ieans for a order «lent 1 RC

me V .;h an 19 the 'y the

-nozzle

DYNAMICS OF INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS 161

In the case of a hydraulic system, the chamber can be an open tank, the liquid level of which signifies the pressure of the liquid in the tank, as seen in Fig. 4.24(b).

In both the above cases, it is necessaryto'obsJrve that the load-side restrictor is so adjusted for its opening that the rate at which fluid enters the chamber is always larger than that flowing out; otherwise, the chamber gets emptied finallj.

The equivalent electrical network is shown in Fig. 4.24(c). If the connecting tube between the, constant pressure source and the chamber is a capillary tube, it can be assumed that the supply-side restrictor R; has a constant value. But the load-side restrictor R; is variable and may be equivalent to a nonlinear resistor., if it is not a capillary tube. from the equivalent network, the transfer function of the system may be obtained, provided the proper values of R;, R; and C are available .

The transfer functiorl of the electrical system is given by

(4.98)

As supply pressure V;(s) is held constant, Vo(s) is governed by Ro' and the effective time constant of the system is determined by both R; and Roo

Based on the above arrangement, a transducer, popularly known as flapper-nozzle valve, is designed and used-for the -measurerncnt of minute displacements. Such transducers are designed for use on both hydraulic and pneumatic power supplies. The hydraulic system is designed suitably to withstand high pressures. The pneumatic system is operated at an air pressure of about 13.79 N/cm2 (:ll psig). As discussed in Section 4.6,2, the development of the transfer function for the pneumatic flapper-nozzle system is more involved and suhject to a number of assumptions. The linearization technique is used to derive the incremental transfer function so as to reveal the factors on which the sensitivity and the time constant depend.

The flapper-nozzle valve shflwn in Fig, 4.24(d), consists of a chamber of small volume, connected to a constant pressure source on one side through a capillary tube and on the other side • vented to atmosphere, through a nozzle. A flapper is used in front of the noz~le so as to regulate the rate of flow of fluid bleeding out through the nozzle into the 2.:r.C:5;'~.C~;, Wr.e:-. the f1::.;,;:e~ :.; tightly held against the nozzle, no fluid leaks out and hence the pressure in the chamber ultimately reaches the valve of supply pressure as governed by Eqs. (4.79) and (4.97), If the flapper is helq too far away, it has no effect on the outlet flow rate, and the flow rate from the nozzle is entirely governed by its size and configuration. In such a case, it may so happen that whatever fluid thatr flows in may flow out and the pressure of the fluid in the chamber finally becomes equal to atmospheric pressure'.

As the system is designed for measurement of displacements, the supply-side restrictor and the nozzle are so designed and adjusted that the pressure of the fluid in the chamber (output pressure, Po) never falls to the atmospheric pressure, even with the flapper held far away from the nozzle.Hhus the output pressure Po is varied over a range as shown in Fig. 4,24(e) hy the movement of the flapper in front of the nozzle. A small movement of the flapper can result in a large change of Po, and hence it is treated as a displacement-to-pressure convertet. The output pressure of the nozzle-back chamber is measured with a pressure-measuring system.

In the case of a hydraulic valve, the fluid is assumed to be incompressible and the total volume of the chamber and the pressure measuring system (such as bellows) undergoes variation with Po and position of the flapper. Thus the system is characterized as a first-order system with its time constant derived as per Eq. (4.82).

INSTRUMENTATION

4.6.3 A FJapperNozZle,System

The case of a stiff-walled chamber of constant volume connected to a pressure source by means of a capillary tube is presented in Section 4.6, and its time constant is derived (Eq. (4.79» for a hydraulic system. Similarly, it can be shown that the pneumatic system also behaves as a first-order system under certain assumptions, although its time ~onstant is not really a constant but is dependent on other conditions such as temperature and pressure. Both the systems are equivalent to an RC network shown in Fig. 4.10:

A similar system is shown in Fig. 2.24(a), with the difference that the chamber of volume V is connected to a constant pressure source and the fluid is drawn from the chamber through an outlet (tap). The volume rate of flow of the fluid from the chamber may be varied by adjusting the area of opening of the outlet. Thus the pressure of the fluid in the chamber is governed by the nature and area of opening provided by the inlet and outlet ports.

