securely pierced by atoa:stirlg~fork she: held a piece of bread to the fire,

(3) After eating ill, good. breakfast, the tar was brought rouad and VI'e set off again.

(4) As dJie man laid down for a fow minutes he saw that the hen. had lain all, egg in the stra w.

(5) Mycoat was wove by a geed weave'J but it is Wore out

now,

jjlUI. :PU,t tn.e following sentences in to indirect (]['epot~ed) g~ech usm.g tl!:rree different tenses-present, future, and present perfect for

the reporting verb: .

0) lam going to the theatr-e this evenmgl

(2) They are-very lao te for the tram.

80

THE VERB

(3), She has just rewR'!/ed a letter from her pu¢nts. (4.' We aretrying t . .(~o~o om.wOf. k well.

(5) You have .3" fine hbrary 1:11 yom town,

mv. Make a list o·f the changes In the tenses: o.f verbs which must be. m~.dle when dimc,t sp~ is-turned into indirect :speech.

.V. Put irr~CI indirect speecb, using the verb in brackets .11>0 in.tro~

duoo me sootence:

(1) Take that rubbish away .. (order)

(2) Look at that beautiflll sunset, (beg) (3) DOIl't 'make so Il,UlCn nelse, (ask) (4) Carry OOt.S'7ge.an~ MaJor. (ten)

(5) Have a mW .. (invite)

Vi. Can you exp1am the different uses ofthev~Ibs ~~say~' ami I! teU l' m iridmt (reportf'ld) speeOO? Show. by. exam~les me constru,ctions, which must be employed when they are used.

VII. Howmanv fauns of' w·ords ean you think of to repleee '~They said 'Yes/t and "He said. 'No'\U when they are 1iLmled into indi1«.t sp~h?

*VTII. Turn the fo1[owling sententeS into indirect (I·e;port:ed)

speech: .. .. . ...

(1) 1 said to the bus COr.!d.iUctor~ uHow long does It take to get

to Kew Gardens'?"

(2) Shall I post that letter fQr you? (3) Can you ~ell me the time. please?

(4) ~'Where do we go fr-om her:e? n ~1;e:y. a:rud.

(5) What do you mean by talkl~g hke th~? ,_ .... .. . ....'1 {6) Were you: W1weU last Slmda:y~ Why diM. t you let us know.

(7) Are fueyfnjoying their stay in London?

(8) May I help yOLl with your hQme~ol'k? .

(9) Can Y01!l tell. us why you are so happy? . .

(10), Is this the castle where the treasure \V03i.S. fo:undl

IX. How do you change the imperative w. direct speech lnto the linfini tivein indireet speech? Make two sentences as examples, of woot must be done. How ma>ny differem verbs do you know Whl~ can be-used to in tmduoo tb~ sen tence in mdirect speech when th~s

change is made?

81

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

·X. Introduce the following sentences in. indirect speech with

verbs in the past tense: _

(1) They say that the new film at the Plaza was not well received. (2) My brother wants to join the Air Force when he Ie43;ves school, Don't you think it is rather a dangerous career?' (3) Om yeu lend us rrJ/~ until Saturday? No, I'm hard-up myself,

(4) "Will you come round for a game of bridge tomorrow evening?" "I'm afraid I am not a good enough player for you, but I should Uk,e to come and watch."

(5) Do you think it's good for my digestion jf 1 eat food 1. den't like?

*Xill. Turn, the following sentences into indirect speech introduced

by verbs in brackets,

0) Shall] help you now? (enquire)

(2) Shall I ever master English prcnuneiaticn? (wonder) (3) Shan I see you, again before you rea'y.e? (ask)

(4) Will you take ,it with yOU! or shall I send it? (want to know) (5) ShaH I turn on the wireless for the news? (ask)

-XII. Put the ~oJ1.owing sentences in to indirect speech:

0) I 'want to telephone to yaHI' mother. What is her number?' (2) How long will it be before the examination result is announeed?

(3) I ha ve sailed round the world thuty times but many people do not believe me when T say so,

(4) I will post those, letters for you, if you giv,e me the 'money for the stamps.

(5) They ma.y not be delivered before Monday.

·XlII. Change the following sentences into direct sp-eech: (1) They promised me. tba,t they would write to me.

,(2) He often wondered what it would be like to be very rich. (3) The criminal admi Heel hisoffence but asked for a ren:ient

sentence for the sake of his famiJy.

(4) She was SUJi1e that she had not locked the front door and made her little. eta ughter Mary go back to see.

(5) TIley asked US if we always went there for our ho]idays and then they said we ought to, have ~et them kDOW sooner hut ilia t there would still be time tor us to go on some 'excursions with them.

82

THE VERB

*XJV. Put the following into indirect speech:

. • ~ I say you have d~~~ed Ar~! " Wha:" youagai~ answer! , ha ve we not art exhibitices miles long, and. do no t we pay

_ d fi ' ' le oi t .... =,,? .. nd have we not art

thousanda of p 0'00 is ' or smg ,.., P , m .....". <LJ!JL."" ., . .. ..'

schocls and in.stitutions~ more than ever nation had be:Bore?

Yes" trulJj but all that is for the sake of the shop. You :-V0lll~ like to sell canvas as well as: coals; and. crockery as well as iron. (Riuk{n.)

.xv. (1). What. do you mean by the concord of subject and

verb? ' _

(2) What is: (a) a transitive verb; (b) a strong verb; (c) an

auxiliary verb?' . . . . ,. . ... _ "

(3) Explain the uses of the. following tenses: (~! the _~~!pl~ Present; (b) the Continuous; (c) the Present Perfect:

(d) the SimpLe Past. . . .

, ~1. f" ~1. 11" and "will ~I

(4) DlSCUSS me use 0 M.ll'!. ··U .... '..' _ __.

(5) How is (a) the Negatlve; (b) the Interroganve form of the

verb shown?

(6) Vlhen is the "toO H of .the ~ti\'e on;t.·~tedlJ

(7) How does a. gerund differ from a particlple? Give examples

to illustrate your answer.

83

CHAP'TER V] I

THE PREP OSITION

A FRBPO~l'rlON is.a word. which is used witb. a noun or pronoun to show its relanon to some oth.er word in the sentence.

I:;XA.M?::_LES·:

I looked through the window. He spoke to me.

I .haa a. lette,r/ro.m them.

The preposition alway.s governs a noun ox pronoun in. the OBlIIlCTIVE case, so you should write, .. Theprize was dlvfded be,~el~ ~ou and me~u never U between you and In

This 111 the boy whom I gave it re,"

. It isCODsid.eIOO better 's.t~le; especially in. writing) not to end a sent_e[lce With ~ prepositton; forthis reason it is preferable to wnw U That isthe boy to whom I gave it n ra ther than .!·w.h~~ I lave. it i«. But In con versaticn we should always .say~ What are you here for?" never U For what are vou h.er~?U;,I'What is he talking about?" not !"Abo1<jt what i; he talking?' ,

_ .. The same word rna.,), be used ~s a preposition. or as an adv~b~_ but ,the prepo\'}itio~ aiways, governs the noun or its, ,equlvalen.t; the adverb modlfies the verb.

PREPOSlTlONS His hat is on his h.ead.

In_ I n I.~ •• ,.~ •• I.;

He walked p~8t the do?".

::~ '.rn "' "., ~ I.' i"I ~ i !

We are intne room.

. -

;:; il~~'li~'~~~~ •• ,., ~

ADVf.iJRBS

He p~t his hat on ..

. :

~ I ~ ... , ~~.'.III. ~., n iI~ ., •••

Come in.

~ ~

• ~~ -I •• I. I •• ~

84

'HIE PREPOSITION

Princlpa] P!l'epositions

ThefoHo,wing are some of the principal prepositions with sentences to illustrate their 'Use:

AIlOUT. He looked about him.

He told me everything about the case. I shall see you abo'ut six o'clcck, mER. He came after tea.

Iha ve had. one trouble afler another. The '0 OJ' was ealled after his yandfather.

AOAfNST. It's no use running: y0111' head against a stone wall.

I do it against my wilt

I have warned you against this danger.

Ay·(pluce). He is at home now, at Liverpool, ,(;It sea, etc.

- (time). He came on Saturday at 4 o'clock inth.e af~em.oon. l(verb9 of motion). We arrlv~d as Victoria Station. (So also: to stop at, throw at.~ point at, leek at.)

(verbs of emotion). Htwas aransed armco (So, too: astonished at, surprised at" to' rejoice at'.)

T.nesc are ,{ ~~e§ht }atnve shillings each.

He ,came lilt cnce, (So, teo, at lutJ at easel a.r leisll[,e~ to }./J..1,..~ ..» be at a loss, at work, at pThay.)

B~. My house: is b,etw,een twa la:rp ones.

B~ (place). Come and sf 1l. by the fire.

','\ J (time). I :shal1 have finished bY' Friday.

t I ha"ve always done my duly by you.

Take him by the hand. We stU this by the :pound. He is paid by the hour,

This piece of music is by BeethoveJI.

Ile8rned. it by heart.

FOR. This is for me,

I am here for two years, then. ~leave for France ..

- 8S

A CONCISE .ENGLISH G.RAM MAR Go home for your book and lookfor it. Sheffield. is noted for its cutlery.

He was Imprisoned for life.

For all his learning, he was not wise. He sold his house/or £l~OOO.

Don't translate word for' word.

FRQM.~ They have gone away from home.

I have cleaned the housefrom top to bottom, This is quite different from that.

He is never free from pain or from cafe.

IN (position). I am. sitti.ng in the room, in a. house, in London.

The things were piled in O! heap.

He is 'badly in deot,but is. in good. health. The answer was in the, a:ffirmative.

In reply to yQUI' letter we beg to state . . . It arrived just in time to help me"

These things happened in the reign of Queen Victoria.

INtO ,(denotes mot.ion). He walked into the room. OF What did he (He of?

The children of the po or wer-e eared for. Tha t is a. real work of art.

He gave me a piece of good advice .. That box is made of lea ther,

The whole a/England wascovered with snow. The City of Edinburgh is, renowned in history.

ON (place). He stood on the deck.

(time). He came Oin Saturday.

(dependence). He lives an his father.

(manner). He did It on the. sly, on purp ose, (directIon), The army mar-ched on London. (=concerning). He gave a lec-!ureon .~~ Books",

10 (motion towards). He walked. to my house. (time). He was punctual to the minute.

WHH. He has had. a conversation with me, 86

TH.!E PREPOSI nON she is a girl with blue eyes.

I shall do 1t with pleasure,

He stayed with me for a fortnight. They were stiff with cold.

He is popular with his students,

I Notes _gill ~Q.e Pre.29sifii9!!S "')

(Il AT,_)w. A t refers .to a point oftime e. ts [0 a lsrger ~p-a~e

of time) e.g.

He came at 10 o'clock in the morning.

Similarly for a small place we use Qt. He lives at Wi,gan, but: He lives in London,

(2) BEsrDrE= U by the side ef'" e .. g.

He, sat beside his wife. 9ES]EH~.S,= "in addition j.

There are others here besides you.

(3) ~Y_ ~]}d. WITH., By is generally used for the PtlRSON~ Wilh- for the INS-T:RUMENT~ ,e.g.

Caesar was stabbed with a sword by.Brutus.

(4) nErw~ ~_QNG- Between is generally for two--among for more than two.

The sweets 'Were divided between the- two children. The sweets wer-e divided among the :five children.

(5) SINCE and !FOR., Sin:ce]s used for aPO]NT OF TIME, for is u-sed for a period of time, e.g.

{ ]950.

. . . . _. . February .

I have been here smce Frida y.

4o·c1ac'k.

but I have, been here for sixmonths, NEVER.: since six months.

D B7

A CONCISBENOLll.SH '!GRAMMAR

(6) FOR and BEH1RB. In a negativesentence for is used for a PERIOD of time, and. before f.or apO>INT' of time, thus:

He will not be here for an hour yet.

He wm not be here before seven o' dock.

(7) IN and INTO. In denotes ]?OSrnON or REST, whilst into denotes MOTlONt e.g,

A student walked. into the room i'H which we were sitting. (8) 1M and. W]TH[N. When rdening to time, in denotes the close of a pence, within denotes a. time less than the close of the period, e.g.

I shall return in a ye~ar's time (=after a year).

I aha 11 return within a year (= beforea year has elapsed)

EXERCISES

t With what parts, of speech are prepositlons used and whu case al ways follows ~a preposhl0Jl? Give ex:amples to m ustra te your answer.

U. In what different senses can the,. follow~ ~IleposidoDS be used? For leach. sense make a sentence 111ustfatilll.,g u.s use,

for, into, by, OD .• with, at; among, between, about, towards.

"'In. Which are the cerrect prepositions to use in the followmg se;o,ten.ces ?

0) Sllakes,peare was bern ~- Stratfo1'd~o{n~Av,oiI! 'OU.U spent much of his life ~ London. (in" at)

(2) He was -- himself with MXiety (be:sfdes.bes.ide;).

(3) The pro'nts Wer-e divided -_. the two partners, (among,

between)

(4) They kept us wai.tmg -_- half an hour. (since,_ for)

(5) We have arranged to meet -_ Monday mornmg, (at" on) (6) The class begins -- 9.0 c'cloek, (at, on)

(7) Ifyou sit -_ me we can. havea quiett:hat. (besides.beside)

(8) The train wJU no E arrive -- another hour. (for. before) (9) ~- what time do you get up? (in, at)

(10) You may expecit me ~ 6J) p.m. and 6..30 p.m, (within. between)

88

THE PREPOSITION

·]V, Explain the differences of meaning in the foLlowin.g sen-

lences:

(1) 1 shall have finished .mywork before 7.0 o'clock (2) I sha1l have finished my work by 7,,0 o'clock,

(3) I shall. have finished my work ar 1.0 o'doek.

