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ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
Answer:
Individual Differences: The concept tells that every person is an entity in himself. When
it comes to human behavior there cannot be a prescriptive solution. Every individual is to
be treated differently even though two persons may have the same behavioral problems.
The concept also tells the manager that he had better be aware of his own stereotypes. A
stereotype is a tendency to attribute the traits of a group to an individual because he
belongs to the said group. This concept, not only tells that a manager should treat every
person as an entity in himself but he should also examine his own stereotypes.
Whole Person: An organization hires not only the hands of an employee but hires a
complete men with all his pluses and minuses. At the same since a person performs many
roles at the same time, the happenings in one role are bound to affect the behavior in
others roles of the person. The concept tells the manager that when it comes to behavioral
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problems, he must also take into account the other roles of the person. If the whole person
is to be developed then only the benefits will extend beyond the organization of the entire
society, in which the employee lives.
Caused Behavior (Motivation): This concept states that the manager, by his own
behavior can cause an employee behave in a particular way. If he is respectful to his
employees they are bound to be respectful to him not otherwise. This concept is similar to
Newton’s law, which states that every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
Human Dignity: It is more than an ethical philosophy than a scientific conclusion. This
concept tells that every person should be respected simply because he happens to be an
employee just as the manager is. It confirms that people are to be treated differently from
other factors of production because they are of a higher order, they want to be treated
differently with respect and dignity. When everyone, the employee, the manager as the
CEO of an organization are engaged in the same pursuit, the pursuit of enabling their
organization to achieve the objectives for it has come in existence. Thus, they are on the
equal footing and should be given equal respect, as the manager.
Mutuality of Interests: Organizations are formed and maintained on the basis of some
mutuality of interests because the organizations have a human purpose. Organizations
help people achieve their own personal objectives, at the same time people help
organizations achieve its objectives. It is a symbiotic relation. Everybody must bear in
mind that the organizational and employees interests are intertwined in such a way that if
the interests of one suffer the interest of another do suffer. Both the employees and
organization can prosper if they help each other to prosper.
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The organizational behavior models express the shift in the outlooks of the
manager of looking towards their employees and the resultant organizational
environment. The autocratic model was very much in existence at the time of industrial
revolution and sometime after. Subsequently because of the changes in thinking of
industrialists and managers custodial model of OB which consisted of concessions,
economic privileges for employees came into existence. In both the above said models,
managers did not bother to create and atmosphere which would be conductive to the
development of the employee. The question of motivating, guiding and developing the
employees did not arise. With the supportive model coming up the change in managerial
orientation can be perceived. It emerged as a sequel to the human relations era. Here, the
theory assumes that employees have the skill and will to contribute to the organizational
efforts. It came to be recognized that manager is not the boss but a leader of the team of
employees entrusted to him. The collegial model has limited application and is useful
when one is dealing with scientific and professional employees. Here, managers role is
changed from that of a leader to that of a partner. Whatever the work, its to be done as a
team where lines between the manager and employee are obliterated.
Answer:
Many a times situations arise in such a way that human being does not understand
as to what he should do; or many times his self image is likely to be criticized by the
world; or the need fulfillment gets continually blocked. When this occurs a phenomenon
known as intra personal conflict arises. Intra personal conflicts are of three types: Role
Conflicts, Goal Conflicts and Frustration.
Role Conflict:
Role Conflict arises when a person is performing two different roles having
contrary or contradictory expectations at the same time.
Illustration:
A worker who is also a worker-director is sandwiched between different
expectations. On one hand he is a worker and on the other hand he is director in the board
of directors. As a director he may have to concur with the decision role which may not
be, from his point of view, in the interests of the workers as such. If he performs his role
as a worker he fails in his role as a director. Conversely if he performs his role as a
worker he fails in his role as a director.
Goal Conflict:
There are three types of goal conflicts. They are:
a. approach-approach
b. avoidance-avoidance
c. approach-avoidance
Approach – Approach conflict arises when there exist two equally positive but mutually
exclusive situations. Both are equally attractive but a person can choose only one of
them. A person receiving two equally good job offers gets into this kind of conflicts. In
life somehow or the other a person makes a choice and settles down with. This kind of
conflict is not know to create stress and tensions for a long time.
Avoidance - Avoidance conflict arises when there exists two equally negative situations
one of which has to be accepted. For a prisoner continuing in the jail is negative but at the
same time if he breaks jail there is a likelihood of his getting caught and increase in the
punishment. He detests but he has to choose either. This conflict also is not known to
create stress for a long time. Somehow or the other a person makes a choice and settles
down with it.