~ ~_v,po_k----J _ Go

I Rj

Constant

pressure

source

Ro

(a)

J-- .r . --d -=-='-'''-' ~~g~l~_ G,

--Gj Rj Ro

( b )

Rj

{ ( )

(d)

(e)

Fig.4.24 (a) A closed storage tank; (b) an open tank; (c) equivalent network; (d) flapper-nozzle value; (e) its characteristics.

l'

)

\

signi

for ii out;

cons: restri to a funct

of the

dcsigr for U~ suitab 13.79

connec vented tile rat! tightly reache:00 fa:

flows i atmosp

A the no; pressur nozzle. of the f OfPo._f nozzle-I

In

volume with Po its time

) its

s iSI ring cby

rate tant . the

e of

and ld is

Po
load- I
i
I
I
t:iven I
I
1
I nd is

.terval

(4.99)

DYNAMICS OF INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS 163

The gas is assumed to be perfect, obeying the gas law PoV = MR,'IIo

where

To = temperature of the gas R i'. = gas constant

A1 = mass of the gas contained in the chamber at the pressure Po

Po = pressure of the gas in the chamber of volume V under steady state

As V and To are assumed to remain constant, the increase in pressure is given by

Using this value of t1A1 in Eq. (4.99), the incremental transfer function is given by

(4.100)

(4.101 )

where

_I _ (_l__ _ ..L)

Req Ro R,

VR

r = ~, the time constant

R!?T"

The nozzle back chamber is usually of small volume (about 1-5 cc) to hold the time constant at a low value. The time constant becomes more, if the pressure-measuring system is flexible. Req is variable because of the nonlinearity of R()" Thus the time constant is dependent on the operating conditions, and for large signals, it assumes a different value.

4.7 FILTERING AND DYNAMIC COMPENSATION

Most of the physical systems may be characterized as frequency-selective in their behaviour since they do not possess the same sensitivity for signals of differing frequencies. The physical systems whose transfer functions are represented by Eqs. (4.11) and (4.24) and whose characteristics are shown in Figs. 4.4 and 4.8 have some common features. They possess maximum sensitivity for de signals and the sensitivity decreases with frequency. When they are used as measuring systems, they are said to be flat in their sensitivity up to a frequency Ie at which the ratio of the dynamic sensitivity to static sensitivity is within a specified value, say, 0.98 or 0.95. The range of frequencies

162 TRANSDUCERS AND INSTRUMENTATION

In the case of a pneumatic valve. the compressibility of gas contributes significantly to its sluggishness.

FO~.,.~~!i,~)~,Ilgi<~~.~. ~ansfer function of the system. the principle of conservation of mass is, applied to the volumeJlof the chamber by considering that-the difference between the mass entering the chamber and that leaving the chamber adds to the storage of some mass in the chamber, thereby altering its pressure,

Under steady state conditions. the inlet mass flow rate 91 is equal to the outlet mass flow rate Go. with the output pressure held at Ph. Assuming that the temperature of the gas remains constant throughout the flow process through the restrictors, the effect of a small displacement L1Xi of the flapper from its mean position on the output pressure Po can be evaluated from the knowledge of the values of R; and Ro. As the flow of compressible gases through restrictions is complex. R, and Ro can be determined experimentally. R; is estimated from the curve shown in Fig. 4.25(a) and is given by

1 sc,

-=--

x .. XI - f,Xj

./ /- Slop ... VRo

...-:: X =Xj

f-- Subsonic flo", Son ic flo",-;

x = X i + AX j

Gj tt-----+--

I Air/Gas I

o L- ~ __

o

O. S3 Ps

Po

( cpfroting)

(a 1

[ b :

Fig.4.25 Estimation of parameters from experimental curves: (a) Supply-side restrictor; (b) loadside restrictor.

