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1 - Undefined Terms
What does geometry mean? It means "to measure the Earth" or "Earth
measure." However, we can simply look at geometry in a more simple way as
the study of figures or shapes.
Some basic terms in geometry can be described and others cannot.
Undefined Terms:
Point: A point shows location and has no size or dimension. A point is
represented by a dot and is usually named with a letter of choice. In the
graphic below, the points are labelled by a nearby letter.
Line: A line is a set of points extends in two opposite directions without end. A
line is one-dimensional and has no width. It is identified by naming two points
on the line or by writing a lowercase letter of choice after the line.
The notation, for example, AB (written with a line symbol <---> over the
letters), is read as "line AB" and refers to the line that has points A and B.
Plane: A plane is a flat surface that has no thickness and extends without
ending in ALL directions. It is a two-dimensional object. A plane is represented
by a parallelogram and may be named by writing an uppercase letter of choice
in one of its corners. I will go into detail about what a parallelogram is in future
lessons. For now, think of a parallelogram as a "window pane."For simplicity,
you might want to think of a plane as an infinitely large sheet of paper.
The diagram below shows three points, a line, and a plane.
End of lesson one. Look for my next lesson titled Defined Terms.
Geometry 1.2 - Defined Terms
In lesson 1.1, I talked about terms in geometry that cannot be defined by using
simple definitions. In this section, I will discuss geometric terms that can be
defined by using terms that have been previously defined (terms and
definitions that you learned in algebra) and believe or not, undefined terms will
also serve a purpose here. Ready?
Line Segment: A line line segment is part of a line having two points, called
endpoints. It also has points between the endpoints. A line segment does not
have a set of CONTINUOUS points like a line does. Endpoint means that a
line has a beginning and an end. The notation for a line segment in a bar over
any letter of choice. Say AB has a bar over it, you would read it as "line
segment AB."
Ray: A ray is part of a line having one endpoint and a set of all points on one
side of the endpoint. A ray is always named by using two letters of choice. The
first letter must be the endpoint. We draw an arrow with an endpoint over the
letters.
Angle: An angle is the union of two rays having the same endpoint. The
endpoint of an angle is called the vertex; the rays are called the sides of the
angle.
There are a few basic ideas in geometry that need to be understood, but are
seldom used as reasons in a formal proof.
Here they are:
3-Opposite rays: 2 rays that lie on the same line, with a common endpoint and
no other points in common. Opposite rays form a straight line and/or a straight
angle that equals 180º.
In geometry, you will come across postulates and theorems needed for
geometric proofs.
A theorem is a statement that can be proved to be true.
A postulate is a statement that is ASSUMED to be true WITHOUT proof. All
this becomes part of your new geometry vacabulary. I will go into detail about
postulates and theorems in future lessons titled GEOMETRIC PROOFS.
Line Segments: The line segment of a line is the distance between two
endpoints. Remember, a line itself is infinite, and a line segment is a finite
portion of that. Realistically, anything you draw on paper is a line segment
because it cannot go on forever!
The degree measure of an angle is the amount of rotation from one side of the
angle to other side.
What is a rotation?
A rotation is a movement of an object in a circular motion. Think about the
Earth going around the Sun, a journey that takes one year to complete. An
angle is a measure of how far around something has gone.
Perpendicular Line: Perpendicular lines are lines that meet or cross to form a
right angle. A right angle equal 90 degrees.
A perpendicular symbol is simply an upside down capital letter T. It looks like
this:
Adjacent angles: Two angles are adjacent if they have the SAME VERTEX,
share ONE SIDE and do not overlap.
Sample:
The above symbol matches our definition of adjacent angles.
A few more definitions and that's it for Geometry 1.3:
Congruent Segment: When two line segments share the same length, they are
said to be CONGRUENT or equal.
Say line segment AB = 10 inches and line segment CD = 10 inches, then line
segment AB is congruent or equal to line segment CD.
The symbol for CONGRUENCE is and so, the above can be written this
way:
Midpoint of Line Segment: The midpoint of a line segment divides the segment
into TWO segments of equal length.
