General Line Protection

General Line Protection
List of Topics
1. Distance relays - basics
2. Operating characteristics
3. Effect of parallel line
4. Phase selection
5. Power swing blocking
6. Communication scheme
7. Switch on to fault
8. Weak end infeed
9. Supervision fuse failure
10. System supervision.
11. Fault locator
12. Stub protection
13. Earth fault protection
14. Auto reclosing systems
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1-Distance relay basics
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Objective of relay protection
• Protect persons and equipment in the surrounding of the

power system
• Protect apparatus in the power system
• Separate faulty parts from the rest of the power system to

facilitate the operation of the healthy part of the system
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Electrical faults in the power system
• Transmission lines 85%

• Busbar 12%
• Transformer/ Generator 3%
Total 100 %
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Fault statistics
• Single phase to earth 80%
• Two phases to earth 10%
• Phase to phase faults 5%
• Three phase faults 5%
The probability of line faults caused by

lightnings are 0,2-3 faults/ 100 km and year
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Fault types
• Transient faults
– are common on transmission lines, approximately 80-85%
– lightnings are the most common reason
– can also be caused by birds, falling trees,Forest growth,
swinging lines, High velocity winds etc.
– will disappear after a short dead interval
• Persistent faults
– can be caused by a broken conductor fallen down
– can be a tree falling on a line
– must be located and repaired before normal service
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Fault types on double circuit lines

• Simultaneous and Interline faults
– On parallel line applications a problem can
L3 L1
occur with simultaneous faults.
– A full scheme relay is superior when the L1 L2
protection is measuring two different fault
types at the same time. L2 L3
Z<
~ L1-N ~
L2-N
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Fault resistance
L3 L1
• multi-phase faults
consist only of arc resistance L1 L2
• earth faults L2 L3
consist of arc and tower
footing resistance
Warrington´s formula
28707 x L L= length of arc in meters
Rarc = 1.4
I I= the actual fault current in A
Footing resistance
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Fault types
• Mid-span faults
– the fault resistance is out of control
– can be caused by growing trees, bushfire or objects
touching a conductor
– this type of high resistive faults can not be detected by
impedance protection
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MAIN REQUIREMENTS ON LINE PROTECTION ARE:
• SPEED
• SENSITIVITY
• SELECTIVITY
• DEPENDABILITY
• SECURITY
• RELIABILITY
• MTBF
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Measuring principles
• Overcurrent protection
• Over current & under voltage
combination
• Differential protection
• Phase comparison
• Directional- wave protection
• Distance protection
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The principle of distance protection
ZK=Uk/ Ik
Uk Uk=0
metallic fault
Zk B
A
Ik
Z<
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• Power lines have impedances of size 0,3- 0,4 ohm/ km and normal
angles of 80 - 85 degrees in a 50Hz systems.
A B
ZL=R+jX
Z< Z<
• The line impedance must be converted to secondary values with the

formula:
VTsec CTprim x
Zsec= x
CTsec Zprim
VTprim
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t
t3
t2
t1
l
A B C
f1 f2 f3
Z< Z< Z< Z<

t
t3
t2
t1
l
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Measuring loop for earth faults
• The distance protection relays are always set

based on the phase impedance to the fault
Zs RL XL
IL1
UL1
IN RN XN
The measured Impedance is a function of

positive and zero sequence impedance
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Measuring loop for two- phase faults

Zs RL XL
IL1
UL1-L2 IL2
The measured impedance is equal to the

positive sequence impedance up to the fault
location
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Measuring loop for three- phase faults

Zs RL XL
IL1
UL1 IL2
UL2 IL3
UL3
The measured impedance is equal to the

positive sequence impedance up to the fault
location
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The earth fault measurement
U= I1Z1+I0Z0+I2Z2 Z1=Z2
U= Z1( I1+I2+I0 ) +I0Z0 -I0Z1 I= I1+I2+I0
3I0=IN
U=I Z1+I0 ( Z0 - Z1 )
I Z0 - Z1
U=I Z1+ N ( Z0 - Z1 )
3
U=IZ1+IN ( 3
)
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The earth fault measurement

• The current used is thus the phase current plus the residual
current times a factor KN = (Z0-Z1) / 3Z1, the zero sequence
compensation factor.
• The factor KN is a transmission line constant and Z0/ Z1 is

presumed to be identical throughout the whole line length.
• (1+KN) Z1 gives the total loop impedance for the earth fault
loop for single end infeed.
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Double end infeed
I1 I Load
I2
U1 U2
UF RF
UF = RF ( I1 + I2 )
RF ( I1 + I2 )
RF1=
I1
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Measuring error at high resistive earth fault on a
line with double end infeed
X
Rf Load import
ZL
Rf Load export
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Remote faults
– Due to current contribution If2 and If3 in substation B, the
distance protection in station A will measure a higher
impedance than the "true" impedance to the fault.
– The relay will thus underreach and this means in practice it
can be diffcult to get a remote back-up.
A If1 B If2
ZL
If3 If=If1+If2+If3
Um ZF
Z<
Um= If1 x ZL+ (If1+If2+If3) x ZF