Similarly, R; is determined from the experimental curve shown in Fig. 4.2S(b) and is given

by

1 cdG:

Ro = dPo

The outlet mass flow rate Go is also dependent on the position of the flapper and IS expressed by

K= dGb sx,

When the flapper is displac~byAXI from its mean position. Po changes by l1Po in a time interval .1t. due to the addition of mass in the chambet.

Expressing the mass of gas added to the chamber as L1M • .it can be shown that

(4.99)

The

wher

Using

T
at a 10'"
is varia
conditic
4.7 FI
Most of
they do
whose u t
shown il .\
signals a fl
they are .
.
sensitivit 0
e 368 TRANSDUCERS AND INSTRUMENTATION

forces. 'some ferrite materials such as 'Ferroxcube B' exhibit magnetostriction of considerable degree but due to their brittleness, they are not used. Even the magnetostrictive transducers employing nickel or nickel-iron alloys would have competed with the piezoelectric transducers, if the effects of stress on permeability and remnance are linear without showing any hysteresis. The transducers need mechanical bias. so as to make them suitable for application of cyclic stress. Figure 7.21 (a) shows the variation of B with stress at different values of H, and Fig. 7.21(b) shows the effect of superposition of cyclic torsion on tensile stress for the case of a nickel sample.

8

Tension

H increasing

o

- ~tress

Torsion + Strong tension

(0 )

(b)

Fig. 7.21 Characteristics of a nickel sample: (a) For H variation; (b) for superposed cyclic torsion.

7.3.2 Magnetostrictive Force Transducer

The self-inductance of an iron-cored coil changes if the core characteristic IS changed due to application of force. It is the mechanical strain that affects the orientation of the magnetic domains. and hence the change in the value of effective permeability. The magnetic path should be continuous with no air gap present. The core may be laminated. The laminations are stacked to form the core, and a coil is provided to enable measurement of its self-inductance. The coil current is so adjusted as to make the self-inductance maximum and make it most sensitive to stress. One of the simple configurations commonly employed is shown in Fig. 7.22. The arrangement allows measurement of large static forces and 10-20 per cent change in self-inductance is observed with nickel and nickeliron alloy transducers. For reasons already explained, it is difficult to attain high accuracy in measurement of force and weight. Though for reasons of ruggedness it is used for measurement of large force. the accuracy is limited to 2-5 per cent of full scale. Although it is possible to measure dynamic forces by this method, the following method is preferred for various reasons. The core can be polarized by means of dc mmf so that the operating point of flux density is held at some convenient value below saturation. Application of stress rrresults in a change of B by ± ,1B, depending on the material. The sensitivity of the transducer is defined as the ratio of ,1B to 0' and is given by

S = ,1B I

0' 8 = Bo where Eo = operating point of flux density.

0.14)

If<
sen
to
';
, sirr
I
nee
1 the
~
wh. it i

7.3

To

IS r is I trar dia: the trai the rigi

7.3

Ma

Ilion

nce the

wa

Sin mic lent

- ----~---.=~---------

& •

J~~.GN~TOSTRlCl'IVE.TRA~~DUCERS

Milgnetostrictive transduCers are similar to piezoelectric transducers and are based on the application of themagnetostriction phenomenon. They are converters of mechanical energy into magnetic energy and are also known as magnetoelastic transducers. The phenomenon is reversible and the devices developed convert energy from one form to another; The natural frequency of the transducers carC6.e as high as 10 kHz and are very much used as transmitters (~_C!1Q~r_s2._~~ciYcr.s.. in vibration and acoustic studiese The transducers possess very high mechanical input impedance and are suitaore for me2Utement of force and hence acceleration and pressure. They can measure large forces, both static anddynamic. They are rugged in constructional features and. when used as active transducers. the output impedance is low. Nickel and nickel-alloys are mostly used. It is the basic nonlinearity in the B-H characteristic which is responsible for its limited scope of application. especiaIly- when high accuracy is desired. Each transducer needs calibration before usc ..