Prepositions after eerta~fll WOiN:ls

Certain words are genera Uy followed by particular prepo sitions, Very often, especiall y with verbs, that are fre q uently used, many prepositions are used, each one giving a different rneaning to the verb.

Prepos~Uol)Cs Blier Verbs

a.bstainfrom wrong apply oneself to work

account for the bappenlng approve of what is done

account to a person for money ask for me if I am not here

en trusted ask abo ut a perso n who is in

accuse of a crime ask of a person, e.g, "No

acquit of blame matter what you ask, a/him,

admit of an excuse 11 e v.ill rise to the ocea si on/ i

admit to a secret aspire to fame

agree to 81. proposal atone /01' a wrong

agree with a person att.end to business

agree about the same thing attend on <1:. person who is

aim at an 0 bject helpless

allude to a matter avail oneself of an oppor-

an swer to the n arne o.f- !Unity

answer to someone for a per- banish trouble from you

son's character bear with aman's faults

annoyed at a. thing become of a penon or thing,

annoyed wrth a person for e.g, 01 I don't know what

what he has done win become of rum if he

appeal to a pen on loses his situation,"

apply to someone for a situa- beg /01' help

don believe ina person or creed

89

A CONCI8E ENGLISH GRAMMAR

beware a/the dog

Marne a person for a fault boast of wha tone h as done border on: the ridiculous borrow from (or ,oj) a person bow to a person or thing break into a house

break oneself of a habit break bad news to a person break wirh (=cease friendly

relations "'itll) a person - bum with anger

'burst into flame

buy from, a pers on or sh op call. on a person (visit him) call to a person (shout) call/or a friend to. accompa.ny

him

call for commen t (require) 'care for or about a. person or thing;

cau tion a person at,ainn s omething or someone

change for money, or destina-

tion

change into evening dress charge a person with a crime charge a person. for goods

bought

come across a person or th.ing (W.e, meet accidentally) come by a thing (i.e. obtain) come in !orpunishment (=receive)

come tnto one's head (= suggest itself)

come into fashion

come of a thing (=be the result)

come to=sm.ount to, e.g,.

"What does my bin come to?"

compare with (tor similar things)

compare to (for dissimilar things)

com p]aino! or about a person air thing

complain to a person

conceal from a-person conclude sometltingfl'om what

was said

confer on a subject

confide a secret to a person ccnfide in a person's honesty confine to ill room

conform to opinion congratulate a penon on doing

something

consent to

consist of or in correspond with a person,

correspond to a paUeE.EI

count m~ a person (tle[y DQ) count for nothing (=is of no

value)

cure of a disease

deal well or badly by a. person

90

THE PR.EPOSITION

deal in eommodi ties

deal wllh 81. person (trade with) deal with a subject (discuss: it) debate on or about a" subject decide an an acti (I n

decrease In size

defend at penon from an attack

degenerate into worthlessness deliberate (i.e, think, ponder)

on a subject delight. in something

deliver a person from danger demand of oor from (but make

demands on) a person depart from Euston for Scotland

depend on a person or thing

(but independent of) deprive a person of a thjng despair of doing something die of a disease

differ from a person or thing disapprove of something dismiss a thing from your

mind

dispose of a thing

d i ssuade a penon /I"fJn1 d ci ng

something

distinguish one from another divide in ha]f~ into four parts drink to it person's health

d well on a subject

embark for France

embark in business encroach on one's rights end in a fight

.:II + L

eno WI/,n: prayer, song (for a.

meeting)

engage in fight

enter upon a career

entrust a person wlth something

entrust a. thing to a person err on the safe side

e 5tH p e from prj so n

each an ge on e thing for another

exclude a person from a place excuse a person for a. thing j from coming

exile from his country extend to a place

fail in an a ttempt

fain t witl: hunger

faU in w.tlh an offer fan among thieves

fall in love w.l'lh a person fall on the enemy (=aUack) fall into a mistake

fall under a person's dis-

pleasure

feed, on meat, vegetables fill with a S II bsta nee

flee from danger

fly at a person (e.g, a dog flies at a burglar)

fly into a rage

91

.~ CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

free from trouble

gain on someone (in a race) gaze at or on a thin g 01' pel's on get at (=find out) facts

get over an illness

g,et on lvith a person

get by heart (=lea:m)

get through an examination get up an entertainmen t glance at a book

glance over a letter

glory in one's strength grieve at Of' for an event grieve for a person

grow upon Ollie (for a habit) hear oj or about or from a

person

hide from someone

hinder a person from doing

something hint at a fact hope jot the best

imp ose on ( = decei ve) a person impress an idea on a person increase in numbers

indent for material

indict a person for a crime indulge in luxury

Indulge oneself with some-

thing

inquire after a person inquire about a person

inquire into a matter (=iovestigate)

insist on doing something introduce a person to someone jest on serious subjects

join in a movement

judge a person by his deeds jump at conclusions

kick against oppression know a person by his walk laugh at a. person

lean against a wall

lean upon a stronger person lean to (favour) a certain

opinion leav·efor 3!. place

listen to a person or thing listen in. to a wireless concert live on simple food

live for praise) weal-tho etc. live by work

live on. an inco me

live within. one's means rive beyond one's means, long/or pleasure

look after (=gua:rd) one's

goods

look at a person or thing look into (~examine) a matter look for a lost til in g

look over (r=examine] briefly a matter (but to overloo'k= to neglect by carelessness) look through an account

( .= exami ne earefull y) look om 0/ the window

92

THE PR.EPOSITION

look upon someone: as a friend make away with (=steal) make for (=-conduce to) hap-

piness

:make out the meani n g

make up to (=fiatter) a person make r4p /0' some loss (= re-

compense)

make up one's face

make up one's mind (=decide) marvel at somethin g or some-

one

meddle with or in other

people'saffai rs meet with succes s

mourn for the loss of a person object to a person or thing operate on a person

part with a thing

pa tta ke of a meal

pass from one thing to another pass for a. stupid person

pass 0 ver (= disregard) some-

thing

pass by my house

perish by the sword

perish with cold

persevere in good we rk persist in doing something pine for whatwe have not play/of a team

playa trick on someone point at a person

prais e for good work

prepare for war k

present a person with a thing preserve from harm

preside m or o~er a meeting prevail on a person to do

something

prevent/rom doing something proceed with your work proceed from where we are to - some other place

proceed. against ( = prosecute)

a person

prof t by our mistakes protect someone from danger qua rrel about a matter

reckon on (=confidently expect) something

reckon with (=aoswer to) some-one

reconcile one-self to misfortune reconcile oneself with an

enemy

recover jrom an illn ess refer to a matter

refiect on a person's character refrainjrom wrongdoing rejoice at a person's good luck relate to a matter

tel y on a persoll

remind <me of S ometh in g repent of a crime

reply to a letter

reproach with a fault reprove him [ov a fault

93

A CONCISE ENGLISH: GRAMMAR

resol lie on improvemen t restrain a person from an act restrict to certain limits

res ul t /rom (a cause)

res ult in (a can sequence) rid of an u nwelcome thin g rlog/or the waiter

rob of one's wealth

run after popular things run Into debt

run through (=squande.r)

money

run up an accou n t (=j neur) sail/ora foreign country save from harm

search/or a lost thing

see about (= consider) a ma Uer seeint'o (=invesUgate) am affair see through (=not be deceived

by) an imposture:

see to (= at tend to) a busines s se t ab~tit (= begi n) your wor k set a person in authority over

others

set Up01'J. a man (= alttack) share in another's troubles shelter from the fa in

shoot at a. target

S.iEjfl for what is not

smile at a person's foolishness smile on (=f,l,Vottr) a person speak 0/ a matter

speak about or Q,n at subject speak: with people

s P eak to a Iriend

spend one's time in dcinggccd stand agains: an 'enemy

stand by (=help) a friend stand on one's dignity

s ta re at a person

stare a person in the face strive for what you want struggle for the right struggle agains~ wrong subsist em poor food

succeed in doing a. hard task succeed 10 an inheritance

sue for money owi 11 g

suffer from a. disease

supply a thing to a person supply a person with a thing surpass everyo n e in some-

thing

suspect someone of wrongdoing

take after II, person. ( ~ resemble)

take a person for someone (=conflue him with another)

take to' a. bad habit

take in a person. (~deceive) takeze a person (=Iike him) take on a task (= promise to

do)

take up one's time (=fiU)

take up music ("""begin to study)

THE flRElPO is ITI ON

10 0 l'erta ke a person (= COl tch up and pass)

talk o] or about aperson or

thing

tal k o V(!J' ( = discuss) a rna tter tal k to or with a pers on

taste of a fla vour

tell of, about a thing or person th ink () f, about a thing or per-

son

think. 0 vet (=p onder on) a

matter

th irst for inf erma tion

throw thlngser something throw food to the chickens touch upon a rna tter (= men-

tion. brief y)

trade in certain gOQ(h; translate into another language

OlD. 101 e 0 nesejf about something

trust in a penon trust to his honesty

trust a" pers on with money ~ etc. turn into verse from prose turn into the house (= go in) turn to a friend! forbelp

tum o.n (=aUack) aperson turn 'Upon (~b.inge Qn-d.e~

pend on)

val ue a person!or his charac-

ter

wait for a person or thing wait at table (a. maidservant) wait on (=attend) a person warn a person of danget warn a pers on ag a ins t til. fault watch for a. sign.

weep for a misfortune withdraw from a room wonder ala strange thing write about, on, a subject to' a

person

abhorrent to one's feelings a bsent from class:

absor bed in work accustomed to work

ad vantageous I () a: pers 0 i1I affected by a sad thing afflicted by di sease

akin to a [lela ted matter alarmed at a noise

1)*

alarmed by a noise allied loa helper

amazed at the i nformatron angry with a person at some-

thing done

a nxi a us abou t ~ /01', a person' 5 safety

!:lpparent from what was said apt to do a thing

95

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

ashamed of a person

a stonished at what ] s seen attached to a person attentive to a lesson

a verse to or from d 01 11 g a

thing

a. ware of what t ]5 ha ppe ning blind to one's faults

bound for a place

charmed with, by) a person clear oj, from, fault

dos,€: to) by., a place comparable faa. th in g concerned for caabotu a per-

son

confined to the home consequent em some cause conspicucus for honesty con tingent (= eondl tionar)

success

dazzled with sucees s

deaf to entreaties

deficient in intelligence delighted with a present determined on doing some-

thing

devoid ofintemgenoe different from

disappointed ofa thing disappointed in a present disappointed with a person d i sgusted with a t hi rl g displeased witt: a person disqualified Jot a situation

disqualified from trying fora post

eager for promotion ea S J of access

empl oyed in a trade emp 1 oyed at a wor ks

employed by an employer engaged in work

engaged to a person engaged by an employer entangled in difficulties envious of other people

exempt from duty

faint with fatigue familiar w.ith a language

free. from care glad of the news go ad for nothin g

on good at his work hardened to misfortune ]I] oj.a dise ase impatient at an event impatient for a desire

impervious to damp impolite to a person incensed at a wrong

indebted to a. person indebted for a thing

i 11 dependent: of a perso n

i ndifferent to a s ubject indignant at a wrong being

done

indignant witt: a person innocent of« crime

96

THE PREP 0 SITJON

iF18<el1s1ble of an obligation inspired with feeling

i ntended for a person intent on ones work inte!lestedin one's work

i rrita ted at delay

jealous ofone!s reputation just to everyone

kind to all

lavish of gifts,

lavish inexpendi ture lis. 'DIe to mistake loyal to a friend mad with someone merciful to the weak moved to tears

moved with compassion moved at the s,igh t of moved by en treaties n.egUgento f duty

noted for good work

o bedlent to orders

offended mtha person offended at something done overcome wuh grid

pale wit It suffering .

paraUel to or with a thing partial to a. favourite trung. particular ob out things pleased wi til a pen on or

thing

polite to a person. pam in W orldl y goods popularwUh everycne

p:roud ofomls work qualified for the task ready fOJ'anytliling reckless of consequences regardless 0 f conseq uenees related to :1, person remarkable jot talent remote from a place requisite /01' one's needs reponsible to a person respon si ble for thin gs

revenge on a personfor a thlng

done

rich in certain qualities safe from harm

satisfied with one's work, secure from, against attack seized with cramp

sensible of an injustice separate from others shocked at a terrible thing sick of doing something slow of heari ng

slow in making a decision slow at his work

sorry for a. wrong

struck with pity

suitable for a purpose suitable to one's position suited totlle occasion suited for his work surprised at a thing suspicious of a person terrified at" by, with a noise

97

A CONCISE ENOLISH GRAMMAR

thoughtful of, for others thoughtless of others, tired of war k

tir~d with one's exertions transported with joy treacherous ttl 3. person troubled about a thin g

. ll

UJ!lCl Vi wa person

unfit/or work unjust to a person used to hard WOF It

vexed. at a thing

vexed with a person abo w a

thing

void of lneanin g

weak with exerticns weak o!understanding weak in the head we<li.ry o/work

wet with rain

worn. O!U with illness zealous /01', in a cause

admission loa, place

(to ta.ke) I'dvantage of a per~ son or thing

analo~y of one thing w#ha:oother

an tipathy to a person

arri val at a place

arrival in a coun try attendance ate. place attendance ,on a perso n :tli.l!lthodty over a person authority on a subject authority 1m' a statement aversion from 'OF to a thing or

perB01i1

benevolence to ward th e foor in or under the circumstances claim against someone contemporary (noun) of some-

one

contemporary (adjective) with

someone

contrast 1.0 a thing contribution. to' a collection decision on a matter

disagr-eement wilh a person disgust at drunkenness dislike of a person or thing distrust of a person or thing doubt of or about a pe]"so n evasion of a condition exception to a rule experience of a thing expe-rience in doing things

(to have, a) genius for Janguages

(to be) a genius in, at, Ianguages

gratitude for a favour hatred of a person or thil1g

98

son

influence 0'1:1 events interest in a su bject key of the door

key to a: pro blem libel on a person Uking.jor a person

longing for or after a thing rna: teh for a person ne:glecto! duty

neglect in doing a thing offen'Cf:: against the law parody oj or on a poem pride in strength

proof of inn ocence

pro of against bribery

quarrel with a person

quarrel between two people reflection o'n a man's character regard. for one's feelings; in,

(or wl.th) regard to a matter reputa tion for honesty

in search .of ~old

a slave to drugs

stain on one's hcneur

a taste of pleasure (experience) a taste for pleasure Oiking) find a use for S! thing

what's the use of it?

victim .of tyranny

'Witness ,oran event

EXER.CISES

1. What prepositions are wed after the followin,g verbs: oongrat._u.~. t.::e.-.~. deP.·.eilJ. d, beg,. I~ave~en.tet, point, Ifl:ugb~ rely" prevent, suffer?