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Directional measurement
• When a fault occurs close to the relay location the
voltage can drop to a value where the directional
measurement can not be performed.
– Modern distance protection relays will instead use the

healthy voltage e.g. for L1- fault the voltage UL2-L3,
shifted 90 degrees compared to UL1. This cross
polarisation is used in different proportions between
healthy and faulty phases in different products.
– At three- phase fault close to the station all phase

voltages are low and cross polarisation is not of any use.
Instead a memory voltage is used to secure correct
measurement.
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Design of distance protection
• Switched scheme
– consists of a start relay to select (switch) the measuring
loop to the single measuring relay
• Full scheme
– has a measuring element for each measuring loop and
for each zone
Z<
~ L1-N ~
L2-N
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2- Operating characteristic
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THE FIRST ZONE CHARACTERISTIC
SHOULD COVER AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE OF PROTECTED

CIRCUIT AND OF ADDITIONAL RESISTANCE.
• IN CASE OF Ph TO GROUND FAULT FOLLOWED BY RECLOSURE

TO TRIPPING IN UNFAULTED PHASES.
• FAST OPERATION
• DIRECTIONAL DISCRIMINATION.
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THE FIRST ZONE CHARACTERISTIC(Contd..)
EXTENSION UPWARDS AND TO THE RIGHT SHOULD ENCLOSE

AS MUCH OF LINE IMPEDANCE AND ADDITIONAL RESISTANCE
WITHOUT OVERREACH.
• REACH IN RESISTIVE DIRECTION SHOULD BE LARGE ENOUGH TO

COVER LARGE RESISTANCE AND TO GET GOOD DYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE BUT LIMITED TO AVOID UNWANTED TRIPPING IN CASE
OF POWER SWINGS , OVERREACH IN ADDITIONAL RESISTANCE IS SEEN
WITH LARGE CAPACITIVE REACTANCE , SHORT TIME OVERLOADING.
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THE SECOND ZONE CHARACTERISTIC
EXTENSION UPWARDS IS DECIDED BY IMPEDANCE OF PROTECTED

LINE AND SETTING OF I ZONE OF ADJACENT LINES.
• IN MOST CASES R-AXIS REACH OF ZONE - II SAME AS ZONE -I

IS SATISFACTORY. IF ADDITIONAL RESISTANCES ARE EXPECTED
WHICH ZONE - I IS NOT ABLE TO COVER THEN DIFFERENT SETTING
FOR ZONE - II IS ADVANTAGEOUS.
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THE THIRD ZONE CHARACTERISTIC
THIS IS THE WIDEST OF ZONES IN WHICH TRIPPING CAN OCCUR

AFTER LONGEST TIME DELAY.
• IS REQUIRED TO GIVE REMOTE BACKUP THOUGH IN

MANY CASES IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO GET COMPEREHENSIVE
REMOTE BACK UP.
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DISTANCE PROTECTION ON SHORT LINES.
jX
• Low measured reactance
• Ratio between fault resistance

and resistance is high.
• Distance protection with

mho characteristic can not
see an average fault resistance.
RF
XF
R
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DISTANCE PROTECTION ON SHORT LINES
• Low measured reactance
jX
• Ratio between fault
resistance and reactance is
high.
• Distance protection with
mho characteristic can not
see average fault resistance.
• Cross polarization has no
significant effect.
RF
XF R
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DISTANCE PROTECTION ON SHORT LINES
• Quadrilateral characteristic
jX
improves sensitivity for
higher RF/XF ratio.
• It still has some limitations.
-The value of set RF/ XF ratio is
is limited by 5
- Remote infeed increases the
apparent value of fault resistance.
- Requirements on current
instrument transformers are
RF stringent.
XF
R
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DISTANCE PROTECTION ON SHORT LINES.
jX • Teleprotection schemes improve
the total system behavior.
• Overreaching permissive schemes
increase the sensitivity.
• Weak infeed logic for very high
fault resistance.
• Requirements on CT’s are
decreased.
RF • Independent underreaching
zone 1 is sometimes an
additional advantage.
XF R
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jX DISTANCE PROTECTION ON LONG LINES
• Load impedance limits the

reach in resistive direction.
• High value of RF / XF ratio is
generally not necessary.
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DISTANCE PROTECTION ON LONG LINES
• Load impedance limits the reach in
resistive direction.
• High relay of RF/ XF ratio is generally
not necessary
• Circular (mho) characteristic
- has no strictly defined reach
in resistive direction.
- needs limitation in resistive
direction (blinder)
• Influences of heavy load current at
phase to earth faults.
• Sensitivity for low currents.
R
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• AT THE ORIGIN DIRECTIONAL DISCRIMINATION REQUIRED

