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Chapter 5
We take the hint and use mathematical induction. First, we assume that
m
sm = (1)
2m + 1
In this case, the next partial sum becomes
m 1
sm+1 = sm + am+1 = +
2m + 1 (2(m + 1) − 1)(2(m + 1) + 1)
m 1 m(2m + 3) + 1
= + =
2m + 1 (2m + 1)(2m + 3) (2m + 1)(2m + 3)
2
2m + 3m + 1 (m + 1)(2m + 1)
= =
(2m + 1)(2m + 3) (2m + 1)(2m + 3)
(m + 1)
=
2(m + 1) + 1
which is of the correct form (1). Finally, by explicit computation, we see that
s1 = 1/(1 · 3) = 1/3 = 1/(2 · 1 + 1), so that (1) is correct for s1 . Therefore, by
induction, we conclude that the mth partial sum is exactly sm = m/(2m + 1).
It is now simple to take the limit to obtain
m 1
S = lim sm = lim =
m→∞ m→∞ 2m + 1 2
Note that we could also have evaluated this sum by partial fraction expansion
∞ ∞
X 1 X 1 1
= −
n=1
(2n − 1)(2n + 1) n=1
2(2n − 1) 2(2n + 1)
This problem may be solved in a similar manner. While there is no hint of for
the partial sum, we may try a few terms
1 1 2 1 3
s1 = , s2 = s1 + = , s3 = s2 + =
2 2·3 3 3·4 4
This suggests that
m
sm = (2)
m+1
We now prove this statement by induction. Starting from sm , we compute
m 1 m(m + 2) + 1
sm+1 = sm + am+1 = + =
m + 1 (m + 1)(m + 2) (m + 1)(m + 2)
(m + 1)2 m+1 (m + 1)
= = =
(m + 1)(m + 2) m+2 (m + 1) + 1
Therefore if (2) holds for m, it also holds for m + 1. Finally, since (2) is correct
for s1 = 1/2, it must be true for all m by induction.
Taking the limit yields
m
S = lim sm = lim =1
m→∞ m→∞ m+1
Hence
1 1 m
sm = − =
1 m+1 m+1
which reproduces (2).
Additional Problems
L2 L2 L2
gxx = , gyy = , gzz = (3)
z2 z2 z2
The covariant components of the Christoffel connection are obtained from the
metric by
Γijk = 21 (gij,k + gik,j − gjk,i )
where the comma denotes partial differentiation. According to (3), the only non-
zero metric components have repeated indices. In addition, only the z-derivative
is non-vanishing. Hence we conclude that the only non-vanishing Christoffel sym-
bols must have two repeated indices combined with a z index. Recalling that Γijk
is symmetric in the last two indices, we compute
L2 L2
Γzxx = − 21 gxx,z
= 3, Γxzx = Γxxz = 1
2 gxx,z =− 3
z z
2
L L2
Γzyy = − 12 gyy,z = 3 , Γyzy = Γyyz = 12 gyy,z =− 3
z z
L2
Γzzz = 12 gzz,z = − 3
z
Raising the first index using the inverse metric g ij = (z 2 /L2 )δ ij finally yields
1 1
Γz xx = , Γx zx = Γx xz = −
z z
1 1
Γz yy = , Γy zy = Γy yz =− (4)
z z
1
Γz zz =−
z
2. The motion of a free particle moving along a path xi (t) in hyperbolic space is governed
by the geodesic equation
ẍi (t) + Γi jk ẋj (t)ẋk (t) = 0
Taking (x1 , x2 , x3 ) to be (x, y, z), and using the Christoffel coefficients calculated
above, show that the geodesic equation is given explicitly by
2
ẍ − ẋż = 0
z
2
ÿ − ẏ ż = 0
z
1 2
z̈ + (ẋ + ẏ 2 − ż 2 ) = 0
z
Using the Christoffel coefficients in (4), we compute the three components of the
geodesic equation
2
ẍ + Γx xz ẋż + Γx zx ż ẋ = 0 ⇒ ẍ − ẋż = 0 (5)
z
2
ÿ + Γy yz ẏ ż + Γy zy ż ẏ = 0 ⇒
ÿ − ẏ ż = 0 (6)
z
1
z̈ + Γz xx ẋẋ + Γz yy ẏ ẏ + Γz zz ż ż = 0 ⇒ z̈ + (ẋ2 + ẏ 2 − ż 2 ) = 0 (7)
z
The geodesic equation is important because it describes the motion of free parti-
cles in curved space. However, for this problem, all that is necessary is to show
that it gives a system of coupled ordinary differential equations (5), (6), (7).
x = x0 + R cos ϕ tanh(v0 t)
y = y0 + R sin ϕ tanh(v0 t)
z = R sech(v0 t)
where x0 , y0 , R, ϕ and v0 are constants. Show that the path of the particle lies on a
sphere of radius R centered at (x0 , y0 , 0) in the Cartesian coordinate space given by
(x, y, z). Note that this demonstrates the non-Euclidean nature of hyperbolic space;
in reality the ‘sphere’ is flat, while the space is curved.
ẍ ż d d
=2 ⇒ log ẋ = 2 log z
ẋ z dt dt
Both sides of this may be integrated in time to get
ẋ = ax z 2 (8)
where ax is a constant. It should be clear that the y equation, (6) can be worked
on in similar manner to get
ẏ = ay z 2 (9)
Of course, we have not yet completely solved for x and y. But we are a step closer
to the solution. Now, inserting (8) and (9) into the z equation, (7), we obtain
ż 2
z̈ + (a2x + a2y )z 3 − =0
z
u̇ ü u̇2
ż = − , z̈ = − + 2
u2 u2 u3
1q 2
u(t) = ax + a2y cosh(v0 (t − t0 ))
v0
ax v02 ax
ẋ = 2 = 2 2
sech2 (v0 (t − t0 ))
u ax + ay
v0 ay
y(t) = y0 + tanh(v0 (t − t0 ))
a2x + a2y
Note that the three (coupled) second order differential equations give rise to six
constants of integration, (x0 , y0 , ax , ay , v0 , t0 ). The expressions may be simplified
by defining
v0 v0
ax = cos ϕ, ay = sin ϕ
R R
in which case we see that
x = x0 + R cos ϕ tanh(v0 (t − t0 ))
y = y0 + R sin ϕ tanh(v0 (t − t0 ))
z = R sech(v0 (t − t0 ))
which is the answer we wanted to show, except that here we have retained an
extra constant t0 related to the time translation invariance of the system.
Finally, to show that the path of the particle lies in a sphere, all we need to
demonstrate is that
(x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 + z 2
= R2 cos2 ϕ tanh2 (v0 t) + R2 sin2 ϕ tanh2 (v0 t) + R2 sech2 (v0 t)
= R2 (tanh2 (v0 t) + sech2 (v0 t)) = R2