REVIEW ON FACTORS AFFECTING THE QUALITY OF RAW

HIDES AND SKINS

BY:

TEKLAY ASGEDOM TEFERI

JANUARY 2010
ADDIS ABABA-ETHIOPIA
 Table of contents page

LIST OF TABLE .............................................................................- 2 -

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................- 2 -
SUMMARY?? .................................................................................- 2 -
ACKNOWLEDGMENT .......................................................................- 2 -
1. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................- 2 -
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................- 3 -
2.1. Effect of different factors .....................................................- 3 -
2.1.1. Pre-slaughter defects .....................................................- 3 -
2.1.3. Post Slaughter Defects......................................................- 8 -
™ Grain crack ......................................................................- 8 -
3. Conclusion ..............................................................................- 8 -
4. Recommendation ......................................................................- 8 -
5. References ..............................................................................- 8 -

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LIST OF TABLE

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

SUMMARY

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

1. INTRODUCTION
Hides and skins are broadly defined as the external integuments of large animals, while
skins are provided by smaller animals. The best sources of hides and skins from
domesticated animals are cattle hides and sheep-goat skins. However, hides and skins may
also be obtained from other species of domesticated and non domesticated animals (hides
from cattle, buffalo, horse, camel, elephant etc) and (skins from sheep, goat, pig, Impala,
Rabbit, mink, snake, Frog, Ostrich, shark etc) (FAO, 1995).these hides and skins are the
end products of animal production, as an end product although more correctly they are by-
products, they are an important and valuable resources. In the developing world they are
almost never exploited to any thing like their full potential. Hides and skins often of
intrinsically and up discarded or wasted because of ignorance or misinformation (FAO,
2009).

In majority of developing countries, despite the fact that they have enormous livestock
population, their contribution to the growing supplies of hides and skins on the world
market is very unreasonable due to the major reasons being lack of modern slaughtering
facilities, lack of knowledge and understanding of the correct methods of flaying and
curing of the perishable hides and skins (Lukin, 1967).This reason is also true for Ethiopia
that possesses huge livestock resource which accounts 44 million cattle, 6 million equine,
and 43million chicken(mitiku,2004) and 23.33 million sheep and 23.62 million
goats(IBC,2004) which could be the basis for the development of a vibrant leather and
leather products industry and it is one of the few countries in the world endowed with large
number of livestock population(Avey,John,2007).

Ethiopia earns sizeable amount of foreign exchange from the export of live animals as well
as their products and by -products. Processed leather from hides and skins used to be the
most valuable export items of the country next to coffee for a long period of time. But
when we consider potential of the sector neither its contribution to export earning nor to
employment do match. This is because the leather industry has basically remained supplier
of low value added, semi- processed hides & skin to the international market (ecbp, 2009)

Determining the extent of loses from hides and skins that are not collected for processing
or are processed improperly is difficult to estimate, many of them are discarded soon after
slaughtering but the majority losses occur among which have been damaged before, during
or after collection(FAO, 2009).
Therefore intensive assessment and addressing the major problems is mandatory to design
intervention mechanism in order to improve the quality of hides and skins in our country.
The Objective of this paper is thus:
¾ To review the major factors affecting the quality of raw hides and skins;
¾ To indicate the role (intervention) of ecbp on quality improvement of hides and skins;

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Effect of different factors

The production of good quality leather depends on the quality of the raw material. Defects
in leather implicate higher cost in production and greatly reduce the selling value for the
leather. In Ethiopia, the economic loss due to hides and skins defect is very high. These
defects are encountered from the time the animal is born until the leather processing is
completed. It is practically impossible to find out perfect animal hide or skin. Defects come
from carelessness in breeding, feeding, living condition, diseases, parasites, handling,
slaughtering, preservation, storing and transportation (NOC, 1981). The origins of raw
hides’ and skins’ defects are classified in to three major factors namely pre-slaughter, peri-
slaughter and post slaughter defects (MOARD, 2007).