BY LINE PASSING THROUGH 2nd QUADRANT , 4th QUADRANT
AND ORIGIN.
• THE DIRECTIONAL MEASUREMENT IS BASED ON THE USE OF

+ VE SEQUENCE VOLTAGE FOR THE RESPECTIVE FAULT LOOP.
•VOLTAGE USED FOR RPH ELEMENT IS

0.8 U1R + 0.2 U 1RM
WHERE U 1RM IS MEMORY VOLTAGE (+VE SEQUENCE)
THIS WILL ENSURE CORRECT DIRECTIONAL DISCREMINATION.

EXTENSION IN 2 nd AND 4th LIMITED TO AVOID OPERATION OF
UNFAULTED PHASE AN ALSO DURING SWINGS YET GIVE GOOD
DYNAMIC PERFORMANCE.
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LOAD CURRENT INFLUENCES THE IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT.
e
danc
impe
Line
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The same fault position

Equal fault resistance
e
danc
Characteristic with out load compensation

impe
Line
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A B
ILOAD
∼ ZL
∼
RF
EB
EA
IFA IFB
EXPORTING END IMPORTING END
OVERREACHING OVERREACHING
ZM = ZL + RF (
1+
IFB
I FA )
Note : Currents and voltages are phasors
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The same fault position

Equal fault resistance
ce
edan
Characteristic with out load compensation

Imp
Line
Load compensated characteristic
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IT IS NOT WHAT MANY HOPE IT IS
•RCALC is an interactive PC based program,
which helps the users in determination of
optimum settings of distance protection.
C •Its operation is based on real algorithms
AL
used in the distance protection.
•It includes measuring characteristics for :

RC
-RAZOA and RAZFE

-REZ 1 and REL 100
-distance protection in REL 5XX
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IT IS NOT WHAT MANY HOPE IT IS
•It presents the operation areas of distance
protection zones in impedance ( R- X ) plane
• Simulates two machine system :
C -single line.
-double circuit line with zero
AL
sequence mutual coupling.
-remaining network (line)
between two busbars.
RC
-load conditions
-changing fault resistance.
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3- Effect of parallel line
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Zero- sequence mutual coupling on parallel lines
ZL
~ ZOM ~
ZL
~ ~
ZA< overreaching ZA< ZB< ZB< underreaching

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Zero- sequence mutual coupling on parallel lines

• In double circuit lines and parallel lines the zero sequence coupling
will result in measuring errors, specially at ground faults.
• The mutual impedance will either cause an extension or reduction of

the set reach on the relay.
• Maximum overreaching will occur when the parallel line is out of

service and grounded at both ends.
• The overreaching caused by the grounded parallel line can be
avoided at the setting of the relay, by the KN factor.
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EFFECT OF MUTUAL COUPLING ON DISTANCE
RELAYS
∼ ∆ ZOM ∆ ∼
PARALLEL LINE EARTH CURRENT = IEP = 3IOP

INDUCED VOLTAGE IN THE FAULT LOOP = I EP • ZOM / 3
DISTANCE RELAY PH- EARTH UNIT MEASURES
Z = VPH- E / ( I PH + KO IE ) WHERE KO = ZOL - ZL / 3ZL
= ZL • IPH + ( ZOL - ZL ) IE / 3ZL + IEP • ZOM / 3ZL
IPH + KO IE
WHERE K OM = ZOM / 3ZL
= ZL [ 1 + KOM • IEP / IPH + KO IE
ERROR
]
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EFFECT OF MUTUAL COUPLING ON DISTANCE RELAYS
- THE ERROR IS α MUTUAL COUPLING FACTOR ZOM / 3ZL .
- ERROR INCREASES WITH IEP IN RELATION TO THE

RELAY CURRENT IPH + KO IE
- THE RELAY UNDER REACHES WHEN IEP IS IN PHASE

WITH IPH AND IE
- THE RELAY OVER REACHES WHEN IEP , IPH AND IE

HAVE OPPOSITE SIGNS.
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EFFECT OF MUTUAL COUPLING ON DISTANCE RELAYS
∼ ∆ ∆ ∼
KOM • ZOM / ZOL

∆Z = - ZL •
1 + KO
= - 0.23 ZL
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EFFECT OF MUTUAL COUPLING ON DISTANCE RELAYS.
∼ ∆
D
KOM
• ZL
∆Z = 1 + KO ZOL - ZL
KO = = 0.864
= 0.38 ZL 3 ZL
KOM = ZOM / 3ZL = 0.716

R1 + j X1 = 0.0289 + j 0.307 Ω / KM
∴ ZL = 0.308 Ω / KM
RO + j X0 = 0.276 + j 1.0715 Ω / KM ZOL = 1.106 Ω /KM
ZOM = 0.662 Ω/ KM
RMO1 + j XMO = 0.228 + j 0.622 Ω / KM
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SETTING OF DISTANCE ZONE FOR PARALLEL LINES.
• SETTING OF ZONE 1.
SETTING OBJECTIVE IS TO AVOID OVERREACH BEYOND THE REMOTE
END IN CASE SHOWN BELOW. ALSO SETTING SHOULD COVER AS
MUCH OF THE LINE AS POSSIBLE ( MIN 50 % + SAFETY MARGIN )
PH- E
∼
D
1+ ( ZOL - ZL - KOM • ZOM )

3ZL ZOL
Z = X ZL •
1 + KO
∴ SET KO = [ ZOL - ZL
3ZL
- KOM ZOM
ZOL ]
AND REACH TO 90%
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WITH THE ABOVE FOR OTHER CASES VIZ PARALLEL LINES