7.3.1 Magnetostriction Phenomenon

-

Certain ferromagnetic materials are considerably affected in their magnetic properties when they

are"mechanically stressed. This phenomenon is known as magnetostriction (Villari effect) and is particularly significant in nickel and nickel-iron alloys: The noise in transformer is due to the reverse effect. The shape and size of the B-H characteristic and the B-H loop is sufficiently altered when the material is subjected to tensile, compressional or shear stress. The B-H characteristics of nickel and nickel-iron (Ni. 68%) alloy are presentedin Fig. 7.20.sbowing the effect of increasing tensile stress a on the materials! Similarly, the magnetization characteristic is affected and it is observed thatthe permeability increases with increase in tensile stress in the case of nicke l-iro:'

alloys and decreases in the case of pure nickel. {[he change in u:e 5r.2.rC :- L~~ 3-J-/ . - :.. :,::-~

remnance B, of the material. When B, and permeability decrease with increase :,. 5::;;:55. .: ;5 ~:-.:'':'as negative magnetostriction; otherwise, it is called positive magnerostricucn A:50. :II;; ;:e~~e:-.:~~ of nickel in the nickel-iron alloy has considerable influence on the characteristics. The materials are sensitive to the polarity of stress and hence the transducers enable measurement of alternating

1.

0,6
I-
al 0.3
t
450 900
_H(A/m)
-0.3
Nickel
-0.6
(0 ) -1600

eoo

1600

• _H(Alm)

Nickel-iron alloy

(b)

Fig.7.20 B-H characteristics under different stress values: (a) For nickel; (b) for nickel-iron alloy.

370 TRANSDUCERS AND INSTRUMENTATION

between the poles of a permanent magnet and having a small stylus rigidly attached to it at the midpoint. The wire is prestressed by twisting it, before being installed into the position. Two pick-up coils of fine wire are wound round the wire on either side of the mid-point, as shown in Fig. 7.24.

Fig. 7.24 Magnctostrictive torsion transducer.

Any displacement of the stylus to one side or the other increases the torsion on one side and decreases it by an equal amount on the other side. This results in an increase of magnetic flux in one-half and a decrease in the other half. The corresponding induced cmfs are in phase opposition and arc processed by suitable networks as in the case of linear variable differential transformer. It is used as phonograph pick-up and is designed to have flat frequency response over 150 Hz-IS kHz frequency range. Due to the nonlinearity and hysteresis in the performance, it is normally limited

for, when time-varying torsions of small amplitude are to be measured.

~ _~ALL-EFFECT TRANSDUCERS

, The Hall effect was discovered in 1879 and belongs to one of the gal nr:'mJS::c'.:: ;,:~.: ~ ~~.:" ~ ~ which the interaction between the magnetic field and moving electrical charges results in the development of forces that alter the motion of the charge. The Hall effect is observed in all metals, but it is very much prominent in semiconductor materials. A thin strip of bismuth or n-typc germanium is subjected to magnetic field B normal to its, surface as shown in Fig. 7.25, while it

Fig. 7.25 Hall effect transducer.

carries a current I along the length of the strip, but normal to B. The magnetic field exerts a force (known as Lorentz force) on the electrons moving at a velocity v, with the result that some of them

"
I
\
dr
di
01
(~
01
re
ar wi

wI ca

an

wI

co'

Ta

po ter lin

.rable oyirig ffeots ucers 21 (a) .ct of

sion.

ie to ains, uous ;ore, istcd np1e nt of .kely in nt of sure

. can

orne ding n by

'.14)

ACTIVE ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCIORS 369

Foret

Diaphragm-

I rfrl

Seismic mass

I

,. -- _ _1j

Vo

__ Coils -

,--0

t A< ,"',""'0

___ Laminations_

Fig. 7.22 Magnetostrictive force transducer.