Sample:
Line segment AB is divided by the midpoint M. The distance from A to M is 20
feet and the distance from BM is 20 feet. Then line segment AM = line
segment BM.
Any line or segment that passes through the midpoint of a line segment,
bisects (cuts) the line segment
Sample A
If the degree measure of two complementary angles are in the ratio of 1:14,
find the degree measure of the smallest angle.
Solution:
Let x equal the degree measure of the smallest angle.
Then x + 14x = 90 degrees.
Why do we equate x + 14x to 90 degrees? This is done because we are
dealing with complementary angles. That means the sum is 90 degrees. We
called the smaller angle x, so the larger one must be 14x because we know
it's 14 times larger. Therefore, the small angle (x) plus the larger angle (14x)
must equal 90 degrees (because they are complementary).
We now simply solve for x:
x + 14x = 90 degrees
15x = 90 degrees
x = 90/15
x=6
The smaller angle measures x degrees, so it is a 6 degree angle. The larger
one is 14 times x, so it is 6*14 = 84 degrees. It may be important to remember
that the problem specifically asked for the smaller angle, so make sure you
give the answer the problem is looking for!
Sample B
If the degree measure of an angle is 30 degrees greater than twice the degree
measure of its supplementary angle, what is the degree measure of the
angle?
Solution:
Notice that this question is about supplementary angles NOT complementary
angles. That means they sum to 180 degrees.
Let d = the degree measure of the angle.
Then, of course, 180 degrees - d = the degree measure of the supplement of
the angle. Is that clear? To say it another way, the supplement is whatever we
have to add to d to equal 180.
We now set up an equation keeping in mind the word TWICE.
d = 2(180 degrees - d) + 30
Wow... where did that equation come from? Let's look at it step by step. The
problem starts by saying "the degree measure of an angle is," and that's
where the "d =" part comes from. Then it says "30 degrees greater than,"
which explains the "+30." The last part says "Twice the degree measure of its
supplementary angle," which means "2*(180-d)."
We now solve for d:
d = 360 degrees - 2d + 30
d + 2d = 360 degrees + 30
3d = 360 degrees + 30
3d = 390 degrees
d = 130 degrees
NOTE: Angles 1 and 2 are supplementary angles, because they add up to 180
degrees. You'll also notice that (2 and 3) are a pair of supplementary angles,
as are (3 and 4) and (4 and 1). There's 4 sets of supplementary angles.
Let us say that the measure of angle 1 = 80. Since angle 1 = angle 3, then the
measure of angle 3 is also 80. That's because we know vertical angles
(across from each other) always have the exact same measure.
Suppose we were told that the measure of angle 2 = 25. Since angle 2 = angle
4, then angle 4 = 25.
Sample C
The measure of angle 2 = x + 4. Find the measure of angle 4.
Solution:
Since angle 2 = angle 4 (because they are vertical angles), then the measure
of angle 4 = x + 4.
Sample D
The measure of angle 1 = y - 5. Find the measure of angle 3.
Solution:
Since angle 1 = angle 3, (because they are vertical angles), then the measure
of angle 3 = y - 5.
Sample E
Let us say that the measure of angle 1 = 40. What is the measure of angle 2?
Solution:
Since 1 & 2 are supplementary, the measure of angle 2 = 180 degrees - the
measure of angle 1
The measure of angle 2 = 180 degrees - 40
The measure of angle 2 = 140 degree
We can check to make sure it is true. To check, we add 140 + the given angle
( 40 ). If we get get a sum of 180, then we are right.
LOOK:
140 + 40 = 180
180 = 180...It checks!!
By Mr. Feliz
If two lines are cut by a transveral, pairs of angles between the two lines and
on opposite sides of the transversal are called alternate interior angles.
Alternate interior angles have the same measure, and examples are shown in
the color-coded image below:
Classification of Polygons
A polygon may be identified by the number of sides.
(1) A polygon with 4 sides is called a quadrilateral.
NOTE: There are many more polygons, but the ones listed here are some of
the most popular and most often taught in geometry classes.