Illustrate each one in a senteece,

n. E:<piain tlw djff>e:r~ of me,an~g between the following pairs of expressions and rot each. expression compose a sentence to show its meaning. (l) fisk for, ask of. (3) ]ive by~ live on. '(5) speak ID~ speak of. ('7) take 'Up, ta~e 00. (9) succeed to. succeed In,

(2) oompare with, compaJIe to. t 4) look. through,. loot for.

(6) tum 1!IpO~ tum on.

(8) think over, think a bout. (10) gr~eve at, grIeve: for.

*EII. Add. the prepositions necessary to comp~ete the £oUowing sentencea

(1). I was so absorbed - my boot tha t I did not Dotfce the time.

(2) He was very ashamed - his rode behaviour.

99

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR (.3) Fu.noo lscelebratsd -~ it'S cookmg,

(4) She is distan.t]y related. -_. my w]fe.

(5) One soon becomes weary -- the English winter,

(6) He's a bad student; he never seems really interested -his. work,

(1) 'fhe seldler is responsible -- his commanding offieer bu t ilia t offioe]" j salsa responsible -- his troops.

(8) I was disgusted -- hls laziness.

(9) We were delighted -~ yOlJ.t vLsit.

(]D) Wh~ she was a student, she became ~:ngaged -- a young

man who was then engaged --. writing a thesis and was

_ atterwards engaged ~- the Universi ty as a lecturer.

(11) He leams English very e:asiJy; he has ill gift ~-~ languages,. (12) The-re js :00 doubt -- it: -English pronunciation is v-e'ry

'11 '.' '~."1

L O,gl'ril.!,

(13) H~ was punished (or his neglect ~ duty. (l4) Have you any authori ty _- _ sayin.g that?

(IS) I have a great djslike: -- .his beha.v.lQ1iH but unfol'tml<lltely I have no authority ~ him and cennot prevmt him -- acting like that.

IV. Change the meaning of the foUo-wing words by a.ddjng prepositlons before or after them. N .B.. In some cases the pre~ positions used wiU be joined to the words and in some cases various meanings can be expressed by a"ddi.ng diff~Iem.t preposinces to the same word.

th!-ow, call, look" estimate, balance, wander) e_mphasiuj burst, ge-t~ see,

>iV, Supply the tnfssmg prepositions :in the follow.ing sentences:

(1) I eongratula te you .--~- yOUf Sllccess. -

(2) Oruce 3. person has had a taste -- the gaiety of Paris. he develops a. taste - it

(3) I feel ve.ry vexed. -- John --.his work.

(4) I warned him ~ extravagance and -- the danger of

hrurowlng money. -

(5) J 10QK _. _. you lis. a. friend whow ill 10 a k. ~- this matter -_. me, look -- all the letters that ha V~ been written .. and look -- my interests pmperly.

(6) He is no longer dependent ._-' his father. but is independ~D,t -- everyone.

100

THE PREPO srrr ON

(7) I came ._- _a g,irl yesterday wh~ told mea new styfe; had come ~-. fashion, nl0u~h she could not understand how it had come -- anyone's head to introduce it. But she didn't think anything would. come -- It.

.VI. :Express by one word the phrase in italics:

(1) Letters from other count ries are brQugh t by aeroplane, (2) He drew a d.esjp' with both ~ide$ bo:kmdng.

(3) They departed ar (he same moment,

(4) He was a boy wilh bart! /e-etand biue eyes,

(S) The facts have been stated in terms e:xcec:d{l'/;g ll?e .truth .•

(6) ] received a card from him which was s~gned in his own

handwI'Uilf!.

(1) He rook tJ s= trlre of the castle with his camera. (8:) He was appointed to act .in place of rhe King. (9) These are pictures of animals before Out Flood.

(10) He made Ollt a cheque with a date laler tfian fhtH on which he was wl"Ning.

'" 'In, How de the following dllier from each other?

Ca) 'fo undertake. to overtake; (b) to tum out a. good man" to tum a good man out; (c) to take a person Jn, to take a person out j (d) to stand with a man, to wi thstand a rna n ; (q) to look over a letter, to overlook 11 letter.

CHAPTER VUl

THE CON J UNCTIO N

A. OONJ1UNc.nON is a word that joins words or sentences t(l'g:ether.

Oo..ORDINAT.[NG cooj unctions join sen tenees ,of equal rank! e.g. Ami, botb, but, either .•. (Jr. These are called CORRELA~ nVE CONmNCT[oNS.,

Some, 'CQ-ORDlNA11NG conjunctions go in pairs, e,g. both •• ,. an.d~· ,Sf) ••• as,' either ... "r; :neither ... nor.

'SuBmW]N'A.TING conjuncticns join subordinate clauses to the main clause, e.g,

I will do the work if I have, time. He said thm' he could go.

IJl7e matic uses 0/ J'luI"j

But is used. sometimes asa 'conj unction, sometlmes ~lJS. a preposltlon I sometimes as, an ad verb:

He was there, but did not - speak. (Co~ordinating: Con[unction.)

There was no orne there, but was sorry for the man.

(Relative Pronoun.)

He was all but dead. when we fOD,nd him. (Preposition.) There was no one there; bu: him, (Prepcsition.)

But for yom help we should not be here. (Preposition) E cannot but believe you halve gone away, (Frepositicn.) There was but one student present. (Adverb.)

102

THE CONJUNCnON

If' isused to express a ccndition; If you come I will meet you.

WHE.~ merely expresses time:

I shall see you when you corae to London.

103

CHAPTER IX

THE INTERJECTION

T;r.mi_Jlterjectio~is used to express some sudden foeHng, but do~s not enter mto the construction of the sentence. ~heugUal interjeetfo~sQr excl.amatiorns are: OM Alas!

Ah. What! Hush l Well done I etc,

EXERCJSES

'. "'r,. Complete the fOUow.m.g sentences r.", .. , adding. a ._ iur . t·.' .

meach : ·"1 - - . COllj Lmc lon

(1) '~he ti~~ came in ~]owJy ----:- sure]y~. c-overirtg all the sends, (2) J l;l wart fo.r you -~ you will p .. ronuse not to be: ]a:'~,",,, th .. n

SJX o'clock. ' .. ~ .. ~ U~, .

(3) -. - it stops raining we shall be a b]~ to, Il'!O out (J ' .. '

bfflties). . e . lvo ptM.sl~

(4) On ,early closing day you can't buy a.Ilvthm.~ ~ th .: h .

are shut, .J f:l e s Clps

(5) To get a good seat you must be there --_ the d ._

opened, . OQl;"S are

.~ ;~Lu_lcal- TIt lo~k !tthe paper .~ I am finishing this Jetter. \' ~ .It ;>]_m S.<I Y m ~ng1and --. I can Speak Engi1s,h, fflJ!en U . (B) They could not go on the 11 ver yesterday -- th '.' ·h Y_

was had. .. . e weal er

(9) .-.~. had on~ vi ~_Uor left. ~ another errived,

(10) The post-offioe is about five -- six mlnutes": lk f." .. -

our house. - wa rio. rom

.~n. By introch.'l?ing a conjunction make each of me roJi owin ~tlU"S of.sen t~nces lr! to one sentenc7, In some sentences mom too! ane oonJunctmn ~o!.11d be appropriate. Use aU possible forms.

(]) The ~ndl:date ;!lpoke very eloquently, Many peopJe sun

rernalm:<I hostll'e. -.

104

EXE.R.CIS ES

(1) The snow melted, Spring flo\ivers began to appe-ar.

(3) Thega te of the field. was l.eft open. The cows stra yeJ. on the read,

(4) You do net like orchestral music, I shall not invite you to

the concert (On:i~lt. .

(5) The examination was easy. He was able to pass it very well

'i Ill. vtha t conjunctions are usedto indicate that a choice may be made between two p ossfbllltles and what is the negaEh'e form of this constmctien? Use each form in a sentence to illustra ~e y,our answer ..

!l<IY. Join. tnt: following into one sentence without using a conjunction:

Ca) A boy had. been fi~hing on Sunday. He rne~ the vi~a~ parson. He had c:.aughl several fish. Hes~ud~" ThlS Vii what happened to' these: fistl for ch.m;m.g flies on~Wlday." (b) I climbed down the cliff. It was fifty feet down. The dead body of a man was lying (here. A failh:ild dog was still. seated by the man's side"

(c) We can make: wonderful instruments. These br.lng the stars into our view. The light (),f these stars has talt:en a thousand. years to reach (he- -earth.

*v. Tum the fol1owjfJ.~ from direct speech to indirect;

.. see, my sons. n said. the 0 ld man, "the power of union, While the Slicks in the bundle, were fast-ened together n.othing ceeld break them. Learn from that example" U ni te in 1brollierJy love and no one can harm. ,,0 u But if yo LJ are divided by dlscerd you will fall a prey to aU who wish to inj we you."

*Vl. Imp:rove me order of the foUowing:

Ca) We saw many soldiers dead Or wounded. riding over fue ba ttlefleld.

(b) The farmer of tOday is no simple countryman wi ill <II\ spade" a fork, a cart, a p]ough and a wisp of straw In his mouth. (d) Few people learn anything that is worth learning easily. Cd) One of the combatants was unhurt, and t he other sustained a wOillnrlin the arm of no Importance,

(e) Ine,veI made the statement at the last tneetlug of the Council or at any other time that you have imputed to me.

IDS

A CONCISE, ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(I) H,e seldom tJo?k up the Bible, which he IIIeq'Uently did.

WlthOU.t shedding tears. (Knowles, Life of Fusdi.) (g) The trartor was ordered to be beheaded by the judge.

(h) He w~s arrested in bed and attempted to commit suicide by tinng a. pistol at his head which he had hidden in the bed-clothes.

(r1 V:'e regr,~t to announce that Mr. X has resigned owing to . ,ill health and has been succeeded by Mr .. Y,

(j) Gentleman, about to many, wishes to recommend IDS house-keeper for a similar post (A,tivert'.)

106

CHAPTER X

SOME COMMON ERRORS

THE NOUN

1. Neglect of the rule of Concord of the Subject and its, verb. e.g, We was speaking abo ut yo u.

The speed of the runners were remarkable.

The subject must agree with its verb in number and person. 2. Comeon 0[ si_agular and plural,

e.g. The newS' are bad.

Mathemattcs are an. interesting subject.

News, mathematics, and sometimes politics are singular in meaning though plural in form.

3. M:isuse of tbeposse-ssive form.

e.g, (a) The table's top is rough. (Incorrect.) The top of the table is rough, (Coffee.!.)

(b) We like Smith's and Robinson's jam. (Incorrect.) We like Smith and RQbinson"j jam. (Corn:ct.)

In compound nouns. such as the name of one firm, only the last nauru has the ~ s,

(c) That is the King's of England~s palace.

The last word only should have the 's, e.g, "The King ·of England's palace,"

THE PRONOUN

4,. The rel 3Itire pronoun separated eoo :far Jrom its antecedenr.

e.g, I was awakened by the bird ill its cage which began to sing. 107

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR 5. Wrong choke of r~lftti ve ~proROlH;"

That is the man which I saw.

He is such a man that ] am.

After "such' and "same ", as must 'be lU3eU. 6. Misuse of an d wUh theRcla~he Prono ••

e.g, She was a woman of strong character and who had. always had her own way.

And with the relative, should.be used ,only when it joins together' two adjective clauses beth qualifying the same antecedent.

e.g, She was a woman who .had always had her own w,ay and who hated oppcsition,

'7. 'The usenif the plur,al instead 0:[ the :s~ngI11ar with these pronolIlDs wMchmus~ take t\ho singular.

e.g. Nobody in their senses would do that.

Eve"Jon~' should do their best.

Theile is no genderless pronoun in the third penon. singular, i.e, no word to represent .~ he" or ~~ she ~\ !~ him" or ,n her j ',

Write:

Nobody in his senses would. do that. Everyone should do his or her best.

8. Lack of 8g1'1eemfnt 'behl'een fua relatiiv'epoonoUTIMiI!d Jts aD'~eoedelt.

e.g, Thl:S is one of the best books tha: has ever appealed.

The antecedent of ~~ that U IS ~! books H, not U one", The relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in. number and person, so the. sen tenee should. he ", . . that ha ve I~w,er appeared. ~ j

9.. The liIS'e of who for' whom and vice versa. e.g, That is the man who I spoke to. (In.corr,ect).

They asked me whom] thought was the thief. (lncor.rect).,

U. Wh,a t usooes Ii rela ti'fle p~onGun ,dUl an. ant!e,cedent. 6,S' The student whmI\ead~ speaks lEngUs.b welt, (Inco,rrec.t).

