Cutlip, Effective Public Relations

SCOTT M.
CUTLIP

Third Edition

EFFECTIVE

PUBLIC

RELATIONS

Professor of Journalism The University of Wisconsin

ALLEN H. CENTER

Vice President for Public Relations Motorola, Inc.: Lecturer in Public Relations Northwestern University

P j\ ...e

Prentice-Ha11 Inc., Englewood Cliffs, Ne+:V J,~

HOW IT ALL BEGANTHE FORERUNNERS

16

One

CONTEMPORARY PUBLIC RE-

LATIONS-AN INTRODUCTION 1

CONTENTS

A Problem of Semantics 3. Current Definitions 3. The Management Concept 5. The Functional Concept 6. Implications of the Definition 7. The Day-by-Day Practice 8. The Organized Practice 10. Pathways to Public Favor 14. Additional Reading 15.

Two

The American Beginnings 19. The Stage Is Set by 1900 24. Press-Agentry 24. Political Campaigning 26. The Beginnings in Business 28. Other Threads 30. Additional Reading 32.

Three

FROM 1900 ON-THE REAL BEGINNINGS

33

Ivy Lee 36. World War I and George Creel 44. Between Two World Wars 45. World War II 50. Additional Reading 51.

Four

ECOLOGY-THE PR

ENVIRONMENT 53

"The Big Change" 54. From Isolation to Interdependence 56. Consequences of the "Big Change" 63. Additional Reading 67.

xi

xii • Contents

Five

PERSUASION AND PUBLIC OPINION

~ Working Defi~ition 70. Roots of Our Attitudes 73. Sources of Motivation 78. A Nation of Many Publics 80. Governors of Opinion Change ~~ne~ators of Opinion Change 83. Some "Laws": of Public 0 inion ;;. I rlllCiples of Persuasion 85. Additional Reading 87. p.

Six

THE PRACTITIONERS-STAFFS AND STATUS

Practitioners' Tasks 91 Th S' f

. e rze 0 PR Staffs 91 Th S f

tion 92. Remuneration 94 C I' . e cope 0 the Func-

. ounse mg Fees 95 Th W k' f

partment 96. The PR D ' . e or mg 0 a PR De-

epartmeni s Advantages 97 A H

Services 98. The PR D' . ost of Personalized

epartment s Handicaps 98 Th 0 .

Agency 99. The Cou I ' Ad . e utside Counselor or

nse or s vantages 102. Th C ' .

10-1. The Division of Resp ibili e ounselor s HandIcaps

, , onsi I Ity 104. The T d A H' .

106. AdditIOnal Reading 107. ren - armornous Team

Seven

THE PR PROCESS: FACT-FINDING_THE

FIRST STEP

R. esearch Attitude Needed 110 F F' .

'I . act- mdmg 116

.vrore Reliable Meth d . . .

o s 122. 0p11110n R h

Additional Readin esearc

g 126. CASE PROBLEM 127.

Defining the Publics 117. in Public Relations 124.

EIght

PLANNING_ THE SECOND STEP

A Backdrop of Ideals and A'

K' d rms 130. Strat d

III s of Planning /32 PI' egy an Tactics 131. The Two

PI . annmg Start . h

anning n5 PIa . s WIt a Platform 133. Checkll'st for

. ,nnmg and Bud .

Prope: Indoctrination /38. getmg 136. The PR Man's Role 137.

PlanllIn!7 for DI's The Timetable Can Mak h

" asters 142. Add" e t e Difference 140 .

. ttionn] Reading 144.

CASE PROBLEM 145.

Nine

COMMUNICATING_THE

THIRD STEP

The Nature of C 146

Ro . ornmunication 146 Th

per s ('..oncentric Circle Th . e TWo-Step Flow The

Ban-ieTS and Distortion 153 eTohry 151. The Diffusion Process l;lry. T14hBe'

. e Act of C .

ommullIcating 154

. Need for

Contents ;. xiii

Nine

68

COMMUNICATING-THE THIRD STEP (cont.)

Better Communicating 155. New Perspectives Needed 157. Semantics ];7. The Roots of Meaning 158. The PR Man Is Expected To Be the Answer Man 159. How Do We Go About It? 160. Two Suggestions, For Whatever They Are Worth 162. Say It with Symbols 16-1. The 7 C's of Communication 166. Additional Reading 167. CASE PROBLHr 167.

88

Ten

EVALUATION-THE FOURTH STEP 169

Pretesting 171. Posttesting 172. Measuring Impact 173. Over-All Review of Program 178. Additional Reading 178. CASE PROBLEM 179.

Eleven

THE TOOLS OF COMMUNICATION

180

108

The Printed Word 181. The Spoken Word 192. The Image 195. Staged Events 200. Additional Reading 201. CASE PROBLEM 201.

Twelve

INTEGRATING THE FUNCTION 203

128

Everything, Nothing, or Something 204. It Starts with Management 206. The Role of the Staff Man 207. Clarify the Function 209. Where the PR Function Fits In 210. The Practitioner's Personal Task 216. The Job Starts with Information 217. The Indoctrination Process 218. Rendering Service 218. The Limelight 220. Completing the Integration 220. Additional Reading 222. CASE PROBLEM 222.

Thirteen

THE EMPLOYEE PUBLIC

223

The Basic Relationship 223. Gaining Acceptability 226. A Question of Law 229. Communications in Perspective 231. The PR Man's Role 232. The Personal Contact Is Supreme 233. The Foreman 234. The Employee Counselor 234. Participation Is the Key 235. Other Auxiliaries to the Line Communication 237. Some Other Hints 238. Additional Reading 239. CASE PROBLEM 239.

xiv • Contents

Contents . xv

Fourteen

Nineteen

THE STOCKHOLDER PUBLIC

240

PUBLIC RELATIONS FOR BUSINESS (cont.)

Industry's New Ownership 241 Ad " .

The Goals 244 U' h T' mIlllstratlOn of Stockholder Rtlatiolls 21,

. SIng t e ools 244. The Financial Fraternirv ?.fR .\ x:

of Caution 249. Addition l R . ,- . . "ole

a eadmg 250. CASE PROBLEM 250

Spokesmen 327. Promoting Sales 330. Influencing Decisions on Public Issues 331. International programs® Additional Reading 334. CASE PROBLEM 334.

Fifteen

THE COMMUNITY PUBLICS

The Make-Up of C .

. ommumty Opinion 253 Th B .

latmg Attitudes Into Action 258 A .' e asic Approach 254. T'ra ns-

list 265 Additi I R . . pplymg the Auxiliary Tools '162 '\ ('I x.k

. lona eadmg 267 CASE P - . . • ICC -

. ROBLEM 267.

Twenty

UTILITIES, CARRIERS, BANKS

335

251

Public Utilities 336. Carriers H3. Banks 345. Additional Reading 351. CASE PROBLEM 351.

Sixteen

Twenty-One

WELFARE AGENCIES, HOSPITALS, AND CHURCHES

352

SPECIAL PUBLICS

Some of the Special P bli

?_) u lcs271.

_18. Additional R .u

ea mg 281.

269

Welfare and Health Agencies 35-1. Public Relations for Hospitals 359. Public Relations for Churches 365. Fund Raising 367. Additional Reading 371. CASE PROBLEM 371.

Educational Relations 274.

CASE PROBLEM 281.

Trade Relations

Sel'enteen

THE GENERAL PUBLIC

The Mass i\f 282

j edia of Publicity 284.

302. Additional Reading 302. CASE PROBLEM

Twenty-Two

GOVERNMENTS AND CITIZENS 373

Eighteen

PR's Role in Government 375. The Objectives 376. Hostility to the Function 378. From the Press 379. From Legislators 384. Numbers Employed 387. Government Practice 387. Additional Reading 391. CASE PROBLEM 393.

PRESS RELATIONS

The M;ll! ellee 309. Copy JI-I. I.nt J/6.

303

Twenty-Three PUBLIC SCHOOLS

394

in the Middle 303 ..

Preparation of N' PublICIty Principles 304.

ews 311. Ph The Press Confer-

An Editor's Scorecard 315. oto.g~aphs 312. Essentials of Good

AddItIOnal Reading 316.

CASE PROB-

Education-A Job for All 395. The Purpose 398. Publics and Programs 401. Communications 405. Additional Reading 409. CASE PROBLEM 409.

PUBLIC RELATIONS FOR BUSINESS

Public Relations for Ind 317

t F d ustry 318 Ind

() lin amentals 320 Th '. ustry Was in the D k 3

;,,-/ II '. . e Role of the P . . ar 19. A Return

-. (enttfYlllg with N ractItloner 324 H

onprofit Causes 326 P .... ow Is It Going?

. ersonahzlIlg M

anagement As

Twenty-Four

HIGHER EDUCATION 410

Freedom, Funds, and Freshmen 414. Need for Freedom 415. Need for Funds 417. What Freshmen? 420. The Publics 420. Additional Reading 425. CASE PROBLEM 425.

xvi • Cotuent«

Twenty-Five

THE ARMED FORCES

From Three PIO's to Thre Th

Service Setups 434 P bl- e £ ousand 428_ It Starts at the Top 1 J2. 'fll('

. u ICS 0 the Armed F 438 . ,

444. CASE PROBLEM 445. orces . Addit ional Rf'ruling

Twenty-Six

PUBLIC RELATIONS AROUND THE WORLD

A New Frontier Beckons 446 Th C

449 . e ommon Ma k t 448

. West Germany 452 F r e . Great Britain

I . . rance 453 Italy 454 EI I .

mha 457. Japan 458 PR . .. sew iere III Europe 155.

. . Down Under 459 L·· .

uonal Association 0 . d . atrn Amer irn -/f,O. l ntcrua-

rgamze 461 Add"

462. . . tttonn] Reading 4fi2. CASE I'ROIIU:\'

Twent)'-Seven

PERSONAL EQUIPMENT

The Makeup of the Man 468.

A Checklist 472 A uu '

. tu itionn] R(>(uiinp, 471.

Twenty-Eight

TOWARD A PROFESSION

Out of the Shadows 476. PR'

ards 484. Towa d s Impact on Society 481

Pr f' ar a Code of Ethics 486 . . A Search for Sta nd-

o esslonal Literature 489 P . . ProfeSSIOnal Organizations 487

193. Toward N H" rofesslOnal Education 490 R .

ew onzons 496. Add" . esearch Required

Five tt umn] Reading 498.

INDEX

426

Chapter One

CONTEMPORARY

446

PUBLIC

RELATIONS-

463

AN

INTRODUCTION

475

The public relations function is the planned effort to influence opinion through acceptable performance based

upon two-way communication.

499

Public relations, as a management concept and as a staff function in organizations, has grown rapidly over the past three decades. This rapid development comes as a result of the increasing complexity of modern society and the growing insights into what motivates individuals and groups_ Gaining the support and cooperation of others through persuasion is part of the day-by-day business of every organization-government agencies, business firms, labor unions, universities, and welfare agencies. Public relations has become a commonplace term in the language and thought of twentieth-century America. It is a part of our daily conversation, a standard topic on convention programs, and an important factor in contemporary decision making. The essentiality of public relations is seldom debated today. Even so, the term is not always understood. This reflects the fact that public relations is still in the fluid state of defining itself. The function embraces whatever it is assigned to do, and this varies widely.

A wide variety of acuvines parades under the banner. There is still some difference between the function as defined in textbooks and the function as practiced. The literature and shoptalk of the craft are filled with an abundance of definitions. Some lack universality; others are too broad. Many define PR as it ought to be; not as it sometimes is. As a term and as a vocation, it means different things to different people. Nonetheless, the clear outlines of a mature, accepted concept are emerging.

The practice is frequently held out as a cure-all for the ills and prob-

1

CURRENT DEFINITIONS

2 . Contemporary Public Relations-An Introduction lems which confront organizations and indi . d IT,

warned to" . d . IVI ua s. a, ern owners are

Ind tri I avO!. mistakes in public relations or be voted out of business"

us na executIves are advised that "sound publi . I . '.

vation of free enterprise" Union b IC re ations is the 'only sal-

public relations if they ~re to stavemoemff erts. ar: exhorted to improve their . an !UnIOn legislation. Conservation-

IS~S are counseled that "wildlife management f"

WIthout public support achi d h .cannot unction In America

. On the other h d Ie:e t r~ugh public relations."

an , public relatIOns conti b

agentry and worse. An editor t II hi mues to e scorned as press-

di . e s IS readers "if Y

rsguise, for unworthy cause hi .' ou want to get plausible

ffi . I s, Ire a pubh- relati ".

o CIa once described p bli I' ons expert. A high public

. h H u IC re ations practition " .

WIt arvard accent and trick" ers as pitch men, complete

wryly, that "public relations' PI oIls. ~ newspaper columnist once wrote,

age t "A' IS on y an anstocratic t f ..

n ry. major United Stat erm or publicity or press-

on the press." Such sweeping ~s newspaper calls public relations "a parasite

How h c arges are generall d

ever, t e activities of an y outmo ed and unfounded.

tend to' h unscrupulous few on th fri

?we sue accusations validit . . ~ nnges of the practice

Public relations think' h y in the public mind.

sibility . . mg as served to deep h

. m our public enterprises It h . en t e sense of social respon-

~mp~oved the communications re'quI'reads .contnbuted to public welfare. It has

mg IS a . in our .

reqUIrement for every succes f I d .. SOCIety. Public relations think-

ments of the Presidency, Peter D SkU a mInIstrator. Discussing the require-

were expert . rue er asserts' "All .

tl ir id at pUblIc relations untiri . our effectIve Presidents

ierr leas." 'Ing propagandists for th I d

Th I emse ves an

e ca ling, like most .

are more widel h profeSSIOns, Suffers from th

from . Y eralded than are it e fact that its misdeeds

time to t'. I S accompr h

labeled" bl' nne, Identified with unworth IS ments. Practitioners are,

pu IC relatio'" Y causes Som f h .

merely ine t B ns are dIshonest. Some a . . e 0 t e practices

All the pub PI: . ut: on balance, the construct' rfe manIpulative. Some are

ICIly mev't bl . rve ar out . h

fessionals or th bI'I a y given to malpracti h Weig the harmful.

ized knowled e pu IC to the essentially valu ble s ould not blind the prosaints alike ge and skills of the calling are a e.lcobntributions. The special-

. avai a Ie t f I

Even among th a 00 s, knaves, and

r· ose who view b .

(IrectIon of toda 's I pu he relations as

mon understand' y arge enterprises a few . a useful function in the

b mg of pubr ' mlsconceptio .

pu lie relation . IC relations Would ns persisr. A com-

an organizatio~ ~ha ~Iack magic Which will m~~t an end to the belief that mainly of gett' eft er SUch opinions are d e people think favorably of

mg avorabl eserved or T

suppressing the unfavo e . press reports about not.. hat it consists

an expert merely b h r~ble IS another miscon . an organIzation and of

lind . y avmg the t· ceptlOn No

erstandlng of the basi ag pmned on hi . one can become

handy umbrella to p asic fact that public reI:: There is need for a wider

public opinion rotect an institution . Ions does not constitute a

. against a storm of

unfavorable

Contemporary Public Relations-An Introduction . 3

A PROBLEM OF SEMANTICS

That the term public relations is used in at least three different senses adds to the confusion. These are: (1) relationships with individuals and groups which compose the general public; (2) the ways and means used to achieve favorable relationships; (3) the quality or status of an institution's relationships. This one term, public relations, cannot be used to label both means and ends without creating confusion.

Clarity will replace confusion, in part, if the term is restricted to describing the planned effort to influence opinion through acceptable performance and two-way communication. Other needs for the term will be met if an institution's relations with various publics are labeled public relationships. Little is to be gained by creating artificial terms to serve these needs. This text will use the term public relations to encompass the performance and communications used to build profitable relationships with the p ublic. Incidentally, although the term public relations is plural, it is used in the singular.

What, then, are the current definitions? Webster's New International Dictionary, Third Edition, defines public relations thus: 1

l. The promotion of rapport and goodwill between a person, firm, or institution and other persons, special publics, or the community at large through the distribution of interpretative material, the development of neighborly interchange, and the assessment of public reaction .. , .

2. (a) the degree of understanding and goodwill achieved between an individual, organization, or institution and the public. (b) the application of the techniques for achieving this relationship.

3. (a) the art or science of developing reciprocal understanding and goodwill. (b) the professional staff entrusted with this task.

Public relations is often confused with and used as a handy synonym for some of its functional parts, such as publicity, press-agentry, propaganda, and institutional advertising. These may be parts of the whole of public relations, but the sum of the parts does not equal the whole. Reflection on these definitions will make it clear that, thus defined, publicity, press-agentry, propaganda, and advertising become tools of public relations, not its equivalent. For example, when someone in Indian headdress sends up the smoke signal "Give" on Michigan Avenue during a Red Cross fund campaign, this.L

1 By permission. From Webster's New International Dictionary, Third Edition. Copyright 1961 by G. & C. Merriam Company.

4 . Contemporary Public Relations-An Introduction

is not public relations. It is an act of press-agentry I h I

of a PR program. ' a t oug 1 it may be part

Author Robert Heilbroner ha d' ..

"In d bli . s commente on the difficulty of definition.

a wor ,pu IC relations covers a I t f .

vertising slopping over i II' 0 0 acreage-blurnng out into ad-

, er mto se mg dipping dow' bli .

ing-or at least aspirin to- h . '., .n Illt.o pu icrty, and touch-

One f th f g t e makmg of public opinion itself."

o e requently quoted definiti' .

tions News' Publ' I" ons IS one fashioned by ruu« Rela-

. . IC re ations IS the man [uncti .

public attitudes, identifies th I" agement unction which evaluates

. e po tctes and procedur f . li .

organtzation with the p bli . es 0 an tru iuidual or an

u IC interest and t

earn public understanding and ' execu es a program of action to

threefold function of th f .acceptance. Implicit in this definition is the

bli e pro essional practitione (I) .

pu IC opinion, (2) to coun I . r to ascertam and evaluate

". se management III w . f d I' .

opmIOn as It exists, and (3) t . . ays 0 ea mg WIth public

Th . . 0 use communicatIOn to . fl .

e practItIOner is essentially . I' . III uence public opinion.

cl . a specia tst III cornm . .

alms are often made f hi UllIcatlOns. More ambitious

"h '. or im. HIS work ha b' .

urnan engmeermg"" . I '. seen vanousl y descri bed as

U f ' Socia engmeenng" " h . .

se 0 such terms is akin to fencin' ,or t e engmeenng of consent."

Professor Byron Chri . g m the moon.

. fl nsnan defines PR h" .

or III uence people, primarily th h as t e conscIOUS effort to motivate

organization, to respect it, to su roug . communicat.ion, to think well of an

andd. trouble." There are shortet~~:~ 1~:Da~d to stick with it through trial

ere It for it" "G d . omg the right hi

" " . 00 conduct cou led . t mg and getting

gnItldonh· There are platitudinous !nes ~Hlth good reporting." "Earned recog-

00 eart" M t d fi . . . uman decen . h i h

for . os e nllIons embrace th cy W rc flows from a

mance made id I e compound . .

to prof' WI e Y and favorably kno P pnnCl ple of good per-

esslonal practice, is often defi d hus- R, a short·cut term to refer

ne t us:

P for PERFORMANCE I

A pus R for RECOGNITION I

nother way to d fi. equa s PRo

e ne PR IS to .

put It as a formula'

X (the deed) plus Y (th . .

e mterpretatio f h

equals Public An: d ns 0 t e deed)

Thi . itu es

IS IS grounded . . h .

by the wayan eve .Ill. t e elemental fact that we f

a steel company i~tr~i I.nter?reted than We are b t~eten are. more influenced to insure ade Slllg Its prices can be' y event Itself. The act of

. quate profits' mterpreted as

mflation. MUch f h ' or It can be interpr t d a necessary move

hOt e pub!' e e as a h f I

t e best possible' IC relations practit. , arm u act inducing

t' Illterpretati loner s effort .

lon-acts which th on on the acts of th . . goes mto putting

F ese persons t k . Ose IdentIfied . h hi .

undamentally it I a e III purSuit of th Wit IS mstitu-

ti ,1 IS the pe f e organiz t" "

on as they carry r ormance of th . . a Ion s mISSIOn.