Other terms
In an equiangular polygon, each angle has the same degree measure. A
square is an example of an equiangular polygon because each of the 4 angles
form 90 degrees. The same can be said about a rectangle.
In an equilateral polygon, each side has the same length. In triangle ABC
below, all sides are 12 feet making triangle ABC equilateral.
An isosceles triangle has two equal sides and one side that is not equal.
An equilateral triangle has 3 equal sides.
In an acute triangle, all of the angles will measure less than 90 degrees.
An obtuse triangle will always have one angle whose measure is greater than
90 degrees but at the same time less than 180 degrees.
Median and Altitude (Height)
A median of a triangle is a segment drawn from a vertex of the triangle to the
midpoint of the opposite side.
Distance
The word distance in geometry is always understood as the shortest path. The
distance between a point and a line is the length of the perpendicular segment
drawn from a point that is not on the line to a point on the line. The distance
from A to line BC below is 6, because that is the length of the altitude
Geometry Lesson 2.4 - Angles of a
Triangle Sum
Just like regular numbers, angles can be added to obtain a sum. Sometimes
we can determine a missing angle because we know that the sum must be a
certain value. Remember -- the sum of the degree measures of angles in any
triangle equals 180 degrees. Below is a picture of triangle ABC, where angle A
= 60 degrees, angle B = 50 degrees and angle C = 70 degrees.
If we add all three angles in any triangle we get 180 degrees. So, the measure
of angle A + angle B + angle C = 180 degrees. This is true for any triangle in
the world of geometry. We can use this idea to find the measure of angle(s)
where the degree measure is missing or not given.
Sample A
In triangle ABC below, angle A = 40 degrees and angle B = 60 degrees. What
is the measure of angle C?
We know that the sum of the measures of any triangle is 180 degrees. Using
the fact that angle A + angle B + angle C = 180 degrees, we can find the
measure of angle C.
angle A = 40
angle B = 60
angle C = we don't know.
To find angle C, we simply plug into the formula above and solve for C.
A + B + C = 180
C = 180 - A - B
C = 180 - 40 - 60
C = 80
To check if 80 degrees is correct, let's add all three angle measures. If we get
180 degrees, then our answer for angle C is right.
Here we go:
40 + 60 + 80 = 180
180 = 180...It checks!
You don't always have to plug in those values to the equation and solve. Once
you're comfortable with this sort of problem you'll be able to say "okay, 40 + 60
=100, so the other angle has to be 80!" and it's much quicker.
Sample B
If a triangle is equiangular, what is the degree measure of each of its angles?
Remember, all angles of an equiangular triangle have equal measure. Let x =
the degree measure of each angle. Triangles have three vertices and so we
will add x THREE times.
We have this:
x + x + x = 180
3x = 180
x = 60
Makes sense, right? If all the angles are equal, and they add up to 180, then it
has to be 60 degrees!
Sample C
The degree measures of the angles of a triangle are in the ratio 4 : 5 : 9.
What is the degree measure of the SMALLEST angle of the triangle?
Notice that the smallest angle is represented by the smallest number in the
ratio given. The smallest number given is 4, right? Since this is a ratio, we
have to multiply all those values (4,5,9) by some common factor to get the
actual angles. (For example, 60 and 80 are in a 3:4 ratio with a factor of 20)
Let 4x = the measure of the smallest angle of the triangle. We can now say
that 5x and 9x = the degree measures of the remaining angles of the triangle.
We simply add 4x + 5x + 9x, equated the sum to 180 degrees and solve for x.
After finding x, we plug the value of x into 4x, and simplify to find the measure
of the smallest angle of the triangle at hand.
4x + 5x + 9x = 180
9x + 9x = 180
18x = 180
x = 180/18
x = 10
We found the value of x but it does NOT mean we are done.
To find the measure of the smallest angle of the triangle, we multiply 4 times
10. So, 4 x 10 = 40.
The answer is 40 degrees.