2.1.1. Pre-slaughter defects

Most hides and skins are affected by the pre-slaughter defects accumulated during the life
of the animal (FAO, 2009). the commonly observed pre-slaughter defects can be natural
(poor nutrition, age and sex, breed and climatic effects), Mechanical damage (brand marks,
scratches, horn rakes, yoke marks etc), or defects due to Diseases that can be viral like
LSD, SMALL-POX, RINDER-PEST, fungal like RING WORM or parasitic like TICK-
DAMAGE, SHEEP KED, LOUSE INFESTATION, MANGE etc.

Poor nutrition: - Emaciation is the thinness and friability of hides and skins derived
from animals suffering from prolonged and bitter starvation, leathers which are
produced from such hides and skins are noted for their dryness and flabbiness.
Cockles which are coarse wrinkles on shoulder portions of hides increase
considerably when animals are under fed (Lukin, 1967). Diet plays an important
role in the health of the animals and also in the quality of the raw material. Poor
nutrition causes an animal to be smaller, the skin thinner and of poorer substance,
Lack elasticity and feel dead. The effect of diet is more pronounced in goat skins
due to the fact that many goats are pastured on poor land. Thinness and lack of
plump substance resulting from poor nourishment make it necessary to set many
goatskins for manufacturing of lining leather (NPC, 1981).

Age and sex: - the male cattle or bulls, especially the older ones have thicker heads and
shoulders which might cause trouble in handling. In sheep skins the main difference is that
the female skins have finer grains and always lighter but with greater tensile strength than
the male one.
Age differences also contribute to the inferior qualities in leather. The skins of the young
animals have fine and compact structures and tight grain patterns, while the skins of older
animals have tougher and coarser grain surface.
“Old grain” is the term used by tanners to describe the rough and calloused skin of very old
animals; in these hides wrinkles are very developed. age does not only have natural
influence on the skin but also as the animal gets older, the skin also accumulates scars from
brands, disease parasites, scratches etc(NPC,1981).

Breed and climatic effects

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Breed:-desirable or undesirable characteristics of hides and skins can be attributed to
certain breeds. Cattle hides and sheep skins show more breed characteristics than goats
skins (NPC, 1981).e.g. bovine hides from North America and Europe normally yields flat
hides of over 40sq.ft in area. But the typical bovine hide from South America may yield a
flat hide of only about 25sqft.area and a Zebu cross-breed from Africa often provides a
hide below 25sqft. Ovine skins such as that of wool bearing merino sheep Australia can
yield a larger skin often above 7sqft area but will not be readily acceptable to the tanners
due to the ribbings apparent on them(FAO:1986)

Climate: - the climate on which an animal is raised has an effect on the substance of its
skin and on the grain of the leather. Animals raised in warm climate have a short hair and
the leather produced has superior substance, smoother and finer grain patterns, where as
animals raised in cooler climate or higher altitudes grow longer wool or hair, and the
leather made are of poorer substance and coarser grain patterns. These effects of climate,
especially on substance is more pronounced on sheep and goat skins than on cattle hides
(NPC, 1981).

Mechanical damage:-These defects that lower the quality which is originated by

mechanical damage could properly be called defects of carelessness because every one of
such defect can be eliminated and these include brands (used to differentiate or identify the
animal on the range or some times in belief of curing the animals from diseases) (NPC:
1981) grain scratches and tears(which is the most common and economically battering
damages of hides and skins made on living animals by sharp objects like barbed wire, nails
goals and patch forks, thorns, cactus plants, brier, horns etc) (NPC: 1981) collar and yoke
lashes(these are defects caused by a collar or a yoke. such damage is mostly found on
draught animals on the shoulder or in the upper neck portion near the hump resembling
shabbiness or wounds)(Lukin;1967), whip lashes(these are defects on hides and skins
caused by lashes or with a whip or stick. they can be seen in the form of scars on the grain
surface of the hides and skins)(Lukin;1967).

Defects due to Diseases:-Many diseases can affect the quality of hide and skins. The
commonly noticed ones can be (viral, fungal, and parasitic):-

1. Viral
Lumpy Skin Disease- is highly infectious skin disease of cattle caused by a herpes
virus and is characterized by the sudden appearance of nodules on all parts of
the skin. During the course of the disease, the affected portion of the skin
becomes hard and dry, and separates from the surrounding normal tissue (FAO;
1986).