IDS

SOME COMMON .ERRORS

THE ADJECTIVE

11. Neghld of c>O.Dco'rd of the noun and its adjec,tive~ e.g. These son .of things are not done,

12. Useof the AdJectivefoli the Adv,erb.

e.g. He spoke very clear,

It should be: ~" He spoke very clearly. n

13.. Vlrong use ofoomparatiYe aud superlative.

e.g. This is the best of the two boys.

It should be better, as it is used only of two.

Mont IUane is higher than any mountain in the Alps, This is illogical, for Mont Blanc is not higher than itself. Say instead ,j, ••• higher than any other mountain in the Alps." 14. The wrong use ,of first.

e,g. The three firs,( pages of the 'book: were tom out,

There can' tbe three ~. first a • Say instead ,i. The first three . . ."

THE VERB,

15. Confusion of p~Jiit (noun. adjective or prepositionland passed (verb).

e.g, I have past my examination.

It sh auld be U passed ,~ .

16. The No,minath'e used after ld.

e.g, Let John and I do thewor k,

Say instead: Let John and me do the work,

17. The Objectiv,e used after the l"erb to' be.

e.g. It was, fl1'm who spoke.

It should be, It was he who spoke.

IS. C>0nfU~lOn in ~he use Gif .lie and la_y; vise and. raise; Jail

and.fel'.

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

e .. g. He is not very wen so he is laying down. (It should be: lying.)

The hen has lain an egg. (It should be ~ has laid.)

He rose the tar as much as he could with the jack. (It should be: raised,)

The tree felled down with a crash. (It should be: fell.)

19. The use of tibe future feMe .for the ,resemlit. e.g, Hewill come when. he will be flsked1.

It should he : ,~ when he is asked. n 20. Themimse o,{ shall and. will.

e.g. We expect the Government shall do what is necessary.

This has happened before and rue! doubt we will see it happen again, {Both incorrfu:O.

21. IConfulon hi tb.e useM the Compound '['emses .. e.g, [never have, and never snaH do such a thing.

After i~ bave" we. require U done ", Say instead: u 1 never have done and never shall do, such a thing."

'2,1., Tbe spmti_ng of an infinitJve, i.e, the separation of to from i ts verbal part

e .. g. He triedr:~ ... ~:~.~~~.~.:~~!.,~~,~.~~~.].~.~~.~.~~!.,~,~fP me,

Though occasionally the split infinitive Is used by good writers, the grammatical purist would avoid it.

13. The use or a miSfieIIIi.ted p altiiciple.

e .. g. Being a wet morning, I decided to st.ay at home.

Be ing here is w rongl y related to 1.

2,::t Confusion. of Genmnd and Present P'artidple.

e.g. What's the use of me learning English. (for: my lesrnlng

English). -

The gerund is a noun and requires the possessive form befor-e it. 1m

SOME CO M MON ERRORS

THE ADVERB 15. The .Misplacing of on lY·

e,g. [only read twenty pages of the book.

This form is often found~ but the more logical arrangement would be "I read only twenty pages , .. " as ~~. only" limits

'~pages", not "read". _

16. The mispladngo[ ftd,v'frbs or tl.e ~ SUdllUi never" .s,IiI""~U'i M

ti:mes.J often, a.lway&.

e.g, I never hal',e spoken to him, (lncerrect.) I have never spoken to him. (CarreN.)

17. 'Jhe use of iii d(llilb~e negati:l'c. e.g. I cannot do, no more.

Say instead: I cannot do .any more.

lS. Confusion ~n the use of less lIl:nd Jew~t'.

e.g. There were less than twenty students present.

Use h:'ss for quantity, fewer for number.

THE PREPOSITION

19. Tilile use olf ,ti.lt when plaee and m:ottimc is den.oted. e.g .. Hewalked from London uN Harrow.

30. The wro:n:g use 0'[ siuce.

e.g. Lam In England since three months.

Before since thepre:.sentpe:rfec1 'tense !' I have bun" is required, Again, with sinee, a word or words den.oting 3iPOlNT of time! not aPERIOn of time must be lined.

e.g .. I have been in England since October. 31.. 'The wrong use of b,tweeitle'aC.n.

e. g. There was a path between each of the houses,

Between .is used for two. I?Clch for only one. Say: ".BetweeT~ each house and the next" or: ,. Between each pair of houses. " Hi

A CONC]SE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

32. The 'MIOng case when btd is used as a ID1repos~tiQn. e,g. No one was there but 1.

If but has the meaning "except" itisa preposition and. takes tbe o bj ective case.

33. The De of tbe nonnative after l:!etween. e.g. Between you and I, he is not to be trusted.

I t should be: U Between you and me." 34. The use of like as, III co~j~lilC'tloD.

e.g, He writes like I do,

Say, instead: "He writes as] de."

3S. The use of tilIDe ~'ron.gpl1e'ploiiiitiolill after d~"IJeren'. e,g. This was quite different than that.

This was quite different to that.

Differ,rmt to is found in many standard anthers, but ., dlfterent from'" is the more IJ suel form.

36'. The lise of :J!1:"eJer • • .' than. e.g, I prefer reading than writing.

'We prefer one thing to another, Of prefer to do one thing rather than. another.

THE CONJUNCTION

3:7. The wl'o:ng !11_.~e of tbe oflj'ecHve 'case after than. e.g. He is taller than me.

This IS common in conversation. In formal writing it should be: .• He is taller then J (am),"

38. The lYflong conjuncHo~ used after .scarcely or hardly. e.g. Scarcely had we entered the class than the work be:gan.

Befmoe Of when ought to be used, The' mistake probably arises from confusion with "no sooner ... than;' which is, of course, correct,

112

SOME COMMON ERRORS

39. The use of as af"t'flif a CJi)firt.l[HU:a tive instead. ,of than. e. g. He isq uicker at und erst a nd ing this WOl! k as 1 am. 40. The use [If the wrong ,conela.'tl~re 'conjiWlction.,

e.g, He knows neither English or French,

Neither must be followed by nor.

EXERCISE

SENTENCES FOR CORRECTION

(The sentences in th~;s exercise are ,~' ge:nuj~e ~, ones;. e\'er~ on~Qhbe[n wEi'S written 3.t S orne time by a fore] go student learning Englis.h., The mistakes the.r('ifore are charaeteristie.]

L [must goO back with my rnlnd to the fint years of mY' existence

but don't think. for that 1: am an old woman,

2. It was worth to H ve to see a so beaut i ful sjght.

3,. The noise we didin laughing made the kitten fearful of us.

4. The children like cats and they are D.ear]y in all their homes, S,. We were deprived from playin~ games $01 a week.

6.. A fair amount of the scholars hleed the class.

7. I visited a part of {he Vo sges mountains which p ossess a

selection of splendid sceneries.. . . ,

8, Mont Blanc is famous as wen for the general 5~gh.t you obtain from the top of its peak €IS for the numerous Jurle villages crouched in the wrinkles of its flanks.

9. Theasccnslcn of the mountain was d.ifficulL

10. 1 felt ]Jke ~iHl.ng tna rafl'Nay carriage when these views passed before me,

1 I, Be.c~ use ] am born in the north of Europe ] sometimes am longing for thegrey skies,

] 2 .. There the vegdation was poorly. . . .

13. Pkx;adIlly hassucha tremendous traffic that I wonder there

happen 80 few accidents. .

]4. The fumlture are of oak and satin woad. ..

1.5., In winter the sun does not more shine so warm like m summer.

16. The English is accustomed to his open fire though the strong

draught lets not bum pro~ef~y th? coal. .' ., .

17. Who has been on a mou UU\\I.1l ] mmidst snow WJ!] never forge t rt,

113

·A CONCHIE ENGLISH GRAMMAR. l S. The trains go with groat precaution in the fog,

19'. The fog is not well to breathe.

20. Accm:ding to. your imowledges will be your salary,

21. Ham.ps~ea.d. is the most healthiest part of London. .22. [wiIl be, pl>ease to receive you.!' advices,

23.1 have, past the examination in French and German and can satisfacterywri te this languag.es.

24. We caanct pay you more than £150 a year according to the

bad times.

25. I have always had an. excellent health. 2.6. Lamin London since hslf' a year.

.27. J have from I was twe]f Yeil.r old study En.glish"

28. Londonis one of the m.aest towns I ever have seen,

29. People who use to make a fuss don't succeed.

30. I was very bored and wished I would not have rised so early.

31. I ha ve the intention to May in Bournemouth, _

32, Since yom childhood I know you already.

33, Is it poss:ible to you to' give me a lesson?

34. Larn goi:n~ away tomorrow and I should be sorry if r should hear you. had called d.uring my absence.

35. I send you my beartlesr condolence for the death of yom friend.

36. W'h.at a difference the modem dress is to '(he dress of twenty .rOOf'S ago,

37. Even if the price would be the, same as In 1920 it would be to much.

38. 1 want to write a letter to some-body whom I promised to come

to their meeting, .

39. I am better now as I was a month ago.

40. It just happened that 1 came to know that you have past your

examen.

4I. We mustpractice hard or we can't arrive at our aim,

42. P'a uer was on the piano and he played masterly.

43. We did a long walk yestercay, and I should have fi.oililng ag~jngt to do the same today.

44. More the out of doors becomes dusk more the inside of the houses become comfortable, when the family settles round the chimney,

45, Autumn remembers us of coldand wet days. 46, Thea the trees loose their lea yes,

47. It ISc worth to do everything well.

114

I

I

SOME COMMON ERRORS

48, Some people donjtmind to ten you they don't Hke music.

49. That ts a mistake I oft~ do,.

50. The teacller is going to learn me Engh5h. 51, On the sm of the door La.id a ~() g,

52. Nearly the manmi&sed the tram: . ,

.53. Thank you that you sho~d th~ut~ me. .. .... .,

":·4 G·,·· ally· ii;1Jjoken '!. .. 'O1!l will find fmelgntr-S like En.~and.

.J , ... eDe!_ ~J; J "'.1. f:·1 tuated

55: J oewr before had seen Trieste; 1;t IS wonosnur ~h . "'"'-'_ ..

56. He drove the cal so fastty he fnghtened them instead of let

the runen joy them, ..'

57, He had a" new fumi ture fer the drawrngBro~m.. . .. '.. 58. Would you mind. in future t~ take more .pam with Ye~ur WOof k . 59, 1 am not. very aocustome~ Wlt,h. the. .English ];anguag-,

60. 1 can't wear any more HueS s~t" ... - ,.' . . .. d 61, I wrote to congratulate my fr~end who has JUSt become eng2g.e. _

with a b eautiful Londoner girl. . .. . .

62, It is not easy, that one can Imagine, to get use to Liv~ In a

forei.g:ru counrry. '.. • t..~ , . h - . t

t5J • Fog is everywhere, as: well ,m the house. UlAIl 111 U e estrus,

64. Manype:Qple complam to MW never money .

65, He desoriped the, scene very well. .

66. I al ways ha ve liked to think on ~os.e day~. . .. .

67. Th.ere Is a great deal of moru1t~J1lS ill ~wlt~e.rl~d~ . ".' _;

,68. Man.y sJups are to see on the river which a t tins. p]ace ts W]OO

over 300 yards... .. . .. " _

69. In Heidelberg are many Middle Age blU~d:ings. . ... _

70. You can hear the chiming of cows bells 111 ~e pastulLages.

1]. I have thought often what this word would ~!lgrufy.

n. Heaps of boxes we:l:'e laying around me, .. . . . ' ... '

'·3. A trip by steamer wru.ch mostly Me startmg from Vienna w~H

enjloy everybody. . . ..... .. . .. .

74\. Eichpe:rson like the place where th~ are.. at .home •.

7"5. The sea was oalk blue ftom. the ho:nl.on tin the more. 76. After few minutes one hear the whistlle.

n ,E study carefully the passage ~~ t 1 read.

78. This town is Illow.rious thw,ugD. 1 ts l?vely soe~nery"

79. A bad, in the hand is better as two m thebush.. .. .' 80" m was so ill that when ] would swahow any~g]t would

. cause me mneh pain; so the doctor. J,egarded~Ytlu0at to see wha t was tlll~ matter. He then explamed me the reason,

us

A CONCISE ENCU ... rsn ORAMMAR 8L 1 am not enthusiasted by the statues in London.

82. The glacier put the glasses in the window.

83. They bad ~ntra] heating which I more prefer than an 'open fire.

84. !here are m England the opposite customs as they are in use ill my country.

85. ~h_,ey do n?t want that somebo-dy interrupt thelrconversatlen,

86. I met a fnend of me and he proposed me to go with him. to Wmdsor,

87. At the school which I visited as a boy we learned many un-

.neceSS<I.TJ know Ie dges,

88. It is three months now that r left the continent.

89. Through the most times of his life w.agner was in debts.

90. The performance proofed a mere failure,

9], In the Saint Paul's Church are buried eapitains, poets and men

of parlement.

92, He would rather have died than admitted it.

93. M am desirous to make me prefieient in En,clish.

94. Last v.~ek I had the occasion of watching : football match.

95. She wanted that her brother should join the army.

96. We were deaf to e~rything,cJse than to this roar ofrnachinery.

97. There were rose S In several celours from deep red tm white ones as the snow.

98. The hothouse was fun of seldom plants,

99. Eac~ country ha:~ products appropriated with the climat,

100. Useless decoration neither outside nor inside my house I would not permit.

101. TIJ~ scenery of the. pta y began in a shop and there was a student which had worked there.

102. Today I had the first time my new winter coat on.

103. In the beginning I found it difficult to remember the things what the teacher said.

104. When I saw the picture, easily 1 could fancy myself in SwiUer-

land. ~

105. He wanted to spend the less m.oney as possible.

106. Never I have gone on the sea sideonly in England.

107. I was ~mngry because since twelve hours that I had deparwd of Pans] had not it te anytb j ng.

]()8. I had the pleasure to spend my holiday In Germany.