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Approach – Avoidance conflict is known to create stress in the mind of a person for a
long time. This type of conflict arises when a positive situation is coupled with a negative
one. If a person wants positive, he must choose negative too. A person wanting a
promotion but not the transfer that comes in its wake faces this kind of conflict.
Frustration
Frustration occurs when need fulfillment is continually blocked or when one’s
self image is in jeopardy.
Defense Mechanisms:
Answer:
For several years managers had been wondering why their fancy personnel policies and
fringe benefits were not increasing employee motivation on the job. To answer this,
Frediric Herzberg of Case Western Reserve University provided an interesting extension
of Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory and developed a scientific content theory of work
motivation. Its also called the Dual Factory theory and the Motivation-Hygiene theory of
Motivation. The theory originally was derived by analyzing “critical incidents” written by
200 engineers and accountants in nine different companies in Pittsburgh area, USA.
Herzberg and his associates conducted extensive interviews with the professional subjects
in the study and asked them what they liked or disliked about their work. The resent
approach was simplistic built around the question “think of a time when you felt
exceptionally good or exceptionally good about your job, either your present job or other
you have had”. This approach has been repeated many a times with variety of job holders
in various countries. The results indicated that when people talked about feeling good or
satisfied they mentioned features in string to the job and when people talked about feeling
dissatisfied with the job they talked about factors extrinsic to the hob. Herzberg called
these motivation and maintenance factors respectively.
Hygiene factors represent the need to avoid pain in environment. They are not an intrinsic
part of a job, but they are related to the conditions under which a job is performed. They
are associated with negative feelings. They are environment related factors, hygiene.
They must be viewed as preventive measures that remove source of dissatisfaction from
the environment like physical hygiene they do not lead to growth but only prevent
deterioration. Maintaining a hygiene work environment will not improve motivation any
more than garbage disposal or water purification. Hygiene factors produce no growth in
worker output, they prevent loss in performance caused by worker restriction. These are
job context factors.
Motivators are associated with positive feelings of employees about the job. They are
related to the content of the job. They make people satisfied with their job. If manager
wish to increase motivation and performance about the average level, they must enrich
the work and increase a person’s freedom on the job. Motivators are necessary to keep
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job satisfaction and job performance high. On the other hand, if they are not present they
do not prove highly satisfying.
Hygiene Motivators
Company policies and administration Achievement
Relationship with supervisor Recognition
Work Conditions Work Itself
Salary and status Responsibility
Relationship with peers Advancement
Personal life Growth
Relationship with subordinates
Security
MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS:
Herzberg’s theory casts new light on the content of work motivation. During the last 30
years employees have been paternalistically maintained too much and enthusiastically
motivated to little. Managers have been focusing their attention on hygiene factors often
with poor results. They were preoccupied with the environment of work rather than work
it self. The distinction of motivational and maintenance factors will help managers in
spurring individuals to peak performance. The most basic implication of the Motivation
Maintenance Theory is that in order to maximize human productivity it is absolutely
necessary to satisfy employees maintenance needs and provide the opportunity to gratify
their motivational needs. The key to motivation lies in structuring meaningful jobs, jobs
that are challenging and rewarding that provide increased opportunities for achievement,
responsibility growth and recognition. That is to say, in place of dull, boring and de-
motivating jobs, the managers should provide challenging jobs.
Herzberg’s theory has been subjected to several troubling criticisms. Like Maslow’s
model, Herzberg has been as controversial as it has been influential.
Research Methodology:
1. Herzberg is shackled to his method. His model is method bound. When
researchers did not use the critical incident method, they obtained different
results.
2. Actually the theory is limited by the “Critical incident” method used to
obtain information. The subject stated extremely satisfying and
dissatisfying job experiences. People tend to tell the interviewer what they
think the individual would like to hear. So results obtained under the
method may be a product of people’s defensiveness than a correct
revelation of objective sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
3. The method is fraught with procedural deficiencies also. The analysis of
responses derived from his approach is highly subjective, sometimes the
researchers had to interpret the responses.
Assumptions: The assumption that the two sets of factors operate primarily in one
direction is also not accurate. Critics questioned the mutual exclusiveness of the
dimension. In some cases ‘maintenance factors’ were found to be viewed as motivators
by blue-collar employees. In one study it was found that hygiene factors were as useful in
motivating employees, as were his motivators.