SWITCHED OFF AND NOT EARTHED & BOTH LINES IN SERVICE
THE REACH WILL REDUCE AS GIVEN BELOW.
- PARALLEL LINE SWITCHED OFF AND NOT EARTHED - 69%

- BOTH LINES IN SERVICE - 60%
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SETTING OF DISTANCE ZONES FOR PARALLEL LINES
• SETTING OF ZONE 2
SETTING OBJECTIVE IS RELAY MUST SAFELY COVER 100 % OF

THE LINE WITH SAFTEY MARGIN OF 20 % FOR THE MOST
UNFAVOURABLE CONDITION.
PH - E
Z = ZL
[ 1+
(ZOL -ZL ) / 3ZL + KOM
1 + KO ]
ZOL - ZL
∴ SET K0 = 3 ZL
+ KOM AND REACH TO 120 %
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FOR OTHER CASES VIZ PARALLEL LINE SWITCHED OFF AND
EARTHED AT BOTH LINE ENDS IT MUST BE ENSURED THAT
THIS DOES NOT OVERLAP WITH THE ZONE 2 OF THE
FOLLOWING LINE.
Z Z
0. 44
ZL
THIS MEANS IN THE CASE OF 2nd ZONE SET TO 120 % OF
ZL
WOULD HAVE A REACH OF 173 % OF Z L.
IN NORMAL PRACTICE THIS PROVIDES NO PROBLEMS AS

OVERRECH IN TO FOLLOWING LINE IS REDUCED BY
INTERMEDIATE INFEEDS AT REMOTE STATION.
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THE INFLUENCE OF ZERO SEQUENCE MUTUAL COUPLING CAN

BE COMPENSATED IN NUMERICAL RELAYS IN TWO DIFFERENT
WAYS
ALT 1 -
BY USING POSSIBILITY OF DIFFERENT VALUES OF EARTH
RETURN COMPENSATING FACTOR K FOR DIFFERENT ZONES
∼
WITHIN THE SAME GROUP OF SETTING PARAMETERS.
ALT 2 -
BY USING DIFFERENT GROUPS OF SETTING PARAMETERS
FOR DIFFERENT OPERATING CONDITIONS OF PROTECTED
DOUBLE CIRCUIT LINE.
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ALTERNATIVE 1
ZOM
ZOL - ZL
KN1 =
[ 3ZL
- KOM
ZOL ]
ZOL - ZL
KN2 =
[ 3ZL
+ KOM
]
ZOL - ZL
KN3 =
[ 3ZL ]
WHERE K OM = ZOM / 3ZL
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ALTERNATIVE 2
CASE 1 - PARALLEL LINE SWITCHED OFF WITH BOTH ENDS

EARTHED.
ZOL - ZL ZOM
KN1 = [ 3ZL
- KOM
ZOL ]
KN2 , KN3 IDENTICAL TO ALT 1
CASE 2 - DOUBLE CIRCUIT PARALLEL LINE IN OPERATION.

ZOL - ZL KOM
+
KN1 =
[ 3ZL
]
KN2 , KN3 IDENTICAL TO ALT 1
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4-Phase selection
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PHASE SELECTION.
AN INDEPENDENT PHASE SELECTION FUNCTION OPERATES

AS A COMPLEMENT TO THE IMPEDANCE MEASURIING ELEMENT
SO AS TO SECURE CORRECT PHASE SELECTION IN CASE
OF SINGLE PH TO EARTH FAULTS ON HEAVILY LOADED LONG
TRANSMISSION LINES AND ALSO MULTI CIRCUIT.
IT IS NOT NECESSARY TO SET THESE TO COVER ALL

ZONES. IT IS ENOUGH IF IT COVERS FIRST OVERREACHING
ZONE ( ZONE 2 ) MEASURING ELEMENT FOR DIFFERENT
FAULT LOOPS BUT FOR PHASE INDICATIONS.
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.
• I PH FAULTS
PHASE SELECTION jX
UR
XNPh < R N4 + j x N4
IR
2 . ( 1 + Kn )
Us
< R N4 + j x N4
Is
UT
< R N4 + j x N4
IT
RN2 RNPh ALSO
R
3Io > 0.1 In
&
3Io > 0.2 IpHMAX
Characteristic of phase selector for single-phase faults.
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PHASE SELECTION • 2 PH FAULTS.
jX
UR - UT < R4 + j X4
XPh IR
2. X2 Us - UR < R4 + j x4
IS
α
UT - UR
< R4 + j x4
• IT
70 2.R2 R
∂ RPh ALSO
3Io < 0.2 IN & 3Io < 0.4IpHMAX
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Characteristic of phase selectors for two-phase faults.
jX’ jX
PHASE SELECTION
2.X2
R’
XPh .2/
RPh 2/√3 • 3 PH FAULTS.
α THIS IS SIMILAR TO
PH - PH FAULTS WITH
FOLLOWING DEVIATIONS.
2. R2 100 •
δ R - ROTATED ANTICLOCKWISE
BY 30 DEGREES.
- REACH 2/ √ 3 TIMES
THAT OF FOR PH - PH
FAULTS.
Characteristic of phase selectors at three phase faults.