109 .. Report,ers are susoeptiblc of being sent north south etc. to collect informations about a fire' or inundation,

116

SOM]~, COMMON ERR.OR.S

110. Already the ancient Babylonians. had ~ewspapers ..

111. If newspa pel'S more tried to wme.?,fl1h the. truth hO,"" much could be won, for ] dare say that It should be forbidden to

write of what is untrue.

112, I have man.y things to ten you. but before all I can tell you I

had a nice holida y.

113. It is to understand that up to nOW I have been busy.

114. I hope my letter w.ill.~ fer you from great_inteliest.

115. In TrafaJg;ar .S'IUflIl'C JS a tall memory to Nilson.

116. You cam. study in the Kensington M useum the progress of

modem technic.

]]1. How is to pronounce "Cruswick"'7 . . . .

118. Many a student are not a"b!e to m .. ake the progress they WIsh.

119. I listen to the speak';r.s in the Hyde P~Ik. ' ..

120. You like to receive often from your fnends a letter. .

121.. Many people is unemployed because the manufactorles are

closed,

122. There are not so much people in Paris than in London.

123. EngHsh customs arequire different to fr~ch ones.

124. We were astonished by the many busses m London.

1.25. The policemen circulates the traffic. _

126. There is not yet a long time that I came to London but I am

getting on alii gbt. . ' _

127. 1 had the pleasure to hear Caruso slng.. ..

128. The eemedian made laugh tile peopl~many times., .

129. We hope you shaH have a good hohday, and bath m the sea

e,very da. y. ." . ;.

130. England is surrounded of the sea and 15 qmte dlfferen t to the

place I am coming from.. ........'.

131. My friend wa~1 t to 1ea::ro man. english family if pOSSl 'Ole.

132. It has now rained during some days.

133. A MOTOR DRIVE

Yestcrd,a:y. I. ha ~e done a mot~r trip to H]ndh~. It \';fa1i. a Sunday wry mce for N overn boer. The SUD. shined so. w~rm iliat we usee! not (JUt coats. We went at the first to the shop ",,-here we had hired the car a few days' since. The car was :ready to drive standed outside from the, garage om the pa~e. ment, I saw if we had enough petrol m OUI' tank. It was alright and we begun to drive from marble arch througb the

117

A CONC]SE ENGUSH GRAMMAR

Hyde Park to Hammersmith. In the beginning we fCfI_m:ded not quite correct our way and we must o.ften3i:sk the policeman which, are here Y(llry kind, A policeman answer (ne in ge:rm.:an because be was as iii prisoner during the Wi8iJ in Germany and hag, learned there some won:is" He was 'Vf::r:y p~as:e te lise them. It w~sa o]gtraffic this day on the road one at' WaJS after the other and. it was impossible to drive more as twen ty mUes each hour. I de not like so slow to drive. After O~¢ .hour it was better and we came in the nicest part of England wmch ever I have seen. The forest was v~ry 'beauU1hL On tw:df ocloek we drive ina H uletuming where we take OUJ picnick. After we maked some pictures from the sceneries and ourselves with our camera. Then we skeped 1 t hour On the green groWld of th.e forest. At Hindhead we· took our tea in a hotel from the A. A., dub, Durmg it bel!!in to d,arken "n'f;; drlved back to London. M t is not dang,erous, to drive here In the night because it gives so many notices here like ~! Drive s!'o<wly" "Dangerous,'" ect,

W,e: had a p]easant time and. will drive nc:itt sunday to Cambridge wna,t should also be a good journey.

rlS

CHAPT,I8R. X~.

WORDS FREQU.BNTLYCONFUSED

Note: The definitions given here are intended merely as a brief guide to the mesnings; they d 0 not replace the dictionary. S tudents are ad vised to consule some standard dictionary ~ e.g. Concise Oxford or Nuttall's,

f adapt = suit oneself to, \adopt = ~ake ~haJ!'ge of

{adv~e.=(Verb). to. C.,ounsd adV.l.ce= (1:IIa'~iI\!) counsel

{aH~.YS. . naerowsreeets aUies=helpen

{a!crud . in. an a~diMe manner allowed=permitted

{ a.ltar = pa .. r.-t of .the church aUer=~o change

.{ •... allude to refer. to

e!ude~t() escape

f allusieneea referenee l illusion=a deception

{a pposite .... apt

_ opposite:= aga~nsit

{asse:nt= all agreement .ascent-lI.:n upward movement E 119

A CONCISE ENGLiSH GRA M MAR

{' ,ass~stants, = hel pers assistanceee help

f attendants-e those who wait on l attendanee=fhe act of waiting:

!bad=ev]1

l badewordered (verb II to bid IJ

{bare= uncovered

bear = an animal, or (verb) := to carry or to en d ure

Jbeach= seashore

l beech = a kind of tree

{birth = being born

berth = a sleeping-place in a ship

fb~ue=a colour

1. blew = past tense of to blow

{b oat= an animal

b,ore=(I) to m, ake,', ,a, hole ~2,) to weary, a tedious person. Boer=a Dutch South African

{borough=a town or part of a town

_burrow.=a hole in the earth for rabbits, foxes, etc.

{bough =a branch of a t re e bow-e to bend

{brea,d"", an articleof food bred=past. tense of to breed

!break=to smash

1. brak)e~(l) a pressure against a wheel to stop it, (2) a thicket

_ of bushes

{breath = (11,Oun) air take. n into an, d,' expelled from lun.gs breathe = (verb) the act of tak lng breath

!bridal=appertaining to a bride

\bridJ.e=a part of the harness of a horse

120

WORDS PREQUENTl Y ,CONFUSEU

{cannon= a, gun

canon=(1) a rule or law, (2) a church dignitary

{ ca.pable= a ble capacious = roomy

{cel1=a small room, usuaUy in a prison seU=to exchange for money

{cereal=any grain used for food

seriai=(l} in series, (2) a story coming out in parts

{CheqUe= a written order for money check = (I) to stop~ (2) a square pattern

J childish = foolish

l childlikee-innocent

J doth=materjai

1.. dothes= garments

{COlonel=an army rank kerneleethe inner part of a nut

{complement = the completion compliment= an expression of admiration

{COn11dent= having strong trust .confldential=(l) secret, (2) trusted

{con t. a, .g ie us = spreading. by con tact con tiguous = adjoining

f contemptible--meriting contempt

1. conternptuouse-filled with contempt

J continual e going on. repeatedly

l continuous = without break

{cord"::",,, string.

chord= a musical term

I

A CONCISE ENGLISH G RAM t v LA..R

{core""" centre

c. .orps .. = a body 0 .. · f troops corpses-a dead body

copsee-small wood

J correspondents = writers of letters l corresp ondence = letters

{coum::mor=a member of a council counsehor-eenadviser giving counsel

{CO. u. rse . (.1) tbe direction. of motion. (2) the ground over which one runs, (3) phrase of course

coarse """ n ot refined

{credible = can be believed

cre.d. ?lous= bel .. i?Ving toe easily eredita ble=-praisewcethy

{current;:::::;; a stream

currant = a small dried grape

{d ..• iry~a place for keeping milk. making butter or cheese; place where these are sold

diary = a daily record

{dep. recia 00= to grow less in va 1 ue depreca te= to pIa y again s t

{des.ert=O) ~vel'b) to forsake (2) (!1o.~n) sandy waste dessert=fruit or sweetmeats after dinner

{disease",..il.'lne.ss .. decease = dea th

{dYlng=ce~sing life dyei:ng= col outing

J effecf= (n.ouu) result

l affect -= (~.erb) to influence

{effective=Ploctucing a desired effect efficiente.competent-eusually for a. person or machine 122

,.

WORDS FREQUENTLY CONFUSED

{el~c~t~to draw ,out UliClt= unlawful

{eligible= S uita ble illegible= unreada b le

{el mi,ve = difficu l,t to capture ill U:51 ve = decepti ve

{emigtate=t,o go out of a country immigrate=to come into a country

mig:rate=to go to another country in large numbers

{fPigrallu=awitty remark epithet=a descriptive term epitaph = an inscription on a tom b

{ex.c.,ept= omittin .. B accept--to take

{fare = mo ney for travel

fait=(l) (adjective) beautiful, (2) Ught; (3) (noun) a gathering for amusements, etc ..

J find=to discover lfined..;_ penalized

{fir= a kind of tree

fur=snft hair of certain animals

{fiew=pa:st tense of to fly

:! flu H ,=abbre.Vi.ation of inA uenza flue==cbimney passage

{flower""" blossom fiour= ground wheat

{- forth = forward

fourth = an ordinal number

{fOUf"",-a cardinal number fQre= the front portion

123

A CONClSE ENGLiSH GRAMMAR J fowl=a bird

L foul =nnclean

{'g. ate .an ?p.ening.· .W.iill.: ZlJ. road through; that which closes the op.enmg

gaft=style of walking

{genus=a kind; a class containing species

genius=great inborn power of mind; a pen:;,on so endowed

{glaZler=one who puts. glass in windows

glacier=ice moving down a mountain-side or along a valley

{gn~at= big, renowned

grate=(l) bars within which a. fire burns; (2) to annoy the ears; (.3) to break in pieces by rnbbmg on 11 rough, hard

surface.

{groan -- cry of pain

grown=past participle of to grow

{guest = a visitor guesse-d = s urmi sed

{gUilt=state of one who has broken the law gUt=c<:l'vered with go[d~ or imitation gold

{h8l. Ir.·· .. ·.= l'l.. at. u. r~l .. head covering bare.= an animal

{~:~ _ ~:r~:~~hO: f~:t wen

{hear = to perceive soun d here=an adverb of place

{hire=to engage for payment higher = comparative of high

{-noard=tQ store up (ver.b or noun) horde=a swarm (no'un)<

{note=a place dog. OU!l ..... an. '. openin .. s in or through whole=(noun) all, (adJectrv.e) enure

124

WORDS FREQUENTLY CONFUSEn

{human=belopgin.g to the race of man humane=(adjecUve) kind and tender

{jm~in .• e.nt .. 1m. p.ending eminent= nota ble

{~mp .. ~a1-. belonging .. to an empire i m pe:flOUS = ha ughty

{incred .•. i ble un be ... li~a~ie. incred ulous-« un believing

{~n. d~ te = to write. or ~ictate :01' writing down mdiet=to charge with a crime

{ingenuOUS=frank~ open iugemo:us.;,.._c],ever in invention

{j.u~c~al= bel?nging to, a_judge jUdlClOUS = discreet ~ WISe:

{lead = (. 1.,). (Ye. .rb) t .. o show tile way[le:d] (2) (noun)a. metal [100]. led =past tense of to lead

{leak - an. es. cape of fluid or gas Ieek e a vegetable

{lesson = instructio G lessen= to make less

jlicenct (noun)_: official permission \licen:se (vero)= to give official permission

{l~g. h t. nj~g .... a tmos.phe:~j.C .. ,euec~c .. tty h_ghtenmg=making less heavy

J lose = to be depri vedof lloase= net fastened

{loth = unwiUing loathe=(verb) to detest

{magnet.. stone .. 0. r .. 5 .. tee .. l. Wi.thpO.W. e.,f of attracting iron magnatewa man of power or wealth

. l~

I

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

{mendidty= beggary mendacl'ty= un tr u thful ness

{moan=cry of pain

mown=past participle of to' mow

{mO.Ining.... the. ~. r1~ p. a. rt of the day mcuraingedamenting

{!ll.US~ .. I.:i~: •. p.arts .... of the body that by contracting move the mussel=,a shell fish

J .. oar=an instrument for rowing 'loter = over

'. Ofe= substance fllOm which metals are extr acted

{o,mCial= belonging tom offiee

officious = unduly m.eddling and self-important

{'om.lt=to ]~av€: out emlt= to gave out

Uair=two ~.r,e= to. cut ear = ftuit

{Pa:~7 l.add._n~., in colour pall = a bucket

{pane= a plate 0. f glass in a window pain = suffering

f patients-« those under a doctor'sorders l pa tience """ long sufferance

,{. - p:3ce=ca]m .

plJ.ooe=a pcrnen

{peal= a. ring of bells

peei=(r.lOtm.]the:r.lnd of fruit; (rerb) to strip off the ri rid

{~~:: : j~~~leman

W 0 :!lDS FR E Q U ENTL Y CO NFUS EO

f pla~e = a position l phuce = a flat fish

{Pla~n~ one who brings a, complaint plfu n uve = mou rnful

(plane. (1) a level surface, (2) a tool for smoothing wood

~ (3) aircraft

lplain=(l) Hat land, (2) without ornament or beauty

{p.o .. p.'~.l]a. l=liked by many populo u s = crowded

!pour= to transfer liquids .. ..

lPore=a tiny opening in the skin fO'l perspiration

{p.rac.t~cal=usefUI; derived from practice pr actieab 1 e= wo r ka ble

{practi.ce... -.<.n.,ou ... :n.) Ie. peate<!. ,.aC.'.tl.'.O.".' 'li1l8.otbY use; the people served by a doctor, dentist or lawyer

praetiseee ( verb) to do a thing often

{pmy= to. ~.u~p~icate prey =-- a victi m

{p. re. scrib. 6.=(.1) give an order) (2)vrrite a direction for medicine prescribe-s to outlaw

{pres en is = gifts

presence-ea being within sight or call; nearness,

{preS.ident= one .. wl:o presides precedent=a prevlou8 example

J principal= (adjective) chief

lprindple =(noun) a fixed, rule of action

J proceeds-to go on

lpreccde=to go before

{profit= gain prophet= a seer

127

/

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAt ... tMAR '{' prophesy = (~erh) to foretell

"'" prophecy = (nOiln) the thing foretold

{ProPOS:ition=a suggestion prepositions-a part of speech

{prospeCHve=lOOking to the future

. perepectivee-the art -of drawing so as to give the appearance

of distance -

{p unctual = up to time

punctilious = precise in the smallest rna tters,

Jqueue= a line of people

cue_;(l) a rod used in billiards, (2) the last word ora speaker 1 as a hint to the next

LKew=a place near London

{ quiet= silent

quite=(dagree adverb) completely

{rec~pt= a ,:,"riu~n ackn,ow]~dgement o~ ~Qmeth.ing received recipee-a direction for making up medicines, dishes, etc.