Herzberg’s Contribution:
Despite these criticisms, Herzberg’s two factor theory has made a significant contribution
towards improving manager’s basic understanding of human behavior. He advanced a
theory that was simple to grasp, based on some empirical data and equally significant. It
offered specific action recommendation for managers to improve employee motivation
levels. He drew the attention of managers to the importance of job content factors in work
motivation which had been neglected previously.
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Answer:
PERSONALITY
Nature of Personality:
In the concept of personality, three distinct properties are of central importance which are
mentioned as below:
1. Personality reflects individual differences – Because the inner
characteristics that constitute an individual’s personality are a unique
combination of factors, no two individuals are exactly alike. For instance,
many people can be described as “high” in sociability while others are low
in sociability.
2. Personality is consistent and enduring – An individual’s personality is
commonly thought to be both consistent and enduring. Indeed, the mother
who comments that her child “has been stubborn from the day he was
born” is supporting the contention that the personality has both
consistency and endurance.
3. Personality can change – Although personality tends to be consistent and
enduring, it may still change under certain circumstances like an
individual’s personality may be altered by major life events such as birth
of a child, death of a loved one, a divorce or a major career promotion. An
individual’s personality changes not only in response to abrupt events, but
also as part of a gradual maturing process.
Apart from socialization and identification processes, the home environment influences
personality of the individual. Researchers have developed several theories of personality
and no theory, at the outset, is complete in itself.
This theory provides the foundation for the study of motivational research,
which operates on the premise that human drives are largely unconscious in
nature and serve to motivate people’s action. According to Frend, human mind is
composed of three elements the preconscious, Conscious, and the Unconscious.
According to him the “Conscious” is guided by a “reasoned reality” principle and
the “unconscious” is guided by the famous “hedonistic principle” of pleasure.
Frend developed an organization of personality consisting of three structures
within the human mind the id, the ego and the super ego. These three parts of
mind are primarily responsible for originating human actions and reactions and
modifications. Frend constructed this theory on the basis of patient’s recollections
of early childhood experiences, analysis of dreams and specific nature of their
mental and physical adjustment problems.
Id, EGO, SUPEREGO – Frend proposed that human personality consists of three
interacting systems: the id, the ego and the superego. The id was conceptualized as a
‘warehouse’ of primitive and impulsive drives – basic physiological needs such as thirst,
hunger and sex for that individual seeks immediate satisfaction without concern for
specific means of satisfaction. In contrast to the id, the superego is conceptualized as the
individual’s internal expression of society’s moral and ethical code of conduct. The
superego’s role is to see that the individual satisfies needs in a socially acceptable
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fashion. Thus, the superego is a kind of “brake” that restrains or inhibits the impulsive
forces of the id. Finally, the ego is the individual’s conscious control. It functions as an
internal monitor that attend to balance the impulsive demands of the id and the
socioculture constraints of the superego. The figure below represents inter-relation
among the three interacting systems:
ID EGO
GRATIFICATION SYSTEM 1 SYSTEM 3
SUPEREGO
SYSTEM 2
2. TYPE THEORY:
3. TRAIT THEORIES:
4. SELF THEORY:
Answer:
PERCEPTION
Perception can be described as “how we see the world around us”. Two
individuals may be subject tot the same stimuli under the same apparent conditions, but
how each person recognizes them, selects them, organizes them and interprets them is a
highly individual process based on each person’s own needs, values and expectations.
The study of divergence, between the perceptual world and reality world, is of
great significance for human relations and organizational behavior. As its frequently
observed, managers assume that subordinates are always keen for promotions even
though factually subordinates may really feel psychologically compelled to accept their
promotion. The perceptual worlds of the managers and of the subordinates may differ
markedly from each other as well as both of them may diverse substantially from reality.
To get the desired results from promotion, the management should have the proper
assessment of the perceptual world of its subordinates.
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
FEEDBACK FOR INTERPRETATIO
OFFICE, RESEARCH LAB,
CLARIFICATION N OF STINULUS
CLIMATE ETC
SOCIO CULTURAL
ENVIRONMENT
Factors that influence perception can be those that attract attention lie in the
situations and some are within the individual. The factors that are in the situations are
called ‘external attentions factors’ and those that are within an individual are called
‘internal set factors’. The details of both external as well as internal factors are listed
below,
Answer:
Leadership is the mechanism to convince workers about the need for change.