Remember, the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180 degrees. Just take what
you are given in a problem and try to determine what will make the final angle
add up to 180 degrees
We can use equations to represent what the picture is saying to us. For
example,
x + y + z = 180
We know this is true, because the sum of the angles inside a triangle is 180
degrees. I should also point out that the measure of angle w + measure of
angle z = 180 degrees, because they are a pair of supplementary angles.
Notice how Z and W together make a straight line? That's 180 degrees.
If we combine the two equations above, we can say that the measure of angle
w = x + y.
x + y + z = 180
w + z = 180
Now, rewrite the second equation as z = 180 - w and substitute
that for z in the first equation:
x + y + 180 - w = 180
x+y-w=0
x+y=w
There is a theorem called the TRIANGLE EXTERIOR ANGLE THEOREM and
this is what is says:
The measure of an exterior angle (our w) of a triangle equals to the sum of the
measures of the two remote interior angles (our x and y) of the triangle.
Let's try two samples.
Sample A:
If the measure of the exterior angle = (3x - 10) degrees and the measure of
the two remote interiors angles are 25 degrees and (x + 15) degrees, find x.
To solve, we use the fact that W = X + Y. Note that here I'm referring to the
angles W, X, and Y. Their names are not important. What is important is that
the exterior angle equals the sum of the remote interior angles.
We equate and solve for x.
3x - 10 = 25 + x + 15
3x - 10 = x + 40
3x - x = 10 + 40
2x = 50
x = 50/2
x = 25
The angles, then, are 25, 40, and 65 degrees.
Sample B
The exterior angle given is 110 degrees. Two remote interior angles measure
50 and (2x + 30). Find x.
Remember: exterior = sum of remote interior angles
We equate 110 to (2x + 30) + 50 and solve for x.
110 = 2x + 30 + 50
110 = 2x + 80
110 - 80 = 2x
30 = 2x
30/2 = x
15 = x
Sample A:
The degree measures of the angles of quadrilateral ABCD are in the ratio
2:3:3:4. Find the degree measure of the biggest angle of quadrilateral ABCD.
How do we solve this? Since we know the sum of all four angles must be 360
degrees, we just need an expression adding the angles and equalling 360.
Because they are in a ratio, they must have some common factor that we
need to multiply each term by (call this x).
Steps:
(1) Add the terms 2x + 3x + 3x + 4x
(2) Equate the sum of the terms to 360
(3) Solve for x
(4) Determine the angle measures in degrees.
2x + 3x + 3x + 4x = 360
12x = 360
x = 360/12
x = 30
Even though we know x = 30 we aren't done yet. We multiply 30 times 4 to
find the biggest angle. Since 30 times 4 = 120, the biggest angle is 120
degrees. Likewise, the other angles are 3*30=90, 3*3=90, and 2*30 = 60.
Sample B:
Find the sum of the degree measures of the angles of a hexagon. If the
hexagon is regular, find the degree measure of each interior angle.
We can use the formula S = (x - 2)(180) to find sum of the degree measure of
the hexagon.
S = (6 - 2)(180)
S = 4(180)
S = 720
Degree measure of each angle = sum of all angles divided by the number of
angles.
In other words, S/x. We know that S = 720 (sum of the measures of the
angles) and x = 6 (the number of angles).
Look:
3600 = (x - 2)(180)
3600 = 180x - 360
3600 + 360 = 180x
3960 = 180x
3960/180 = x
22 = x
Exterior Angles of a Polygon
If a regular polygon has x sides, then the degree measure of each exterior
angle is 360 divided by x or simply put 360/x.
Sample D:
Find the degree measure of each interior and exterior angle of a regular
hexagon.
S = (10 -6)(180)
S = 4(180)
S = 720
Since there are 6 interior angles each with the same measure, the measure of
each interior angle can be found by using S/x, where S = 720 and x = 6.
We know that interior and exterior angles are supplementary (add up to 180)
at each vertex and so the measure of each exterior angle is 180 - 120 = 60.
Sample B:
If the measure of each interior angle of a regular polygon is 150, find the
number of sides of the polygon.
Because the measure of each interior angle is 150, the measure of an exterior
angle drawn at any vertex in terms of this polygon is 180 - 150 = 30.