{r'reign=the rule of a monarch :r~n=water dropp, ing from, the clouds _rem=part of the harness of a horse

{fight = correct

write= pu t down. in letters wright = workman

J road = a way from one place to another l_rode=past tense of to ride

{rose=<!Wun) a flower; past tens-e of to rise rows =li nes,

roes=(l) eggs of fishes, (2) females of a small kind of deer

jrout= (verb) to defeat, (noWl) a defeat

l..route=a road

]28

WORDS FREQUENT.LY CONFUSED

{sale=(nOun) an exchange, of anything for money sail=(noun) a part of a ship, (verh) to' travel by water

{ sealing= fastening with wax ceiting= the Inside rocf ofa room

f secret = (noun) sometmng concealed, (adjective) not divulged l secrete = to conceal

{ sensi bie= guided by reason sensitive=having power of perceiving

{site = position

sight = the power of seeing; that which is seen

{soared = risen up

sword= ins trumen t of war'

{soc~al= belo .. nging to society sociable =:; friendly

{sow=to scatter seeds

sew= to, use a. needle and thread

{stationary = at rest statlcnerye-writing materials

{statue=a rep~es, ,en,tation of a person in stone, etc.

statute=a law '

stature = the height of a person

,{stimUlant=that which gives new energy (generally physicaJ), , ,:stimulus.:= a spur to greater action (generally spiritual)

{straight""" direct

strait=(noun) a narrow passa.ge, (adjective) nalITOW

{Suite=(l) apartment, (2) retinue

suit (I) ,(nou,' n, ). a l,aw,' action,' (2) (noun) a series of things used together, e.g, clothes, (3) (verb) to fit

sweet=tasting like sugar

{ te:mp" oral , DOt sP" iritual tempcrary-efor a time

129

A CONCISE ENGUSR ORA M MAR

{t~d~=theebb and flow.of the sea tled=past tense of to tie

{to = ]prep, osition ~ sign of i,nft, nltive too=(1) more than enough, (2) also two=a number

{th:rClne=tbe chair of sta te of a king or q ueen thrO'W,n=past particjple of verb to throw

{thWU, e -, ,=2 prep,osidon thoro ugh = complete

{Vii n = eoncei ted .

va~e .mova. bl.e,. arm .. fO.t showing the directio~ 0: the wind vem=a vessel earrymg blood to the heart; a rib m a leaf

{vera. c~t, y = tr, .' uth .. , f ulness v,oraC!!ty= greed

{w~t -=.to , stay. beh .. ind WC:lgb.t= hea vmess

{weath,er = elima tic condit i om wru:ther=if

{Weald=waOded district

w~ld. ' to join. iron. by .s,Oft. ening and hammering vneld=to mana:,ge~ swmg

'{ •. ,Y,.' o.ke=a f .. rame of wood on nec.J,t oS, of oxen yolk=the yellow part of an egg

!EXER,CISES

'I. Choose w hieh you tbi.n.k is the correct word of the two word 5 in brackets at the end ,of each sentence to complete the sentence.

(1) A --~ is a very forma.l gesture of courtesy, (bough, bow] (2) You mus t put on the -~ in. order 10 S(D 13 yom bleyefe, (brake, break)

0) A -- may be pleasant to receive but is not ahva}"s sincere (oomp]e:m.ent~ oC(lmpUme.nt)

130

WORDS FREQUENTLY eON.fUSED

(4) A -_. 10!i of we ad burning in the ~- is iii: cheerful s".gl'u.

(gralej great). .

(S) ThaI dangercus animel should not be ]e:C -- - JJl the street. (lose. loose)

(6) The end. of a war does nOit ahvays bring -~, (peaceJ

pt~ce) ., .,. . , '.' ~

(7) When she. be:gms to, ~- the: vlelin I am. obhged to go, out

'of the house. (practice, practise)

(8) The -- -_, of good bnsmess l s to p]ea;se the customer. (pr inciple, princi pal). (Two words l'lee'CIe'l1.)

(9) If you want good ero'ps you must -- good seed. (sow,. .sew}

(l0) That man in the grey -- .15 Uving .in an expelllsive -- in the Ritz Hotel. (sui te, suit)

11. Write sentences each of which will show the use of one of the r (:I now jng words;

('I} alter; (2) blew: m whether; (4) fur; (5) mlJ.s~e]; (6) aUarj (7) q1:liet~ (8) heal; (9) dessert: (10) rela.

m. III ustrate ln sentences the difference j n meaning between the

following pairs of words: . . . . ... , "

(I) aloud, allowed; (2.) bea~~j ~h; (3) udel tied; (4) assent, ascent; (5) vein, vain; (6) doth, clothes: (7) cereal, serial; (.8) currant, current:; [9) artendants, anendll,]lce; (to) sensible, senslrlve,

-iv. Complete each of the fQUoY(m~ .~ent:mces with.a word

which maybe mistaken for the word In ltahcs lTI the sen.tence,:

t I) They were called assistants, but they didn't. give much +==v=, (2) The w~nd blew so cold that we Were -~ m the face.

(3) The plane' flew so low that th~ pilot's fa,!!- was quite ~~ to see,

(4) The discovery of lead in ilia t reg~o-n -- to' the growth of

an important industry.. .

(5) The Itleeting was catted. a Social Evening. hut we didn't find

the people very ~-'. . .

(6) He wished to -- to a certain author whm!e name e/fJded him.

(7) The missing win was found -_. ina secret drawer of the old writing-desk.

131

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(8.) Tha t was the -- expedition to set tanh in search of' the buried treasure,

(9) He was most anxious to catch sight of the -- where the

castle once stood. -

(10) The royal procession proce,eded slowly on. its way - by a detachment of Horse Guards,

*V. Say whether the words in italics in the following sentencea are correetlyused and if they are not, suggest words similar in sound to replace them,

(1) The counsel for the plail1.live pleaded his case very eloquently.

(2) A law may also _be called a statue.

(3) It was very diffi.cult to mieU a clear statement from that

witness. .

(4) There is no cure for this de:ct#.ue.

(5) He is very crcdibleaJild will believe anything he is. 'told,

(6) What he says often produces the apposite effect to what he intends.

(7) Have no allusions. You won't succeed unless you work harder.

(S) The family were all d.ress~d in morning attire because of their recent berea vemen t.

(9) They threw the cargo overboard during the thunderstorm with the object of lichtning the ship.

(10) The train remained stationer, un.Ul the guard blew his whistle ..

V. Explain the difference of mearung between the words in the foUowing pain;

(1) disaffected, unaffected; (2) unexceptionable, inacceptable; (3) allusive, elusive; (4) incredible, discreditable; (5) statuesque, statutory; (6) lesson, lessen; (7) loth. loathe; (8) inhuman, inhumane; (9) complementary, complimentary; (1 O)inetTec,tive. inefficient

"'VIl What are the .nega.tive fcrms of the following words?

0) adaptable; (2) advisable; (3) breakable; (4) bridled; (5) credulous; (6) eligible; (7) healed; (8) ingen_u,ous; (9) official; (l 0) patience, (11) popular; (12) practica ble; (13) sensible; (14) veraelcus: (15) social.

132

REVISION EXEROSES

·THE NOUN

I. Give the usual methods of Corming the feminine from the masculine, with examples of each.

n. Give the feminine of the following:

monk, earl, bachelor, horse, executor, hero,

Ill. What are the. pr:incJpal rules for the formation ofdre plural? IV. Give the plural of:

brush, neg;ro~ piano, fly. donkey, goose, OXj deer, terminus, crisis. genius ..

v, When do we use (a) the Nominative Case; (b) the Objective Case; (c) the Possessive Case. Give examples of each.

VI. Queeru; College, Oxford, was founded by the chaplain of Queen Philippa; Qtteem Co.J1ege" Ql.lubrldge, was founded by the wife of Henry VI and the wife of Edward IV'. Insert the apostrophe in the correct place in each case and give your reasons.

VII. Substitute the possessive form of the noun in place of the

words in italics.

(a) The house of my brother-in-law has been burgled. (0) The shQuts of the men could be heard a. Jong way. (c) Where is, the book that belongs to Charles.

fd) The nursery of the children is prettily decorated.

VUl Which are direct objects and which indirect objects ln the

following sentences:'

(a) I gave him a shj]Ung.

(b) I gave the book to my friend.

(c) wm you pass me the mustard, please? {d) He read me an extract from YO'Ui book.

(e) J will get )'OU a taxi. -

[33·

A CONC.ISE: ENOUSH GRAMMAR

"'lHE ADJEC"IlV'E

]. Mention the different kinds o:f adjectivesanrl giveM example ,of each.

U. EN:p]ain why "a n <OF .. an" or ., the" is used or emitted in the fo.uo'Wlng;

a clla:ir, a \.I!ofque thing, a one-stringed fiddle, an open door, an honoura hIe ma]]. N elsen was a. sailor, two shi l1ings a pound, I have not a friend in. the world, men fear death, ili.e death of his friend grieved. the man, the -Thames flows into the NQrth Sea.

Ell. How are the Comparan-ve and Supe:rla ti ve formed from the Posid~? Give the degr~ of comparison of; gooo,. bad, Utde~ mucl!jfar,

*THE AnVE:RB

t Name the different kinds of adverbs, g[ ve examples, using each in ill senten.ce.

U. Give six: adjectives and the corresponding adverbs. III. Dfstinguish. the different meanings of:

(a) O'nly John admires his sister ..

(b) Joan only admires his sister,

(c) John admires ollly his. sister,

(d) John a:dmlr·es his only sj~ter"

(e) John admires h,js sister only.

rv.. CO'l"NCt the fQnowing~ ,gjving reM,ODS: (a)1 J was that tilled I could h.ardPy speak,

(b)l ,He ran that quick I cOl.ddnjt, haidly keep up with him. fe) He ran very (asUy and ~ nearly could not 'catch him,. (d) The milk tasted sourly so I only took a drop,

(e:) ]I: have omy jf:as~ened thiatemporary, so use it Cl!II'e:fu].

V, Give the verbs, adjectives, and ad verbs corresponding to the se nouns:

hea t, le,ngth~ sleep,. 'beau:tyjcalm" lif~. ex-pense. pride, fire, n1MVe1j glo:ry~ :fu~ quiG'I:u~ss.mgej".

134

.REVISION EXERCISES

VI, ShOoW that the sentences (a) and. (b) fn the following example'S

do not mean the same thing. .

(1} (0) He works hard.

Cb) He hardly works.

(2) (a) He.i s happily married. (b) Happi1y, he is married.

(3) (a) F'oolishly, Lanswered all the questlcns, (b) I answeredall the q uestions foolishly. (4) (a) Healways advised me to, work mud. (b} He advis:ed me to work hard always. (5) (a) Your hair badly needs cutting.

(b) Your hair needs cutting ooo.ly.

"'THE PR.ONOUN

I. Name the different kinds of pronoun, ~sing each in a sentence. I L What is the difference in use or meaning between: . {a) This and rhese: (b) each and e'o'ery; (c) all and H?hole; (d) liufeand a Uttle7

HI. Use the followlng as pronouns: former. such, but, as, myself,. what.

IV. What Is the differenee between: some and any; whith and th.at?

V, C orrect the foUowlng, giving reasons for you]' correction: (0) Ea.clto:f my brethers have sent me a letter this week (b) The two boyswere fighting one a n other"

(c) It is you who he wants.

(d) Newton was the greatest $c,ient]st who England has had(e) One should always be careful what they :>ay,

{f) Neither of these are what I want.

(g) The artist which painted. that picture ls Rubens" (Il) 1 am the person. who go with you tomorrow.

(.0 The best stu dent who] have: ]5, away today. {j}He is not such a man whom. I wanted.

(k) Theman as I wanted came to' see me,

({) The book wnalt you want is being sent ~D you. ]35

A CONCISE ENGUSH GRAM MA.R

"'THE VERB

Complete t~e foUowing sentences, by adding the correct tenses of the verbs on brackets, Give two answers for those s'entences marked t.

(J) I never ~- early on Sunday morning. (get up) (2) Most fanners -- to market evety week, (go)

(3) These shoes ;<l.re worn out; you -- ,2 new pair. (need) (4) Water ~- Its own level. (find)

(5) The English -- to be very-reserved. (say)

(6) I ahvays~· a waterproof when it ~" (wear. rainj] (7) What book you -- at present? (read)

(8) "You -- En,glish?" "Not very weU, but I --- hard to learn it. 'I (speak, try)

(9) "What you -7" "I ~ some money I __ .' (do) look for, lose)

(l0) ]. ~ my fiance when. I -_ home for the holidays"

(see, go)! .'

(11) He -- so pleased to see me rhar he hardly to speak.

(he, be able)t

{12) The new airUner -- across the sk J like a cornet, (flash) (I3) Th,is term the classes -~ at 9,0 o'clock, but during the

winter they -- at IO.O o'clock. (begin)

(l~) ~e not --. one wet~y ,during t.h~ holidays. (havel] 0) Snlce the war many bUJldmgs -_. In London. (rebuild)

( 1 5) Since the war they .~- many bUi1ding,s in London. (rebuHd)

(I7) They stm --. in many parts of London. (r,ebuHd)

(18) I'm afraid I --·a lot of mistakes in my homework, (make)

(j 9) But at least I -- the difference between U after" and " afterwards'" . (Jearn)

(20) I -_- to him severo I times but he never -_. letters, (write, answerrr

(21) As soon as I ._. - my examination I ._- to my OWn country. {pass, go back)

(22) 1 -. - for YOli until you~. ready (wait, be).