Dynamic leadership is the cornerstone of organizational change. A leader interprets the
objectives of people working under him and guides towards the achievement of those
objectives. According to Haimann,
in one situation while ineffective in other. To be effective, a leader should change his
leadership style depending upon the requirements of the situation.
STYLES OF LEADERSHIP:
Leadership style refers to a leader’s behavior. Behavioral pattern which the leader
reflects in his role as a leader is often described as the style of leadership. Different
leadership patterns exist among leaders in different time and in different situations.
Leadership style is the result of leader’s philosophy, personality, experience, skills and
value system. It also depends upon the types of followers and the organizational
atmospheres prevailing in the enterprise.
Negative leadership gets acceptable performance in many situations, but it has
high human costs. Negative leader act domineering and superior with people. To get
work tone, they hold over their personnel such penalties as lose job, reprimand in the
presence of others etc. They display authority in the false belief that is frightens
everybody into productivity. They are bosses more then leaders. Even the most
competitive leaders will at times have to fall back upon negative leadership. Perfection
can never be achieved, but the historical trend that managers need more and more
positive leadership skills in order to be rated “satisfactory”. Better employee education,
greater independence and other factors have made satisfactory employee motivation more
dependent on positive leadership. Different types of leadership styles are:
a. Autocratic leadership
b. Participative leadership
c. Free rein leadership A
A
B
B C
E A C
E D
B D D
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C
Autocratic Participative Free Rein
In practice, a leader may use all styles over a period of time, but one style tends to
predominate as his normal way of using power. E.G. – Factory supervisors who is
normally autocratic, may be participative in determining vacation schedules and free rein
in selecting the departmental representative for safety committee. This classification is
not scientific. In practice, a leader adopts a combination of styles because there are
thousands of in between styles of power which each manager applies his own way. Power
use exists along a continuum ranging from total power use at all and effective managers
usually show some flexibility along this continuum as shown in the figure above.
produce good and quick results if the subordinates are highly educated and
brilliant people who have sincere desire to go ahead and perform their
responsibilities. However, it suffers from the ignorance on managers side.
CONCLUSION
Leadership has been defined as a process of influencing others by many scholars
although it starts from influencing one’s own self. Various leadership styles have been
discussed and success of each one depends on the situation in which any style is
implemented. Hence the success of leadership style depends upon the right understanding
of the situation. Any leadership style may prove to be effective in certain situations and
may prove to be ineffective in some other situations. Managers need to learn the art of
diagnosing the environment/situation to adopt suitable leadership style. Leadership is
psychological process of influencing followers or subordinates and providing guidance to
them. Also, its always related to a situation, so making it clear that in some situations a
leader would be effective, while in others he won’t be. To be effective, a leader should
change his leadership styles depending upon the requirements of the situation.
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Answer:
According to Dr. Seyles “Stress is a non-specific response of the body to
situation”
Answer:
We live in an age of transition. One of the few things of real permanence in our world is
change. It has become an inescapable fact of life; a fundamental aspect of historical
evolution. Change is inevitable in a progressive culture. Change, in fact, is accelerating in
our present day society. Revolutions are taking place in political, scientific, technological
and institutional areas. Sophisticated communication capabilities have increased.
Telemarketings, ‘robotics’ taking over some jobs currently performed by employees are
some examples that bear testimony of the fast paced, rapidly changing organization.
Pressures for change are created both outside and inside organization. In fact an
organization that refuses to adapt and adopt change cannot live longer.
Organizations are, of course, learning to cope with the devastating rate of internal
and external changes with the help of some fundamental changes in management
philosophy and organizational technology.
1. Change basically results from stimuli from both outside and inside the
enterprise.
2. Change takes place in all organizations but at varying rates of speed and
degrees of significance.
3. Change takes place in all parts of organization but at varying rates of
speed and degrees of significance.
4. Finally, the enterprise changes in several ways. Its technology may
change; its structure, people, procedures and other elements may change.
Any alteration that occurs in the overall work environment is called change.
Change requires new adjustments and new equilibrium. The nature of work change is so
complicated that the management should gain acceptance for the change, and restore the
group equilibrium and personal adjustment that change upsets.
b. Resources constrains.
c. Sunk costs, and
d. General apathy.
Resources Constraints:
Organizations, many a times, operate under some resource constraints. If the
resources with which to operate are available in abundance there will be no problem of
introducing change. But the necessary financial, material and human resources may not
be available to the organization to make the needed changes.