Fig.7.23 Magnetostrictive acceleration transducer.

For small sinusoidally varying a, corresponding variations of t1B are assumed to be sinusoidal.

If a coil is provided on the core, the induced emf will be proportional to a and sinusoidal. The sensitivity is observed to be maximum in the case of nickel-iron (Ni 68%) alloy when B; is adjusted to 1/{j of saturation flux density. It is approximately equal to 3 x JO-H TIN.

The operating flux density B; may be chosen as the remnant nux density B, for reasons of simplicity and stability. The sensitivity may he lower but it is preferred since bias winding is not needed. The fall in sensitivity can be made up by providing more turns In .hc ri_'k-~IP coil. u!i!i;'",: the window space of the bias winding. The emf induced In "., \'inJi:~::: " :'::\c':: , ,

" r: .

(' .' = SA.\· _"_'-. _

where A is the area of coil and X the number ,,( :"r:.o

Transient forces and stresses can he measured h: integrating c.t . before .: :, JIsrL::: c.: ,I;": ::- . .: oscillograph. Though the system becomes equivalent to a permanent magnet. the core needs to be laminated. Influence of strong external magnetic fields may alter the sensitivity sufficiently unless it is further shielded.

7.3.3 Magnetostrictive Acceleration Transducer

To extend the application of the transducer for measurement of acceleration. :JJJil','r:";--r ': :~-.>' is required. The mass of the core itself serves as proof mass to some extent and aJJ:li,'n:;; ;:1]00 is provided by a brass cylinder of at least an equal mass, as shown in Fig. 7.23. To prevent the transducer from responding to transverse accelerations. the brass cylinder is guided by a flexible diaphragm. The induced emf of the coil is integrated in such a way as to extend the bandwidth of the system towards the lower frequencies. As compared to piezoelectric accelerometers, these transducers are of larger size and mass and are lower in accuracy. While measuring acceleration. the variation in the earth's magnetic field affects the sensitivity. Laminations and coil should be rigidly held in position so as not to be affected under high accelerations.

7.3.4 Magnetostrictive Torsion Transducer

Magnetostrictive torsion transducer consists of a nickel wire of 0.5-1 rnm diameter kept stretched

TRANSDUCERS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Table 7.3

Hall Coefficients of n-type Materials

Material

Kif VmlAT

Copper Silver Bismuth Silicon Germanium

Indium antimonide Indium arsenide Mercury sclcnide Mercury telluride

- 5.3 xlO-" _ <) x 10-11

_ 5 x 10-7 _ 10-' - 3.5 x 10-'

- 6 x 10--4

- 9 X 10-1

- 7.36 x 10-<-

- 1.47 X 10-1,

Applications of Hall Transducers

, The Hall effect transducer is primarily suited for the measurement of magnetic fields. It is preferred for mapping of magnetic field around conductors carrying large currents under different flow conditions, with and without the presence of metallic objects in their vicinity. This transducer has made it possible to measure dc and ac currents in conductors without interruption of the circuit and without making any electrical contact with the conductor. The range of current that can be measured in this manner can be as low as 0-1 mA or as high as 0-1 kA. Wattmeters of different ranges are available for measurement of dc and ac power at frequencies up to 10 HI!.. B is proportional to load current and I to load voltage.

In the field of instrumentation, the Hall clement is highly valued for its speed of response in detection of changes in the magnetic field to which it is exposed. The advantages arc its small size and high sensitivity. It is used as a proximity detector as it docs not require to establish a mechanical link with the test object. It is used to measure the change in the strength or direction of the magnetic field due to the displacement or nearness of the test object. In other words. it can be used as a displacement transducer, provided the test object can distort the magnetic field due to it, motion Otherwise. the test object has to be mechanically coupled to the Hall effect clement. already 1:, l"t= in a steady magnetic field of constant strength. Its application as angular displacement transducer and proximity detector can be understood from Fig. 7.26. As the clement can respond to quick changes in the field. it is equally applicable for measurement of amplitudes of vibration of objects and count the number of fast moving objects across the magnetic field.