(23) The baker -_. to deliver bread as 10ng as 'INe _ in this house, (promise, stay)

(24) We ~ Our dinner before you --, m.nish; begil1)t 1.36

REV I S.ION E X:ER. CI ses

(25) The next time I ~- to London] -_. the books, you -reviewed in the Times Literary Supplement last week.

(go. buy. see) ., a.. »: •

(26) %en 1--· learning Enghsh I - begm to study Spanish, (finish, in tend to)

(27) The play was so' short that we -- home much earlier than we -. -. (get, expect)

(2-8) HoW -- I answer your question when I not -~ the

words you --. (be able, understand, use) t . .' .

(29) She always - all her pocket-money before half the

month ---. (spend, pass)t .

(30) If I not -- it with my OW1!'ll eyes I not -- It" (see. believe)t

(31) We -- settle the matter in a few minutes jf only he --

here. (be. able, belt .

(32) If we -- that you -- at home we --_. earlier. (know; be, come)

PRECIS OR DICTATION PASSAGES

(1) It was England that fought the great ba rtle throughout on the same principle, without flim:hin~; an?, but. fOI' her perseverance, all the rest would have struggled 1(1 yam. It IS to be h,oped that the British nation will continue to see, and to reverence. In the contest and in Its result, the immeesurable advantages which the sober s tr-ength of a free but fixed consti tutlon possesses. OV(';[ the _ m.ad energies of <1JlarclJy on the one hand j and, on the o~er j over ail that despotic selfishness can effect, even ~nder the guidance of the most consummate genius.-Lockhart, Hlstor), of NapOleon IJUOlla~ parte,

(2) Take care that in every town the little roofs are built before the large ones, and that everybody who wants one ~as got one. And we must try to make everybody want one. Tha~ is to _ say, at some not very advanced pe~iod of ]j~e, men should ~esue ~.~ .~ve a ~o~, which they do not wish to q uu any more.. suited to theU" h~blt~ c:f life, and likely to be more and more suitable ,to: them ~til.llieJr death. And men must desire te have these their dv\{eUmg.p.ra_c:es b~ilt as strongly as possible, and furnished and dec:a~ated .damnJ~ and set in pleasant places, in bright light and good arr, bemg able

13-'

A. CONCiSE ENGUSH GRAMMAR

to choose forr themsel.ves that at 1e.aSl as weH as swallows, And when t]~e. houses a r: grouped toge ther ln cities. men mus t have So much C]VJC feHov.rshlp as to su bject their' ar"Chitectute to a common Jaw ,and so _much ci vf~ pride as to desire that the whole ga thered group of human. dweUmgsshouJd be. a ]ovely tiling, not ill fdghtfuJ one. on the face of Htee<!!lth.-lRuskm, LeCll/res on Art~ IV,

(3) It is a curious. th]~g tha t thereis no recogr.J ized answer to' 1 he conm1.on~t qu.e..stIOn. m. the wmld.AImost every day and often several umes a day weare asked how We are and nine times ou r of t~ weare ~t a loss to kn~w how ,to r~ply, Even jf W~ could COn5.cl~wJy d~ule~ before seUlDgou~ l~ the morning, that we felt very \\ en 'or rather depressed or utterly nusera ble, the problem would ~ot. be solved., To announce that one is very in is to demand sympathy unfal~]Y; to say that one is very ~'eU may seem a dangemlJ S chaUenge to fortune. Ovw!;enera ti (Ins, Englishmen ha ve worked au ta n~rn ~ll offom:nu<'I$ that seem lO, P rovide a sadsfaclory ~scape from thlS dilemma. They may dodge 1tahQge,tTher by rep.iy~ng, . s~meWh~t. feebJy; ,. And.hQ.w are y~u?"; they rna y tab refuge J~fhppanC:Ylf they are_ 0rtnefhppant kind; or they may say, quite ,~ruthfll~}\that tblIl,gs mJght be worse. The 13Jst of the three with us. lIar!ah~~5. of ·'Cm.l"t complain'." ,and," Mus,tn't gr~o~e". m]~t be said to, .eJ(.press t~e char,adenstic philosophy >of t he British. ~auon so. far as ~t IS posslble to do so in one sentence.-Tne Times

Fourth lea'ders '~ "It mi,ght be worse", 1950.

138

REVISION EXERCISES

(5) Fo'.I:" prose is the ,achfe\'ement of dvil.izalkm" of people who nave learnedto discuss witncm blows or invective who know that truth j s hard to ~nd and worth fulding~ who do not begin by accu~ing an opponent of wickedness! but elicit teas on. and pa tienee by display Ing them. . You cannot say in poetry what the best prose says ~ or acclompHslll ':"~~ ·ilie ll~S t~r,o~fl' .accompHshes. G v iliza~ion rna y not slJ.rpass a pnrmn ve sool!ety III hergh ts of rapture or heroism, but it is, jf it be dvHi~tion, bener fO'.I:" everyday life, kinder, more fa tiona], more sus tamed in effort jand this kindness and reason and sustained effort are: expressed and encouraged in the masterpieces of prose. Th(ll French understood this long ago, because they prize civ:iHz:atkm and enjoy it: rascal, wri'Eing his Pr« "iudal Letters in ] 656 upon a subject obscured by medieval subtleties and distorted by. party.. passi.cm.s" is ,alread t ]U5~, poE w: and lucid;: he does not even affect, the magrufioon,t disdain of Gibbon, but rs a civmzed man talking to other civilized men, and. tlhe.refOl'e all the more dead] y in debate, Bu.t it Js faJ]ac:ies he would kin. no t those who maintain them, He mows, that the art of ccntroversy is, not t 0 beg~ n withinveetlve, but 1>0 state your case in ,sucl'! a way that those who, like invective will supply j t themselves agail"J.st your ad.versary.-Arthw CluUon~B:H,)Ckl' The defeclS 0/ English Prose (from More EssaY$ on Books, Methuen).

(6) em istmas is the great family festival. Christma s Eve is 110t part of th~ hellday, but is, given over to preparations, The. excitement really begins on. the morwng of Christmas Day, when the children awake to' find that during the rughtthat mystericus being, "Fa.ther Chl'istmas '\ has' j eome Qown tlie chimney" and. left them all sorts of presents, The climax lSi Christmas DiW'le:r j when. the roast meat of the ordinary Sunday dinner tives, place to toast chicken or roast turkey, followed by Ch;r lstmas pudding and mince pies-and nuts, It is one of the m.any small myst:erjes of English .Hfetha t nuts are to be found an the, table 00 cruistmas Day but Mrdly at all at an J

other time of the year. ' _

Rooms are de co ra ted with coloured pa pe;r chains, and (if father is jngenious) wUh little coloured electrIc lights: while stiU more pre:s.en ts for the children Me foWl.d h:aJ:iging on as large. a Christmas tree as can be procured. The huge Christffi.1\S diooer lasts so .tong that it is : .. 0 ea sy mtl.tte,r to enjoy to the full the deligh ts of me ChrisWlas Cake that makes Hs no ble appearance, splen.did beneath

139'

A 'CONCISE ENGUSH GRAMMAR

its sugar .icing ex terior, at teatime, Afu=r tea, the children are with difficulty convinced that even Christmas Day has to end with bed ti me; but once they are safely ups tairs, t.heh: elders settle round the . fire for talk, or for card games. and of course for stin more eating. Wine, rarely seen in the average EngLIsh household, ThOW makes a gen.eral appearance~ and in. an atmosphere of comfortable good humour the evening prolongs itself well into the small hours of Boxing. Day.

On Box ing Day one I ises ra the]' la ter than usual, and. in theory if no t always in pm,et ice, one d istributes Chris tmas presents {01" " boxes n} to one's servants (jf any) and to the postman, the mil k· man. and the boy who br~figs [he daily p~peJ.i'.

It is interesting to notice that the English reveal an oddly international spirit In their Christmas tradi tions, They borrow their Christmas - tree from 'the Germans; Father Christmas or "Santa Claus" is the Salint Nfcholas of Rwsiaj and a favot.l!ritG En,gUsh Christmas Carel (da t ln~ (jIllly from the nineteen tn cen UH)') Pl"O~ drums, in terms that a,pparenl1y bear no relation to his rea] cbaracter, the extreme kindliness at Christmas time Olf a certain. Good Klng W~slas of Bolllemia,-Eckers]ey and Seaman, Pattern of El1gla,nd. Book Two.

"'Pt;NCTUATJON EXE,RCISE

Punctuate the foUowiing, inserting capital letters where necessary: it is a long time repeated his wife and when is it nota long time vengeance and. retribution require a long time it is fhe rule it doesnt take a. long time to str.ike a roan with iightnir.Lg said deiarg,e: how long demanded madame composedly does it take to make and. Mote the Hgh tnlng tell me de[arge raised hls head thCi'ughtfu[ly as if there ~re· :something in that tOQ it doesnt take a long time' said. madame for an. earthquake to swallowa to\VII.wedl ten me how ]ong it takes to pl'epare me earthquakea long time f suppo.se said. defarge but when i tog ready it takesptace and! grinds to pfooes e~rythjI!g before it in me meantime it is always preparing: though it isn.t seen Or heard tha ts your consola: tion keep It.-dickens a tale oi two cities.

(I) Learning EO ski. or .Learning to swLm. (2) Aircraft- modeJJmg.

140

REV lSIQN EXERCISES

(3) A day in the ]ii'e ofa man (.or w?~an) in A.D. 2000. (4) Ikltish and Con tinental Umvel1mlCS compared,

(5) The' town where I Jive ill my O\.Vn country.

{6) First inlpressions of England.

(7) F'oreign -travd.

(8) 'Why -- is my favourite sport. (Choose your spar;.) . (9) Are people happier now than they were a century ago?

(10) National tempe£'an~ent. . .' .

(11) Letter to an architect who .IS to desugn a new house or

sch~ot . . . .. . .. . _~. ?

(} 2) Is an ]flt.e:rnatlonallan~.iil .. 1ile possible or desirable?

(1.3) Musical a.ppr·eciatioD cannot betruu~!.

(14) My hobby (what~vel'~t is),

(15) 'Ihc. ple;asures of r,eadmg. .'. ...., . .? (16) Which IS better-s-a d,illy.school or a boarding school.

(1;) Christmas customs. . ..

(18) The pessibllities and the dangers of TeleY]SlOIl.

(19) Night, ill the for~t.., _..

(2Q) On winning a 'mg pm.1il in the feotball pools.

. EXAMlNATION PAPE.RS

(1) INTERMEDJATE

You may an(l7l1Ae:r ALL the questions

1, Dictat!on.-Wdf.fJ the sentences which will be dictated.

H. Write abouttwonly lines of English composition on ONE of the following subjects:

(a) Athletics; (b) "Listening In"; (c) Hundng; {d) Public Parks; (eo) "Make hay while the sun shines".

UI. Answer either A or B of the follow j ng:

A. Write a Jetter (not mOI1e than 20 lines in Jength) giving your friend auaccount of a party at which you were present.

S. Writ-.e a letter to your head office making suggesnoes for the ex tension ofthe business of you'!' branch,

*IV. Use each of the following words in a separate sentence: each, every. either! neither, none, some, any, few, both.

*V. Use each of the foll,owing phrases in a separate sentence:

(11) in response to; (b) hy no means; (c) in. the circumstances; Cd) carried unanimously: (e) as a result; (/) very desirable,

'* VI. In each: of the followi ng sentences replace 'the word went

by a sui table ver b:

(1'1) The car went at a great speed,

(b) The balloon went into the douds. (c) The waves went over the boat.

142

EXAMINATION PAPERS (d) The kite went out of sight.

(111) The explorer wentfl'i&ny miles ..

<f) The miner went to the bottom of the pit.

<tVIl., For each of the fonowing nouns give (wh~re po>ssib.J.e) a corresponding verb} adjective and adverb:

difre:rence~ health, length, pleasur-e, brightness, bea U1Y ~ duencc, conclusion, extension .

il:VlII. Construct sentences to shew that each of the foUowing words may be used (0) as a noun, (b) as anadjeetive:

sailing. speaking. playing, Hving.

(2) INl'ERMEDIA T.E

You may allswer ALL the question«

L Dictation. Write the sentences which win be dictated ..

n. Wri'le about twemy lines of EngUsh composition on ONE of

the fellowmg subjects:

(a) .. All that glitters is not gold." (b) Pree Libraries,

(c) FootbaJl

(d) My Favourite Author .. (e) "Business is Business."

UI. Answer either A or B of the foUowing:

A. Write ~ ,chatty letter h) your fliendgiving him {or her)

your epinlons of the EngUsh people. ,

B. Your head office has asked for au explananon of the decline in the business of ,your branch, Write a Letter in reply.

*IV. Give as many synonyms (words of similar meaning} as you can for each of the following words:

splendid, disaster, disorder ~ request, allow, answer j famou S J

- eras.-e~ rela te, description,

"'V. Exp1ain as clearly as you can the mea nin g of each of the fo Uowing words ~

conference, efficient, invaluable, contemporary. postpone. elementary.

143

A CONCISE ENGLISH -GRAMMAR

_ !IIV!. Give eight. words (nouns. verbs Or adjectives) connected wah the sea and ships, and use each word in a separate sentence.

"'VII. Use: each of the following phrases in a separate sentence: (a) cru:ri~d un~_imo.usly; (b) in spite of; .Ce) in acco~~nc.$ Wlth, (d) in consequence ,of; (e) without restnctton; (/) perfectIy satisfactory.