. b . out the or '. ose IdentIfied . h

III pu lie attitUdes t ganlzatlon's objectiv h Wit an organiza-

page 5. Oward the organization Th~s ~ at eventually cumulates

S . IS IS sh .

uch definitions off own III the chart on

er Sound a

pproaches. But they

also serve to confuse

Contemporary Public Relations-An Introduction • 5

INTERNAL EXTERNAL
~ rm· mM
operations
-+ implementing ~ communicated to -
objectives through external publics -
specific actions and
planned programs
ru ~ Me~
WiI~ and blur what the function embraces, where it fits. in the administrative scheme, and who is responsible for it. This confusion will be cleared away if we understand the distinction between public relations as an operating concept of management and public relations as a specialized staff function in management.

The first is a static, general operating principle which guides administrators to a greater or lesser degree and is the responsibility of every person identified with an enterprise. The President's "People to People" program for international understanding is a dramatic example.

The second is a dynamic, specialized function for which managers hire skilled practitioners. An illustration is the training of tourists to carry out the "People to People" idea of making every American a good ambassador abroad. The administrators of an organization must be responsible for its public relationships. But these administrators need and use the skills of PR practitioners.

THE MANAGEMENT CONCEPT

In today's interdependent society, all institutions are invested with public responsibilities. They must accept accountability for all of their actions that affect others. Full acceptance by public enterprises-profit and nonprofit alike -of their public obligations to those whom they serve or affect is far from realized. But the trend in this direction is clear. As one of the nation's business leaders put it: "We know perfectly well that business does not function by Divine Right, but, like any other part of our society, exists with the sanction of the community as a whole. The interests of the community are in turn


expressed t~rough g~vernments .... Today's public opinion, though it may appear as light as an, may become tomorrow's legislation-for better or for worse. Therefore, a wise firm makes public relations a function not simply of a staff department but of t

.. " " op management-so that every major business

decision IS considered from the standpoint of its public impact."

For the progress toward an increased sense of social responsibility in con~emporary management, practitioners deserve much credit. This enlightene management concept has emerged I I

d d . . s ow y, unevenly, over the past several

eca es In response to the ability f ..

market place in th II' b 0 our citizens to express themselves in the

, e po Ing ooth and thr h . .

R . . f' ,oug countervaIllI1g I)ower blocs

ecogmtIOn 0 public as well as cor '" ..

manifested in the ad . f .porate or lI1stltutlOnal responsibility is

option 0 a public relation' . I vi .

be termed public relations thinking. s POlI1t 0 view. ThIS can best

Such thinking finds expression in h' .

executive: "At least h If . . t IS typical remark of a corporation

. a our time IS taken u . h di .

sions of What we pr d p wit IScussmg the repercus-

opose to 0." Once emb d h .

strength as it goes. The '. race , t e concept gathers

. more an organtzatIOn w ' h '

public expects to be courted A d h o~s t e puhlir, the more the

. n w at one organ '. ti I .

must match if they are t b . iza IOn uoes, Its competitors

f 0 e successful In th ." d

avor. Responsible perfor e spmre struggle for public

mance on the part of .

agency, or nonprofit organ' ti . a corporation, I!;overnrnental

I '. tza ton IS the found ti , .

s ups. PublIc relationship . h a IOn of sound p ublic relation-

, . S, In t ese broad te .

organIzatIOn's directing exe ti . rms, are the responsibility of an

ti ' cu rves, not of ItS st ff I' "

onelS must not be deluded into thi a or me speCIalIsts. Practi-

responsible for all the relatI'on b InkIng that they "should rightfully be

Tl . s etween a C •

liS Would mean, in practice " . orporatlOn and all of its publics."

of ad ". , arrogatIOn of mo t f h

' mmlstratIOn." PR specialists are not' sot e principal functions

hIred as managers.

THE FUNCTIONAL CONCEPT

In the trend to big f fl .