In all the above applications. the current through the element should be held constant at about 5-20 mA dc by using constant current sources. The value of E/I for the case of an n-type germanium element, carrying a current of 10 mA is 1.4 In V when exposed to a magnetic field of 0.1 mT. The output impedance varies from one element to another and is about 5-200 ohms, depending on the material and size of the clement.

7.5 ELECTROMECHANICAL TRANSDUCERS

7.5.1 Tachometers

Measurement of angular speed of rotating shafts assumes great importance in instrumentation, particularly in the case .o.f autollla.licspccdconlrol systems ... For analog indication of speed, dc and • ac tachometers are in use since 'long.

sign. state

whci

inert segn asse: 5% : as hi spec de 0 of± puis,

tach, win< zero dyn:

.he midpick-up g.7.24.

de and flux in -osition mer. It 15 kHz limited

icna in

in thc metals, n-type /hilc it

l force f thern

ACTIVE ELECTRICAL -TRANSDUCERS 371

drift towards the edges of the strip. The edge surfaces act like charged electrodes and the potential difference measured between P and Q is known as Hall potential E/{ which increases with increase of B and I. The build-up of the charge on the edze surfaces will, in turn, develop an electric ficId (Hall field) of such a polarity that counteracts the collection of charges on the surfaces. The force on the electrons due to Hall field and the Lorentz force balance each other finally. Tile time required to reach this equilibrium is about 10-14 s.

If e is the charge of the electron, then the Lorentz force Bl'U and the force due to Hall field are equal to each other. Hence

Beu = eEllliJ

EI/ = Bbu (volts)

where

B = the magnetic flux density, T u = velocity, mls

b = width, m

The electrons and the free charge carriers assume a velocity along the length of the strip. which is proportional to electric field along the direction of motion. If the mobility of the charge carriers is represented by X, then u is given by

u = XEt/L

(717)

and using Eb = lpl.Ibt, u is given by Xlplbt. Hence,

Ell = PXB11t = K/iBllr

i·.,

where

KII = Hall constant (= x»

t = thickness of the strip, m L = length of the strip, m

The Hall coefficient depends on the number of free charge carriers per unit volume. Thc coefficient for metals and semiconductors is given by

K = K (IlX; -PX~)

H e (nXn+PXp)

where

K = a positive constant (K = 1 for metals and 3Td8 for semiconductors) 11, P = No. of free electrons and holes per m '

Xn' Xp = mobility of the electrons and holes respectively e = charge of the electron

Table 7.3 provides the values of the Hall coefficients for n-type conductors.

As the number of free charge carriers in semiconductors is far less than in metals, semiconductors possess a very large value for Hall coefficients. However, semiconductors are highly sensitive to temperature. The current passage through the element creates noise and the current should be limited to very low values. The advantages are that semiconductors are extremely fast and require very little space.

374 TRANSDUCERS AND INSTRUMENTATION

M

ac

supply

leoltH

- -

q,d

o

o

( 0)

(b)

outer stator core

C.ntral stator cor.

(c)

Stator

Rotor

_-Windings

~ __ _____.-o Eo ---0

(d)

.

Fig.7.27 (a) AC tachogenerator; (b) its characteristic; (c) a drag cup type tachometer; (d) a multiple

pole type ac tachogenerator.

of rotatio~'ijlercsulting cutrents in the rotor conductors produce alternating magnetic flux fPc at 90° to.1 fils this cross' flux.l" that Inducesvottage in the output winding by transformer action. This"o~~~tvolta$C is ofthesam~~~~~~.!!.~~t~f!~~ supply and of an amplitude proportional to the ie~~.t!!e~!"s~~. Jl)~.J~.Jl~e,~1V,im,lh_e ~f~r~n~e_2[~.~~eit;!~.~~~.~~1~ge, i~ th~ rotor behaves as

a pure reslstolt A phase reversal by ] 80° occurs, when the direction of rotation IS reversed.