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5- Power swing blocking
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Power Swing Blocking (PSB) function
• A power swing can be started by sudden load change due to
a fault somewhere in the network.
• Close to the centre of the power swing, low voltage and thus
low impedance will occur.
• A distance protection relay must then be blocked during the

power swing.
• This can be done by mesuring the transit time of the

impedance locus passing two dedicated impedance zones.
• Normally the time used is 35-40 ms.
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POWER SWING BLOCKING FUCTION
•WHEN POWER SWING DETECTION UNIT OPERATES ANY IMPEDENCE

ZONE CAN BE SELECTED TO BE BLOCKED OR NOT AS REQUIRED.
•OPERATION OF POWER SWING DETECTION UNIT IS INHIBITED

WHEN ZERO SEQUENCE CURRENT IS DETECTED. THIS FEATURE IS
INCLUDED TO ENSURE TRIPPING OF HIGH RESISTANCE EARTH FAULTS
WHERE FAULTS WHERE FAULT RESISTANCE CAN DECREASE SLOWELY.
•THE RESIDUAL CURRENT INHIBIT CONDITION ENSURE PSD

WILL NOT BLOCK DUE TO UNBALANCED LOAD OR
RESIDUAL CURRENT EXPERIENCED WITH UNTRANSPOSED
TRANSMISSION LINES.
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Power Swing Blocking function
X
Power swing locus
∆t
∆t = 40 ms
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EFFECT OF VOLTAGE COLLAPSE ON DISTANCE RELAYS.
• APPARENT IMPENDANCE PRESENTED TO A DISTANCE RELAY
AS THE LOAD VOLTAGE VARIES DEPENDS ON VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTIC
OF THE LOAD.
• FOR A MOTOR
2
P = 0.35 ( 0.75 + O.25 V )
X
V = 0.8PU•
•V = 1.1 PU
R
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SIMPOW ( SIMULATION OF POWERSYSTEMS )
• SIMPOW IS A COMPUTER PROGRAMME DEVELOPED BY ABB POWER
SYSTEM AB
• FOLLOWING STUDIES CAN BE DONE BY SIMPOW
- STEADY STATE (POWER FLOW , FAULT CURRENT , HARMONICS).
- ELECTRO MECHANICAL TRANSIENTS ( LONG TERM DYNAMICS ,

SHORT TERM DYNAMICS , MACHINE TRANSIENTS).
- ELECTRO MAGNETIC TRANSIENTS (SATURATION AND RESONANCE

SWITCHING TRANSIENTS , LIGHTNING TRANSIENTS).
- ANALYSIS (FREQUENCY SCANNING , EIGEN VALUES AND VECTORS,

MODEL ANALYSIS).
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6- Communication scheme
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COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT
A B
∼ × × × ×× × ∼
IN THE ABSENCE OF COMMUNICATION LINK
-THE OPERATION ZONE OF END ZONE FAULT IS LONGER.

-AUTO RECLOSING IS NOT POSSIBLE.
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Communication equipment
• Power line carrier (PLC) equipment is based on a capacitive
connection of signals with frequency in the range 50- 500 kHz on the
power line.
• Radio link is a good and reliable communication equiment, but is
rarely used due to the high cost.
• Optical fibres have the advantage to be insensitive to noise and can

transmit a huge amount of information.
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COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT
RELAY SETTING AND THE WAY SIGNALS ARE USED IS GIVEN
BELOW.
FIRST ZONE REACH

• UNDER REACHING (0.8 TO 0.9 Z AB )
• OVER REACHING ( 1.2 Z AB)
USE OF RECIVED SIGNAL

• OPERATION OF CB IF LOCAL RELAY HAS PICKED UP
• AS INFORMATION REGARDING DIRECTION OF FAULT
- FOR COMPARISON WITH LOCAL END
- TO EXTEND ZONE I REACH
- TO BLOCK RELAY OPERATION
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Permissive communication schemes
– Communication signal carrier send (CS) is sent to remote end
when the fault is detected in forward direction. Tripping is achieved
when the commmunication signal carrier receive (CR) is received
and the local relay has detected a forward fault.
– In a permissive underreaching scheme the communication signal is
sent from a zone that underreaches the remote end.
– In a permissive overreaching scheme the communication signal is
sent from a zone that overreaches the remote end.
A B
Z< Z<
Carrier send CS = Z< forward, under or overreach

Trip = ZM1 + ZM2 (t2 + CR) + ZM3 x t3
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PERMISSIVE COMMUNICATION SCHEMES

PERMISSIVE OVERREACHING SCHEMES ARE ADOPTED FOR SHORT
LINES
( ALSO CALLED DIRECTIONAL COMPARISON SCHEMES)
ADVANTAGES ARE
• BETTER PERFORMANCE FOR HIGH RESISTANCE FAULTS.
• SUPERIOR TO PILOT WIRE AS DIGITAL DECISIONS ARE
EXCHANGED AND NOT ANALOGUE
• SUPERIOR TO PHASE COMPARISON WHICH REQUIRES
FAITHFUL TRANSMISSION OF PHASE INFORMATION.
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Blocking communication schemes
– Communication signal (CS) is sent to remote end when the
fault is detected in the reverse direction. Tripping is achieved
when this blocking signal is not received within a time T0 (20-
40 ms) and the local relay has detected a fault in the forward
direction.
A B
Z< Z<
Carrier send CS = Z< reverse zone