, , ar ung im pe I

enterpnses have Outgrown the d' . rsona ~r?anizations, American public

~~~~:~nO!I:;I:'y~~e United State;r~~~::n~~:~:t~~r ~~s~~c:~a~an 011' smh all

T I' . , near y tree

.: or ay s administrator re uir .

skilled specialists if he . q es the aSSIstance and couns I

one of thes H . . IS to manage at all Th b . e of a host of

. e. e IS hIred by top mana . e pu lIc relations specialist is

I T gement·

. . o. facilitate and insure' .

lauon's several publics . an mflow of representative 0 ..

{()Illpatible with tl di III order that its policies d pInIOns from an organ i-

2, To counsel man.\g~e Iverse needs and views of than operations may be kept tions to gain m~ . ment on ways and means of hese. pu?lics.

I' X1mum pub!, s aplllg Its I"

lest lIlterests of II IC acceptance for h' po teres and opera-

3 T ' a concerned w at It dee "

. . () IIlterpret wid I' ms essentIal III the

e Y and favorabl

y an organization's

policies and operations.


America's growing need for the specialist to perform these tasks is being met in one or a combination of three ways. We have (1) the full-time staff official on the organization's payroll who, with the aid of assistants, serves the employer exclusively; (2) the independent counselor who maintains his own offices and staff to serve a number of clients with nonconflicting interests; (3) the advertising agency which provides counseling and service either through a subsection in the agency or through a subsidiary firm.

The internal staff department represents the dominant pattern. However, whether the service is supplied by staff specialists on the organization's payroll, by outside counselors, or by a combination, the function is much the same.

IMPLICATIONS

OF THE DEFINITION

The common purpose of all that is labeled public relations is to influence public opinion. There can be no escape in today's world from the grinding wheels of public attitudes. The increased power of public opinion and recognition of that power constitute one of the mainsprings propelling the function. This is the era of "The Public Be Pleased." More than ever, "the genius of the people must be consulted." No individual, no institution, can long prosper without public support or, at the least, without public sufferance. Faith in the good sense of the people is the foundation of intelligent contemporary thinking and practice.

The practice of public relations is predicated on the belief that only an informed public can be a wise public. One of the basic precepts is: "People are essentially rational by nature; they respond to facts and want the truth; and they will ultimately find it and act upon it." There is abundant evidence in American history to sustain this faith.> Yet this precept is open to question. Satisfying the public interest to the mutual advantage of all parties in conflict is a prerequisite to profitable public relationships. Arriving at mutual interests requires public-minded performance and satisfactory twoway communication. The basic problem is to adjust the institution to the climate of social change in a way that will serve both the public and private interests insofar as this is possible. The specialist, in his role of communicator and interpreter, makes a vital contribution to this process. The practitioner is expected to counsel his institution on the social changes now coming with breath-taking rapidity and to help it find ways and means of adapting to these changes. For example, ponder the problems posed for the nationwide store chain in adapting an integrated way of life in the South, or the problems created by the scientific explosion. Or consider the problems posed

2 For this point of view, see William Lydgate, What America Thinks (New York: Thomas

Y. Crowell Company, 1944). For the opposite view, see Nicholas Samstag, Persuasion for Profit (Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1957).


for state governmental agencies by the ballooning needs of education, public welfare, highways, and recreation.

· A ~ure, sensitive reading of the changing environment call b c the practi-

tioner s most valuable seruic t h' " . .

· . . . . e 0 IS organuation. To discharge this respon-

sibility, the practitioner must be equipped with a fund of broad knowledge

that keeps pace with the swift h f . .

. . I marc 0 events. In the words of Counselor

Earl Newsom, It IS the hope of t dav' . . "

o ay s practitioner that through the modern

avenues of communication he mav contrih '"

ay contri ute to the elimination of prejudice

and help to form bridges to und t di

. '. ers an mg so that a highly complex and

enterpnslllg nation can keep steadily on toward the dreams of free men."

THE DAY.BY.DAY PRACTICE

PR practice consists of a multitud f li I' '..

It is the daily appli ti f e 0 Itt e thmgs and a lew big things.

rca Ion 0 common sense

decency. It can be do' f f ' common courtesy, and common

mg avors or others It ca b I I'

arena of public opinion It b . . . n e p eat mg it cause in the

· . can e entertammg a '.' t I b

non of a speech or g' . VISI or. t can e the prepara-

, lVlng one. It can be a pI' . f . ,

of a new building It be as i ess con erence, or the dedication

. can e as Important as idi

agement out of a tight t ik " provi mg counsel that leads man-

, s ri e SituatIOn It can b h '

resort In an abandoned C I d ,,' e t e creation of a winter

o ora 0 mmmg ca I

a program that turns disint d mp. t can be the formulation of

I . ereste stockholders' husi

t can be helpmg a new ' ' into ent usiasuc sUPI)()rters.

b ' , sman get his story fr

e wntmg a letter to h' om a press·shy executive, It can

II ' a urr, nate parent wh ' h

co ege. It IS a multitude of thi ose son as been expelled from

co d d I mgs. To show the' ,

n ucte m the name of bli , Immense vanety of activities

T' pu IC relatIOns her. ,

o remmd the nation of th ,e are some actual examples,

World A' I' e progress made in' .' .

11' mes marked the hi , commerCial aviation Trans

tran ' t 11'tleth annivers f" '

SContmental passenger service b . ary _o Its pioneering all-air

plane over th ' , , yonce again flymg· F d' ,

e Initial route The an-: . a or tri-rnotor air-

miles an hour, taking 36 ho~rs t e anClelnt Ford plane lumbered along at 110

five hou TWo comp ete a trip I' b

rs, . ,A. told the p bli h mac e y todav's jet in some

whereas today', jet airliner cos~ ~c t a~ the Ford planes cost some $50000 used to emphasize the advances' ore t an $6,000,000. The staged event 'was

The Pors d m travel speed and' . I'

, grun Porselaensfab ik N ' In all' me operating costs.

used Its sevent fif h n ,a orwegtan m f

in th y- t anniversary year t d ,anu acturer of porcelain,

e manufactur f di 0 ramatlze an . , .

borders Th ' e, a mnerware and to extend' Important mnovation

of I.' e hlghltght of the firm's a ' . Its market beyond Norway's

a {Isplay and I nnlVersary celeb '

I' sa es center "D . ration Was the opening

s 10ppmg center ith ,eslgns of Scandina . " '

an extensO ,Wit appropriate fanfare I N Via, III London's main

under th IVd~ PU?!ic relations and sales p'r n ~rway, Porsgrund carried out

e IrectlOn of it b ' omotlOn progr f

To dram ,IS pu he relations co I am or a full year

atlze the spirit f unse or.

o Our American Thanks . ,

glVmg celebration, the


United States Ambassador to Ecuador invited 250 workers and their families to share in a Thanksgiving dinner given at a Y.M,C.A, in a worker's district of Quito, the capital. An estimated 600 persons, mostly children of the workers, were served the Thanksgiving dinner by American Girl Scouts, Brownies, and Boy Scouts, The Ambassador read the President's proclamation and explained the meaning of Thanksgiving in the United States and America's desire to share its abundance with all peoples. The event, planned by the Ambassador's information officer, was recorded for rebroadcast over Ecuador's radio stations, the main channel of communication in a nation where illiteracy is common,

Allis-Chalmers, a manufacturer of heavy industrial and farming equipment, dealt with problem drinkers among employees by trying to rehabilitate them rather than weed them out. Communication was established in two ways. The company hired a psychologist, himself a rehabilitated alcoholic, to counsel with those who sought help, Supervisors were taught to treat alcoholism as an illness, and to coax victims toward the counselor for medical care.

As part of its fortieth anniversary observance, Boeing Airplane Company wanted to get the company's history before the general public and into educational and personal libraries, Boeing gave its public relations director a year's leave to write the history. The book, Vision: A Saga of the Sky, was published by a nationally known publisher and hit the best-seller list.

Columbia University for its Bicentennial sought to develop participation of alumni, world scholars, faculty, press, and the New York community. Some $150,000 was spent on various meetings and other communications projects, all tied to the theme "Man's Right to Knowledge and the Free Use Thereof."

The United States Navy sponsored a combat art exhibit on tour to population centers. The exhibit was called "Operation Palette." It contained 100 original paintings of battle scenes by professional artists, This is only one of the many ways that the Navy communicates with potential recruits, reservists, and the general public.

The Illinois Central Railroad moved its offices from New York to Chicago, replaced eastern directors with businessmen who lived along the lines, and had directors ride the route regularly to meet employees and civic leaders. One motive was to dissipate criticism that the railroad was dominated by "Wall Street." Another was to humanize management.

Reflecting America's belief in the open society, the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) provides the world's news media with facts, pictures, and facilities to enable newsmen to report fully and at first hand America's manned space flights. For a space launch, NASA formulates a detailed information plan, accredits and provides facilities for some 600 newsmen, and operates a News Center. In this center newsmen are registered, given voluminous press kits containing background information, queries are answered, a fast reproduction and still-photo file operation is maintained, and' telephone and telegraphic communications outlets are pro-

10 . Contemporary Public Relations-An lntroduetion

v.ided. R~~~rting a space launch requires elaborate and expensive tions faCIlIties. As of 1963, NASA had a public relations staff of and an annual PR budget of $14.7 million.

pu blic rela- 173 persons

THE ORGANIZED PRACTICE

I. PRESS-AGENTRY. There are no fi fi . .' .

ularly termed press rrn, xed lines separatIllg what IS pop-

-agentry, product promoti I I

emphasis the obJ'ect' d h ron, anc prot uct publicity. The

, ive, an t e approa h d I

ticular publicity activit . l'fi c use argely determine how a par-

I y IS C assr ed Press ag borrr I

ment and political worlds f h .' - entry was orn III the entertain-

lOt e nmeteenth cent I '11 fl .

per laps with less outright f k ury. t str our ishes, though

. . a ery than formerly 0 f .

IS in arranging for a prod t . ne 0 Its commonest forms

. f uc or person to be s . , , ". .

tles- or example be' h een III assoCIatIOn WI th celebri-

, mg P otographed with '. . .

away a product as a . . . a motlOn-pl(ture star, or glvmg

. I ' pnze on a televlSIon pro I

re auons, press-agentry rep h gram. n the orchestra of public

R' I' resents t e brass sect" M

mg mg Bros. & Barnum & B 'I C . IOn. ae Lyons, press agent for

. at ey ombm d Sh

CUC~IS drumbeater now pIa s all in e. ows, Inc., says, however, "The

addmg: " ... there is mor~ t . struments in the public relations band,"

bing Th . 0 CIrcus public r I t" h

. ere IS far more t . h e a Ions t an exaggerated fib-

She . 0 It t an a story and' .

agrees with the clever Ji M picture In the newspapers." 3

boxes to E ki . moran-who amo h f

s Imos-that "It is the fun ' ng ot er eats, has sold ice-

The term and' part of the business"

· practice have b .

IS more to tt ecome tainted Th .

a ract attention th ' . e aim of the press agent

necessary ti . an to gam und t di

c ac IVlty In the box- ffi . c ers an mg. Press-agentry is a

clubs resort h 0 ce worlds of cir h

I, s, otels, and comm . I cuses, t eaters movies night

va lie in the It' erCIa Sports It h I' l' .,

· . u Imate public relal' . . as Itt e stature and little

lespectabllity Ions alms. That

candid w ' assume the title of "counselor" many press agents, to achieve

g t . ords of a Hollywood press does not alter this fact. In the

e s pnnted "4 Eli b agent: "We stoop t

the skill f h rza eth Taylor's earning 0 anything but our stuff

Press 0 er press agents than to her ab.tower may be more a tribute to

-agentry can best ill I Ity to act.

He built mo Ustrated by the su

Memorial D nllments to his skill and the ccess of the late Steve Hannagan.

Miami Beacha:n~lI~o races at IndianapoK~:e~~!i press-agentry in making the _ un Valley internationall k onal event and in making

a Miss Lyons is the fi y nown reSorts.5 Another example

arc recorded' rst woman pubn

dr In an interview' IC relations direc .

C:I.,.?f All Ages," PUblic Rel:~~lcIe, "Ringling's PUblic ~~~ tl.n Rinl?ling annals. Her views

(N o,r a candid look at ~ons Journal, Vol. 19 A '1 a Ions Director 'Speaks' to cnn-

· ew \ork: Harper & R wor of Broadwa ,pn , 1963.

rt 5 For the backgroun:':~ P~bIishers, 1957). y press-agentry, see Richard Maney, Fan/are

Illes, February 6 1953 an,nagan, see "Stev H

pp, 29-!ll; and "P;ince ~fPP' 19; "Steve Hannagane" cannagan is Dead in Africa" New York

ress Agent " ,Urrent Bio ph '

s, Collier's, Vol. 120 N gra y, Vol. 5, August 1944,

, ovember 22, 1947, pp. 75ff.

Contemporary Public Relations-An Introduction· II

of the press agent build-up is told by Fortune in "The Case of Charles Luckman." 6 Current examples of press-agentry are to be found in your daily newspaper under the datelines of Hollywood, Las Vegas, Miami Beach, Monte Carlo, and such places, The many beauty "Queens" are tools of press-agentry. For instance, Miss Drum Majorette, Miss Tuna Fish, Miss National Press Photog, Miss Rheingold, Miss Drum Stick, Miss Canner, Miss Junior Prom, and Miss Swim For Health.

2. PRODUCT PROMOTION. Product promotion has been developed in the business world as a supplementary tool to advertising in the marketing of mass-produced consumer goods and services. Product publicity is an important aspect of today's product promotion. Because of the skills and the knowledge of news media required in this task, this work is usually assigned to the public relations department. The work of many counseling firms and advertising agency PR departments is mainly product promotion-getting a free ride for the products in the news media. This is a service which business PR staffs provide to the marketing-sales staffs in the same way that they provide employee communications counsel to the industrial relations department, or community relations counsel to plant management.

Today's practice in industry defines product publicity as a going part of the job. In some cases it becomes almost the whole job. Some persons in business will argue that the product-publicity task might be more properly assigned to sales and marketing. The basic public relations function is to build confidence in the maker of the products. This will indirectly contribute to the sale of goods. Yet the proper publicizing of a product can contribute as helpfully to building a corporate image as can other public relations methods.

Product promotion is most heavily used in the field of fashions, foods, furnishings, home design, cars, and appliances. One of the outstanding product promotions of this generation has been making "The Coffee Break" an American institution, Many examples can be found in daily newspapers in articles promoting wall-to-wall carpeting in homes or the opposite-open, waxed hardwood floors; articles suggesting a return to overhead lighting fixtures in the home; articles promoting the use of new synthetic fabrics in clothing, or a revival of cotton, and the Iike.?

3. PUBLICITY. Corporate institutional publicity and all the information output of governmental agencies, schools, nonprofit welfare agencies, and similar organizations are generally lumped under the elastic term publicity. Publicity to build a favorable image and understanding of a concern or agency

6 Fortune, Vol. 41, April, 1950. For a close-up view of the flamb~,yant Ben Sonnenberg, Luckman's press agent, read the lively profile by Geoffrey T. Hellman, A House on Gramercy Park," New Yorker, April B, 1950, pp. 4Off.

7 For elaboration on product publicity, see Philip Lesly, "How to Get more Sales Power from Public Relations When Business Is Off," Sales Management, Vol. SO, June 6, 1955; James E. Burke, "A Look at Product Public Relations," Public Relations Journal, Vol. 17, May, 1961.

12 . Contemporary Public Relations-A.n Introduction

is one of several PR tools It' t th h 1

• • • IS no e woe. The two are not synonymous.

Publicity takes the form of . ...,

d .. '. reportIng an mstituuon s or industry's day-by-

ay activities which are deemed h Thi .

. newswort y. IS would Include the earnings

reports of a corporatIOn the siz f f

f. ' eo a new reshman dorm at a university the

progress 0 a GIrl Scout fund d . '. fi . '

space flight by th N' I Anve, scienu c findings from the nation's latest

e atrona eronautics and S Ad" .

return to duty of a '1' C pace mnustrauon, and the

n ai mg ongressm P bli .

of newsworthy event h an. u. ICIty also results from the staging

s, suc as ground breaking d di .

brations seminars and th . - s, e rcations, anniversary cele-

, ,0 er special events

The confusion of the publicit t :

relations is understandabl. Th y 0?1 ~Ith the broader practice of public

e. e practice In h

Much of contemporary PR' '11 ' part, as evolved from publicity.

. IS Stl concerned wi th bli .

tioners do little else Th I pu ICIty. Many practI-

" bli . ey are more accurately titl d ". f .

pu ICIty men" Th . I" I e In ormauon men" or

. . . ere IS a eginman, need f h . . .

practitIOner. This practitio' or t e publICist or mformation

. ner IS most often found ki .

agenCIes, the military forces s . 1 . wor mg In governmental

4 ' OCIa agenCIes and f d "

• LOBBYING. Thi h b ,un -raismg cam paigns.

h· IS as ecome an ugly w d d i

t e mampulation of g or an IS often used to connote

overnment for Ifi h .

to petition our governm t' . se s Interests. Yet the right freely

e . en IS a baSIC consl't' l'

very orgamzation Publl' I' I utiona right of every citizen

b . .' c re a nons b d fi . .. . ,

I~ces lobbymg. Washington· DC' Y e llItlon and practice, often ern-

activities. This phase may l'n'l d' ., and the state capitals are centers of such

ffi . Cue' (I) . . .

o. CIals; (2) persuasively infor .r: gettIng Information from government

trve or ad ". mmg government ffici 1 . ( . . .

mmlstratlve action for '. 0 Cia s, 3) promotIng legisla-

(4) obtain' an orgallizatlOn .

~ng governmental coo er .. or agaInst an adverse interest;

proclamatIOn of Fire PreventioJ .;tIOkn or sponsorship, such as a governor's

Every firm d ee .

I' an organization t d

pr?lferating number of governm 0 ay has a host of relationshi s with the

*hlps req~li~e the skills of opini::tal alge?cies and activities. Th~se relation-

e speCIalIst p ana ysis medial' d

hi ossesses such skills H '. ion, an communication.

S IpS with govern . ence, he IS used f

this task is bein ment once were almost wholl t or such tasks. Relation-

and in state ca;·:~ared. The registered list of I~bbh: w~rk of lawyers. Today

of well-known I a s. ~here SUch registration is YI~ts In the nation's capital

in gover praCtitIOners. When the PR r~q~Hed carries many names

nment relatio h . speCialIst . .

usage howev di ns, e Will continue to b IS engaged exclusively

Trar] er . I~tasteful the term e called "lobbyist" by popular

c e aSSOCiations are . '

Much of the Work f ~aJor employers of bli .

airlines and b li or these Interest groups' I pu IIc relatIOns specialists.

, Us mes II I b lllVO ves lobb .

mode of trans . a 0 by to persuade I k YIng. The railroads,

. pOrtatIon d awma ers and

With logic and I eserves preferenti I' voters that their

e oquence th . a conslderati E

Beyond the di ,at It serves the pub!" on. ach will say,

enforcers on bel Ilfrect repreSentation to IC Interest first.

. ia of I' government I

task of bUild' a c lent or cause th' awmakers and law

. mg public ' ere IS the . .

precincts. This "telli sUppOrt for issues and' .lllc~easIngly important

ng your story to the eo ~~StltutlOns in the voting p pie +the most effective kind


of lobbying-is primarily the task of practitioners trained for such work."

Another phase of public relations-lobbying work that has grown rapidly in the postwar era is representation of foreign governments by American public relations firms. From 1944 to 1964, the number of nations having diplomatic relations with the United States doubled from 54 to 108. This and other postwar developments have brought a sharp increase in the utilization of public relations by foreign governments. Large industrial nations, each with clearly established United States public relations requirements, have, for the most part, established their own government information offices in this country. The British Information Service is an example. This need of foreign governments for United States public relations counsel simply reflects the fact that the United States today, by virtue of its size and the diversity of its economy, has a tremendous impact on the economic well-being of other nations in the world.

5. PUBLIC RELATIONS. The core of full-blown practice is empathetic listening and persuasive communication. To accomplish these functions, a wide variety of tasks are discharged. No two public relations programs have precisely the same objectives, or aim at the same publics, or embrace identical tasks. Nor should they. A program, to be effective, must be tailored to the industry or institution it serves. For example, there is little need for a formal, shareholder-relations program in a family business. And the program of a mental health association will differ markedly from that used by a trade association of florists. The principles of earning and getting public goodwill are constant, but the publics, tools, and emphases must vary considerably.

The content and emphasis III programs may be seen in this illustrative cataloging of publics for-

INDUSTRY

UNIVERSITY

ora

Employee relations Community relations Stockholder relations Customer relations Governmental relations Educational relations Dealer relations

Press relations

Public relations

Student relations Faculty relations Staff relations Community relations Alumni relations

Donor relations

Government relations Foundation relations Trustee relations Press relations

8 For discussion of this aspect of PR, see Bert Goss, "PR Is Not Lobbying," PR, Vol. 1, July, 1956: Robert L. L. McCormick, "The Anatomy of Public Relations in Washington," PR, Vol. 2, January 2, 1957: Paul H. Becker, "Are You Reaching Your Man on the Hill?," Public Relations Journal, Vol. 18, May, 1962. For a discussion of lobbying, see Karl Schriftgiesser, The Lobbyists (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., .1951). For examples, see Stanley Kelley, Jr., Professional Public Relations and Political Power (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1956). For the best-documented case detailing the use of public relations to influence legislation, study the Eastern Railroads vs. Pennsylvania Truckers case, which may be found in these court records: Noerr Motor Freight, Inc., et al. v. Eastern Railroad Presidents Conference, et al., in Federal Supplement, Vol. 155, Dec. 23, 1957, pp. 768-841; 273 F. 2d 218 (1959); 81 Supreme Court Reporter, 523, February 20, 1961. There are also several articles discussing this celebrated case.

14 . Contemporary Public Relations-A.n Introduction

and in these media:

Formal public opinion polls Informal opinion surveys Questionnaires

Personal contacts Correspondence

Company newspapers, magazines News releases

Radio and TV programs Exhibits, displays

Special events

Bulletin boards Employee awards Annual reports

Motion and slide films Payroll inserts

Employee letters Shareholder letters Shareholder magazines Speeches

Art shows

Booklets, brochures

Open house, plant tours Materials for schools

Essay contests

Photographs

Suggestion systems

Visitors' parking Recreational programs Dividend inserts Advertising

PATHWAYS TO PUBLIC FAVOR

By now, the destination toward hi .

whatever their nature sho ld b w ich the pracnce and programs travel,

. , u e clear to gai d hi'

Ions of the publics of . . . . am an () d the favorable opin-

. . an tnstitutim; or ind t A

tion IS general. Disagreement d d' us ry. greement on this destina-

t thi f an Ivergence set' h 1

o IS avorable environm t j III w en t ie choice of route

hen IS to be made p "

routes t ey take, not the ones . ractltlOners are known by the

There are in the . f they pretend to travel.

t f ' main, our possible p th

ours, ull of bumps and h kh a ways. Two are deceptive de-

cow p th c uc oles. Another . ld

a ,grown over with th IS an 0 ,almost abandoned,

cleared, graded, and open pat~:ny u~derbrush. Only one, the fourth, is a Even it is not paved. There is nay, road enough to carry two-way traffic.

One detour has been b 0 easy road to public favor.

the s fi eaten out by th h

ure- re answer to an or anizati ' ose. w 0 think publicity alone is

the pathway that leads simpf t "on ~ pubhc relations problems. This is purpose or effectiveness. It is i 0 kgettmg publicity" without regard to its

and pretty . a so ta en by those h h'

Thi pIctures can beaunj h . w 0 t ink that pretty words

IS detour h 1 Y t e uglIest of' . .

TI as a road marker that d mstItutIOns or situations.

ie other detour on th r~a s: The Fallacy of Publicity

taken by thos h' e OPPOSIte side of th' .

unheralded ~.~ 0 assume that good works and e dmam-.traveled path, is

idea has .' . 1 produce a favorable bI' g?~ motives, even though of today' conSIderable merit but fails to rPuk IC-OpmlOn environment. This

• s arena of b . ec on with h b

Reward pu lie opinion. This . t e abble and bedlam

. one IS posted V'

TI hi : vtue Earns Its Own

ie t ird, the old

public opini ' overgrown cow path' .

B Ion III contempt Th' . ' IS still taken by th h h ld

arons This I . IS IS the path '. ose woo

Be Da:nned" ~~ path, also a detour is mao~g~n~lly cleared by the Robber . ose who tak,.e this rO~te Withr ~ y. the sign, "The Public

t e phIlosophy, "To hell with


the public interest; let's get ours," may get to their destination. And then, they may not. Detours are usually the long way around. It's easy to get lost on them.

The fourth pathway, modern and in process of construction, is built to carry an increasing load of traffic. This pathway is chosen by those who recognize that sound public relationships are built of good works and sound communication practices. More and more are taking this pathway because people are learning that it is the safest, smoothest way. The road was cleared and graded by those who saw the importance of doing a good job and letting everybody know about it. More persons will probably take this route in the future. This signpost reads: Good Performance Publicly Appreciated.

Additional Reading

Anonymous, "Management's Self-Conscious Spokesmen," Fortune, Vol. 52, November, 1955.

Anonymous, "The New Model Press Agent," Newsweek, Vol. 53, March 2, 1959. Anonymous, "Public Relations Today," Business Week, July 2, 1960. A Business Week Special Report.

Paul Garrett, "The Four Dimensions of Public Relations," Printers' Ink, Vol. 203,

June 11, 1943.

----, "A New Dimension in Public Relations," Public Relations Journal, Vol.

12, October, 1956.

Robert L. Heilbroner, "Public Relations-The Invisible Sell," Harper's Magazine, Vol. 215, June, 1957. (Also available in Christenson and McWilliams, Voice of the People, pp. 426-37.)

Philip Lesly, ed., Public Relations Handbook, 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.].:

Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962. See Chap. One, "Exactly What Is Public Relations?"

John Marston, The Nature of Public Relations. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1963 Irwin Ross, The Image Merchants. Garden City: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1959.

A candid look at "the fabulous world of public relations."

Howard Stephenson, ed., Handbook of Public Relations. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1960. See his chapter, "Public Relations Practice."

52 . From 1900 On-The Real Beginnings

"U tilities Abandon Propaganda W k" Ed' .

1933. or , ttor &- Publisher, Vol. Ii:>, Fchruarv 18

. '

S. H. Walker and Paul Sklar, Business Finds "

Publishers, 1938. (Reissue of ti I' Its VOice. New York: Harper & Row,

F bar IC es In Harper's Ua . f .

e ruary, and March, 1938.) 1 gazzne or Issues of January,

Franklyn Waltman, "Corporate Public

Journal, Vol. II, October, 1955. Relations Comes of Age," Public Relations

Chapter Four

ECOLOGY-

THE

PR

ENVIRONMENT

The public relations specialist has been produced by the urgent needs of his time. His function will grow in scope and importance as the American environment accelerates in inter-

dependence and complexity.

The function of public relations will continue to grow in scope and importance as the American environment accelerates in interdependence and complexity. And accelerate it will. Once the needs are understood, PR's purpose and place become clear. Moreover, as the nature of the function as a direct response to its environment unfolds, its inevitability and permanence can be easily seen.

Webster's Dictionary defines ecology as "the mutual relations, collectively, between organisms and their environment." Ecology, which deals with the interrelationships of living organisms and their environment, is used mainly in the life sciences. However, social scientists have found it an increasingly useful term to describe the interrelationships of environment and human institutions. We find it so in this effort to relate the practice to the environment which brought the developments summarized in Chapters Two and Three.

Any public enterprise, to prosper and endure today, must (1) accept the obligations of public responsibility imposed by an increasingly interdependent society; (2) find ways and means of communicating with unseen, remote publics over lines lengthened by physical distance and psychological difference and complicated by multiplying barriers to communication; (3) find ways of achieving integration into the community that the organization was created to serve. In point 1 we find the source of public relations thinking in management enterprises. In point 2 we find the reason for the growth of PR as a specialized staff function. In point 3 we find the objective of both the management philosophy and the specialized practice,

53

54 . Ecology-The PR Enoi ironment

Ecology-The PR Environment . 55

"

THE BIG CHANGE"

The first six decades of the twentieth cen

change that transformed the ld b tury brought an avalanche of

turned the calendar to thO wor eyond the wildest dreams of those who IS century when the b

transportation. America has st dil . uggy was the means of local

. f ea I y and swiftly d f

SOCIety 0 small towns small '. move rom an agrarian

America has become an'indu t .orlgan~zatlOns, and face-to-face relationships.

. s na SOCIety of b' .. .

Impersonal relationships. Fred . k L' Ig CIties, big organizations, and

Change." 1 Fortune has terme;ril; "T~wls Allen described this as ''The Big fre~ people broke the power of ca it 1 e Per~anent Revolution," in which a their servant.s The net result of ~ a as their master and put it to work as of a comfortable, fluid society of mas complex forces has been the creation dependence. ssive bigness, impersonali ty, and inter-

Today's world is a world of

societi f complex organi .

es 0 scale. These are the re 1 f mzatlOns, big structures and

all 0lf which have profound impll'caSUt' t 0 fseveral basic trends. These tr~nds-

wor d' IOns or bli .

. s population explosion b h pu IC relatlOns-indude: (I) the

~onquest of disease; (2) urbaniz:~~~ ~~~o~t by an increasing birth rate and Jalmmed into large metropolitan com' 1 IC sees more and more people being

p ex commun't p exes creatin . .

Amet-i I Y problems; (3) the sci 'fi' g new frictions and com-

A:~:;~:r~m the Age of the Auto ~~~~e cAexpl~sion, which has propelled goods whi I: a few breath-taking years' 4 ge 0 the Atom to the Age of

a d h IC profoundly affects the ,( ) automation of production of

n t e problems f' nature of work .

of educatio . 0 Illvestment capital and k '. reqUIrements for work,

n stimulated b " mar etmg' (5) th "

rising social e . y nsmg requirements f .' . e nsmg level the U . d xpectatlOns in a middle- 1 . or speCIalIzed knowledge and

nIte States who h '. c ass SOCIety' (6) th .

in fulfill ,IC IS brmging integ . .' e SOCIal revolution in

ment of the C '. ration in all ph .

of ownership d OnstltutIOn's pledge of . ases of Amencan life

an control i A equahty for 11 (7)

entrepreneur b h n merican industry . h a; separation

planning. y t e professional manager wh ,Wit the replacement of the

o manages - h . .

These conti . WIt precrsion and

numg trends

magni tude faster th are bringing chan

through change G ~n. society can Successfully ad ges great in number and

task. Tension" . ammg acceptance and ad apt to them. Progress comes

mevItably aptatIOn t h

over "fcatherbeddin ... accom~anies change. The I 0 ~ ange is a difficult

accelerating d. g III Amencan railroad . bong, bItterly fought battle

I !.lnges are sf II . s IS ut one

(" lallengc to those k'II ~ III motion. The p bl example. These ever-

\" I Sled III c ro ems they if

·c lave move(i . ommunication m di pose 0 er great

s > m some si d ,e ia non ad'

eparateness. It . IX ecades t ' n persuasion,

IS also as' 0 a segmented .

oClety dominated b' ' stratified society of

• I Frederick Lewis All y SCience and technology. This

York: Harper & en, The Big Ch

2 Edit Row, PUblishers 195 ange: America Tra

Hall, Inc~rsl;:I)Fortune, USA: The Pe!~a~ereadable, infonn~~~:r~~c:tself, 1900-1950 (New

. nt Revolution (Engl unt of these changes.

ewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-

has made the communications task ever more difficult. One writer put it in the extreme when he wrote that we have reached the point where there is no c?mmunication between "the masses" and "the elite." 3 A thoughtful publisher, Alfred A. Knopf, doubts that the activities of today's business corporation can be made meaningful to more than a handful of its shareholders, because the corporations "are all operating today in fields so highly technical that the average layman cannot understand what they are doing, much less its significance, no matter how simple the language." A communications researcher suggests, "Perhaps it would be best to give up the idea that the mass media can become reliable disseminators of science information, simply because they are not equipped to supply information and their audience is not equipped to handle it." 4 A philosopher, Charles Frankel, expresses a despairing sense "that events are outrunning the human capacity to understand

them."

Your authors recognize the magnitude of the problem. This is why we

believe that the practitioner will come to be more and more interpreter of the complexities of his organization and less and less a publicist.

In this "Big Change" was born the concept of public relations thinking and the functional application of specialized public relations practice. The fundamental consequences of this breath-taking and truly spectacular revolu-

tion have had great significance:

I. Interdependence that requires the cooperation and coordination of more and more persons to get a task clone. This requisite cooperation and this coordination require, in turn, more and more communication with more and more

persons about more and more matters.

2. The steady growth in the power of public opinion has come with the extension

of government and popular control of that government; this power compels, sooner or later, adequate communication and satisfactory adjustment of con-

flicting interests.

3. The struggle to align people on the side of one's cause, client, or company

has become increasingly competitive.

4. Communications have failed to keep pace effectively with the changing na-

ture of our society, notwithstanding the unparalleled development of mass com-

munications.

5. The swiftly accelerating pace of technology and its consequences have enor-

mously multiplied the number of adjustments required within this environment; adjustments must be effected among widely separated people and or-

ganizations.

6. Maladjustments consequently multiply as social . institutions lag perilously

behind scientific and technological advances.

7. The sense of community is lost in our rootless, mobile society characterized

by depersonalized urban, suburban, and exurban living.

B. Modern society requires the specialist for its administration and communica-

tions.

3 C. Wright Mills, The power Elite (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956). The late sociologist Mills took a much dimmer view of these changes than those found in

Allen and in The Permanent Revolution.

4 Percy Tannenbaum, "Communication of Science Information," Science, Vol. 140, May 10,

1963.

56 . Ecology-The PH Environment


FROM ISOLATION

TO INTERDEPENDENCE

men and women whom it takes to make products and provide services for the mass market.

Today's customers are spread across the nation and around the world. They must be dealt with through a complex hierarchy of salesmen, distributors, and dealers. They must be persuaded to buy through mass-media advertising. We now have mass production, mass ownership, mass markets, and mass communication with a mass public.

General Motors, one of the world's largest enterprises, epitomizes what

has happened. Organized in 1908, it produced its first 50 million cars in 46 years but, at present rates, it will produce its second 50 million cars in 12 years. GM accounts for 2.5 per cent of the nation's Gross National Product and makes more than half of all the automobiles sold in the United States each year. This industrial giant is owned by more than a mil!ion shareholders. GM provides directly jobs for more than 600,000 employees, who receive 3.5 billion dollars a year in pay. It buys the goods and services of some 30,000 suppliers and thus partially provides jobs for another 15 million people.

GM measures its profits in billions. It holds the power of economic life or death over more than 15,000 franchised car and truck dealers. With all these and a host of others, General Motors must do business. To do busi ness, it must communicate. The communications between General Motors management, its shareholders, employees, suppliers, dealer" and customers must pass through a host of intermediaries and gatekeepers, up and down. The lines of communication between the GM president and the car dealer in Seattle are long and complicated. Some of the consequences of this were dramatized in congressional hearings several years ago. At these hearings disenfranchised GM dealers unburdened complaints to Congress which they had been unable to effectively communicate upward to GM's top management. This situation is not unique in GM by any means; it is an inevitable consequence of

bigness.

A business' publics have grown beyond the scope of personal communica-

tion. Today business firms are known to a mass public by the images they project through the mass media and other means. These images are inevitably subject to distortion by intervening barriers. This is not just a problem for the large corporation. It is a problem for most organizations. For example, one of your authors has been dealing with one garage for six years, yet he does not know the managers in the front office nor do they know him. Our opinion of this garage's work has been communicated to its owners by returning a postcard questionnaire on the quality of service received. The old personal relationships today are synthesized. This includes personal attention, the handshake, the chat on the street, the expression of appreciation for patronage-

all the amenities that build and hold goodwill.6

2. BIG LABOR. Big Business has, in turn, produced Big Labor. To protect

1. BIG BUSINESS. In early America indust .

master of the Saugus Ironw k . M' ry was a SImple thing. The iron-

furnace, forge, and slitting ~~lls IHn assachusetts in 1650 lived near the blast

hi fl. e attended to hi "

IS ew helpers. He did it IS own public relations with

I on a personal . ti basi

contacts. He did it in h' f ' m imate asis as part of his everyday

f . IS ace-to-face de Ii .

riendly chats with his neI'ghb . a mg WIth his customers and in

d' ors gomg to d f '

nectar of public relations . an rom work. He was his own

s I ' Just as he was hi

a es manager, and controller Th N IS own production manager,

for people in his town and 't' : ew England cobbler who made shoes

The . I S environs dealt . h hi

y. came to hIS shop to be fi d WIt IS customers personally.

Any Imperfections or any diff tte. They saw how their shoes were made

h erences over . .

across t e COunter. This cobbl I pnce could be ironed out amicably

knew th er emp oyed one

. em and their families H k .' two, or ten apprentices. He

SIde as~ociations there was li'ttle e chnew their p~oblems. In the daily side-by~~b~ler. s reputation for making gOOdan~e for mIsunderstandings. But as the

IS usmes~ grew. s oes grew, and as technology changed,

. The pnvate-property s ste .

~c:m's. farmd and forge has ~ll ;::nv~:oI'sdhucdti~n which began with early Amer-

ma te by th . d . e m the v t

b . e m ustnal giants f d as area of our economy

egan with th '1 0 to ay. The ri f

develo e rai road systems but it' lIse a the large corporation

some ~ment. As Berle notes: "Man of:s a most wholly a twentieth-century ber o~ pte hem I hahve payrolls, which ~ith thhe~e corporations have budgets, and

op e t an 'elr customer ff

managed b h most of the countries f he : s, a ect a greater num-

y w at he t" ate world" 5 Th .

Wh erms an auto . . ese grants are

come aa\:as once a s~all business ;:;~I~ sf:lf-perpetuating oligarchy."

operating U~~tscc;pOratI?n. The large cor O~tf~rso.nal ~e.lationships has beThe giant cor' h~ urnrs are often decent~al' d 11 IS divided into separate

pOratIOn h b ize away fr h .

precincts are in f . as een chopped int . om t e mam offices.

. Orelgn coum-: a precmcts Of

munIty In hi Ountnes. Gone I'S th . ten some of the

. IS stead I' e owner h I'

the nation are Iterally thousands f h w 0 ived in the com-

The job of d . . 0 s areholders scattered across

II a mmlstering th .

~a ed management Th e bus mess has been t k

In one social orbit 1-h .ese professionals live ill a en over by specialists

in an equally nar; err employees live in anothone part of town and move

ow orbit. Today's manage k er part of the city and move

rs now f f

ew o the thousands of

1\ In "Ec

onomic P

the Repuhlic. Decem;:er and the Free Socier ..

Revolution (New y ~,1957, p. 15. Also se . y, a pamphlet publish

Property, published ?rk. Harcourt, Brace &: e. A. A. Berle, Jr., The 20e~ by The Fund for

In 1959 by the World, Inc 1954) t Century Capitalist

same publisher. ., , and his Power Without

6 Harwood L. Childs, An Introduction to Public Opinion (New York: John Wiley &:

Sons, Inc., 1940). His chapter, "What Are Public Relations?" stands as one of the thought-

ful discussions of PR's ecology.

58 . Ecology_· ThePR Ellvironment


themselves against the growin economi

share of industry's workers ha g b d IC power of today's employer, a large

travail, America's work fo hve fan ed together in labor unions. After much

rce as orged a t '1'

Business. In the labor uni . h . coun ervai mg power to that of Big

. . IOn t e employee fi d . b .

tent, a sense of belonging It . . ~ s JO secunty and, to some ex-

. . IS not without slg ifi h

three industrial employees' h' ru cance t at two out of every

m t e nation's 17 . b

members. Today more than 18 '11' major ur an centers are union

. mi Ion worker " d

gam zed labor unions exert" . s are jome together in or-

1 b·· .. mg a power far bey d hei

a or IS today the articulat' on t err numbers. Organized

. . e VOIce of the t" '

organized labor intensified th d f na IOn s wage earners. The rise of

ti hi . e nee or and th bl .

IOns IpS WIth its armies of I e pro ems of industry's rela-

Eff . emp oyees

ectrve internal comm . . .

I .. urncatron betw h

the uruon member in St Lo . " l een t e AFL-CIO president and

M ,. . UIS IS Just as diffi I "

otors presidenr and the car d I' 1 eu t as It IS between General

s~udy of one .large union that :~:r ~n'ISeattle. The Rosens found in their ~Icularly acute in both directions Wi~h ai ure of communications seems parI? .the .uni?n." 7 In those unions whichrespect to wha.t is actually being done tlclpatlon rn union affairs is a diffi I are democratIcally run, member par-

demon t I cu t proble Like I

. d s rate public responsibility d m. 1 e mdustry, labor too must

m ustry I b an must co .

, a or too has felt th I h mmumcan- persuasively. Like

measure u t . e as of angered "

p a Its public responsibiI" . opmion when it failed to