30 = 360/x
30x = 360
x = 360/30
x = 12 sides.
NOTE: The corresponding congruent sides are marked with small straight line
segments called hash marks. The corresponding congruent angles are
marked with arcs. See picture above.
For those same two triangles, ABC and DEF, we know the following:
Notice that each one of these facts makes common sense. If you have two
identical triangles, it should be obvious that their angles are identical.
Nonetheless, these are still important facts. Why? Because now all we have to
do is prove that two triangles are congruent. We don't have to worry about
proving the sides or angles are congruent. This can be very useful.
If we need to prove that two triangles are congruent, we have five different
methods:
1. SSS (side side side) = If three sides of one triangle are congruent to three
sides of another triangle, the triangles are congruent.
2. SAS (side angle side) = If two sides and the angle in between are
congruent to the corresponding parts of another triangle, the triangles are
congruent.
3. ASA (angle side angle) = If two angles and the side in between are
congruent to the corresponding parts of another triangle, the triangles are
congruent.
4. AAS (angle angle side) = If two angles and the non-included side of one
triangle are congruent to the corresponding parts of another triangle, the
triangles are congruent.
5. HL (hypotenuse leg) = If the hypotenuse and leg of one right triangle are
congruent to the corresponding parts of another right triangle, the right
triangles are congruent. Remember that if we know two sides of a right
triangle we know the third side anyway, so this is really just SSS.
NOTE 1: AAA works fine to show that triangles are the same SHAPE (similar),
but does NOT work to show congruence. You can draw 2 equilateral triangles
that are the same shape but not the same size.
NOTE 2: The Angle Side Side Theorem (yes, we all know what it spells) does
NOT necessarily work.
I will now show you the basics of proving (showing) that two triangles are
congruent. However, I will go over this again in more detail in future geometric
proof lessons. For example, later on, I will show you how to use the
statements versus reasons charts but for now, I will stick to the basics.
Sample A:
Is triangle ABC congruent to triangle DEF?
angle A angle D.
angle B angle E.
side AC side DF.
Conclusion: triangle ABC triangle DEF by the AAS theorem.
Sample B:
Is triangle ABC congruent to triangle XYZ?
What do we know from this picture? We see an angle and two sides that are
congruent. However, there is no congruence for Angle Side Side. Therefore
we can't prove that the triangles are congruent.
It's important to note that the triangles COULD be congruent, and in fact in the
diagram they are the same. But I could have manipulated the triangles to
make them non-congruent with the same Angle Side Side relationship. All you
know is that you need more information to decide if they are congruent or not
Solution:
(1) Let x = measure of vertex angle S.
(2) Set up an equation and solve for x.
base angle + base angle + vertex angle S = 180 degrees
64 degrees + 64 degrees + x = 180 degrees
128 + x = 180
x = 180 - 128
x = 52
The measure of vertex angle S in triangle RST is 52 degrees.
Sample C:
The degree measure of a base angle of isosceles triangle XYZ exceeds three
times the degrees measure of the vertex Y by 60. Find the degree measure of
the vertex angle Y. Notice that it's hard to draw a picture without knowing
which angles are largest.
We need to make an equation out of this problem, so let's figure out what it's
trying to tell us. First we read "The degree measure of a base angle", so let's
start with X=
Our equation so far: X=
Now we see "exceeds three times... Y... by 60", which means 3Y + 60.
Our equation now: X = 3Y + 60
Since we know that X = Z because it is an isosceles triangle, then we can
solve for the measures of all the angles.
base angle + base angle + vertex = 180
X + Y + Z = 180
(3Y + 60) + Y+ (3Y + 60) = 180
7Y + 120 = 180
7Y = 60
Y = 60/7
Y = 8.57 degrees
The vertex angle Y of triangle XYZ equals 8.57 degrees
To find out if a set of three positive points can represent the lengths of the
sides of a given triangle, CHECK that each of the three numbers is less than
the sum of the other two numbers.
Sample A:
In the following picture of triangle ABC, can the set of numbers given
represent the lengths of the sides of triangle ABC? Side AB = 4, Side BC = 5
and Side AC = 1.