Sunk Costs:
The plight of some companies is such that the heavy capital is blocked in the
fixed or permanent assets. Even though the management in such organizations is
convinced of the necessity of change, they may face resource constraints because of the
money already sunk in the purchase of block capital assets.
The following management styles are available to the manager for overcoming the
resistance to change.
Negotiations: convincing the employees about the necessity of change. At this stage some
give-and-take may be required.
Participation of the employees in setting up the change.
If these fail, forcing the employees to accept the change.
Introducing Change
Conclusion
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In today’s fast pace of life the only factor that is permanent is the change itself.
An organization’s ability to manage change decides whether the organization will prosper
or perish. Even-though the change is in the interest of the employees and the
organization; many times the change is resisted by the employees as well as by the
organization. Employees resist change because of the economic reasons or personal and
social reasons. Most importantly, many a times, a change throws up the necessity
retraining. Generally people do not like to be retrained. Because, they take a pride in their
existing skills, People also feel that retraining means that their skills are obsolete.
Organization resists change because of the structural inertia, resource constrains, sunk
costs or the general apathy.
Answer:
WORK
The basic characteristic of work is that before peak productivity is reached there
is an initial warming-up period, the peak period is constant for some time and then there
is a decrement or falling of productivity. Often, in anticipation of the end of the workday,
there is a spurt. There are two reasons for the decrement in work to occur. They are
Fatigue and boredom.
Fatigue: Can be defined as the tiredness of the body as a result of continuous physical
activity, which can be avoided by introduction of authorized rest pauses.
How can we account for the beneficial effects of rest pause on production?
Rest provides the opportunity to recover from fatigue. The physiologist has
demonstrated that work causes accumulation of waste products within the organism that
reduces work capacity. Rest provides a period during which the waste products are
dissipated and bodily capacity restored. In heavy muscular work, physiological fatigue is
unquestionably a major factor contributing to work decrement.
Boredom: When work does not involve the expenditure of a great deal of physical
energy, the beneficial effect of rest periods may be due to relief from a task that
engenders in the worker feeling of boredom. The worker is not physically tired. He is
irritated, lacks interest, and is fed up with his job. He wants a change, a break from what
seems to be interminable activity. Rest pauses provide an opportunity to talk and think
about non-job activities. When the worker returns to his job, he is psychologically and
physiologically refreshed, and this is reflected in the increased output.
Thus there are certain factors in the physical surround like noise, color scheme,
temperature, humidity, dust and fumes, music etc, which need be paid proper attention to
avoid the fall in the productivity.
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Answer:
The greater the degree of arousal of the affective component of an attitude, the
greater the strength of reaction to other attitude-related stimuli. If a person is already
stirred up about something relevant to an attitude, he will tend to react to some new
attitude stimulus more strongly than he would otherwise do. A community that is angry
about a “communal incident” will be likely to be sensitized to new threats to its values. It
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is not even necessary that the affective arousal be related to an attitudinally relevant
stimulus for its effect to occur.
VALUES:
ATTITUDES VALUES
Attitudes essentially represent Values focus on the judgement of
predisposition to respond. what ought to be. This judgement
can represent the specific
manifestation of a determining
tendency below the surface of the
behavior.
Attitudes represents several beliefs Value represents a single belief that
focused on specific object or transcendentally guides actions and
situation judgements across objects and
situations
Attitudes are mostly personal Values stand in relation to some
experiences social or cultural standards or norms
Values and attitudes share some similarities too. Both are powerful instruments
influencing cognitive process and behavior of people. Both are learned and acquired from
the same source i.e. experiences with permanent and resistant to change. Also, both
influence each other and are, more often than not, used interchangeable.
C. PERCEPTION
Perception can be described as “how we see the world around us”. Two
individuals may be subject tot the same stimuli under the same apparent conditions, but
how each person recognizes them, selects them, organizes them and interprets them is a
highly individual process based on each person’s own needs, values and expectations.
30
The study of divergence, between the perceptual world and reality world, is of
great significance for human relations and organizational behavior. As it is frequently
observed, managers assume that subordinates are always keen for promotions even
though factually subordinates may really feel psychologically compelled to accept their
promotion. The perceptual worlds of the managers and of the subordinates may differ
markedly from each other as well as both of them may diverse substantially from reality.
To get the desired results from promotion, the management should have the proper
assessment of the perceptual world of its subordinates.