~~~c~emonstrated when Congress pa~:~~ ~~ a~u~ed its tremendous power. This the L g~w up under the Wagner Act and e .a t:Hartley Act to correct abuses and maanlfrum.Griffin Act after a congressl'oangalm m 1959 when Congress passed

easance in th T a committe .

P . di e eamsters' U . e exposed corruptIOn

. eno ically labor union mon and other unions

nve bargainin' s stage strikes to ai hei .'.

if not injure t~;Ith e~ployers. These strikes, ~o: tel: o~JectlVes in collec-

the unions Lar pu~hc and thus pose difficult ~v~r Justified, often irritate have grow~ t ge stnkes of long duration spr dPu lie relations problems for

. 00 strong a d h ea concern as t h h .

non to the bli n wether their str h: 0 w et er urnons

strikes agaits~ l~~o~elfare. It. is harder for t~:gt u~s. applied without attenprolonged strik . . ReflectIng the integrated p lie to see management's

. . e m a strat . nature of

millions For e I egic sector can and f our economy, a

. . xamp e I' a ten do

raIlroad ferries d ,ear y In this decade I es create hardship for

an tugs' N a wa kout f 664

forced an emh In ew York harb a crewmen on

. argo on ex f or stranded 100

ICe on the New Y k port reight, and stopp d . ,000 commuters,

perspective it sh °lrd Central and New Have e ~llrtual1y all main-line serv-

, au be n rai lin T

ment bargaining recorded that only a ti es. a keep strikes in

1 s ever reach the strike stage.smy percentage of labor-man age-

Rosen and Ro

Inc., 1955), p. 110 sen, The Union Member

union and . A stUdy of one lar . Speaks (Englewood cr

8 See A. t~ard t~eir employers. ge union and the attitudes of . IIIs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,

March 30 1!l(j3 Rasklll, "Labor's Cri . Its members toward their

c\'1 ' . For a view of h ISIS of Public Confid ..

::i~~l~. F~~ a look at la~r~s f~ture, see his "Labor's ~:~fa Saturday Review, Vol. 46,

bor, PUblic Opinion R, see Gerald Porn er .. re State," Atlantic, Vol. 2Il,

QUarterly, Vol. 23, Wi!te;, 1!:9~~.ublic Relations of Or-

3. BIG AGRICULTURE. America was born on the farm, but it moved to the city. In the last century, more than half the people lived on farms, mostly small ones. Large families produced mainly for their own needs. Land was plentiful, labor was cheap, and little capital was needed. The farmer's interests did not extend much beyond the county seat, where he went Saturdays to buy a few necessities and to visit. All this has changed and is still changing. In 1870, 53 per cent of our people were employed in agriculture. The 1900 census marked the first time that the industrial workers outnumbered those in agriculture. As late as 1933, when the New Deal came to power, 31 per cent of our people lived on farms. By 1960 this percentage had dropped to 10 per cent. It should be noted that, although the number of farm people is declining, the rural population is increasing owing to the increase of nonfarm residents. America's some four million farms produce more than enough food and fiber for the other 90 per cent of our people. In 1900 one farm worker produced food and fiber for himself and 7 others. Now one farm worker supports himself and 27 other persons. Agriculture is no longer so much an individual's way of life. It is a heavily mechanized and capitalized business .

These changes reach far beyond replacement of the old farm springhouse by a food freezer in the basement of the modern farm home. As an official of the United States Department of Agriculture points out: "The massive changes in farming are more than a shift from horse, mule, and human muscle to mechanical or electric power. They are a genetic revolution as well-witness the millions of acres of hybrid corn. They are also a managerial change of the first magnitude. Today's modern commercial farm is not just a face-lifted traditional farm. The skills required to manage its complex of technical, economic, and biological factors are of a high order." U The trend is clear. The independent farmer and his family are leaving the land. The homestead is vanishing. The business office is taking over. Fortune has said that agriculture today is comparable to "all industry, cartelized, subsidized, and rigidified," and "one of the most powerful blocs in American history."

These profound changes have brought a complex of interdependent relationships with people far removed from the American farmer. Today his economic livelihood depends on the needs and tastes of consumers in faraway markets. It rides on the political attitudes of these same consumers in the election booth. Today's agriculture is a delicate mechanism. 'What the government does is soon felt in every township, although the impact varies from area to area. Changes in consumer tastes, such as the recurring reducing fads, quickly radiate their effects out to the farm. Consequently, we see America's dairy farmers uniting in the American Dairy Association to spend millions of dollars annually on public relations. A far cry from 1900.

Today's farmer, a businessman rather than a yeoman, must communicate with consumers and voters far beyond the county seat. He must persuade the

. 9 Phillip F. Aylesworth, Keeping Abreast of Change in the Rural Community (Washmgton, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, October, 1959), P: 1.

60 . Ecology-The PR Environment

Ecology-The PR Environment· 61

nation's voters to provide hi . h h . .

he insists that he needs H m WIt t e subsidies, soil banks, and other help

Products To meet thO e mudst persuade the nation's consumers to buy his

. ese nee s the A . f

through farm organizations em l' ~e~Ican armer has need for, and

p oys, specialists,

4. BIG PRESSURE GROUPS. Pioneer for f h .

for protection against rnaraudi I di e at ers retreated into the stockade

mg n ians Tod ' ..

trade, interest and professi I . ay s citizens have retreated into

, rona groups to p - t d

and beliefs-in short to wi bli .. 10 ect an promote self-interests

h ' n pu IC opmIOn to a . .

t e complexity and the com titi group point of VIew. Given

. . pe HIve pressures of t d' .

sociauon, professional associ . . 0 ay s SOCIety, the trade as-

11 cianon, cooperative lab .

a pressure groups-are inevit bi Th ,or union, and cause bloc-

tionaI, state, and local int a e. ere are more than 10,000 of these na-

known I erest groups Th

nown interest and politic Lvi h . ey promote and protect every

S h a VIew trough persu .

uc groups are the in it bl aSIOn, pressure, and politics.

. . . eVI a e response t th

InstItutIOns with comm . 0 e need for individuals or

Th on mterests to match th

ese pressure groups are in I e power of opposing groups.

of bli .. ' arge measure a r

pu IC OpInIOn and to th ' esponse to the growing power

Prod e growth of Big G

ucers combine to control ducri overnment. If the natural gas

inevitable that the gas consum~ro ~lcitIOn a~d fight federal regulation, it is

or asso . f h rs WI comb me to . T

cia IOn as two functions. One is t . . resist, he interest group

~ers t.hroll~h internal self-discipline T: stabllzz~ the relationships of its memeffectively m public. . e other IS to present the group's case

5. BIG GOVERNMENT G

ment Go . overnment in the last

: vernmental needs could b h century was a narrow instru-

meetmg and the andled to a I .

'. ate state capital Thi arge extent m the town

IzatI~n, accelerating technology' urbls, .too: has changed markedly. Industrial-

nomic and poli ti 1 ' amzatlOn and th

. . I tea power combi d . ' e concentrations of eco-

ume.w This i' me to mduce B' G

da h s partIcularly true of th f d Ig overnment in our

y-at t e federal e e era I govern

t· , state, and local I I ment. Government to-

s~e:~~ulate and service more and ~:;es-~mploys millions. It spends billions ebbed ~/rowhn in strength and shifted ino lour daily.lives. Government has

om t e town m . ocus Public d "

cause of th eetmg to the stateh - eCISlOn making has

e complexit f ouse to Wash' .

making ha fl y 0 what government I mgton. LIkewise, be-

s owed from th I . regu ates and id ..

government e egislative branch' provi es, deCISIOn

. mto the ad ..

Th mmlstrative arm of

e growth of positive

of the nineteenth ' powerful government b

Theodore Ro clentury. It started gathering 1 egan in the last quarter

oseve t It ha' rea momentu . h .

regardless of the a' '. s contmued to grow in si m WIt President

of our lives are ~. Tty rn power. This growth d ~ze and scope to this day,

a irecr response to our envi an ItS multiplying regulation

!Tonment and th

10" e needs it brings.'!

or a detailed .

GOllcmmmt (N picture of modern

II See John eMw YGork: Harper Be Row Pugobvl~rhnment, see James L

f . aus R fI ,IS ers 1957) . McCamy, American

o Alabama Press 1947' e fctions on Publi Ad'·· .

changed .). A valu bl . c mmlstratio (U' .

nature and fUnction of a e senes of lectures thatn IE mver~Ity, Ala.: University

Our government. ° er quick insight into the

Man invents the automobile, and a whole host of government activities are the result. Man unlocks the atom, and a giant Atomic Energy Commission is inevitable. Space exploration brings a NASA.

Because of the tremendous power gathered in government, and thus into the hands of voters, public enterprises have had to conform more and more to standards of conduct imposed by voters. Its growth has meant more and more relationships with those who wield its regulatory powers and dispense its favors. Handling these relationships requires the talents of specialists in public opinion as well as specialists in law.

The nature of government is such as to require that those who make the rules and provide the services must communicate with those who are affected by the rules and those who should get the services. Enforcement of a public health law requires public understanding and support of its purpose if it is to be effective. Promotion of soil conservation requires an understanding of its benefits and techniques by landowners if they are to cooperate. This takes skilled communication. The lines of communication between the citizen and the government official have been lengthened physically and psychologically. It is a long way from the Potomac to Puyallup, Washington. There is a big difference in the attitude toward apples of the bureaucrat in Washington, D.C., and the apple grower in "Washington State.

This is illustrated in the extreme in the futile effort of an earnest citizen to communicate with his President in the White House. It is equally apparent in the effort of the President to escape the insulating barriers around him and to listen to the people. When President \Voodrow Wif son started the White House Press Conference, March 15, 1913, he asked the reporters, "Please do not tell the country what 'Washington is thinking, for that does not make any difference. Tell Washington what the country is thinking." This need was reaffirmed by President Dwight Eisenhower on the 43rd anniversary of this informal, but important, link between the President and the people. He said, "I rather like to get the questions, because frequently they represent the thinking that is going on." President John F. Kennedy, perhaps our most public relations-minded president, greatly extended the reach and impact of the Presidential news conference by putting it on television. He used this and other means to communicate his views and program effectively to the voters. He also made a determined effort to keep in touch with the public through travel, wide-ranging contacts, public-opinion polling, and a sensitive reading of newspapers and magazines. In his less than three years in office before his assassination, John F. Kennedy made a deep imprint on the hearts and

thoughts of Americans.

In facilitating two-way communications with the voters, the United States

President has the help of a large staff of practitioners. Here again we see the environment compelling the development of specialists in opinion analysis and communication. The need is to bridge the gulf from citizen or corporation to the government and back from bureaucrats to citizens and corporations distant from the scene of decision. Big Government has become the largest

CONSEQUENCES

OF THE "BIG CHANGE"

62 • Ecology-The PH Environment

~ingle employer of practitioners. The Unit .

m fact, the nation's public I . ed States Information Agency is

re ations agency in r I " '

to the world and world " b e aymg our views and values

. OpInIOn ack to the ., .

6. BIG ME nation s policy makers

DIA OF COMMUNICATION. Growth f . . .

result of advancing tech I " 0 mass media has come as a

'. no ogy, urbanization d h ..

non and mcome. Mass com " . ' an t e nsmg level of educa-

. mUllicatlOn IS anoth .

siveness contributing to th d " er Important clement of mas-

id e epersonalizano f .