by l of c in t: sma is I(

be n IS pI dire, 501 2.5

roto net:

for r rotat

are~

The is eo is pr

mate attai:

The digit angL

1.=' .•

In th sHaft Figu

Fig.

cferrcd It flow ccr has uit and .asurcd

gcs are (mal to

.mse in all size hanical ignctic :d as a notion. y lying .sduccr , quick .ibjccts

I about ianium T. The on the

.tation, de and

I I

ACTIVE ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS 373

! Hall elements

,0

'0

N

s

(a)

( b)

Fig. 7.26 (a) Hall effect displacement transducer; (b) Hall effect proximity transducer.

A de taebogenerator offers the simplest means of-eonvertiag a shaft rotation into an electrical sign~I~hiehisproportional to speedslt is basically a de generator comprising a permanent magnet' stato'r'a~d a'wound rotor.7he emf generated, viz. Ex' is given lJy

Eg= NP¢fl

a '

where

N = total number of conductors or the armature P = number of field poles

¢ = total magnetic flux per pole. Wb fl = speed of rotation. rad/s

a = No. of parallel paths in armature winding

The impedance of the windings is kept as low as possible. keeping in view its sensitivity; Theinertia of the rotor is kept as small as possible. The commutator has a relatively large number o: segmentsin order to provide as smooth an output voltage as possible A light-weight wire brush assembly is used for good contact and minimum friction and noise. Even then a ripple content of 5% is noticeable. Sensitivity of the order of 5 V to 20 V per 1000 rev/min is obtained. Linearity as high as ± 0.01 % is achievable. But the ripple content and the variation of ripple frequency with speed. render them unsuitable for situations involving feedback systems. For analog indication h~' de or ac voltmeters. the de tachometers-offer .the best solution., When high resolution of the order of ± 0.1 % to ± 0.01 % is desired. feedback measuring system u~ing the dc iachogcncrator or the ac pulse-generating tachometer is designed,

'A.n, ac two-pbaseinduction motor h~ving a squirrel-cage type rotor can be ~sed as an fic tachogenerator, by exciting one phase \viUnhe reference aesuppiy and-utiliZing the second phase Winding to provide output voltage related to the speed. With tn!rotor at rest, the output voltage is zero; as 'the coil axes are perpendicular to each other.jas shown in Fig. 7.27(a). R0tationc~uses!l: dynamically-induced emfs in the rotor, which are in phase with 4>d and are proportional to the speeq.'

376 TRANSDUCERS AND INSTRUMENTATIO,"

m~g~~t:,,!h~ toothec!,m~QLroay"ruL,wellbe a gear wheel but should be made.?f a ferromagnetic mliienal: Thet:~hapcof tooth of the rotor and the shape of the pole piece of the magnet may be so designed, wherever necessary, as to develop a sinusoidal emf, The pea" to-peak value of the induced emf is proportional to the shaft speed. The number of pulses produced is proportional to speed. The rms value of the output voltage is dependent on the clearance between the rotor and the pole piece of the magnet! The pole piece of the magnet is known as perception head or prox i mi t Y heads Therms voltage may be used for indication on a voltmeter and. in such cases, the tachometer is generally restricted to the range of speeds between 40 rpm to 6000 rpm, The frequency of the induced emf in the pick-up coil may also be processed so as to be indicated in analog fashion by a p.m. m.c. instrument. A circuit consisting of two Zener diodes and two diodes is shown in Fig. 7.29, for such application and the average current i read by the meter is proportional to the

Fig. 7.29 Circuit for use with frequency generating tachogenerator.

frequency of the induced emf and is given by

(7.20)

where

v = forward voltage of the DI and D2 diodes Vz = reverse voltage of Zener diodes

VI = forward voltage drop of Zener diodes

f = frequency of the emf (speed in rev. per second x no. o( teeth.