_"'VIlI. (a) Give the correspcading feminine noun for each of the

foIIowing masculine noW1S: -

lord, duke, earl, nephew. executor, bachelor, hero, poet. drake, gander.

(b) Give the plural of each of the followjng nouns: mother-in-law, assistant-master, spoonful, man-servant, lord Justice, Lord Chancellor, court-martial,

(3) ADVANCED

You may answer ALL the ques:tiollS

1. Dictation. Write the passage which wH] be dictated.

II. Write ~n Eng~sh essay (about 40 lines in length) on ONE of the followmg subjects:

(a) A Universal Language; (0) The Olympic Games; (c) The Future of Avtatlon; (d) The Pre-vention of Cruelty to

Animals; (8) The "Talkies", ..

;fOnL Explain as fully as you can each of the following expressions: (a) "He's got his back to the wall. "

(b) H 1 feel quite down in the: mouth."

(c) .. ] t' s like giving a donkey sua wberries. "

<1' IV. Construct sentences to show dearly the meanings of the fo liowing words:

judicious, jud.icia,]. an tiq ue, ancient, effective, efficient, pre-scribe, proscribe. leglb1e, eligible ..

V. Answer either A 0 r B of the foUowing:

A. Write a. letter toa friend giving an account ·0'£ your favourite hobby.

]44

EXA MINATION PAPERS

B .. Write a letter of introduction fora friend of YOl.tIS, 'i\ no is about to travel to a foreign country on business.

~ VI. Construct sentences to illustra te c1ea-dy the difference between after and ajre'rwtlJ'ds, since and ago, while and until, to

and towards. .

(4) ADVANCED

YO\u may answer ALL the questions

I" Dictation. Write the passage which will 00 dictated,

n. Write an English essay (abollt 40 lines in length) on ONE of the fonowing subjects:

(0) Communism t (b) The Future of Wir,e;]ess ; (c) Modem Musk; (cf) Modern Novels,; (e) The Health of the BcdYi U) h The United States of Europe ": (8) The English Sunday.

*111. Explain as fuUy as you can the contradiction in. each of the following pairs of proverbs.

1. (a) "Strike the iron while it's hot." (b) .,. More haste Jess speed."

2. (,tI) ~~'A rolllng stone gathfMS no moss."

(b)o "Home-keeping youths have ever homely wi ts.'

!II IV. 'Give, with phrases to illustrate your answer! the appropriate preposition to follow each of the given words:

(a) Subsequent; (b) impressed; (c) different; Cd) indifferent; (It) deficient; (/) adapted; (g) indepe,ndent; (II) dependent; (i) compatible"

*V. Explain as fuJJy as you can. each of the foHowin,g sayings: (a) "He knows, where the shoe pinches."

(b) .. I feel qu lte out of sorts .' ,

(c) u W,e must grmand bear it."

oioVI. Construct sentences to show clearly the difference between: began and begun; dj'd and done; eat. af.eand eaten; laden and loaded; lain and laid; fled; flowed and flown.

145

A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAM MAR.

(5) ADVANCED

You may a.!i!Swer ALL the questlons

1. Dicuutrm, W.dEe the passage which will be mctated.

II. Write an. Engl isb essay (about 40 lines in length) on ONE of the foUowing s1ilbj~~t:s:

(a) Tariffs~ (b) "B:uy Brltlsh"; (c) The Influence 'of the Press; (d) The Aim of Education; (e) .. The Hand that rocks the Cradle niles the W orid ~ 'i {n Are we better than our Fe re fa thers?

m:. Answer either A .0:1:' B of the ronowing:

A .. Wdte a. Jetter to a friend giving an acecunt and a short criticism ,af a mus.icaJ or dramatic performance which you have aUmded.

B. You have been asked re make a report to your Directors on. the advi:sabUity of erecting a new branch works. Draw up a shon r.e,P0rt under the foUowing heads: (a) Reasons fo.r @rect]ug thenew works; (b) Sugges~ed si~e; (c) C:o~t; (d) Future pr'Ospects.

jiI IV. Explain as funy as you can the rules for the correct use of the auxiliary verbs shall arid will,and write sentencesto ilJu5trat'l'l your amwe,r.

~'v. Exp.Iain as elearlyas you can eaeh of the following sayings: (a) I sm~U a rat; (0) Still waters run deeF; (e) [t's like pouring water on a duck's back.

"'V], Use each of the foUowing expresslcns in a separate sentence: (a) with one exception; fb) without reserve: (c) without prejudice; {d} adverse, circllm!ihlnOeS; (e) at your discretion; (f) reduced to a minimum.

146

MNDEX

A~ an, 13, 14, ].5 abstr;!II£t nouns, 2, 14 aecusatlve case" g

after be. 109

wi,th mfJnlitive, 7] acti~evoice, 68

a.dj ectlve clauses, 2 adj ecbve;s. 12-

oomp!lrl son of., 17 errors in use of, J ()9 eserelses on, 1:5. 19.

134

kind'i of. 12 po$l1ion of, 1 i'

same form as adverbs, 21

used as nouns, 19 used for ad verb, 109 adveebs, 2:] comp,uUon of~ ;2:.2., 21

errors in use of! n4 eX~f(:i:ses in, 23. 24,

134

kind! olf, :2.1

pl.iCe. of, 2.3 prre]uls~tl ens and. 84 same form as ad-

Jectives, ::U

w]~h two forms~ 22 olter • .85

again$t ,. S5 .

an, 15, 19, 30, 34, 35,

36

YlfW.aY3, 2.3, 11]

among and bel'we:gl;i~ 8.7 and, with .re] ative pro-

nm.m~H18

a !'Itecedent, 28,! 3{1, ~. 07, lOS

any, allJlone~ ~4,. 3:S. :3 6 articles, 1 30

as .• .23. 30

m,.8'

at and in, 87

lIuxiHary y,erbs, SJi', 14

Be. ss, 75, 109 befol'e~ 112

~md. for, 88

/:#J$Jde and besides, 87 berl'er~ wUh fUlll, 71, 74 betweel"l'j :8,:5, .112

and among, ,87 and eeeh, 1] 1 bfd65

bor~: and born~'t 65 borh, IS

lmt ,28 j 30, 102" I]::! by,,8:5

a [;Id with.~ 87

Can, '75

case, 8 clauses, r, :2

eellective nouns, 2, 41 ~Olrn men nOOM. Z, 14 <comparative degrea. 17 cempariscn of adjt:c~

HVe!l. 17, IS, 19' of ad verbs, 22, 23 comp,]t;x sentences, 2. ce mpon n d t e nses,

wrong use of. ] 10 concord ,40, 1G7, ] 09 cODd~tiona], 43. 46 oonjunctions, 10.2

cCH!wGioating" ]02- con~IElti .... e, ] 13, errors ill us~ of. ] 12

141

exeeelses on, 10:5 subordiml tin!;, 102: with JttJrr:e~'y and

hardly, U 12 cOlltinoou$ tenses ,48 00 -ordhlLllitiC f1(i;Qtenc~s~ 1

Dative ease, S j 9 d~f~ti've verbs, 74- definite article,B. 26 demonstl'ative adj~c-

l]v>es. 13 pronouns, 27

dictation pBssages.

137-MOI

different, :1 1. 2: •

d~reC:t and mdlF:$Ct ebj.act~a:9

direct and lndlreet sp.e;e,ch! 77 d]stril)uti'w~ adjectivl!s, 1.2, 13. 33, 34 pronouns, :3 3

dQ, 541 S8J. 75 .

with .1 rmnitive.S5 douh/e, IS . double negath'e. ill deuble serit!en~es., ~ dum" I'Ind(/ru.nken, 6,6

Each, 12. 33 .

and herweeno, ]J 1 each()ther~ 33 .

either, ]j.. 34 empha$~zil'Jg. pronouns,

3]

empl.1~t.ic fo~m of verb, S4

essay .subjects. 140~ 141

r

A CONCJSE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

every, ev,eryolle, ] 2" 13,

33,,36, lOS

Fall and feU, ] 09' faroner and !urthiJr. 18 fewer and tes», U 1 first. 49'. 109

lor. 85

and be/oro. 88 and with" 87 former, ] 8, 27 from. 86

future i[[ the past, 43, 46; 53

future tense, 51

wrong use of; ] lOr

Gender,5

gerund, 73

good, 21

had bWer (rarlleJ'), 11.

74 half. 15

hanged and hung; tiS

hardly. 112 .

haM, 74

t, 26

idiomatic phrases, 14,

27.36 if, ]03

lmperative 6'9, 70 impe.rsonalsubject.26 In. 86

and into', as and Wifhil1. 88

in denllite article, 13 pronoun, 29, 34

Indirect commands, 79 'object, g, 9

q uesdons, 33, 19 speech,77 .

j nfinitlve, 70

and accusative, 71 or gerund, 73 split. 110

intention or velitlon, 52

interjections, 104

i nterrogat! 'J.Ie, adjec-

tive-s. 13, 55 pronouns, 32, 55 verb,55

inrrensitive verbs I 47 ineguiar verbs, 59 notes OIl,. 65

itis •..• 30

L'7st" 181 29 late,st, hi

latter. 18, 21

lay and lie, 66. 109 less and Ie weI', 11] let, !OS!

like, 112

Main clause, 2 many, 15, IS may, '15 -

melted, 606 mood,69

imperative, 70 indiicat:iv'e, 69- su bj unetive, ,0

rmwh, ]8,27 multiple sentence, l mu.st, 76

Need hr:wdly, 71 negative double, 111

ofve:rb,54 n.either, 41, 113 never, 23, 111 no, S5

{J,obody, 34, 55, lOS: nomin ative a bsol ure,

72

case. 8, 25

misuse after bet ween, 1]1, nz

misuse aft,er tet, 109 nQlle. ] 9, 36

nor, 113

not lling. 30, 55 nou n clause, 2:

exercises, on, 6, 7, 10, 11,133

kinds, 2

plurals. 7

148

with DO pi ural, 1 with ne sa:ngtdar, 7 number, 6

Ob)e~~, 1, 8 .

ob~eQuv.e case, 8) 9-, 25

84 of, 86

,0/ mine. his etc" 26 o/'ten;. S 6

on. S6

one, 34" 35, 36

one another, 33, 34 only. ] 10

or. 41

other 36

o«ghi,76

own., 26

P,artlciples. n

and gerund, 110 mlsrel ated, 72, 1 I 0 parts of -s~h. 2 pas~iv~ voice, 68 past and passed, 109 past perfect tense, 49 phrases, 2

posl live degree. 1-'

p ossessi ve adjectives, 12. 78

case, 9, 25, ]OJ'

form and deft n l te artlcle, 26

proncuns, 26 plural, 2, 7

precis exercises, ] 31-401 predica tes, 1; 4(J p.refer, 1ll prepositlons, 84

<lifter II djectj ves all d

parttciples, 95-98 after 1l0UD1~, 98

after verbs, &9-95 and adverbs, 84

end lise of, 84 exercises 00. 88, 89,

99; 100. I til . notes on, 87 prlneipa t. 85

'pre-sen r perfect tense, 49

pronouns, 25, i 8 .

Cill.ercises on. 2.7, 28, 31, 32, 37, 38, 39, 135

kinds of, 25 perso,nal, notes, on. . 26

prope.r D4?um, 2, l~ punctua tton exercIses, 14(i

Qll~lily, adjectives of, 12

q uantity, adj eetives of,

lZ

question phr ases, 57, 5 S

IJIJ.ite. 15

Rat her with had, 74 ~ei'lexive pronouns, 31 relative pronouns, 28,

108

and antecedents, 30t 107, 108

omission of, 30 retained object, 68 rtse and raise} 109 roned and I'ou,en, 66

Same. 30. 108 $c(Jl"cely, 112 s,ddom,.23

sensation, verbs of, 71 shall and -will, 51, 52,

110 shal'e, 66 shear, 66

sho 1~1d and woald, 5.2, :5 3 shrink,. 66

simple sentences, 1

INDEX

simple present tense, 48

past tense, 49 since andjor, 87, 111 singular, 6

and pl u ral, ·co nfu-

sion of, 107, ] 08 so-and-so, 27

some, 34" 3S, 36 $omerhing, 34 someil'mes,23, ill somewhere, 36

strong verbs, ,9

S.Ll bjects, ~, 8, 40

impersonal,26 subordinate clause. I, 2

such, ] 5, 27, 30" lOS . s uperi a tive degree, 17, 29

wro rig use of, 109' swelled and swollen, 66

T ense after future verbs, 52

uses of, 48

rfu.m, 19

and a.~, 1} 3 objecti"ve case after, 112

wrong US!!! of, I ~ 2 fh.(ir, 28, 29',30

the, 14, 15, 19

they, indefinite, 34, 36 fhou. tlH'!e, 0/)" 26

trll, III

to, 86

with infinitive, 71 transitive verbs, i, 8,47

h19

Verbs. 40

conjugation of, 42-6 defecti'ie, i 4 emphatic, 54 exercises OIl., 41, 42;

47, 4-8" 49, 50, 53, .54, 5 S. 56, 58, 66, 67, 68, 69, 7J, 72, 74, 76,17, 80.81; 82, &3, ] 36. 137

j nterrogati ve of,S:5 il'regll1ii1cr, 59

of sensanon, 7t negati ve 0 f, 54

stron g, and weak, 591 use d wkh infinltlve,

73

used with gerunds, 13

Voice, 68 We. 26

weak verbs, 59 'well,21

what, 28, 30. 31, 3.3,

108

when, 103, 112

whlch. 28, 29, 30, 32,33 who, whom, whose, 19,

30,32, ]08 who,le, 35

wiU al1d sh~~n, 51, 52,

HO with, 86 wukin, 88 work. 66

would and should. 52

You, indefinne, 36