Smallpox- at first small red spots appears on the more tender parts of the skin such as the
inner thigh, the abdomen and the sides. The red spots develop in to blisters from pin point
to pea sized and turn in to sores. The animal is urged to scratches or rubs the sores on rough
objects and secondary infection may develop. Mostly sheep and goats suffer from the small
pox. Grain surface of skins damaged by the smallpox hollow resembling tiny dots (NPC:
1981).
Rinder-Pest- hides of rinder-pest affected animals are thin and poor in quality (NPC:
1981).

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2. Fungal
Ring Worm-is a fungus infection attacking the hair and its roots. It appears on the hair
side in the form of circular patches varying from 0.5 to 4cm in diameter. The patches are
usually covered with scabby matters and are partly or completely bald. The scars are
clearly visible to the tanner being shiny and circular in appearance (NPC: 1981).

3. Parasitic- in Ethiopia external parasites damage livestock skins, sheep skins by cockle
an irritation caused by sheep ked (melophagus ovis) and sheep louse (bovicola ovis), goat
skins by sarcoptic mange caused by mites (sarcopitic scabies) some are damaged during
slaughter while relatively few are spoiled during preservation(FAO, 2009).

Tick-Damage-the damage is caused by blood sucking parasite-ticks. They usually

adhere to the inner part of the hide such as the dewlap and inner parts of the legs. The
defect has the shape of tiny holes or unhealed scars. These holes can be seen on the grain
surface of the finished leather resembling tiny spots and hollows (Lukin, 1967). While
developing and growing in to the adult organism, the males move about rapidly causing the
host animal to rub and scratch. Secondary infection leads to fare more extensive damage.
Badly tick infested animals have poor health and provide hide with lack of substance. The
damage to leather caused by tick is so deeply seated that even with grain correction, the
scars will persist. The small hole and the more or less healed scars mark the smoothness of
the grain and detract from the appearance of the finished leather (NPC; 1981).

Sheep Ked (melophagus Ovinus)-is a flat brown insect and is blood sucker which
measure about 6mm in length and occurs on sheep in most part of the world. Its life cycle
is spent entirely on the host and spread by contact between hosts. Its existence on the host
caused irritation with resulting scratching, biting and damage to the fleece which is further
down graded by staining by the fleece of the ked. Heavy infestation causes skin blemishes
which reduce the marketable value of the skin and of any leather made from it. It causes
“cockle” or rib cockle in sheep skin (FAO; 1986).

Louse Infestation-these arises from attack by a wide range of louse species on cattle,
horse, sheep, goats and pigs. These pests include both biting and sucking types such as
lignognathus, solenoptes, haematopinus spp. (Sucking lice) and damalinia (bovicola)
(biting lice). Irritation caused by the pests leads to scratching, rubbing and licking by the
infested host. The lesions caused by the louse infestations are often almost circular and
small size and the extent of damage to the eventual leather depends on the presence or
absence of secondary infection (FAO; 1986). The damage done by biting and sucking lice
can usually be eliminated by the grain correction according to the degree of secondary
infection (NPC; 1981).

Manges-are parasitic caused diseases of the animal skin which produce serious damage
to the hides and skins. These damages are caused by several varieties of scabies (follicular
or demodectic, sarcoptic, psoroptic, etc).these mites multiply in side the dermis or the grain
layer. The affected hides and skins present defects like coarse grain lesions and scratch
scars and become totally unsuitable for the production of good quality leather(NPC;1981).