CI ence that the extensive growth of ubli n o. SOCIety. It is more than coin-

of large newspapers and mag' p. c relations began with the emergence

t I azmes CIrculated .

own, sma l-shop America we ld k on a national scale. In small-

h ' cou now p If'

w at we are and what we thi k . eop e or their true worth. Today

unseen millions by oversimpll.nfi da:e projected in a matter of minutes to vast

"R I e Images f . '

~ays, ousewives in Arms 0 C ff 0 . us in the mass media. A headline

mescap bl ver 0 ee Pnce R' "Th ..

a y, compressed and th b ise. e resulting Image is

people know what truly motiva~s ound to be distorted to a degree U nles~ truly know us. And if they do no~s k us and what values we hold, they' cannot

and we the "Th now us they ar .

k ' m. ey know not E I d' e apt to misunderstand us,

mha e many decisions each day on ~ghanb ~ho only England know." Yet we

t e mass med' A d e asis of the

J. ia. n therein lies th . se second-hand images in

ustice Learned H err power.

of a societ sm and once observed, "The d

ith y all enough for its m b ay has clearly gone forever

WI one another a d fi em ers to have a I

have first-h n to nd their station thr persona acquaintance

of publici and knowledge of them. Publicit ~ugh th: appraisal of those who

pote ty a black art. But it has y IS an evil substitute and the art

pe ncy. to the finality of its judg co~e to stay. Every year adds to the

enng at us throu h h ments. TOday th I

nalists broad g t e magnified but so . e peop e are "incessantly

, casters and . ' me times distort d 1

press maga . '. motion picture de, enses of jour-

, zzne, radio t 1 " pro ucers." 12 Th

mon carr' ' e eVISlOn and m ti .' e mass media of

ters of d " ' 0 Ion p t

We have le eCdlSlon-making information IC ures have become the com-

arne thro h .

carry determine . hi ug research that the .

f ' Wit In the li . . Images and w d h .

o people and th . ImitatIOns posed bv i . or s t ese media

"Unless you ~et ~s, t~elr actions. Woodrow Jr.~ntervenmg factors, opinions things go wrong t e ~Ight setting to affairs-d' I son saw this, too. He said,

. . . . " It h b Isperse the r i h .

OpmlOn to project f as ecome vital to II Ig t Impression-

will not do this .ah avorable image through tha concerns subject to public

Wit out as . e mass m d' A

control and' ft Slstance and g id e ia. nd the media

. m uence th UI ance Con

an mtense and sp" e content these media' sequently, the effort to

factor, has createdlrttthed one. Growth of mass mCeadr~y to the people has become

"Wh e pul li ra mor h

en all is said and do 0 ~c .relations occupatio~ ~ t an any other one

management deal . h ne, It IS the public r I . . It IS Fortune's opinion

Wit the' - e ations rna ,. '

communication ag vanous segments f th n s major job to help

ency called the press." 0 at maddening and massive

12 Childs, op. cit., p. 10.

Ecology-The PH Environment . 63

Significant and far-reaching consequences were bound to flow from changes as profound as those just described. Those consequences with significance for public relations were listed on p21ge 55. Their significance for public relations

can be described as follows:

1. INCREASED INTERDEPENDENCE. Our industrialization has made us small

cogs in one great industrial complex. Each segment is dependent upon countless others unseen and remote. We all have a place on the American assembly line. A breakdown at anyone point along this continent-wide assembly line quickly and directly affects all who man it. A steel strike in Pittsburgh quickly radiates its unhappy consequences to the automobile dealer in Phoenix. Little wonder that there has developed a strong public interest in labor peace or its unhappy opposite, labor strife. Loss of income on the farm is quickly felt in the unemployment of the man who makes farm implements. A slump in the buying of refrigerators soon has its consequences for the men who make steel. And so it goes. Individually, we are no longer masters of our fate. Hence, there is a compelling need for each component to be responsible to all others. If this responsibility is shirked, society finds ways and means of enforcing it.

This interdependence has enormously multiplied the number of personal and institutional relationships. If there is to be cooperation, coordination, and adjustment in the meshing of these complex and infinite relationships, there must be effective communication. A tremendous burden has been placed on the communications function. Complexity of content, occasioned largely by the scientific explosion, has added to this. Today we are confronted by a paradox-unparalleled facilities but increasing difficulty and complexity in communication. Effective communication, essential to the functioning of an interdependent society, poses a task that can. be met only by the skilled

specialist.

2. GROWTH IN THE POWER OF PUBLIC OPINION. Public opinion has long

been an omnipotent force. Ortega y Gasset wisely wrote, "Never has anyone ruled on this earth by basing his rule on anything other than the rule of public opinion." It is this shadowy but nonetheless real force in society, public opinion, that is the source spring of public relations practice. Where public opinion counts for little, there is little concern for the state of one's public relationships. Any ex-GI or missionary who has served in New Guinea can confirm this. The Melanesians don't worry much about their PRo

That Americans are free to have opinions and to make them effective in shaping their destiny gives great force to public opinion. As the power of public opinion to influence the course of human affairs has grown, the efforts to manipulate and mold this force have likewise grown. That people are


Ecology-The PR Environment· 65

gover~ed and g.uided by public opinion in much that they do makes the prac~lCe o~ pubhc relations mandatory. In the early years of formalized public relations m 19lO, Theodore N. Vail, then president of the American Tele-

phone and Telegraph Co said "I 11" "

" at, n a times, m all lands, public opinion has

ha~ ~ontrol at the last word, Public opinion is but the concert of individual ~pmlOn and .is as ~uch subject to change or education. It is based on informa-

non and behef If It is wron it i b

. . g, I IS wrong ecause of wrong information and

individuals erroneous behef. It is not only the right but the obligation of all m IVI ua s, or aggregations of individuals, who come before the public to

se\~~at t~e. public have full and correct information." Once the power of pu. ~c o~mlOn. as the supreme arbiter in public affairs and the thesis that

opimon IS subject to change are a t d bli .

munication P' . ccep e , pu lC relations efforts of com-

, ers~aslon, and adjustment inevitably follow.

Many have paid homage to this N

than did Abrah L' 1 . ~ower. one has stated it more vigorously

am mco n with his now lassi .

debate with Douglas up bli , ,c assic quotation, made during a

, u IC sentiment IS everyth' "th bli ,

nothing can fail; without it hi zng; WI pu IC sentiment,

greater than he who ena t I' no~, Lzn.g can succeed. He who molds opinion is

c saws. mcoln was e hoi h F

seau, who developed the t blic obi c omg t e renchman, Rous-

erm pu IC opinion .. d

sions of the general will Z' as it IS use today. In his discus-

makes it his business to g' ' vlo ante genera le, Rousseau said that "whosoever

rve aws must know h t . .

them govern the passions of " A I . ow 0 sway opiruons and through

in the statutes. men. aw without public support is but a relic

!here is no more powerful office in th

Dmted States. Yet Presid tHe world than the Presidency of the

lk b en arry Truman on b "

ta a out the powers of th P id ce 0 served, You hear people

d d Ie resi ent In the Ion h'

goo ea on his success in publi 1'. g run, IS powers depend a

he k lC re ations H'

must now how to make e .. " IS powers are great, but

President DWight Eisenh p. ople get along together." 13 His successor

P bli " ower, said much the h i ' u IC opimon to support and e f . same t mg, "We must mobilize

this problem, like all others t ~ ~~ce highway safety. Through such action, Today's citizen equI'pped 0 ~hlcd free men fall heir, can be solved"

'h .. ' Wit e ucar i . .

Wit organizatIOns of strength h c~tlon, WIth access to information and

a public' ' as consIderable if f 11 '

" . accountmg on all insft . not u power to enforce

busmess b I utions vested with bli

h ' ut government social 1£ a pu lC interest: not only

c urches, and the like T'he " we are agencies, labor unions schools d II h" . CItizen ex t hi " I 0 ars, IS mvestment dollars hi hil er s t IS power with his consumer

l~pS most important of all today I,: p. ~ anthropic dollars, and his votes. Per-

Views to othe . h Ii Citizen has the

grol '. rs Wit hke interests and thu buil means to communicate his

calI;~ opl~~ons. T~is power reaches its: ~~ d . organized support to enforce

3 our other·dlrected" society erut m what David Riesman has

. • LOSS OF COMMUNI '.

mg from his sen . TY. In Erich Fromm's 0 i . .

se of ahenation-"his feelin P ruon, man IS today suffer-

g of bemg cut off, shut out, adrift,

1:1 William H'U

I man, Mr. President (New York' F

. arrar Straus & Company, 1952), p. 11.

fragmentary." The secretary in New York City, the rubber worker in Akron, the salesgirl in Chicago, and the timber worker in the Pacific Northwest share a sense of helplessness. They seek the security of belonging, the respect of personal dignity. The rapidity of our urban growth has accentuated this problem. Not until 1920 did urban residents outnumber rural dwellers. Since then, virtually all our growth has been in the cities. By 1980, according to forecasts of the Urban Land Institute, our population will be nearly fourfifths urban. Nearly three in five of these urban dwellers will by then live in suburbs. Although we huddle together in cities or flee in droves to Suburbia, we are more estranged from one another than ever before. A national longing for "togetherness" merely reflects this. The small town was also a neighborhood, but not today's large apartment building or urban housing project. Nor is neighborliness always found in Suburbia, where today more than a third of our people live. There, people do not, in the view of a thoughtful minister, meet heart to heart, but meet at cocktail parties in a superficial way.14 The mechanization and automation of work have, likewise, depersonalized our society, leading to what Harvey Swados terms "the stultifying vegetativeness of the modern American work routine."

Today's citizen suffers a feeling of futility and frustration as he watches decisions being made for him by those beyond his reach. "There appears to be a tenuous line of communication between the governors of our society and the governed." Reflecting this, John Cogley asks this disturbing question:

"Are our problems so vast, the technical aspects of modern life so tricky, access to the facts so slight, and the necessary knowledge so elusive that American democracy will become simply a matter of living one's private life and turning over the management of the public sector to professionals?" Much of public relations work involves efforts to supply this sense of "belonging" and a "line of communication between the leaders and the people."

We live in a world of fragments and factions forever splitting off, one against another. Consequently, we retreat into the protective arms of groups where "we belong," where we can find a sense of worth, of dignity. The result of this often is, not communication, but groups rebounding from groups. Our relations with other human beings are conducted through organized groups, nation to nation, corporation to union, farm cooperative to the market. Fruitful public relations can play its part in meeting the new and intense psychological needs of man. It can also serve society. by helping to bring about a sense of communion in an integrated community.

4. MULTIPLYING MALADJUSTMENTS. The social and cultural lag caused by man's inability to adjust to the accelerating scientific and technological ad:ances long has been a source of concern and. co~ment .. A tense wor.ld cowermg in fear of atomic annihilation because SCIentIsts split the atom IS a stark

14 For further information on Suburbia, see David Rie~man,. "The Suburban Disloca-

tion" An I f th A . Academy of Political and SOCIal SCience, Vol. 314, November,

, na S 0 e mencan ' , . .

1957; and Robert Wood, Suburbia: Its People and Their Politics (Boston: Houghton Mifflin

Company, 1959),



reminder of this inability. Toda man I . .

institutions capable of controlli~ t~n IS. fra~tIcaIIy ,t?Illg to erect political

drogen warheads coupled ith : g e s~Ienttfic realities of atomic and hylistie missiles. The UnI't dWNI .mter~ontmental or submarine-launched bal-

e ations IS such a h' I 0 '

depends. The maladjustment I ' ve IC e. n this race all else

, s resu tmg from thi , I I

m lesser but nonetheless criti I IS socia ag are to be seen

1 rca ways It can b 'h

employment of unskilled lb' e seen m t e continuing un-

h a or, many of them y "sch

t e mounting populations' oung sc 001 dropouts"; in

, , m our mental and pe I' " ,

mg blight of the central cit ' d na mstituuons: III the decay-

1 y nnge by new sub b '

on the highways and in th 'I ' ur s; in efforts to bring safety

, e au aries: III th di I '

non, automation and h ' ' e IS ocations due to mechaniza-

. ,c anges m plant needs' d i

The swiftness of the ch h ,an III countless other ways,

£' anges as left a s II

or adjustment to their ma er and smaller span of time

lif ' consequences Ou

1 eume to adjust to th 'I ,r great-grandfathers had a whole

, e rar road and tel h

time to adjust to the automob'l G egrap; our grandfathers had a life-

PI ' b 1 e. randson whi

ane in a out the time it t k G IpS across the ocean in a J' et

I 1 00 randfath

n t ie span of a decade .er to travel by car to the Big City,

tha the nan or more, Amenca's .

n ie nation's 60-year-old "space industry became bigger

Pr d" , automouv- ind A

.e Ictmg in the mid-1960's that "The U ,ustry, corporate executive was

will grow larger than the combi d ~Ited States space exploration effort

around 20 bOll" ne auto mdustries f h

I' 1 IOn dollars annually" Thi 0 t e world to a business

da( ~ustments .to mass communicati~n thIS generati~n has had to grapple with

riven and Jet I' ' e automobile th '

, e ectronics autom t' ' e airplane propeller-

space t I ,a IOn at ' '

ad ' ,rave, among others, since the t' O~IC energy, earth satellites, and

id~~mstrat,or of NASA, has predicted ,,~n 0 the :entury. James E. Webb,

K:n:~:~ves of ~eople more drastic~lly ~~a~:~st mto sp~ce will change the

will ha Boul.dmg says it succinctly' "1£ h e Industnal Revolution,"

ve to chan . . t e huma '

has done j ge Its ways of thinki ,n race IS to survive, it

Lone m the last 25,000." ng more m the next 25 years than it

ack of human abilit

duced malad'us y to keep pace with this £ .

function of J u t~ents a?lenty. This harsh fact ast-flow~ng change has pro-

its changI'ngP bhc relatIOns, with its objecti 'ftoo, has Implications for the

commun't F rve 0 adj ti "

for winning 1 y. urthermore introducn us mg an institution to

For instance acceptance of new ideas, ~ew proUdctIon of change brings the need

, as automat". ucts new w f .

more have the t k Ion gains momentum . 'd . ays 0 doing things.

, as of con' . ' m ustrial p "

tion will ultimatel i Vlllcmg employees and the . ractinoners once

5. SPECIAU Y ncrease, not diminish th public that mechaniza-

hi ZATION T ' e number a d Ii .

ighly scientific . 0 perform the myri d n qua Ity of Jobs.

d ' compute' d' a tasks r . d .

e ?e user] in the ma nze SOCIety, specialists eq.Ulre III today's

phcated, and abstra nagement of today's large-scale are req~Ired. The knowlmaster it. Instead cththat few individuals ha . ehnterpnses is so vast, com-

eac pe ve eit er th .

we have the spe . I' rson tackles one small e time or ability to

CIa 1St in d sector a d

corporate lawyer th ata systems, persona I n masters that. Thus

, e nucleonic engineer, the his h or fiscal management, the

Ig -energy physicist, and the

astronaut. Each specialty has its own particular language, and this adds to our communications barriers.

!he specialty of public relations has emerged in response to our changing

environment. Discussing the increasing importance of the public relations specialist in American politics, Kelley wrote: "It is based on a solid demand, ... More than anything else, public relations as an occupation owes its eX,istence to the growth of the mass media of communication, Having committed themselves to the use of the mass media of communication for propaganda purposes, politicians and interest groups have found it an exceedingly complex problem to use them in such a way as to receive wide circulation for a point of view." 15 This is equally true in other sectors of society. This is the age of the specialist, and public relations is no exception to this trend,

15 Stanley Kelley, Jr., Professional Public Relations and Political Power (Baltimore, Md.:

Johns Hopkins Press, 1956), p. 202,

Additional Reading

Adolf A, Berle, The American Economic Republic, New York: Harcourt, Brace &:

World, Inc., 1963, An analysis of the American economic system,

Paul W, Cherington and Ralph L. Gillen, The Business Representative in Wash-

ington, Washington, D,C,: The Brookings Institution, 1962,

Marquis W, Childs and Douglass Cater, Ethics in a Business Society, New York:

Harper & Row, Publishers, 1954, (Also available as a Mentor Book.)

John K, Galbraith, The Affluent Society, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1958, David Riesman, et al. The Lonely Crowd, New York: Doubleday &: Company, Inc., 1953, (Abridged from an earlier Yale University Press edition.)

Robert Heilbroner, The Future as History, New York: Harper &: Row, Publishers,

1959,

Maurice R, Stein, The Eclipse of Community, Princeton, N,].: Princeton University

Press, 1960,

David B, Truman, The Governmental Process: Political Interests and Public Opinion.

New York: Alfred A, Knopf, Inc., 1951.

Arthur ]. Vidich and Joseph Bensman, Small Town in Mass Society, Princeton, N,].:

Princeton University Press, 1958,

Chapter Five

PERSUASION

AND

PUBLIC

OPINION

The power of p bu

faced, understo:d, l;nd~io; m~st be provides the eli . ea t urith; It ment in whic/SY ological environ-

organzzatzons prosper or perish.

Influencing the opinions of people is the practitioner's job. Basically, there are three means of getting people to do what YOll want-pressure, purchase, or persuasion. The United States draft law got men into the armed forces by pressure or force. Whe~ a vice king bribes policemen to wink at law violations, he gets compliance by purchase. The campaign of the New York Stock E~change which raised the number of common stock owners from 6 to 16

million was f .

. one 0 persuasion, In

public relations, persuasion is used.

The basic bi .

. 0 jectrve of programs is

eIth~r to change or to neutralize

hostile "

opmions, to crystallize un-

formed or lat t " .

en opInIOns In your

favor or t

, 0 conserve favorable opin-

Ions.

. ~o~e years ago a number of harsh crIt~CIsms erupted in New York State

against that st t ' If

a e s we are programs.

To allay the . . .

. . se critrcisms, the State

Chanties Aid A " .

ssociation In New

York set out to b . h ..

. rIng t e crrtics face

to face with th .

. e gnm problems of

poverty, Illegitimacy, illiteracy and

so forth T'hi . '

o ..' . IS IS a modern version

hf citizen Inspection of the poorouses of ye t

b . s eryear. The project's

asic plan w .

. as simple: to let the

community Ie d

eo " a ers see and talk to

p pIe living "on welfare," to watch

~:se~orkers cope with the complex '10 ems _.they face every day. The pi ot project

N was sponsored in ten

ew York com ..

b mum ties and financed

ti~na Ogtrhant from the Field Founda-

. er com ..

the 1 munlttes later adopted

pan.

In these com . .

day . mumttes on a given

community Ie d

those mo a ers-particularly

elers, d vocal about loafers, chis-

an loose-living women-are

Persuasion and Public Opinion . 69

68

paired off with caseworkers. Critic and caseworker spend the afternoon visiting typical welfare recipients. These recipients are not tipped off in advance but when asked if the observer may sit in, they readily grant permission. Typical rather than "best" or "worst" households are visited. Then all visitors and welfare workers come together for a dinner and discussion of what has been seen during the day. This discussion often runs past midnight and the critics wind up with a different opinion about those living "on welfare." The State Charities Aid Association, after the pilot program, concluded: "This demonstration has proved its value in helping lift the fog of public suspicion about welfare." This is a planned effort to change what had been hostile

opinion.

Public relations efforts to create attitudes where none exist is illustrated

in the National Safety Council's campaign to get motorists to use seat belts. Basic research has indicated that universal use of seat belts would save 5,000 lives each year and would reduce serious injuries by one-third. Much of this educational effort meets the ingrained resistance of human habit. The Joint Seat Belt Committee, consisting of the National Safety Council, the American Medical Association, and United States Public Health Service, keep up a steady barrage of persuasive communication, using films, posters, public service advertising, news stories, TV documentaries, and spot radio announcements to get more motorists to use seat belts. Here the effort is to crystallize latent or

unformed opinion.

The diamond has long been a standard of ultimate value, fluctuating little

more than money itself. When sales charts disclosed a trend away from the use of diamonds in engagement rings a few years ago, the De Beers Consolidated Mines Ltd. did something about it. To revive the concept of a diamond as a symbol of high fashion, publicity pointed readers and viewers toward the diamond that each TV, radio, and movie star received on becoming engaged. Fashion models were encouraged to wear diamonds with new gowns. Diamonds and St. Valentine's Day were linked in publicity. The jeweler was given special materials and booklets to use at service clubs and schools. All of these efforts had the objective of conserving favorable opinion.

