Understanding Mineral Deposits . Kula C. Misra Cee Vere(Oc (em eSTABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE, CHAPTER |. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Mineral Deposit versus Orebody 1.2. Styles of Mineralization and Morphology of Mineral Deposits 1.3. Distribution of Mineral Deposits 1,3, Understanding Mineral Deposits CHAPTER 2. FORMATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 2.1. Ore-forming Processes 2.2. Orthomagmatic Processes 2.3, Examples of Orthomagmatic Deposits 2.4, Sedimentary Processes 2.5. Metamorphic Processes 2.6, Examples of Metamorphic Deposits 2.7, Hydrothermal Processes 2.8. Examples of Hydrothermal Deposits 2.9. Summary 2.10. Recommended Reading CHAPTER 3. INTERPRETATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS - I 3.1. Introduction . Geologic Setting Ore Minerals . Ore-Gangue Textures . Stability Relations of Ore Minerals and Assemblages Hydrothermal Alteration . Zoning . Fluid Inclusions 3.9. Trace Element Distribution 3.10. Recommended Reading CHAPTER 4. INTERPRETATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS - II 4.1. Stable Isotopes 42. Sulfur Isotopes xiii RENEE wo BRauuw 49 54 56 Ce, 89 92 93 Ck 94 94 Bas 107 116 124 131 142 147 148 148 Esviii CONTENTS Carbon Isotopes Oxygen and Hydrogen Isotopes Lead Isotopes 4.6, Strontium Isotopes 4.7. Geothermometry and Geobarometry 4.8. Metamorphism of Ore Assemblages 4.9. Age of Mineralization 4.10. A Comprehensive Example: The Creede District, Colorado, USA 4.11, Summary 4.12, Recommended Reading “CHAPTER 5. CHROMITE DEPOSITS 5.1. Introduction 5.2. Types of Deposits 5.3. Distribution 5.4. Stratiform Deposits 5.5. Podiform Deposits Examples .7. Chromite Composition 5.8. Origin 5.9. Metallogenesis 5.10. Summary 5.11. Recommended Reading “CHAPTER 6. NICKEL (-COPPER) SULFIDE DEPOSITS 6.1. Introduction 6.2. Distribution 6.3. Types of Deposits 6.4. Examples 6.5. Ore Composition 6.6. Hydrothermal Alteration and Metamorphism 6.7. Origin of Kambalda-type Deposits 6.8. Metallogenesis Summary 6.10. Recommended Reading CHAPTER 7. PLATINUM-GROUP ELEMENT (PGE) DEPOSITS 7.1. Introduction 7.2. Types of Deposits 7.3, Examples 7.4, Ore Composition 7.5. Origin of Merenskky-type PGE Deposits 164 168 177 186 193 219 228 231 235 237 238 238 238 239 240 244 248 256 261 267 270 = 273 273 273 275 281 292 298 299 308 316 318 319 319 321 323 335 33764 58 7 6 3 ™ Mm OO CONTENTS 7.6. Orgin of PGE-enriched Chromitites in Layered Intrusions 7.7. Metallogenesis 7.8. Summary 7.9. Recommended Reading “CHAPTER 8. PORPHYRY DEPOSITS 8.1, Introduction 8.2. Porphyry Copper Deposits 8.3. Porphyry Molybdenum Deposits 8.4, Porphyry Tin Deposits Summary . Recommended Reading CHAPTER 9. SKARN DEPOSITS Introduction Skarns and Skarn Deposits ‘Types of Skarns and Skarn Deposits . Examples . Origin Metallogenesis 9.7. Summary 9.8. Recommended Reading CHAPTER 10. VOLCANIC-ASSOCIATED MASSIVE SULFIDE (VMS) DEPOSITS 10.1. Introduction 10.2. Distinguishing Features 10.3. Distribution 10.4. Types of Deposits 10.5. Examples 10.6. Ore Composition 10.7. Hydrothermal Alteration 10.8. Metamorphism and Deformation 10.9. Origin 10.10. Metallogenesis 10.11. Summary 10.12. Recommended Reading CHAPTER 11. SEDIMENT-HOSTED MASSIVE ZINC-LEAD SULFIDE (SMS) DEPOSITS 11.1, Introduction 11.2. Distinguishing Features ix 347 350 351 = 353 353, = By 409 412 413 414 414 414 47 428 437 441 448 449 450 450 451 452 455 464 470 473 477 478 487 495, 496 497 497 498CONTENTS Distribution Types of Deposits Examples Ore Composition Hydrothermal Alteration Origin Metallogenesis 11.10, Summary 11.11, Recommended Reading CHAPTER 12. SEDIMENT-HOSTED STRATIFORM COPPER (SSC) DEPOSITS 12.1. Introduction 12.2. Distinguishing Features 12.3. Distribution 12.4, Types of Deposits Examples . Ore Composition . Origin Metallogenesis 12.9. Summary 12.10. Recommended Reading CHAPTER 13. MISSISSIPPI VALLEY-TYPE (MVT) ZINC-LEAD DEPOSITS : . Introduction . Distinguishing Features . Distribution . Examples . Ore Composition . Alteration . Brecciation . Origin 13,9. Metallogenesis 13,10, Summary 13.11. Comparison of VMS, SMS, SSC, and MVT Deposits 13.12, Recommended Reading CHAPTER 14, URANIUM DEPOSITS, 14,1. Introduction 14.2. Types of Deposits and Distribution 14.3. Examples 500 504 504 521 523 524 530 538 538 ee 539 540 S41 544 545 = 561 567 571 — 573 573 573 575 578 588 590 591 Lk 602 607 608 612 613 613 613 627144, 14.5. 14.6, 147. 14.8. CONTENTS Mineralogy and Textures Origin Metallogenesis Summary Recommended Reading CHAPTER 15. PRECAMBRIAN IRON-FORMATIONS 15.1. 15.2. eee 15.4. 15.5. 15.6. 15.7, 15.8. 