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™ Follicular or demodectic mange-the mites of demodex spp. Invade and infest the
hair follicles of the domestic animals but cattle and goats most severely attacked.
They also live in sebaceous glands. In some areas, cattle are seriously affected
resulting considerable financial loss occurs through rejection of hide. Mites are
considered to be specific to cattle (D.bovis), horse (D.equi), sheep (D.ovis), goats
(D.carpae) and pig (D.phylloides). the mites multiply with in the hair follicles or
sebaceous glands producing a skin reaction leading to proliferation of the
epidermis, thickening of the follicle or gland wall with development of cysts and
loss of hair(FAO;1986). Demodectic mange is one of the most serious parasitic
damages occurring in leather. They multiply in side the skin forming pocket or
nests; at advanced stages the mass of mites may occupy space equal to half the
thickness of the hide. The damage is serious because it involves the corium or the
fiber portion of the skin which is transformed in to leather. The lesions are seen on
the flesh side of the dried skins and are sharply out lined more or less as circular
light coloured spots. In advanced states simple like elevations may be seen on the
hair side of the living cattle. In leather if follicular mange is in earlier state of
development, the damage is confined to the opening of the hair pockets. If it is in
later stages the damage is deep in the skin and can easily be located as the nodules
are obvious on the surface of the leather, a grain correction can not remedy this type
of mange damage. When such a leather is split, cheesy drop out leaving voids in the
leather (NPC; 1981).
™ Sarcoptic mange- caused by another mite (sarcoptes scabies) which borrows
beneath the epidermis in to the grain layer of the skin in producing a thick
widespread incrustation of the scabby matters. In trying to relieve the irritation, the
animal scratches the area involved and causes considerable secondary damage
(NPC; 1981). This disease is wide spread particularly in less developed countries
because of the warm climate and relatively primitive management. Among the
domestic animals pigs and camel are the most commonly affected, it occurs less
often in goats and least often, even rarely in sheep or horse. It is notifiable disease
in most countries, important for its severity and the difficulty experienced in its
treatment most active in cold, wet weather and spreading slowly during the summer
months. The causative organism, sarcoptes scabiei has sub species specific to the
particular host, e.g. S.scabiei. The adult mites lay eggs in tunnels which they make
in the skin and when the larvae hatch they may either remain in these tunnels or
may migrate to the skin surface where they continue their development as nymphs.
The nymphs burrow superficially in the skin and the adult stage is reached about 17
days after the eggs are laid. All stages feed on coetaneous debris, but the adult
female cause most damage by burrowing deeply to make the tunnels or galleries,
giving rise to inflammation and irritation. marked thickening and wrinkling of the
skin takes place rather than the formation of scabs, the corium fibers in the affected
area become damaged and the grain surface of a tuned hide can be seen to be rough,
corrugated and unsightly (FAO;1986).
™ Psoroptic mange-is produced by mange (psoroptes communies) which lives on the
epidermis surface .the mites cause itching and general dermatitis. They may or may
not seriously damage the leather, depending on the amount of secondary infections
that are associated with the areas. if there is damage it affects only full grain
leathers as it can be eliminated by a grain correction(NPC; 1981).

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Grub Damages–are the damages caused by the larvae of warble flies. These are widely
spread defects on the central butt portion of cattle hides and goat skins. The degree of
decrease in quality of hides and skins depends on the extent of damage by these larvae.
They drill round holes up to 3 mm in diameters on the surface of hides and skins, thus
reducing their usefulness (Lukin, 1967). It seems that grub damages are not found in
Ethiopia. The adult grubs living in the flesh and lower depth of the animals’ hide, make
holes through the hide for the purpose of breathing and later on for escaping from the
animal. The “open grubs” the “healed grubs” (healthy scars) and complications caused by
the infections considerably damage the hides (as many as seven hundred grubs have been
recorded in single hide (NPC, 1981).

2.1.2. Peri- Slaughter Defects

The defects which occur at the moment of slaughtering or during and following flaying
are:-
™ Bruises- are caused prior to slaughtering by yard beating of animals with sticks and
ropes by driving them so that they jam in door ways or knock each other against the
walls, and also by throwing them down heavily on hard floors, it appears on the meat
and so does blood accumulation of extravasations under the hide or skin over the
bruised area. Unless the reddish area on the flesh side of the fresh hides and skins are
carefully cleaned with out delay local accumulation of the blood quickly causes
putrefaction and results in blemishes or weak spots on the final leather(NPC; 1981).