The practitioner is striving constantly to start, lead, change, speed, or slow

trends in public opinion. His problems are compounded of people's differences in outlook and opinion. The daily tasks of the staff are created by people who "don't understand us," who "won't cooperate," who "won't work as hard as they should," who "won't vote right," who "won't give as much as they

should," and so on.

The term public opinion is a slippery one. Our ability to measure it is

greater than our ability to define or manipulate it. Although the concept originated in the eighteenth century, it still has not been defined satisfactorily. Public opinion. is difficult to describe, elusive to define, hard to measure, impossible to see. For this reason the concept is utilized less and less in the growing precision of social psychology, sociology, and political science. Most writers agree that the force of public opinion is perceptible, though the con-

70 . Persuasion and Public Opinion


A WORKING DEFINITION

of social situations; but having adapted them, opinions appear to become ingredients in the constant, gradual reformulation of attitudes."

The attitudes of individual citizens provide the raw material out of which a consensus develops. Influencing an individual's attitudes is a prime task of the practitioner. Consequently, he must know the source of a person's attitudes, their organization as reflected in the person's value system and personality, and the processes which bring attitude change. All this is of basic importance in understanding the end product that we glibly label "public opinion."

There are two main streams of thought with respect to the determination of man's attitudes: (1) one school assumes man to be an irrational being with limited powers of reason and thus susceptible to emotional appeals; (2) the second assumes man to be a rational being with strong powers of reason and discrimination. The early advertisers who relied heavily on the power of suggestion and exploited fear appeals reflected a belief in the irrational man. Those who believe that Americans are but puppets at the end of the "Hidden Persuaders' " string reflect this notion. Those who adhere to the rational model of man put their reliance on getting adequate information to people. Our educational system, for example, is based on the rational model of man. Practitioners who put their reliance on two-way communication of information demonstrate their belief in the importance of intelligence and comprehension in the formation of men's opinions.

In fact, most persons are influenced by both irrational and rational reasoning. A person who smokes may ignore evidence linking cigarette smoking with lung cancer on one hand but go through a rational process in arriving at an opinion concerning a civic issue on the other. Either school of thought can point to evidence which supports its assumptions and undercuts the arguments of the other. There are elements of truth in both approaches in dealing

with attitude formation and change.'

On the psychological level, the reasons for holding or for altering at-

titudes are found in the essential functions they perform for the individual in enabling him to cope with his situation. These are the functions of adjustment, ego defense, value expression, and knowledge. Daniel Katz, social psychologist, groups these according to their motivational basis: 8

1. The instrumental, adjustive, or utilitarian function .... A modern expression of this approach can be found in behavioristic learning t?eory.

2. The ego-defensive function, in which the person protects himself from acknowledging the basic truths about himself or the harsh realities in his ex-

ternal world. . . .

3. The value-expressive function, in which. the individual derives sa~isfactions

from expressing attitudes appropriate to his personal values and to his concept

of himself ....

4. The knowledge function, based upon the individual's need to give adequate

cept is vague Certainly it' .

S id "Th . s pervasive power IS easily felt. James Russell Lowell

al , e pressure of pub!" .. . . .

but all the sam it ] IC opmion IS like the atmosphere. You can't see it,

lander, Samuel ~~w;:ssl~te:~d~~u~~s to. the s~uare i.nch." Another New Engthing, so hard to re h ' h d ublic sentiment IS a capricious, intangible

ac ,so ar to manage wh .. h

must be faced, understood d d I . . en It IS reac ed." The power

provides the psychoZo . Z' an . ea t Wlt~ m a free country. Public opinion

gica entnronrnent In tohi h ..

perish. No one has better d ib d . . IC organizations prosper or

escn e It than did Lord Bryce: 1

[public opinl'on]' .

. • • • IS a congene f II .

fancies, prejudices, aspirations It . s 0 a sor.ts of discrepant notions, beliefs,

fro d . IS confused incoh - .

m ay to day and week t k .' erent, amorphous, varyIng

fu . 0 wee . But In the id f hi .

sron every question as it' '. rm st 0 t IS diversity and con-

I'd . nses Into Importan . b i

conso I ation and clarificat"1 ce IS su jected to a process of

f . Ion unn there em d

or s:t~ 0 mterconnected views h h 1 erge an take shape certain views

of CItizens. It is to the power ' eac d e d and advocated in common by bodies parent majority of citizens thaetxerte fbY any such views, when held by an ap-

, we re er when w t lk f .

e a 0 Publi« Opinion

There are countless def . .

publi " uunons. Most sch I .

IC 0pIlllOn represents 0 ars m this field agref' that

and th hi a consensus among .

at t IS consensus exer . a varymg number of persons

the tw cises power in th bli .

. . 0 words that make up the term . e p~ . IC-~pll~ion arena. Each of

IS SImply a collective noun for publzc opinion IS SIgnificant. A public

bbY some common bond of intere:t groudP-a ~roup of individuals tied together

e a small +an shanng a s f

group or a large group' it ense 0 togetherness. It may

dgroup. Ogle defines a public as ',,1 may be a majority group or a minority

emonstrat . any group of t

dari " e III any manner whatever wo or more persons who

fo'rr~~y. The term "public" is used freq thatl t~ey are conscious of group soli-

a group" W . uent y in bli .

" . e talk about our" I pu IC relatIOns as a synonym

our alumni public," and so f emp oyee public," our "communir ublic ..

sma~er p~b.lics within the GeC;:et~1 ~h~l~ are literally an infinite :u~ber ~f

. n opmlOn is sirn 1 h u rc,

Opinion im li p Y t e expression of an attit d

ceptance ThP es controversy and disput hue on a controversial topic.

. e law of gr . . e, w ereas fact' I'

matter of '. avIty IS a fact: the' . Imp res general ac-

0pllllOn 0 ' 'JustIce of a " . h

is simI)I" . . ne man s fact may be m . ng t to work" law is a

, an II1clinaf ere opmion t h

tion Th Ion to respond in a . 0 anot er. An attitude

. e terms "attitud " grven way to a' .

leads to som f' e and "opinion" are f gIVen Issue or situa.-

. ,e con usion Th 0 ten used int h b .

IS a (oHtinuin' . ey are distinctly s ere angea ly. ThIS

expressed opinTo~~tera~tion between inwardlep~:~~e co~cepts, although there

. WIebe thinks "0 " Y attItudes and outwardly

.' pmlOns adapt tti

1 J a t!tudes to the demands

ames Brye "

153.1. e, fodem Democracies

(New York: Th M .

e acmIllan Company, 1921), pp.

2 See Daniel Katz, "The Functional Approach to the Study of Attitudes," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 24, Summer, 1960.

3 tua; p. 170.

ROOTS OF OUR ATTITUDES



structure to his universe, The search for '

the trend toward better org " f meaning, the need to understand,

, arnzatron 0 perc ti db'

clarity and consistency for th indi id ep ions an clicfs to provide

e m IVI ual.

In sum, this functional approach is si

reasons why persons hold th itud Imply an effort to understand the

, e attitu es they do

, In dealing with the formation and ch . ,

will find Leon Festinger's th f ' ,ange of attitudes, the practitioner

, eory 0 cogmu e di

IS based on the fact that h b . v tssonance of value. This theory

, uman emgs dem

ststency and congruity in thei onstrate a great desire for con-

b elf attitudes and I

etween what they know d h ' converse y, they find inconsistency

" an w at they h d di ,

mg, Festmger states his the h ave one isturbing and discomfit-

ory t us: 4

Any time a ph'

,erson as mformation or ' , ,

~ou~d lead him not to engage i a~ OpInIOn which considered by itself

IS dissonant with having engag~d s~me hactlOn: then this information or opinion

the person 'II In t e action Wh h I'

" ' WI try to reduce it either ',~n sue cnssonance exists,

Ius beliefs and opinions, If he by changmg his actions or by changing

ensue Thi cannot change th '

1 ' IS psychological process whi h e action, opinion change will

noes explai h ' IC can be II d di

ti am t e frequently observed b havi ca e issonance reduction,

IOns, Whe di e avior of pee I . if

, , , n ISsonance exists di lp e Just! ymg their ac-

, Issonance·red ti

E".ch individ I uc IOn attempts do occur.

. ua accumulates hi d' ,

tam way from many places ,IS pre ISposltions to think or act in a cer-

until' , ' many sources A pe ' '

an Issue arises for the "rson s attitudes remain latent

there is fli group to which he b I A'

con ret, frustration or' e ongs. n Issue arises when

hi d ' anxiety Th f

IS, stan and voices his opinion F . us con ron ted, the individual takes

attitudes about What are the ,or example, university students have latent

or sorority h ' proper hours for coed t be i , , c

, ouses at llIght. The d f s 0 e m their dormitories

to be III an h . ean 0 women is '

, , ollr earlIer. A confli,t d I sues an edict requiring coeds

0tPI,lllOdns pro and con. The opinio~ eve ops. These attitudes crystallize into

a titu es on a' expressed repre h

speCific issue in d b sents t e sum of a person's

concern for e ate tempe d b

Nm th group approval of his expressed ~e, y that person's degree of

v at we have taken th opmlOns.

together Th ' e term publi "

mmmon' bo ed mbdi~idual opinions express~doPbznlOn apart, let us try to put it

n - e It a . t y members of . h

bunched under h CI Y councilor voters of a group Wit a

of private 0 ' I. t e umbrella concept publi , a, commonwealth-are loosely

, " pmlOns, Rath " c oprrnon, This i .

opmums 011 p bli er, publIC opinion is th s not the opposite

people not' III IC '!"atters. Public matters e ahggregate result of individual

, ISO ated indi id are t ose who h

same affairs P bli IVI uals. A public I'S IC affect groups of

, c. U ICS ca a group of I

IS not an entir ' : . nnot have and do not h . ?eop e affected by the

, , y III Itself P bli " ave opmions b '

OPWlOtiS on ' "U Ie opznzon is th ' ecause a public

an ISSUe m p bli e sum of ac I

this broad def ' , U IC debate and at! ti curn u ated individual

muon, McCamy sets up three ec l~g a group of people. Within mam categories: 5

4 Leon Fcstinger "Th

Communication ed.'ed e Theory of Cogn't' ,

I ' . . It by W'lb live Disson ",

~:( ,26, For a fuller discussil ur Schramm (New York' a;ce: In The Science of Human

r:, Harper & Row, PUblishon, see Festinger's A Th~o asic Books: ~nc" 1963), pp, 18-19

1957)lamcs L. McCamy, Ame~~s. 1957). ry of Cognttlve Dissonance (New

, p. 462, These catego' can Government (Ne y

nes are work' H

expanded ia his chapte . arp~r &: Row, Publishers,

r on publIc opinion.

1. Public opinion in its broadest sense is the whole way of life in the nation, or what social scientists call the "culture" of a people,

2, Public opinion is the prevalent mood of a people, or at least a consider-

able portion of them.

3, Public ,opi~ion, is the collection of individual opinions in a group of people whose attention IS directed toward a common subject, purpose, like, or dislike,

The tides of public opinion are forever ebbing in and out, beating against the boulders of public issues as they ebb and flow. These tides move at slow, almost imperceptible speeds, for the most part. They are propelled more by events than by publicity. In Galbraith's phrase, "The enemy of conventional wisdom is not ideas but the march of events." Public opinion encompasses attitudes and supporting behavior that polarize around an issue in public debate. When goals are accomplished, the supporting opinions tend to disappear. Public opinion on one issue can be displaced by opinion on another. The episodic nature of our news coverage facilitates this. As issues change, so does public opinion. In this process, the practitioner plays an influential role.

The process of opinion formation goes something like this:

1. A number of people recognize a situation as being problematic and decide that something ought to be done about it. They explore possible

solutions and do some fact-finding.

2. Alternative proposals for solving the problem emerge, and these are

discussed back and forth.

3. A policy or a solution is agreed upon as best meeting the situation

recognized as problematic. Agreement and a decision to promote its acceptance lead to group consciousness.

4. A program of action is undertaken, and this is pressed until the requisite

action is obtained or the group becomes weary of the battle and its members turn to other projects and other groups.

Public opinion gets its power through individuals, who must be persuaded and organized. "Public opinion is but the concert of individual opinion." To ~eal effectively with this potent force, one must study it situation by situation, ~nfluence it individual by individual, group by group. This starts with the individual and the source of his opinions. This requires an almost endless exploration of heredity, environments, and the motivations of human behavior. People act on the basis of "the pictures in our heads" rather than in accordance with the reality of the world outside. What a person believes is true, is true for him. To understand him, we start by digging out the roots of these "pictures in our heads." 6 What goes into the composition of these

pictures of a world out of sight, out of reach?

6 The concept of the stereotype was introduced by Walter Lippmann in his, now classic book, Public Opinion (New York: Harcourt, Brace .& World, Inc" 1922), !hlS .b~ok has stood the test of time and still offers a lucid insight into the nature of public opmlOn,


Persuasion and Public Opinion' 75

Harwoo~ Chil~s classifies the factors that shape a person's attitudes into t~o categones-?rzmary factors and secondary factors. Primary, in Childs'

View, are the thmgs we read hear or see" the h If'

• 0 ". '" c anne s 0 communica-

tron and ~hat comes through them-the ideas, reports, news, representations

that constitute our world of bib I " . .

. ver a sym 0 s. Our mterpretatlOn of these

sym?ols. I.S shared by the glasses through which we view them. The' lens in the individual s glasses are ground by the secondary factors of environment-

where we live, how old we h

h . I' are, ow prosperous we are, and our biological,

p ysicar, social, and psychologic 1 heri Th .

h a entage. e pnmary factors are active'

t e secondary factors are latent.t '

The roots of one's attitude

depths in the soil f I s are many and extend in all directions and

01 0 our cu ture Research d'

of these roots The till '. ers can Ig up and examine each

. y s I cannot with any t· . d .

of vitality or degree f " ' _ 0 cer amty, eterrnme the amount

o varration that each ro t contrib .

Which has the f 0 contri utes to the hving plant.

greater orce on what hi k ..'

environment? His famil or .one t m s and says-his heredity? HIS

The list of influencI'ng fY t a~e alssoCIates? His church? His political party?

ac ors IS a most dl Th

tion to all the others is h d I en ess. e role each plays in rela-

. ar to ca culate It . . h .. .

each Situation of conflict Th " . . . vanes Wit each individual and

slogans, superstitions and t e pictures m our heads" -the symbols, codes, in many places. ' s ereotypes that people live by-have their origins

The human person u h

a Ity as four primary determinants:

I. Biology or heredity.

2. Group membership essenti II '

3. Role, involving on~' ra y on.e s environment.

4. Situation all the a s'dage, sex, social status, class, and color

, CCl ental thi 0

brothers from the same . mgs which affect people which can make two

envnonm-m t '

urn out to be quite different.

!n most. attempts to enumerate and . .

agamst environment is . classify, the mfluence of heredity as

dOff a common startmg poi F

I erent pathways to an' omt. rom there such efforts take

we d ?" I . swenng the old quest" "Wh

OtiS a question continu II f . IOn, y do we behave the way

answer Wh day con rontmg th ..

. y 0 more people lik ff e pracn tioner for a practical

OUR CULTURE N .1 e co ee than tea?

to 1£ • 0 man lives unto hi 1£ I

onese ,all a person needs to d . mse a one. To demonstrate this

the crib to the casket he is' fl 0 IS to be absolutely alone for 24 hours From

elabor " . ' m uenced by oth Th .

ate CiVIlization awaiting h'" ~rs. e newborn child finds an

molded b h rm. He fits mt h' "

· Y t em. The family I 0 istoric institutions and is

tion .are organized ways in wh' .PhaYhgr~up: school, church, city state and na-

make ib IC t e individ I "

· POSSI Ie a richer life than ld b I ~a enters social relations. They

non. " Th . . cou e attamed if' d' id .

I. I' e neceSSIties of civilized l'f' m IVI uals lived in isola-

COf( ra and' I e III tur

COoperative relations w'th' n, compel us to maintain

lour fellows. We group ourselves to-

gether to work, to play, to worship. Without society, with its cultural heritage, man would be a beast." 8

These are the factors which determine a person's mental set-the screen upon which are cast the lights and shadows of what he reads, sees, or hears to form the pictures in his head. The basic institutions of family, church, school, and economic groupings grind the lens through which one views the world outside. They determine norms, standards, values. They transmit from one generation to another that which Bagehot named "the cake of custom." Man shapes these institutions and, in turn, is shaped by them. Public relations plays its role in this process.

THE FAMILY. The family, the germ cell of society, is the first molder of opinions. No person can escape the strong, formative influences of the family circle. Certainly Henry Adams was not recording a unique experience when he wrote that his father's character contributed more to his education than did the influence of any other person. In many, many ways, some overt, some subtle, the child acquires the parents' attitudes and outlook. A great many people, for example, inherit their political affiliation.

"Within the family is to be found the germ of all those potentialities which later ripen into love and hate, work and play, obedience and revolt, reverence and agnosticism, patriotism and treason. It is the matrix which molds the human personality and gives it the initial impetus and direction determining its goal and means to its fulfillment." 9 This influence is underscored by recent knowledge which indicates that many of our principal characteristics are acquired before the age of five. It is the family that bends the tender twig in the direction it is likely to grow.

Most of our social institutions serve mainly as reinforcing devices to reinculcate the lessons the child learned in the family circle. The neighborhood, mother's bridge-club companions, father's fellow workers, the evening paper, the neighbors next door, and the breadwinner's economic status shape adult attitudes. Similarly, the family shapes the attitudes of the children.

RELIGION. One basic human trait binds nearly all people together. This is religion and the belief in a supernatural, universal power. Religion is a vital force. Both believers and nonbelievers are influenced by it. No effort to influence public opinion can omit or deny the strong influence of the church. The church is more influential in the formation of opinions than a mere survey of members might indicate. Religion is so important and pervasive that many Americans feel compelled to go through the forms though they may not subscribe to the substance. On the other hand, many religious persons have no formal church connection.

Religion has been a major influence in Western civilization. Who can doubt, for example, the Calvinist influence in shaping the ideals of industry, sobriety, frugality, and thrift which stem from America's frontier? R. H.

8 Peter Odegard The American Public Mind (New York: Columbia University Press,

1930), p. 31. '

9 iu«, p. 47.

7 HarWOOd Childs

Inc., 194(). See the it An In,troduction to PUblic Opi .

c apter, 'Formation of Opinion:,lnlOn (New York: John Wiley & Sons,



Tawney held that the Protestant Revolution was one of the most decisive factors in the development of the capitalist ideology. He said, "Capitalism was a social counterpart of Calvinist theology." Who denies the indelible stamp placed upon American culture by Puritanism?

. The influence of religion and dogma which permeates all strata of society IS extended and underlined as the church increasingly turns to social issues in applied Christianity. Today clergymen-thought leaders-are active on many fronts in striving to generate and guide public opinion on social issues. The churches are con~e~ne~ with teen-age gangs and with delinquent parents, with slu~. clearanc~, CIVIl nghts, and narcotic addiction. The important role which ~ehglOn plays in shaping attitudes on public questions was clearly demonstrated m the 1960 Presidential election. As Theodore White concluded: "There is no dou bt that millions of Americans, Protestant and Catholic voted in 1960 primordially out of instinct, kinship, and past." 10 A University of Michigan research group concluded that "President Kennedy's Catholicism was clearly the biggest issue of the 1960 election."