15.9. Introduction Iron-formation Distribution Iron-formation Facies Types of Iron-formations Examples Ore Composition Metamorphism Secondary Enrichment 15.10. Origin 15.11. Time-bound Distribution of Iron-formations 15.12. Summary 15.13, Recommended Reading CHAPTER 16. GOLD DEPOSITS 16.1. 16.2. 16.3. 16.4. 16.5. 16.6. 16.7. 16.8. Introduction Distribution Types of Gold Deposits Examples Origin of Hydrothermal Gold Deposits Metallogenesis Summary Recommended Reading REFERENCES INDEX xi 635 636 647 658 659 660 660 660 661 662 667 669 675 678 680 680 694 696 697 698 698 699 699 725, 73 749 7156 759 761 839PREFACE Mineral deposits have supplied useful or valuable material for human consumption long before they became objects of scientific curiosity or commercial exploitation. In fact, the earliest human interest in rocks was probably because of the easily accessible, useful (e.g., red pigment in the form of earthy hematite) or valuable (e.g., native gold and gemstones) materials they contained at places. In modem times, the study of mineral deposits has evolved into an applied science employing detailed field observations, sophisticated laboratory techniques for additional information, and computer modeling to build complex hypotheses. Understanding concepts that would someday help geologists to find new mineral deposits or exploit the known ones more efficiently have always been, and will continue to be, at the core of any course on mineral deposits, but it is a fascinating subject in its own right, even for students who do not intend to be professional economic geologists. I believe that a course on mineral deposits should be designed as a “capstone course” that illustrates a comprehensive application of concepts from many other disciplines in geology (mineralogy, stratigraphy and sedimentation, structure and tectonics, petrology, geochemistry, paleontology, geomorphology, etc.). This book is intended as a text for such an introductory course in economic geology, primarily for senior undergraduate and graduate students in colleges and universities. It should also serve as a useful information resource for professional economic geologists. The overall objective of the book is to provide the reader with a critical understanding of selected classes mineral deposits: how are they distributed in space and geologic time, what are their distinguishing and general characteristics, and what can be inferred about their genesis from the available data. The expectation is that the information and discussions in this text will provide students with an insight into the formulation of appropriate exploration strategies for various classes of mineral deposits and kindle their interest in further research on aspects of mineral deposits that are poorly understood or that remain unresolved. ‘As an applied discipline, the study of economic geology requires a background in other disciplines of geology (particularly mineralogy, petrology, structural geology, and stratigraphy and sedimentation) as well as in allied sciences, such as physics and chemistry. It is assumed that the student has had one or more courses in these subjects and is in a position to appreciate the applications of various principles taught in those courses to issues related to mineral deposits, There is an emphasis on geochemistry throughout the book; this is necessary because the formation of almost all mineral xiiideposits ultimately involves the chemical precipitation of minerals from fluids 0 appropriate characteristics. Considering the vast spectrum of mineral deposits that are either of potentia economic interest or are actually being exploited for our use, it is practically impossible to include a comprehensive treatment of mineral deposits in an introductor} text of this kind constrained by page limitations. ‘The selection included here is base« on what I perceive as the more interesting (and usually controversial) classes 0 deposits, especially from the points of view of origin and crustal evolution in space an: time. This does not imply that the classes of deposits excluded from consideration her are not interesting or that their origins are devoid of controversy, but I had to draw th line somewhere. A recurring problem I have had to deal with in writing this book is to keep i updated with the latest information, which is being produced at an ever increasing rate In addition, space limitation has compelled me to a selection of the references I hav used, a judgement, which I am afraid, is probably not totally devoid of personal bias. Kula C. Misr Knoxville, Tennesse August, 199! xivACKNOWLEDGMENTS ‘The information contained in this book has come from a variety of sources: thousands of journal articles, scores