Such tachometers whose indication is proportional to frequency are useful for measuring speeds uptcrtbd,ooo rpm, The induced emfs of the coil are converted in their wave shape to look like pulses, by a pulse shaper before they are applied to the circuit of Fig.97.29. Variable reluctance tachometers with the permanent magnet perception heat have become very popular in the context

'of digital tachornctry.

Two simpler versions of the variable reluctance transducer are shown in Fig. 7.30. The armature in both cases is of a ferromagnetic material and its movement around its mean position induces emf in the pick-up coils. In each case the emf is proportional to the velocity of, motion of the armature and hence the variable reluctance transducers are useful for the measurement of vibratory velocities, linear or angular. Integration of the output signals yields voltages proportional to the relative displacement of the armature with respect to the fixed magnet assembly. The reluctance transducers are suitable for measurement of dynamic displacements only and the range of frequencies for which each is suited, depends on the natural frequency of the system and the damping, fluid and electromagnetic. It is necessary to observe that no current is drawn from the coil due to the voltmeter or load connected to it.

7.5. Ele per the the relL aro the

is s

cyli The ofl its; me;

nan spr:

iultiple

at 90°

I. This',' to the yes as

ACTIVE ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS 375

To reduce the mechanical loading of the rotor on the driving shaft, the rotor is made lighter by using copper or aluminium cup as the rotor. There will be no slot ripple in the output in the case of cup-rotor, as noticed in the case of squirrel-cage rotors. The air gap becomes necessarily large in the case of drag-cup type ac tachogenerators, and the exciting winding impedance becomes smaller. These factors ultimately influence the speed-voltage characteristic to the extent that linearity is lost at high speeds as shown in Fig. 7.27(b). Figure 7.27(c) shows its constructional features.

The primary advantage of the ac tachometer is that it has no commutator ripple. But it should be noted that the accuracy of calibration is dependent on the excitation voltage as the output voltage, is proportional to the excitation voltage. A polarity or phase discriminator is required to sense the direction of rotation, Nonna.flY ac tachometers are meant for excitation voltages of frequency of 50 Hz or 400 Hz. The sensitivity is less than that of de tachogenerator and is generally about 2.5 V per 1000 rpm. i

A slightly different version is shown in Fig. 7.27(d) which does not need a commutator. The rotor is a multiple-pole permanent magnet structure. The stat.ir coils arc connected in series and the net induced emf is proportional to the speed.

Another type of tachometer that converts angular speed of rotation into angular displacement for purposes of analogue indication is the eddy current drag-cup, type tachometer. The driving shaft ~ rotates a permanent magnet inside a conducting cup made of nonmagnetic material. Eddy currents ~ are set up in the cup and int(;!illct wit!L1he magnetic field in such a way as to follow the magnet; tlilftOi"que developed is proportional to the relative velocity of the magnet and cup and when it

is equal to the restraining torque, the cup comes to rest. Thu~ in steady state, the angular deflectioq is proportional to the angular speed of rotation. "

The system behaves as a second-order indicating instrurnerh. Resistivity variations of the cup-; material with temperature limit the accuracy of indication. Accuracy of the order of 1 % to 2% is 1 attainable. (Ylith the provision of suitahle gear-trains, the range is extended up to 50,000 rev/min. The spindle connecting the cup and control spring may he provided with a shaft-angle encoder for digital output apart from analog indication. For obtaining electrical output voltage, any low-torque angular displacement transducer may be used.

7.5.2 Variable-Reluctance Tachometers

In thistype()f tasnometer, reluctance variation of a magnetic circuit is brought about by the rotatisg shitt"and the consequent flux changes develop induced emf in the coils linking with the circuq. Figure 7.28 shows two such versions, one employing an electromagnet and the other a permanent ,;

(b)

Fig.7.28 Variable reluctance type tachogcncrators: (a) With electromagnet; (b) with permanent magnet.