Let us check that each of the three given numbers is less than the sum of the
other two numbers.
Solution:
In the above triangle ABC, we can see that although 4 is less than 5 + 1 and 1
is less than 4 + 5, 5 is NOT less than 1 + 4. The answer is no. The set of
numbers given does not represent the lengths of the sides of triangle ABC.
Imagine if you tried to build this triangle in real life. You have one side that's 5,
and the other two sides are exactly 5 when straightened. You can connect
them only as two overlapping lines. You need some extra length to make a
triangle out of it.
Sample B:
If 3, 9 and x represent the lengths of the sides of a triangle, how many integer
values for x are possible?
Solution:
We must find the degree measure of the other two angles of triangle ABC.
Since the measure of angle A = 30 degrees, then it follows that the other two
angles must be equal and add up to 150 degrees. That means they are each
75 degrees. That means the side opposite angle A (side BC) is the smallest
side.
angle a = angle c
angle b = angle d
Sides of a Parallelogram
In parallelogram ABCD:
(1) Opposite sides are parallel:
side AD || side BC
side AB || side CD
NOTE: The symbol || means parallel.
(2) Opposite sides have the same lengths:
side AD = side BC
side AB = side CD
Diagonals of a Parallelogram
The diagonals of a parallelogram divide the parallelogram into two side-by-
side triangles. As shown in the picture below, diagonal AC forms equal
alternate interior angles with each pair of parallel sides. We can also see that
there are two triangles in the picture below. Triangle 1 is congruent to triangle
2 by ASA (Angle-Side-Angle) Method.
Where did the two triangles come from? They were formed by diagonal AC.
Isosceles Trapezoid
There is a special kind of trapezoid called an isosceles trapezoid. An isosceles
trapezoid is a trapezoid in which the legs are equal. You'll notice that in the
first trapezoid in this lesson (above), the legs are NOT equal.
In isosceles trapezoid ABCD:
(1) The two lower base angles have the same measure, and the two upper
base angles have the same measure.
angle a = angle d
angle b = angle c
(2) The diagonals have the same lengths.
diagonal AC = diagonal BD
Sample:
In isosceles trapezoid MATH, side HT is parallel to side MA, line segment MH
is congruent to line segment AT. The degree measure of angle MHT = 60
degrees. What are the measures of the other 3 angles?
Solution:
We know the two legs are congruent, so this is an isosceles trapezoid. Given
that, we know the two base angles have the same measure. That tells us that
Angle T = 60
Since the top and bottom angles are supplementary, we know that
Angle M = 180 - 60
Angle M = 120
By the same logic, Angle A = 120 degrees as well.
Sample:
In rectangle ABCD below, diagonals AC and BD intersect at point R. If AR =
2x - 6 and CR = x + 10, find BD.
Since the diagonals of a rectangle bisect each other, we can say that
AR = CR.
We equate the values of AR and CR and solve for x.
2x - 6 = x + 10
2x - x = 10 + 6
x = 16
Use either of the given equations to determine that each segment equals 26.
Since they are all equal, BD = 26.
Rhombus
A rhombus is a parallelogram with 4 congruent or equal sides. A rhombus has
the following rules:
(1) All the rules of a parallelogram.
(2) Four sides that have the same length.
(3) Diagonals that intersect at right angles.
(4) Diagonals that bisect opposite pairs of angles.
Sample:
Given that ABCD is a rhombus and the measure of angle D = 60 degrees.
Find the measure of angles A and B.
Solution:
Triangle ABC is isosceles since line segment AB is congruent to line segment
BC. Then we can say that the base angles of triangle ABC must be congruent
or equal. Since we know the diagonal bisects the angles A and C, we must
have two congruent triangles here. If so, then the measure of angle D = the
measure of angle B = 60 degrees.
In triangle AEB, angle AEB is a right triangle because the diagonals of a
rhombus are perpendicular to each other. Since the sum of the degree
measures of the angles of a triangle is 180 degrees, we can say that the
measure of angle A must be 30 degrees. How do we get 30?