of books, visits to many mines around the world, and a life- time of endeavor to understand mineral deposits. I am thankful to all those authors who have shared their knowledge, the publishers who have been instrumental in disseminating the information, the mine geologists and mine managers who have made the mine visits a rewarding experience, and the teachers, such as Samar Sarkar, Asoke Mookherjee, Sisir Sen, and Michael Fleet, who taught me to think critically. ‘A book of this length and effort does not happen without the sustained cooperation and help of a substantial number of individuals. In addition to the anonymous reviewers selected by the publisher, I am grateful to my colleagues Harry Y. McSween, Jr, Otto C. Kopp, Robert D. Hatcher, and Marvin Bennett for critically reviewing several of the chapters. I am particularly indebted to Hap McSween for his continued support throughout the writing of this book. I thank Marvin Bennett for all the help with the computer softwares I have used for this book, especially for graphics. ‘The Office of Research, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, is gratefully acknowledged for a generous grant toward the completion of this project. This book would not have been completed without the encouragement of my wife, Geeta, our children, Lolly and Anand, and our son-in law, Tom, or published without the patience of the publishers. xvCHAPTER 1 NTRODUCTION 11. Mineral Deposit versus Orebody A mineral deposit (or an ore deposit) may be defined as a rock body that contains one or more clements (or minerals) sufficiently above the average crustal abundance to have potential economic value. It has been a common practice to classify mineral deposits into two broad categories: (a) metallic mineral deposits (¢.g., deposits of copper, lead, zine, iron, gold, etc.), from which one or more metals can be extracted; and (b) nonmetallic (ot industrial) mineral deposits (¢.g., deposits of clay, mica, fluorite, asbestos, garnet, etc.), which contain minerals useful on account of their specific physical or chemical properties. The minerals of economic interest in a deposit are referred to as ore minerals and the waste material as gangue. Accessory sulfide-group and oxide-group minerals (c.g., pytite, arsenopyrite, magnetite, ilmenite), especially in metallic mineral deposits, however, are sometimes described as ore minerals, although they actually constitute part of the ganguc. ‘An orebody refers to a specific volume of material in a mineral deposit that can be mined and marketed at a reasonable profit under the prevailing conditions of commodity prices, costs, and technology. ‘Thus, many mineral deposits are not mined because they fail to pass the test of profitability. Grade (or tenor) is the average concentration of a valuable substance in a mineral deposit, and cut-off grade the minimum concentration required to achieve the break-even point for a mine in terms of revenue and costs. Any detailed exploration program is designed to collect an adequate amount of data that would enable the determination of cut-off grade, so that the reserves (tonnage of material) and average grade of an orebody can be calculated. The determination of the cut-off grade is a critical step in the evaluation of a mineral deposit because the size of the reserves increases progressively, often exponentially, with decreasing cut-off grade. Depending on the degree of geologic certainty of existence (as estimated from the results of drilling and other methods of exploration), the reserves of an orebody are commonly classified as measured, indicated, ot inferred. (Fig. 1.1). Identified, subeconomic materials in a mineral deposit constitute potential resources (materials that may be profitably mined in the future), which may be further subdivided into paramarginal and submarginal categories on the basis of economic feasibility. Strictly speaking, ore refers to the material in an orebody, although the term is also used (0 denote ore-like material (in terms of mineral assemblage) that cannot be mined because of lower grade or other reasons. 