. SCHOOLS. A teacher's influence stops only with eternity. The influence and

Importance of the school i th bli .. .

. n e pu IC-OpInIOn process is underlined in a

state which regards an ed d li h

. ucate , en Ig tened electorate as indispensable to

a free SOCIety. Whereas it h h .

fl 1 seems t at t ere has been some lessening of the in-

uence of the family and h h i .

I '. c urc m recent decades, It appears that the schools

lave gamed mfluence More hild h

Th .' c 1 ren t an ever before are going to school.

ey are startIng at an earlie d di

E d I' r age an atten mg for longer periods of time.

xpan ec and Improved tea hi h d

h I' c Ing met 0 s, larger enrollment and longer

sc 00 mg account for the schools' increased influence '

Because of their key rol . h . .

g tti . ems apmg tomorrow's citizens the schools are

e mg mcreased attention fro th . . '

h. . m e practItIOner. The philosophy or cause

e represents stnves for a gr h .

Thi fl '. eater s are in the education of young people.

IS IS re ected In diverse gr tl . d

to what shall be tau h ., ea y increase pressures on schools-with respect

.\ .: d . g t, who shall teach, and what textbooks they shall use.

n.mellca eems It proper th h

from the famil . at. testate shall have the right to take the child

certain lev I Yf adnd k~ep him m school until he reaches a certain age or a

c \e 0 e ucation. More ad. .. . .

shifted to the school' h . n more parental responsibility IS bemg

S In t e winter months d h . .

programs in the su an to t e organized recreation

. mmer months In urban " .

child to leave the h f . areas It IS quite common for the

orne or nursery school at th f h d .

kindergarten at the f f e age 0 tree, be enrolle In

, age 0 our or five and th b d d

system at six Any h ' en e entered in the gra e

are all Wet Daddy PTarhe~t . w hO has been bluntly told, "The teacher says you

, . IS IS t e way . t . " d

the impact of teachers d b 1 IS, oes not need to be reminded of

ECONOMIC CLASS. S~:etti~: ooks on a c~ild's opinions.

s overlooked III exploring the roots of attitudes 10Th

eodore H. White The M ki

1961). p. 356. This Pulitz~r Prize-;i~:fn of a Preside~t 1960 (New York: Atheneum Press, of the making of public opinion . g ~ook. provides a readable and useful case study

In a presldenUal cam' R

paign, ecommended reading.

are economic associations and status, the individual's stake in the capitalistic economy. Although the "economic man" concept has been de~olished, none would deny that economic motivation and influence are strong WIth most individuals. An individual's status as an unskilled laborer or as a management executive determines, in large measure, the way his attitudes are bent and shaped. Attitudes of the different income groups toward the role of govern-

ment are proof of this.. . .

The economic status determines, to a large degree, the particular SOCIal

orbit in which people move. The pictures in a man's head will be shaped, too, by the nature of his affiliations. Is he a member of the National Association of Manufacturers, the AFL-CIO, or the unorganized "white collar" workers who now outnumber "blue collar" workers in America? One's place of work, pay,

and security are vital factors in life. Their influence is large.11. .

SOCIAL CLASS. Somewhat related, but not necessarily so, IS the mfluen~e of social status. Certainly one's position as a member of the yacht club set will determine outlook, sources of information, and opinions. Tho~e who belong to art circles have big boats and travel abroad see events differently from

, ' haracteri t d ' "smart set" It is

those without these status symbols that c aracten~e 0 ay s .

. .' h . I tatus High income does not

Important not to confuse Income WIt SOCIa s .

. .' I h h it ften does Determining factors

necessanly mean high social status, a t oug 1 0 . .

. . t' home and neighborhood.

are family background, educatIOn, occupa ion, '. .

. f 's Iif It must be taken mto account m

Status influences every phase 0 one s 1 e.

persuasive communication.

David Riesman in The Lonely Crowd theorizes. t~at t~ere ar~ thre~. bas~c types in the American character structure, the "tradItIOn-dIrected, the . inne - directed" and the "other-directed." The tradition-directed person IS one

, . ler J d by rigid adherence to the

whose conformi ty to the social ore er IS assure .'

. "d h t i proper" The inner-directed

accustomed way of doing thmgs. He oes w a IS :

. . d b ly implantatIOn through parents,

IS one whose conformity IS assure year .

I hi h I st throughout life, The other-

elders, and teachers of goals and va ues w IC a . .

d· f the outside-from hIS contemporanes,

rrected person derives his character rom .'

. . d h edia Rlesman thinks that the

peer groups associates, friends, an t e mass merna. . .

,,' .' th fore in Amenca. ThIS theory

other-directed" character type IS commg to e . . .

h . h uld influence OpInIOn. The mner-

as Important implications for those w 0 wo . I' I

. I d al goals and relies re auve y

dIrected person has clearly Iormu ate person di d

little on the approbation of others in reaching his decisions. The. oth:rfl- uected

. h h J es" is more easily m uence .

person who strives to "keep up WIt t e ones

Thus it becomes important to know who the Joneses are. I' ,

. t 'n shaping our menta set IS one s

Another factor increasingly Importan 1 .'

. U . d St tes moves to full mtegranon.

race In these days of tension as the mte a

. and organizational worlds have been a

11 The pressures for conformity in the busmess . ti Man (New York' Simon and

favo it . .. H Wh Jr See The Orgamza IOn •

rr e topic of Wilham. yte,. S k rs (New York: David McKay Co.,

Schuster, Inc., 1957). Also Vance Packard, The Status ee e

Inc., 1959).


Persuasion and Public Opinion· 79

SOURCES

OF MOTIVATION

h . t nt bearing on efforts to

An individual's relatedness-to-others as an Impor a d h .k rs

I loyers have foun t at WOI e

persuade him this way or that. For examp e, emp. . I s rather than

will forego the increased pay possible under wage-I~~entlv~ p an " b

., "rate busters. To belong can e as

be ostracized by their work group as h person's opinions

•• 12 Thus whether you c ange a

strong an incentive as money. '. rt which the

d n the resistance or suppo

or not will depend to some egree 0 . d more that these

., W re learnmg more an

person encounters In hIS group. e ~ . arion process.P

. ., n the mass-commUlllC

interpersonal relationships Interve~e I , behavior. These standards are

A group develops standards fo: ItS me~~i~:des that members expect of one shared. They represent the be~avIOr an~ a don't do in this group." To the another. "There are some things yo.u Just he i t soated to conform. Also

. d hIS group e IS mo I

degree a person IS depen ent upon. "h' h operate to arouse the

. " . t tional cues w IC

there will be found In groups SI ua dvnami and the group struc-

. St d of group ynamlcs

motives related to conformity. , u y . . The results of research can

.. . I f r the practItIOner.

ture of our SOCIety IS essentia 0

be summarized.t+

Different people will respond differently to the same social pressures and persuasions. The appeals in incentives used will be effective to the degree that the individual has the necessary motivational predispositions to respond. These sources of motivation need to be taken into account.

PERSONAL MOTIVATION. All the reactions of the members of a group, a public! occur within the individual. Le Bon's crowd mind theory has been discarded. To understand the opinion process, we must study, too, the individual's emotional and physiological drives. All people have these basic drives in common-among them self-preservation, hunger> security> and sex. Our basic emotional needs include the desire for affection> the desire for emotional security or trust, and the desire for personal significance.

The whole sum and substance of human motivation is not bound up in those three brief terms. But we can set them close to the center of a good working concept of human nature. Practitioners must and do devise ways of meeting these basic emotional needs in their day-to-day programs-employee communications, for example. Consider the emphasis on awards, promotions, and clubs. In these basic drives the individual seeks physical and social security, gratification of his human desires, and protection of his ego.

GROD: MOTIVATION. Communicators have found it increasingly necessary to tak~ into account the group to which individuals belong. People, with rare exceptIOns, do not live in isolation but in constant association with others. There are essentially two kinds of groups, statistical and functional. It is helpful to enum~rate the target audience both ways. An audience may be classified by age, sex, Income level, educational level, occupation, and so forth. This is l~seful because members of the same statistical group tend to respond in the ~(Ime .general way to the same communications. Such classifications help to Iden,tlfy common .bonds of interest which may be used in building a bridge between commullicator and audience.

, But the fl!lIc~i(~llal group plays the more vital role. Functional groups are (om posed of individual, who come together for some common purpose. It may

be a constructIOn crew a p Iiti I I b h' .

' 0 1 rca c u ,or t e congregatIOn at a church service.

People desire t b I

.. . ' 0 e ong to groups and to find a sense of social security. In an

other·d1l'C'rted" so . t k

, ' '. , Cie y, we ta e our cues from our group associates. The

group s lIlflu~n(e appears to be on the rise; or else, through research we are

merelv learn 'e ab '

. , ' II1g more a out the group role in opinion formation. To belong

10 II <TroliP We pa" I pri TV '

, :" r ,,( nee. . e conform to Its standards its consensus. There

IS enlienc(' aCClnllUhting' , "I . J

I '., III SOCIa SCIence research of common attitudes among

t lose who "belong together."

Our individual attitud d h ..

. ,'.', ' es, an t us our OpInIOns, are maintained in as-

SO<l.ltIOn with small b f h

' num ers 0 ot ers. We influence them, they influence us.

I influenced by the groups to I. A person's opinions and attitudes are strong y

which he belongs and wants to belong.. the standards of the group and

2. The person is rewarded for conformmg to

is punished for deviating from them. probably the least influenced

3. People who arc most attached to a group are

. h fli t with group norms.

by communications whic con IC

., . n between the public-opinion process

It is important to note the distinctio ., . is not easily made. In the

Yet the distincnon I I

and the group-consensus process. . I . e or a number of relatec

f nd a partlcu ar ISSU .

public arena, opinions orm arou . t, h roup demands confonmty

. f bi ts on which t e g

ISSues, whereas the range 0 su Jec h p interaction takes place

. diff is that t e grou

IS broad indeed. A second I erence . frequent contact, whereas

h otl well and are In

among those who know eac ot ier b . n contact only the one

h . .. " I s those who may e I . .

t e publIc-opInIOn process mvo ve I d . 15 "The group opmIOn

. . D' n rightly conc u es.

tIme on the one campaIgn. aVISO f the public opinion process

I· t nt component 0 . .

process is an extreme y Impor a b intained if public OpInIOn

but the distinction between the two must e mal

. I "

phenomena are to be explained adequate y.

- , ti n (New York: Harper & Row, Pub-

M nd Motiua 10

12 See William Foote Whyte, oney a I

lishers, 1955). onal Influence: The Part Played by Peop e

13 See Elihu Katz and Paul F. Lazarsfeld: Pers k introduced the two.step flow the~~i ~f

in the Flow of Mass Communications. T~IS boo h public relations student. It WI e

mass communication and is essential readmg for t e . . I f

f . . hi book . Some Princip es 0

re erred to at several pomts III t IS . 0 inion Research Corp. Ill. H Guetzkow,

14 Condensed by Herbert I. Abelson for p d Lazarsfeld, S. E. Asch, .

P ch of Katz an

ersuasion 1956 and based on resear I V I

d L ' , bli Opinion Quarter y, o.

an eon Festinger, et al, . O· ion Process," Pu IC • li Voice of the

15 W. Phillips Davison, "The Pubhc. p~nin Christenson and McWd lams,

22, Summer, 1958, pp. 91.106. Also repn~te

People (McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1962), pp. 6-2 .

It is a common mistake to think of The Public as one massive, monolithic assemblage. No money-spending, vote-casting, goods-buying unit of more than 120 million adult Americans waits as one vast audience to be molded into "public opinion." "We the People" consist of many publics, of many kindred ~nteres~ groups, and of unorganized groups with like and unlike preferences m. fashions, ~:l~ic, ficti~n, and so forth. Novelist Joyce Cary thinks the "mass mind concept IS our time's special bit of nonsense.

~ check of consumer purchases will quickly show the risk in fashioning ~atlOnal campaigns for national audiences. A product may have great appeal m. New England and yet be ignored in California. Many public relations failures in the past resulted from the assumption that public opinion could

be molded from New York Cit dOff . .

, I Y own. ur e orts to communicate persuasively

WIth The General Public are, on the whole, inefficient and often ineffective.

The total public is complex h t W'"

" ' e erogeneous. ithin this great mass are smaller

publics which can be defined and thus influenced.

The number of differe t bli . h '

, . n pu ICS IS t eoretically the number of distinct

combmatlOns of individ I ' h' .

bli f ua s WIt m a given community. The number of key

pu ICS or anyone ", ,

I, '. orgarnzannn IS relatively small and manageable. For ex-

amp e, the uruversnv PR di '"

. . lfector IS primarily concerned with these publics:

trustees, admmIstrators fIt,

, ' acu y, nonteachmg staff, students parents of students,

prospective students alumni d . '

th h' ,onors, communnv leaders, and legislators. On

ese groups e beams most f hi "

tions ar tl ' 0 IS commUnICatIOn. The publics in public rela-

e lOse groups with .

of insti , common mterests affected by the acts and policies

an ins ttution or who t d "

Individuals f h se ac san. opinions affect the institution.

, orm t emse1ves mto bI" , .

parties religiousl . h h . pu ICS m vanous ways-politically III

, Y in c urc es sociallv i 1 b . .

trade associations I b " y m c u s and lodges, economically III

, a or unions or farm bl An Jndj

belong to a long list of ublics sir ocs'. n in ividual can and does

rigidly as "employee" p " Imultaneously. It IS dangerous to classify people

s or customers" h . f

roles. \Ve 'Ire whole , di id 1 wen, m act, these people play many

, L In IVI ua s A per' I .

publics lend stability t hi ~on s over appmg memberships in many

, 0 t IS mercunal force bli .. ..

contmually forming d' b d' ,pu IC oprruon. Citizens are

. , IS an mg and re f rrni , . ifi

VIews toward specif . ' - 0 mmg into publics holdmg speCI c

c ISsues.

Americans are great joiners and' .

Cub Scouts to Old Ag Kl b . mtenslvely organize themselves from

. e u s. ThIS m k' .

munl('ate with individu I " d i a es It easier to focus on and com-

" a s jome m gro T

111 groups, appeals must b '. ups. 0 communicate with individuals

" e Significant and I '

vuere« m a particular't . re evant to a particular group

d h Sl uatlOn. Schramm "The ki

an t e value and attitudes buil says, e kind of roles we play

we UI d around them are largely determined by

GOVERNORS OF OPINION CHANGE

80 • Persuasion and Public Opinion


A NATION OF MANY PUBLICS

the groups we belong to." A person's group relationships provide the setting for most of the communication he receives and transmits.

Today's citizen has many interests. He can be a voter, a taxpayer, a Methodist, a Mason, a Republican, a Rotarian, a war veteran, a merchant, a member of the Chamber of Commerce, an employer, a parent, a fisherman, and a consumer all in the same day. Each of these "memberships" involves a special allegiance. The issue at stake determines which allegiance prevails in a given situation. All have their impact on a person's underlying attitudes. One minute a man may be a pedestrian crossing the street and mumbling about "those crazy drivers." A few moments later he may be driving home from work and angrily honking his horn at "fool pedestrians who never watch where they're going." Both roles will come to bear in shaping this man's opinions on a new traffic law. Quite often, too, a person's allegiances collide. When new taxes are proposed to pay a soldiers' bonus, will the individual respond as a

taxpayer or as a veteran? . .

Individuals also react in unorganized groups. Some descnbe this as "crowds" others refer to "the mass." Persons sharing an attentiveness to the same thi~g at the same time may be said to belong to an t~norganized publ~c. Certainly, under conditions of today's society, mass behavior has emerged in increasing magnitude and importance. The excited squeals of teen-agers excited about the latest crooning idol are to be heard from Portland, ~e., to Portland, Ore. There is mass advertising of mass-produced goods appealmg to mass behavior. It makes people wear the same style clothes, drive the same kind of shiny, streamlined cars, and idolize the same TV. stars. The str:ngth

of thA" '" fl . matter of spirited debate In scholarly CIrcles.

'" mass In uence IS a 16

Certainly it is an important influence on opinions, mores, and values.

. h' nmental factors of culture,

As pointed out earlier in this chapter, t e envlro . h h

f 'I " ' d omic class interact WIt t e ac-

ami y, reltglOn schools social group, an econ "Th

'. " h ad-theIr expenence. e

nve, dIrect influences of what people see" ear, or re .

. h h which we see and Interpret

environmental factors provide the glasses t roug .

h d' ence fuse These pnmary

t e public scene Our environment an our expen . " f

f· 1 d t the intense competItIOn or

actors of opinion formation and change ea 0, b I

b . , inds i waged WI th slogans, sym 0 s,

pu hc attention. The struggle for men s nun s IS

. . 'our schools plants, stores,

and stereotypes in all media of commUnICatIOn, In 'h

f what people see, ear, or and offices. Pragmatic agreement on the factors 0

- bli 0 inion" in New Outline of

16 Herbert Blumer. "The ,Mass, The public, and P~ lC(N Pw Yo;k: Barnes and Noble,

the Principles of Sociology, edited by Alfred McClung ee e

Inc., 1946). pp. 185-93.

GENERATORS

OF OPINION CHANGE


read as ;he primary forces influencing opinions leads to the inevitable struf{gle

as to w at the public shall or shall not see read or hear Thi .. L f

men's minds b b )). IS competItIOn or

t" d eco~es a attIe of communication and censorship. Communica-

IOn an censorshi p or the lack of th d

the rate of change. ' em, ten to regulate one's opinions and

COMMUNICATION. Social life is possibl I h

municate, to transfer mean in 1. e. o~ y t rough the ability to com-

impossible without som g betwf een I.ndividuais. Group activity would be

e means 0 shanng exp . d iatti

munication includes all the s mbols of .enences an attitudes. Com-

them, and the means of y. h the mind, the means of conveying

preserving t em To rea h t 1

fluence another a person : c , 0 une erstand, and to in-

, must commUnIcate T'his j b . .

process and the nub of publi I' . IS IS aSIC in the interacting

, IC re ations.

Today s public-opinion market la . 1 .

issues clamoring for attenti d p ce IS oud with the babble of men and

. . IOn an consent Ev f .

competitIOn. Each person ha I d '. ery group aces strong, stndent

s ess an less time att ti d

to more and more things th .' en ion, an energy to give

. . rust upon him His f

seize his attention and se ..' ime goes to those things that

em to ment his supp

The. ~rimary factors of what we see h ort.

our OpInIOns-are selected f' ear, or read-the factors that activate

Newspapers, books and m o~t. 0 a welter of things to see, read or hear.

t R ' agazmes are showered d '

orrent. adio programs fill own upon us in an endless

'. our ears from sun . bedti

movies, bowling, and baseb II rise to edtirne. Television, the

, ' .. a compete for what li I I'

ve ve earned a living and . Itt e eisure time is left after

Th . gIVen some time t Iami . .

e Importance of '. 0 our ami lies.