Sample:
In square ABCD, AB = x + 4. What is the perimeter of square ABCD?
Solution:
A square has the same length on all 4 sides.
We can use the formula P = side times 4, or P = 4s, where P = perimeter and
s = side of square.
P = 4s
P = 4(x + 4)....We apply the distributive rule here and get
P = 4x + 16
Our perimeter is 4x + 16
(pi = = 3.141592...)
Areas
square = a2
rectangle = ab
parallelogram = bh
circle = pi r 2
ellipse = pi r1 r2
triangle = (1/2) b h
equilateral triangle = (1/4) (3) a2
triangle given SAS = (1/2) a b sin C
triangle given a,b,c = [s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)] when s = (a+b+c)/2 (Heron's formula)
regular polygon = (1/2) n sin(360°/n) S2
when n = # of sides and S = length from center to a corner
Volumes
cube = a3
rectangular prism = a b c
irregular prism = b h
cylinder = b h = r2 h
pyramid = (1/3) b h
sphere = (4/3) r3
ellipsoid = (4/3) pi r1 r2 r3
Surface Areas
cube = 6 a2
prism:
(lateral area) = perimeter(b) L
Circumference
of a Circle
A circle is a shape with all points the same distance from the
center. It is named by the center. The circle to the left is called
circle A since the center is at point A. If you measure the distance
around a circle and divide it by the distance across the circle
through the center, you will always come close to a particular
value, depending upon the accuracy of your measurement. This
value is approximately 3.14159265358979323846... We use the
Greek letter (pronounced Pi) to represent this value. The number
goes on forever. However, using computers, mathematicians
have been able to calculate the value of to thousands of places.
where is circumference and is diameter. You can test this formula at home with
a round dinner plate. If you measure the circumference and the diameter of the plate
and then divide by , your quotient should come close to . Another way to write
this formula is: where · means multiply. This second formula is commonly
used in problems where the diameter is given and the circumference is not known
(see the examples below).
The radius of a circle is the distance from the center of a circle to
any point on the circle. If you place two radii end-to-end in a circle,
you would have the same length as one diameter. Thus, the
diameter of a circle is twice as long as the radius. This relationship
is expressed in the following formula: , where is the
diameter and is the radius.
= 3.14 · (4 in)
= 12.56 in
Example 4: The circumference of a circle is 15.7 centimeters.
What is the diameter?
Solution:
15.7 cm = 3.14 ·
15.7 cm ÷ 3.14 =
= 15.7 cm ÷ 3.14
= 5 cm
Area Formulas:
Square: s2
The area of a square is the length of
a side squared.
Rectangle: L*W
The area of a rectangle is the length
multiplied by the width.
Circle: pi*r2
The area of a circle is pi (about 3.14)
times the radius squared.
Triangle: 0.5*b*h
The area of a triangle is one half the
base times the height.
Trapezoid: 0.5*(b1+b2)*h
The area of a trapezoid is one half the
sum of the bases times the height.
(pi = = 3.141592...)
Perimeter Formulas
The perimeter of any polygon is the sum of the lengths of all the sides.
Note: "ab" means "a" multiplied by "b". "a2" means "a squared", which is
the same as "a" times "a".
Be careful!! Units count. Use the same units for all measurements.
Examples
square = 4a
rectangle = 2a + 2b
triangle = a + b + c
circle = 2pi r
Units
Be sure to only add similar units. For example, you cannot add inches to feet.
For example, if you need to find the perimeter of a rectangle with sides of 9 inches and 1 foot, you must first
change to the same units.
perimeter = 2 ( a + b)
INCORRECT
perimeter = 2(9 + 1) = 2*10 = 20
CORRECT
perimeter = 2( 9 inches + 1 foot)
= 2( 3/4 foot + 1 foot )
= 2(1 3/4 feet)
= 3 1/2 feet
(pi = = 3.141592...)
Note: "ab" means "a" multiplied by "b". "a2" means "a squared", which is the same as "a"
times "a".