12 CHAPTER | Teatitied Indicated Economic Faramargiat KER YER LARS L e ‘Subeconomie Submarginal KNYR ES OU RC ES aN No <= Increasing geologic certainty Figure 1.1. Classification of ore reserves based on degrees of geologic certainty and economic feasibility 1.2. Styles of Mineralization and Morphology of Mineral Deposits The style of mineralization refers to the pattern of distribution of ore minerals in a hos rock, and it varies from being very subtle (even invisible to the naked eye as in some precious metal deposits) to quite pronounced (as in the case of massive sulfid deposits). The shapes of mineral deposits are also highly variable, from concordan tabular and stratiform to discordant veins and breccia bodies. Some commonly usec terms in the literature are summarized in Table 1.1 TABLE 1.1. Some commonly used terms for style of mineralization and morphology of mineral deposits Mode of occurrence Typical examples Disseminated Ore minerals dispersed through the host rock Diamond in kimberite pipes Stockwork ‘An interlacing network of small and narrow (commonly — Footwall alteration zone of measured. in centimeters), close-spaced ore-bearing volcanic-hosted massive veinlets traversing the host rock sulfide deposits (see Figs. 10.1, 104) Massive Mineralization comprising >50% of the host rock Volcanic-hosted massive sulfide lenses (see Fig. 10.4) Tabular ‘An ore zone that is extensive in two dimensions, but has a Sandstone-type uranium restricted development in its third dimension ‘deposits (see Figs. 14.3, 14.7 Vein-type Mineralization in veins, commonly discordant to the host Base- and precious metal rock layering (depositional) veins (see Figs. 2.28, 2.29) Stratiform Mineralization confined to a specific bed and, thus, Kupferschiefer-type broadly conformable to the host rock layering stratiform copper deposits (Gepasitional) (see Fig. 12.4) Strata-bound Mineralization discordant to host rock layering Mineralized breccia bodies i (depositional, but restricted to a particular stratigraphic Mississippi Valley-type interval deposits (see Fig. 13.9)INTRODUCTION 3 1.3. Distribution of Mineral Deposits Mineral deposits have formed throughout the Earth's geologic history and in a wide spectrum of geologic environments. ‘The space-time distribution of mineral deposits, however, is not uniform. As will be discussed in later chapters, certain types of mineral deposits tend to be concentrated in specific parts of the Earth's crust, often in clusters or arranged in linear belts, and/or particularly well represented within restricted intervals of geologic time. The recognition of this preferential distribution, which has enermous exploration and scientific significance, has given rise to the concepts of metallogenic provinces and metallogenic epochs. Following Tureaure (1955), a metallogenic province may be defined as a mineralized area or region containing mineral deposits of a specific type or a group of deposits that possess features (e.g., morphology, style of mineralization, composition, etc.) suggesting a genetic relationship, and a metallogenic epoch as a geologic time interval of pronounced formation of one or more kinds of mineral deposits. The size of a metallogenic province can be as large as the Superior Province (Canadian Shield) or as small as the Upper Michigan Peninsula native copper province. Similarly, a metallogenic epoch can be as broad as the entire Proterozoic or as restricted as the Permian (Zechstein stratiform copper deposits). ‘A first-order control on the localization of mineral deposits is tectonic setting that, in turn, controls other factors favorable for the formation of mineral deposits. These factors include, for example, the form and composition of the associated igncous bodies, the formation of sedimentary basins and the characteristics of sediments that fill the basins, the development of faults and shear zones that provide conduits for mineralizing fluids or places for ore localization. It is not surprising, therefore, that many authors have attempted to relate the distribution of mineral deposits to plate tectonics (¢.g., Guild 1972, Sillitoe, 1972a, 1972b, Garson & Mitchell 1973, Mitchell & Garson 1976, Hutchinson 1980, Guilbert & Park 1986, Sawkins 1972, 1976a, 1976b, 1990b). ‘The exercise has been particularly successful for some kinds of deposits, such as porphyry copper deposits, volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposits, and podiform chromite deposits, but many kinds of deposits (c.g., Precamrian massive sulfide and Ni-sulfide deposits, sediment-hosted uranium deposits, Kupferschiefer copper deposits) cannot yet be readily assigned to specific plate tectonic regimes or processes (Gee discussion by Sangster 1979). Moreover, plate-tectonic settings of many crustal segments, especially during the Precambrian, are highly controversial. Thus, inferred paleotectonic settings have not been adopted as the framework for this book. 1.4, Understanding Mineral Deposits The discipline of economic geology encompasses three broad aspects: (a) scientific study — an understanding of known mineral deposits in terms of their distribution, characteristics, and genesis ; (b) exploration — application of the knowledge so