Trip = ZM1 + ZM2 (t2 + CR x T0) + ZM3 x t3
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BLOCKING COMMUNICATION SCHEMES
BLOCKING SCHEMES ARE USED WHEN COMMUNICATION SIGNALS

SHALL NOT BE TRANSMITTED OVER FAULTY LINE FOR RELIABILITY
REASONS
Ex : BOOSTING OF SIGNAL NOT PERMITTED.
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7- Current reversal logic
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Current reversal logic Permissive overreaching schemes
can trip healthy line without C.R.L
1 Fault occurs on line 1
Fault detection by protection A:1 B:1 and A:2
A:1 B:1 2 Relay B:1 trips CB and sends carrier to A:1

~ ~
Relay A:2 sees fault in forward direction and
sends carrier to B:2
A:2 B:2 3 Fault cleared at B:1, current direction changed
on line 2
4 Carrier from A:2 and forward looking measuring
element in relay A:2 does not reset before relay
B:2 detects the fault in forward direction and
A:1 B:1 trips, also relay A:1 will trip when receiving carrier
~ ~
from B:1
A:2 B:2
C.R.L allows slowly resetting
communication equipment without risk
ABB ATCF-PT
of tripping the healthy line.
77
8- Switch on to fault
ABB ATCF-PT
78
Switch On To Fault (SOTF)
• When energizing a power line onto a forgotten earthing no
measuring voltage will be available and the directional measuring
can thus not operate correctly.
– A special SOTF function is thus provided. Different principles
can be used, from one phase current to undirectional
impedance measuring.
SOTF conditon can either be
taken from the manual closing
signal activating the (BC) input
or it can be detected internaly by
U=0 V a logic.
Z<
ABB ATCF-PT
79
9- Week end infeed
ABB ATCF-PT
80
Weak end infeed
Weak end infeed is a condition which can occur on a transmission
line, either when the circuit breaker is open, so there is no current
infeed from that line end, or when the current infeed is low due to
weak generation behind the protection.
CR CS (echo)
Z< Z<
t3 CS CR
t2
t1
CS = ZM2
l
CS (echo)=CR x low voltage x no start forward or reverse
TRIP = ZM1 + ZM2(CR + t2)
ABB ATCF-PT
81
WEAK END INFEED
DUE TO WEAK END INFEED FOLLOWING WILL HAPPEN.
• IN PERMISSIVE OVER REACH SCHEMES BOTH CBS MAY FAIL

TO TRIP INSTANEOUSLY DUE TO NO CARRIER SEND SIGNAL
AND NO RELAY OPERATION IN WEAK END.
• IN PERMISSIVE UNDERREACH SCHEMES FAST FAULT CLEARENCE

OF WHOLE LINE SECTION WILL NOT BE THERE BECAUSE NO
SIGNALS WILL BE SENT FROM THE WEAK END.
• IN BLOCKING SCHEME OR PERMISSIVE UNDERREACH SCHEME

THE LOW INFEED END WILL FAIL TO TRIP INSTANTANEOUSLY.
ABB ATCF-PT
82
WEAK END INFEED.
THE LOGIC DESCRIBED FOR PERMISSIVE OVERREACH SCHEME CAN

BE USED IN TWO MODES.
-ECHO FOR COMMUNICATION SIGNAL ONLY.
-ECHO OF COMMUNICATION SIGNAL AND TRIP OF LOCAL CB.
IN CASE OF PERMISSIVE UNDERREACH SCHEME THE LAST 10-20 %

TOWARDS WEAK END WILL BE CLEARED IN ZONE II TIME .
IF THIS IS NOT ACCEPTABLE OVERREACH SCHEME SHOULD BE USED.
IN BLOCKING SCHEME WEAK END CB CANNOT BE TRIPPED .

IN SUCH CASE DIRECT TRIPPING FROM ZONE I AND ACCLERATED
ZONE MUST BE USED.
ABB ATCF-PT
83
10- Supervision of fuse failure
ABB ATCF-PT
84
FUSE FAIL SUPERVISION
THIS FUCTION IS BASED ON CONDITION
3UO > 20 % OF Un / √ 3 AND 3IO < 20 % OF I n
IT CAN BE SELECTED TO BLOCK PROTECTION AND GIVE ALARM

OR JUST TO GIVE ALARM.
FUSE FAIL SUPERVISION IS BLOCKED FOR 200ms FOLLOWING

LINE ENERGISATION IN ORDER NOT TO OPERATE FOR UNEQUAL
POLE CLOSING AND ALSO DURING AUTORECLOSING.
MCB CAN ALSO BE USED.
ABB ATCF-PT
85
11- System supervision
ABB ATCF-PT
86
SYSTEM SUPERVISION.
SYSTEM SUPERVISION CONSISTS OF FEATURES TO GIVE ALARM
FOR UNNATURAL CONDITIONS VIZ.
- OVERLOAD SUPERVISION
- BROKEN CONDUCTER
- LOSS OF VOLTAGE
• OVER LOAD SUPERVISION GIVES ALARM IF CURRENT EXCEEDS FOR