Be careful!! Units count. Use the same units for all measurements. Examples
In words, the surface area of a cube is the area of the six squares that cover it. The area of one of them is a*a, or a 2 . Since these are all
the same, you can multiply one of them by six, so the surface area of a cube is 6 times one of the sides squared.
In words, the surface area of a rectangular prism is the are of the six rectangles that cover it. But we don't have to figure out all six
because we know that the top and bottom are the same, the front and back are the same, and the left and right sides are the same.
The area of the top and bottom (side lengths a and c) = a*c. Since there are two of them, you get 2ac. The front and back have side
lengths of b and c. The area of one of them is b*c, and there are two of them, so the surface area of those two is 2bc. The left and right
side have side lengths of a and b, so the surface area of one of them is a*b. Again, there are two of them, so their combined surface area
is 2ab.
(r is radius of circle)
In words, the easiest way is to think of a can. The surface area is the areas of all the parts needed to cover the can. That's the top, the
bottom, and the paper label that wraps around the middle.
You can find the area of the top (or the bottom). That's the formula for area of a circle (pi r2). Since there is both a top and a bottom, that
gets multiplied by two.
The side is like the label of the can. If you peel it off and lay it flat it will be a rectangle. The area of a rectangle is the product of the two
sides. One side is the height of the can, the other side is the perimeter of the circle, since the label wraps once around the can. So the
area of the rectangle is (2 pi r)* h.
Add those two parts together and you have the formula for the surface area of a cylinder.
(pi = = 3.141592...)
Volume Formulas
Note: "ab" means "a" multiplied by "b". "a2" means "a squared", which is
the same as "a" times "a". "b3" means "b cubed", which is the same
as "b" times "b" times "b".
Be careful!! Units count. Use the same units for all measurements.
Examples
cube = a 3
rectangular prism = a b c
irregular prism = b h
cylinder = b h = pi r 2 h
pyramid = (1/3) b h
sphere = (4/3) pi r 3
ellipsoid = (4/3) pi r1 r2 r3
Units
Volume is measured in "cubic" units. The volume of a figure is the number of cubes required to
fill it completely, like blocks in a box.
Volume of a cube = side times side times side. Since each side of a square is the same, it can
simply be the length of one side cubed.
If a square has one side of 4 inches, the volume would be 4 inches times 4 inches times 4
inches, or 64 cubic inches. (Cubic inches can also be written in3.)
Be sure to use the same units for all measurements. You cannot multiply feet times inches
times yards, it doesn't make a perfectly cubed measurement.
The volume of a rectangular prism is the length on the side times the width times the height. If
the width is 4 inches, the length is 1 foot and the height is 3 feet, what is the volume?
CORRECT.... 4 inches is the same as 1/3 feet. Volume is 1/3 feet times 1 foot times 3 feet = 1
cubic foot (or 1 cu. ft., or 1 ft3).
METHOD 1:
Let's divide some regular polygons into triangles by connecting one
vertex to all of the others...
A square has 4 A pentagon has 5 A hexagon has 6
sides and we made sides and we made 3 sides and we made 4
2 triangles. triangles. triangles.
Do you see the pattern?
A heptagon has 7 sides... so we'd be able to make 5 triangles.
If we had polygon with n sides... we'd be able to make (n - 2) triangles.
Let's start with the square... We made 2 triangles. Notice that all of the
interior angles of the 2 triangles make up the interior angles of the
square.
We made 3 triangles.
METHOD 2:
This method will be very similar to that of the first method. Except that
we will draw our triangles using a point drawn inside the polygon.
4 triangles...
At this point in method 1, we had 360... So we are off by 360. But we
haven't dealt with the fact that those middle angles are not involved with
the interior angles of the square. It turns out that the sum of the angles
around that middle point is 360!
So
and
Let's try the pentagon...
5 triangles...
Polygons are many-sided figures, with sides that are line segments. Polygons are
named according to the number of sides and angles they have. The most familiar
polygons are the triangle, the rectangle, and the square. A regular polygon is one
that has equal sides. Polygons also have diagonals, which are segments that join
two vertices and are not sides.
The table lists all the polygons having up to 10 sides. Click the name of each polygon
in the table to see a diagram