™ Rubbed or dragged grain- this damage which is abrasion of the grain, is caused by
dragging a living animal, carcass or hide over rough ground. The damage occurs
mainly in hides of country slaughter particularly in fallen hides. Animals should never
be dragged on the ground, on the floors of slaughter house or against any hard surface
in the course of moving or flaying, if animals can’t be flayed while hanging, the hide
should be removed immediately where the animal falls, the pulling of carcass on the
hide abrades and remove a large area of the grain and allows sands or other abrasives to
become embedded in the depth of the hides. This always results in poor grade of leather
and the abrasive substances are detrimental to tanning matchinery (NPC, 1981).

™ Improper bleeding-if carcasses is not bled out properly at the time of slaughtering,
blood remains in the vessels and capillaries of the hides and skins. This blood supplies
ideal condition for the growth of bacteria and favours putrefaction along the blood
vessels. The leather defect called “veiny” or “prominent blood vessel” arises from the
eating away by bacteria of the fibrous region surrounding the veins. When the leather is
glazed, it receives less pressure in the channeled areas and the blood vessel show up
(NPC, 1981).

™ Poor Pattern-is meant the shape or out line of the flayed hide when it is spread out flat.
A regular pattern is very important to the tanner because it enables him to get the best
cuts and the most useful part of the raw material. Poor pattern that is asymmetric shape
of the hide or skin is considered damaging to hides and skins as far as cuts or scores are
concerned. It is caused by incorrect line of ripping. The bleeding cuts must be directly
at the center of the throat. If the legs are not ripped open properly, the proportion of the
hide in the shoulder, belly and butt section are not proper. Thus belly hide that should
have been part of the belly may be on the butt or the shoulder area. “V” cut in the butt

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 on either side of the tail down grades the hide, according to the degree of damage to the
pattern. It is very important that the bleeding cut, the belly cut, and the leg cut are made
as straight and as

™ Flaying defects (poor flaying, dragging, cuts, scores, gauges, poor bleeding, failure of
the animal to rest)

2.1.3. Post Slaughter Defects

™ Grain crack
™ Bacterial damage
™ Contamination due to insect infestation
™ Mechanical damage(flesh left over)
™ Damage during preservation, welting, storing, packing and transportation

3. Conclusion

4. Recommendation

5. References
Avery, John (2007): „“Ethiopian Leather Sector, Industry Assessment and Benchmarking”.
Commissioned By ecbp.
Ecbp (2009); Promoting Leather Based Value Chains In Ethiopia Project Document
(Second Draft) Addis Ababa-Ethiopia.
FAO (1986): Hides and skins improvement in developing countries: FAO Agricultural
services bulletin 67: prepared by R.G.H.Elliot, B.Sc, FAO consultant and formerly
assistant scientific secretary Tropical product institute; Rome, 1986.
FAO (1995): Hides and Skins for the Tannery Industry, FAO Agricultural Service Bulletin,
123, By Lan Leach, Consultant, Rome, Italy, 1995.
FAO (2009): Higher Value Addition through Hides and Skins, Lan Leach And R.Trevor
Wilson. Rural Infrastructure and Agro Industrial Division, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nation, Rome, 2009.
IBM (Institute of Biodiversity conservation) (2004): the state of Ethiopia’s farm animal
genetic resources country report. A contribution to the first report on the of the
worlds’ animal genetic resources. May 2004. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

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Mitiku G. (2004): Livestock export marketing. Analysis of the existing situation and
challenges. Prepared for FAO, Ethiopia office, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
MOARD (2007): The Federal Democratic Republic Of Ethiopia, MOARD; Draft
Consultancy report on Livestock development plan, hides and skins production and
marketing ;diagnostic study, Sep. 2007,Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
NPC (1981): Hides and skins improvement manual; prepared by Victor M. Gonzalez ILO
expert on hides, skins and leather. May 1981, Addis Ababa- Ethiopia.
P.M. Lukin (1967): Manual On Hides and Skins Revised Edition, Livestock And Meat
Board 1967, Addis Ababa-Ethiopia.

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