10 SECS.
• UNSYMMETRICAL LOAD CONDITION CHECK GIVES ALARM WHEN ANY PH

CURRENT IS LOWER THEN 80% OF LARGEST PH CURRENT. ALSO
LARGEST PH CURRENT MUST BE > 15% OF NOMINAL CURRENT.
• LOSS OF VOLTAGE SUPERVISION CAN TRIP OR GIVE ALARM WHEN ALL

3 PH VOLTAGES ARE LOW FOR MORE THEN 7 SECS.
ABB ATCF-PT
87
12- Fault locator
ABB ATCF-PT
88
FAULT LOCATOR
P
IFA
DA
× RF
UA
UA = IA × P ZL + ID × RF
FA
P
IA ×pZL
A
2
P - p × k1 + k2 - k3 × RF = 0
RF
IA
ABB ATCF-PT
89
FAULT LOCATOR
Fault Locator Measuring Principle
L
F
ZA A pZL ( I - p )ZL B ZB
∼ IF ∼
IA IB
RF UA=IA X P ZL + IFA X RF
DA
pZL ( 1- p ) ZL
(I-P) ZL +ZB
ZA ZB DA =
-
∼ ZA+ZL +ZB
+
ABB ATCF-PT
90
FAULT LOCATOR
For Double Circuit Lines.
IFA .
UA = IA . pZL +
DA RF + IOP . ZOM
p2 - p k1 + k2 - k3 RF = 0
(1-p) ( Z1A + Z1L + Z1B )

DA =
2 Z1A + ZIL + 2Z1B
WHERE
UA Z1B UA Z1B
K1 = I Z + Z + Z +1 K2 = I Z ( Z + Z + 1)
A 1L 1L ADD
, A 1L 1L ADD
IFA ( Z1A + Z1B )

K2 = I Z Z1L+ ZADD + 1
A 1L
ABB ATCF-PT
91
13- Stub protection
ABB ATCF-PT
92
Stub protection function
Bus A It is not possible for the distance
+ >Z
protection relay to measure
impedance when the line
disconnector is open. Not to risk
incorrect operation the distance
protection must be blocked and a
Stub protection is released.
The Stub protection is a simple
current relay.
25ms
li ne disc
open & t rip
Bus B I STU B >
ABB ATCF-PT
93
14- Earth fault protection
ABB ATCF-PT
94
Earth fault current in solidly grounded system
Reverse
operation
0.6x3I0D
φ=65
Upol
3I0D Forward -3U0
operation
3I0 X cos(65-φ)=3I0D
3I0 >
φ = the characteristic angle of zero
sequence source impedance
ABB ATCF-PT
95
EARTH FAULT CURRENT IN SOLIDLY
GROUNDED SYSTEM.
• HIGH FAULT RESISTANCE CAN BE DIFFICULT TO DETECT

THROUGH DISTANCE RELAYS.
• THIS CAN BE OVERCOME BY E/F O/C PROTECTION EITHER NON

DIRECTIONAL OR DIRECTIONAL.
• PROVIDED WITH SECOND HARMONIC CURRENT RESTRAINT WHICH
BLOCKS OPERATION IF RESIDUAL CURRENT CONTAINS 20% OR
MORE OF SECOND HARMONICS.
• POLARIZING VOLTAGE CAN HAVE HIGH AMOUNT OF HARMONICS

WHEN OUTPUT VOLTAGE IS LOW PARTICULARLY WHEN CVTS ARE
PROVIDED. THEREFORE RELAY MUST HAVE BAND PASS FILTER.
BAND PASS FILTER PROVIDES SECURE OPERATION DOWN TO 1%
OF NOMINAL VOLTAGE.
ABB ATCF-PT
96
15- Auto reclosing
ABB ATCF-PT
97
1.0
1.0 GENERAL
GENERAL
• The auto-reclosing of power lines has become a generally accepted

practice.
• Reports from different parts of the world show that in

certain networks in region subject to a high lightening intensity only
about 5% of the faults are permanent.
• Auto reclosing therefore provides significant advantages.
• Outage times will be short compared to where station personnel

have to re-energize the lines after a fault.
• In interconnected networks auto-reclosing helps in maintaining

system stability
ABB ATCF-PT
98
1.1
1.1 Recommendations
Recommendationsfor
forprovisions
provisionsof
ofauto-reclosing
auto-reclosing
• Presently 1 phase high speed auto-reclosure (HSAR) at 400kV and

220kV level is widely practised including on lines emanating from
Generating Stations and the same is recommended for adoption.
• If 3-phase auto-reclosure is adopted in future the application of the

same on lines emanating from generating stations should be studied
and decision taken on case to case basis.
ABB ATCF-PT
99
2.0
2.0 SETTING
SETTINGCRITERIA
CRITERIA
2.1
2.1 Dead
DeadTime
Time
• Auto- reclosing requires a dead time which exceeds the de-ionising

time
• Time required for the de-ionising of the fault path depends on:- arcing
time, fault duration, wind conditions, circuit voltage, capacitive
coupling to adjacent conductors, etc.
• Single phase dead time of 1.0 sec is recommended for both 400kV
and 220kV system.
ABB ATCF-PT
100
2.2
2.2 Reclaim
ReclaimTime
Time
• The time during which a new start of the auto-reclosing equipment is

blocked.
• If reclosing shot has been carried out and the line is energized and a
new fault occurs before the reclaim time has elapsed, the auto-reclosing
equipment is blocked and a signal for definite tripping of the breaker is
obtained.
• After the reclaim time has elapsed, the auto-reclosing equipment

returns to the starting position and a new reclosing sequence can occur.
• The reclaim time must not be set to such a low value that the intended
operating cycle of the breaker is exceeded, when two faults incidents
occur close together.
ABB ATCF-PT
101
• If the breaker is closed manually, the auto reclosing equipment is
blocked and cannot start again until the reclaim time has elapsed.
• For the breaker to be used for auto-reclosing, it is essential that it

has the operating mechanism and breaking capacity necessary for
it to be able to perform the auto-reclosing sequences required.
ABB ATCF-PT
102
2.3
2.3 Circuit
CircuitBreaker
BreakerRequirement
Requirement
• According to IEC Publication 56.2, a breaker must be capable of

withstanding the following operating cycle with full rated breaking
current:
O + 0.3 s + CO + 3 min + CO
• The recommended operating cycle at 400kV and 220kV is as per the

IEC standard.
• Reclaim time of 25 sec is recommended.
ABB ATCF-PT
103
ABB ATCF-PT
104

General Line Protection

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General Line Protection

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General Line Protection

1-Distance relay basics

Objective of relay protection

• Protect persons and equipment in the surrounding of the

• Protect apparatus in the power system

• Separate faulty parts from the rest of the power system to

Electrical faults in the power system

• Transmission lines 85%

The probability of line faults caused by

Fault types on double circuit lines

MAIN REQUIREMENTS ON LINE PROTECTION ARE:

• Directional- wave protection

• The line impedance must be converted to secondary values with the

Z< Z< Z< Z<

• The distance protection relays are always set

The measured Impedance is a function of

• The distance protection relays are always set

The measured impedance is equal to the

• The distance protection relays are always set

The measured impedance is equal to the

U= Z1( I1+I2+I0 ) +I0Z0 -I0Z1 I= I1+I2+I0

The earth fault measurement

• The factor KN is a transmission line constant and Z0/ Z1 is

Um= If1 x ZL+ (If1+If2+If3) x ZF

– Modern distance protection relays will instead use the

– At three- phase fault close to the station all phase

THE FIRST ZONE CHARACTERISTIC

SHOULD COVER AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE OF PROTECTED

• IN CASE OF Ph TO GROUND FAULT FOLLOWED BY RECLOSURE

THE FIRST ZONE CHARACTERISTIC(Contd..)

EXTENSION UPWARDS AND TO THE RIGHT SHOULD ENCLOSE

• REACH IN RESISTIVE DIRECTION SHOULD BE LARGE ENOUGH TO

THE SECOND ZONE CHARACTERISTIC

EXTENSION UPWARDS IS DECIDED BY IMPEDANCE OF PROTECTED

• IN MOST CASES R-AXIS REACH OF ZONE - II SAME AS ZONE -I

THE THIRD ZONE CHARACTERISTIC

THIS IS THE WIDEST OF ZONES IN WHICH TRIPPING CAN OCCUR

• IS REQUIRED TO GIVE REMOTE BACKUP THOUGH IN

• Ratio between fault resistance

• Distance protection with

• Load impedance limits the

• AT THE ORIGIN DIRECTIONAL DISCRIMINATION REQUIRED

• THE DIRECTIONAL MEASUREMENT IS BASED ON THE USE OF

•VOLTAGE USED FOR RPH ELEMENT IS

WHERE U 1RM IS MEMORY VOLTAGE (+VE SEQUENCE)

THIS WILL ENSURE CORRECT DIRECTIONAL DISCREMINATION.

The same fault position

Characteristic with out load compensation

The same fault position

Characteristic with out load compensation

Load compensated characteristic

•It includes measuring characteristics for :

-RAZOA and RAZFE

3- Effect of parallel line

ZA< overreaching ZA< ZB< ZB< underreaching

Zero- sequence mutual coupling on parallel lines

• The mutual impedance will either cause an extension or reduction of

• Maximum overreaching will occur when the parallel line is out of

PARALLEL LINE EARTH CURRENT = IEP = 3IOP

EFFECT OF MUTUAL COUPLING ON DISTANCE RELAYS

- THE ERROR IS α MUTUAL COUPLING FACTOR ZOM / 3ZL .

- ERROR INCREASES WITH IEP IN RELATION TO THE

- THE RELAY UNDER REACHES WHEN IEP IS IN PHASE