, li , commulllcatlOn' d

111( iuidual acts on the b . . IS un erscored by the fact that each

II . asis of that tuhicn h k

wor ( IS a big and casual IT' e notus or thinks he knows. The

confused d h pace. 0 the mdivid I . f

an c aotic place E h ua, It requently appears a

:noWledge.only a tiny fragm~nta~f t~:::~ ~an k~ow with accurate, first-hand

nd pass Judgment. For this ld s affairs. Yet he must have opinions

I reason 0 ' . d

resear~ 1 and logical deduction. The ' ne s JU gments are rarely based on

S10ns ,Iccelned on th hori yare, for the most part b d

. e aut onty f h ' orrowe expres-

runlon leader, the local paper °d ot .e~s-a "talker" in the neighborhood a

araway "expert" f .' a vertlSIng, the boss a TV '

, or a avonte uncle ,commentator, a

CENSORSHIP. Censorshi .

suppression f I P represents an effort t . H

Ir 0 w rat persons might 0 III uence opinions by

J)' what one does not know as mu hsee, rbead, or hear. Opinions can be affected

on no facts c as y what h d k

Thus I "part of the facts, or all of the f e .oes now. Opinions based

o )ini' tIe t_ool of censorship is used to acts are likely to be quite different.

I T~lls. DICtators know this well S d ~~eate or obliterate an individual's

, iere are two kinds of . o. 0 managers of the news"

IIlvoked at th ' censorshIp. Artifici I .'

, . e source or along th Ii a censorshIp is deliberately

IS. effected by barriers . e mes of communication. N .

dtfferen Th of physl(:al, psychol . I atural censorship

CC. e latter I . ogica , and scm . di d

SOciety. The . (enve spontaneously fro . antic istance an

least of th Y ~ntervene at many points in th m the enVlfonment of organized

. ese IS the individual's self-i e communication process. Not the

mposed censorship of attention.


People see what they wish to see, hear what they wish to hear, believe what they wish to believe. Research indicates that changes in opinion over short time spans are small in relation to overwhelming barrages of information. Opinions are the basis for selective exposure to information.

It is easy-especially in the mass media-for people to avoid exposure to information. It takes only a flick of the dial or a flip of the page. We tend to expose ourselves to that information which seems to agree with us. Breaking through the individual's wall of isolation and insulation of fixed attitudes and limited scope of interest is not easy. Sales managers know this. Psychologists generally hold that emotional experiences far outweigh information in the shaping of opinion. 1£ information is to have influence on attitudes and behavior, it must be related to one's sense of values. Value judgments are essentially tied to the emotional processes.

The values each individual gives a situation determine what he perceives.

This brings us to a key point. Nearly every problem in public relations has its roots in the difference in perception-two or more people viewing the same situation in different ways. An individual's values stem from his heritage, his previous experiences, his sentiments, his likes and dislikes, his sense of obligation to others, his ideals, his goals, and his definition of self-interest. In short, his mental set. For each one of us reality is whatever our values permit us to recognize as reality. We constantly seek to reinforce our beliefs and our values by selecting those facts from a situation which are consistent with what we believe. We ignore those facts which conflict with our beliefs. The business executive reads Business Week; the UAW member reads Solidarity. The factors of awareness and evaluation guide each person in what communications he accepts and in what he censors. Communication and censorship govern the

flow of opinion change.

A host of forces and groups are constantly at work in promoting changes in old opinions and creating new ones. These generators of opinion keep the opinion process in a state of ferment and flux:

a. Programs of industry, labor, agriculture, government, education, social welfare

agencies, and so forth.

b. Political parties.

c. Pressure, professional, and interest groups.

d. Propagandists for partisan causes.

e. Press, including all mass media.

f. Churches.

It is necessary to keep in mind the continuing interaction of all the forces and factors. Man is a creature of culture, yet creates his culture. Attitudes shape opinions. Expressed opinions, in turn, reformulate attitudes. The family

SOME "LAWS"

OF PUBLIC OPINION

PRINCIPLES

OF PERSUASION



influences the child, who, in turn, influences the family. The group norms guide the behavior of the group's members, yet the members determine t~e norms. The press, through its content and emphasis, builds and changes opmions. Yet the content and emphasis in the mass media are selected in response to the opinions of the audience. Men create and direct organizations. Yet, as Chester I. Barnard once noted, when the efforts of five men become coordinated in an organization, there is created something new that is wholly apart and different from the sum of the five individuals. The "organization" shapes their opinions as they guide it. Political parties generate opinions, yet they spread and shape themselves to appeal to the most people. The way our two-party system aggregates opinions was seen by Key: 17

Each party leadership must maintain the loyalty of its own standpatters; it must also concern itself with the great blocks of voters uncommitted to either party as well as those who may be weaned away from the opposition. These influences tend to pull the party leaderships from their contrasting anchorages toward the center. In that process, perhaps most visible in presidential campaigns, the party appeals often sound much alike ....

It is this host of variables interacting upon one another with varying effects that makes this mercurial substance so difficult to grasp. "At all times it is difficult to determine whether public opinion is leading or being led, followed or ma~ipulated." The answer is, both. Public relations programs guide and are guided by public opinion. The process will remain more of an art than a science until we build up what is now the imperfect knowledge and science of the mind.

5. By and large, public opinion does not anticipate emergencies, it only reacts

to them. . II .. . basically determined by self-interest. Events,

6, Psychologica y, opIllion IS .. in so far as their relationship to

words, or any other stimuli affect opmlOn only

self-interest is apparent. . d f ny long period of time unless

7 Opinion does not remam arouse or a < • • d b

people feel their self-interest is acutely involved or unless opmlOn-arouse y

words-is sustained by events. '1 I d

. ., I ed opinions are not easl v c lange .

8. Once self-mterest IS mvo v, . .. . democrac is likely to

9. When self-interest is involved, public opmlOn may

be ahead of official p~licy.. b a sli ht maioritv or when opinion is not

10. When an opInIOn IS ~~~ d Yfact te~ds to Jshift opinion in the direction solidly structured, an accomp IS e

of acceptance. b. sensitive to the adequacy of their

A .. I ti s people ecome more

II. t criuca rmes, . . hev re willing to assign more than

leadership-if they have confidence m It, t e) a. . I', are less tolerant than

I ihilitv to it: if they lack confidence 1Il It, tie)

usua responsl I I , '

usual. hav itical decisions made by their leaders

12. People are less reluctant to av e I cr 't'lking some part in the decision.

if they feel that somehow the?" .the peodP e, arebl, to' form op inions more easily

I h re oplIllons an are a e I

. 13. Peep eave mo . ect to methods necessary to reach those goa s.

with respect to goals than wI~h ~e~p I .. is colored by desire. And when 14. Public opinion, like lIl~l\'lduha oPllnlOn'n information it is likely to show

'" d hi fl desire rat er t Ian 0 ,

opInIOn IS base c. re y ?n

especially sharp shifts with e\'en~s. d cv are provided educational oppor-

d I if people in a emocra d-head d

15. By an arge, I . . ublic opinion reveals a har _ lea e

tunities and ready access to 1~lformatdlOn, PI re to the implications of events

TI e enlightene peop ea. I

common sense. re mor '. h more likely they are to agree Wit I

and proposals for their own self-lIl~er.est, t e 19

the more objective opinions of realistic experts.

Hadley. Can~ril some years ago worked out "some laws of public opinion" on the baSIS of mtensive study of the trends over a decade. Cantril holds that trends, as recorded by the polls, support these generalizations: 18

}. Opinion is highly sensitive to Important events.

. ~. 7vents of unusual magnitude are likely to swing public opirnon tempor"an?, rl(~m ?ne extreme to another. Opinion does not become stabilized until

t re Imp Icatlons of Ct. .

3 '. . ven s are seen With some perspective.

, .; ~PInI~n IS generally. determined more by events than by words-unless t lose ",ords are themselves Interpreted as "events."

.1. \ erbal statements and 0 tli f f' "

. -h . ". u mes 0 course 0 action have maximum Impor-

tance" en OpInIOn IS unst t d h

. ,.' rue ure , w en people are suggestible and seek some

lIHtrpretatloli from a reliable Source.

h b ht in recent years, some tentative

Research in the social sciences as ~oug , h 20

. d expenmental researc .

principles of persuaSIOn base on .

. f r change must first be received

. d h nge a suggestion 0, .

1. To accomplish attitu e c a, . " is a critical factor in persuasive

d t d "Acceptance of the message

an accep e .

communication. lik I to be accepted if it meets existing personality

2. The suggestion is more ley

needs and drives.

h t "The Behavior of Public OP.inion,"

"I " see the c ap er & ,\,. t

19 For sharp criticism of these aws, d (New York: Holt, Rinehart InS ~n,

in Leonard Doob, Public Opinion and p~opag~na :et' of laws, and then proceeds to fashion

Inc., 1948). Doob says it is premature to azar .

some of his own. ources including: Herbert I. Abelson, op. CIt;;

20 These are condensed from a n~;:~erc~~smunic~ti~ns, a rea~er; Kat~::a1d ~~~a~!~:~y:

Schramm's Process and E:fJects olcar! I. Hovland, Irvmg_ L. _Jams, and 3 1\11 of these

Personal Influence, op. CIt., and H en' Yale University Press, 195).. k't

Communication and Persuasion (New . av '. ing at these "principles." These boo s C1 e,

h f ny people III arrrv

sources use the researc 0 rna hi h they are based .

too, the original research upon w IC

-

I7VOK·p/"· .

1'9 .• ey, 0 11Ics, Partzes and Pressure Groups (New York' Thomas Y. Crowell Com-

pan)" 58), p. 241. .

Pre:: ~~~Iey Cantril, Gauging Public Opinion (Princeton N.J.: Princeton University

. , I), See the chapter "The Use of Trends," pp. 220-30:



3. The suggestion is. more likely to be accepted if it is in harmony with group norms and loyalties.

4. The suggestion is more likely t b d if h . .

o e accepte I t e source IS perceived as trust-

worthy or expert.

5. A suggestion in the mass di I d .

. me ra, coup e with face-to-face reinforcement, is

more likely to be accepted th '. .

h. bei an a suggestion carried by either alone other

t mgs emg equal. • '

6. Change in attitude is more likely to occur if the suggestion is accompanied

by other factors underlying belief and attitude T'hi f

vrro hi h . IS re ers to a changed en-

nment w IC makes acceptance easier.

7. There probably wilI be m . . .

conclusions are e I" I ore opmion change in the desired direction if

I . xp icit y stated than if the audience is left to draw its own

conc usions.

8. When the audience is friendl h

or when immediate b t y, or w en only one position will be presented,

tive to give only 0 u'dtemfPohrary opinion change is wanted, it is more effec. ne SI e 0 t e argument.

9. When the audience disagrees 0 h "

other side from another s '. r . w en It IS probable that it will hear the

ource It IS more effecti t both si

argument. ' ve 0 present oth Sides of the

10. When equally attractive op osin vi

the one presented last will !obabf blews are pre~ented one after another,

I I. Sometimes emotional PI y e more effective.

are. It depends on the ~~~a~f are more inft~ential; sometimes factual ones

12. A strong threat is generalI I message ~nd kind of audience.

desired opinion change. y ess effective than a mild threat in inducing

13. The desired opinion change rna b

posure to the communicati~ h y .e more measurable some time after ex-

14. The people you want n .t an nght after exposure.

Thi most III your audien I

IS goes back to the cen hi f . ce are east likely to he there.

15. There is a "sleeper effe s~;s. Ip 0 atten~lOn. that the individual invokes.

the listener regards as hC . ml commulllcatlOns received from sources which

aVlllg ow d'b T

to wash out the distrusted so .nd I I Ity: In some tests, time has tended

C urce an leave mformation behind

ounselor Earl Newsom h .

public opinion into the . as. compressed the relatively little known about

se pnnCiples' 21 (I t polati

. . n er 0 attons are OUTS.)

I. I ~entlfication Principle. People ni : .

View u.nless they see clearly that ~I fflgnore ~n Idea, an opinion, a point of or aspirations. a ects their personal fears or desires, hopes

Your message must be stated'

III terms of the . t f

2 At' '. 10 erest 0 your audience.

. ta~~on Principle, People do not bu ideas s

n or about to be taken by th y eparated from action-either action

themselves can conveniently take ~ sponsor of the idea, or action which people

Unless a . 0 prove the merit of the idea.

I means of action is p . d d

( 0 things. rovi e , people tend to shrug off appeals to

3. Principle of Familiarity and T

w_e trust; we are influenced by rust. Wde the people buy ideas only from those

view put f d ' or a opt onl h .

have confidorwar by individuals or corpo~ t' y t os.e o_PlIlions' or points of

ence, a Ions or lIlstItutions in whom we

21 Compiled from

two PUblished addresses b N

Y ewsom.

Unless the listener has confidence in the speaker, he is not likely to listen or to believe.

4. Clarity Principle. The situation must be clear to us, not confusing. The thing we observe, read, see, or hear, the thing which produces our impressions, must be clear, not subject to several interpretations.

To communicate, you must employ words, symbols, or stereotypes that the receiver understands and comprehends.

Additional Reading

WilIiam Albig, Modern Public Opinion. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1956.

Floyd H. Allport, "Toward a Science of Public Opinion," Public Opinion Quarterly, VoL I, January, 1937. Still useful.

Bernard Berelson and Morris Janowitz, Reader in Public Opinion and Communication. New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, Inc., rev. ed., 1953.

Robert T. Golembiewski, The Small Group: An Analysis of Research Concepts and Operations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962. Useful introduction to research centered on the group.

Rex F. Harlow, Public Relations and the Social Sciences, New York: Harper & Row,

Publishers, 1957.

Floyd Hunter, Community Power Structure. Chapel Hill: University of North Caro-

lina Press, 1953. (Study of a specific city.)

----, Top Leadership, USA. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press,

1959.

Joseph A. Kahl, The American Class Structure, New York: Holt, Rinehart &: Winston,

Inc., 1957.

Daniel Katz, ed., special issue, "Attitude Change," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol.

24, Summer, 1960. (Also available in book form.)

Alfred McClung Lee, How to Understand Propaganda. New York: Holt, Rinehart

& Winston, Inc., 1952.

Curtis MacDougall, Understanding Public Opinion. New York: The Macmillan Com-

pany, 1952. .

Pierre Martineau, Motivation in Advertising: Motives That Make People Buy.

New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1957.

James N. Rosenau, National Leadership and Foreign. Policy: A =: Study in the Mobilization of Public Support. Princeton, N.].: Pnnceton Ul1lvers!ty Pr~ss, 1963.

Oren Stephens, Facts to a Candid World. Stanford, Cal.: Stanford University Press,

1955. (See Chaps. 2 and 3.)

Chapter Six

THE

PRACTITIONERS-

STAFFS

AND

STATUS

The specialty f p su

attain 0 . U lC relations will

top professIOnal status at

celerated speed but th d. an ac-

.. ) e tstance t

lS still substantial._D J 0 go

an . F orrestaI.

There are some 35,000 men and women engaged in the professional practice of public relations in the United States. Thousands more are e~ployed in public relations agencres and departments as secretaries, technicians, and clerks. Additional thou~ands of persons handle public relatlo~s responsibilities as part of other Jobs. It is difficul t to arrive at precise figures in a field so fluid, with the many titles and with the variety of duties which characterize them. In 1960 the United States Census inc!ude~ for the first time the job classification, "Public Relations Men and Publicity Writers." Prior to 1960 public relations workers had bee; classified under the broad category of "Editors and Reporters." The 1960 Census recorded a total of 31,141 ~e~. and women employed in the

civilian lab f .

. or orce as puhlic-rela-

tions practitioners or publicity writers. Of this total, 23,870 were men and 7,271 were women. The Census figures are shown in Tables I and II.

These Census figures are open to some question and appear to be on the low sid F

e. or example, the Census

does not include those in the armed

forces· the A .

, rmy, Navy, AIr Force,

and Marine C .

orps, collectively have

nearly 2 000 f II . . '-

. ' u -time public infor-

matIon officers. For another the Cen~,us s~ows 1,222 persons ~nder the pUblIc adminI·stratI· "

on category yet

the US I A I '

.- .. . a one employs more

~ofesslOnal practitioners than this. o accurate figures on the number of ferkso~s employed in public relations as s In our fed I

era and state govern-

ments have b

een compiled despite

repeated efforts of legislative commIttees and s h I

th I c 0 ars to do so, None-

e ess, these 1960 C

ensus figures give

The Practitioners-Staffs and Status . 89

the most accurate estimate of the size of this field that we have yet had. This census erased the commonly used round number of 100,000 quoted in trade talk for years.

In an effort to determine the rate of growth in public relations, the Census Bureau developed comparative figures from the 1950 Census which showed a 63.9 per cent gain in the number of practitioners over the 1950-1960 decade. The 1950 total was derived by a sampling procedure. These figures, too, are open to question, but they do reflect the solid fact that public relations is a growing field of endeavor and employment. The figures are shown in Table III. Harper's Magazine once described it as "our fastest-growing industry." Concrete evidence of growth abounds. Most of this growth is taking place inside departments in industry, government, education, health, and social welfare rather than in the public relations counseling firms,

Despite public relations' over-all growth, counseling agencies have remained rather stable in number and size over the past decade. There are an estimated 1,500 public relations firms in the United States, ranging in size from man and secretary to staffs of 100 or more. Eighteen years after the end o.f World War II, the two agencies that were the largest remained in this position but did not grow much in size. Today, it is probable that not more than a half-dozen PR agencies or advertising agencies employ more than 100 persons in public relations. Public relations agencies have not grown at the same

Table I
NUMBER OF PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONERS
Experienced Civilian Labor Force Employed
Region Total Male Female Total Male Female
Northeast 10,468 7,628 2,840 10,131 7,416 2,715
North Central 7,308 5,809 1,499 7,191 5,742 1,449
South 6,621 5,234 1,387 6,527 5,164 1,363
West 6,744 5,199 1,545 6,514 5,036 1,478
Totals 31,141 23,870 7 ;271 30,363 23,358 7,005 (From U.S. Census Bureau. Extracted from Table No. 256, "Detailed Occupation of the Experienced Civilian Labor Force and of the Employed, by Sex, for Regions: 1960.")

rate as have advertising agencies in recent years. It is the belief of Chester Burger that the notion that one account executive can handle all aspects of a client's program has been largely responsible for the lack of growth in public relations agencies. He says, rightly, "the need has grown, but apparently, relatively few agencies have met the test." 1

88

1 In "Why Haven't PR Agencies Grown?" Quarterly Review of Public Relations, Vol. 6, Winter, 1961, pp. 17-22.

90 . The Practitioners-Staffs and Status

Table II EMPLOYERS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

PRACTITIONERS Male, Employed-Public Relations Men and P II' ,

U) IClty Writers:

Total, 14 years old and over Agriculture, Forestry and Fish '

Mining , enes

Construction

Manufacturing (Total)

FU,rniture, and Lumber and Wood Prod

Pr~mary Ferrous Industries ucts

Pnm,ary Nonferrous Industries

Fabncated Metal Industries (in I

Machi,nery (exc, electrical) c , not spec. metal)

Electncal Machiner E '

l\~otor Vehicles aniMo~~I\rm~~t, and ~upplies

Aircraft and Parts e icle EqUIpment

Other Transportation E '

O h quipment

t er Durable Goods

Food. and Kindred Products Textile Mill Products

Apparel and Other Fabricated T .

Printing Publi hi ex ti le Products

.' IS mg, and Allied Ind .

ChemIcals and All' d ustries

ie Products

Rubber and Miscellane .

Other N d ous Plastic Products

1 on mabIe Goods (i I

Railroads and Railwa E . mer. n?t spec. mfg.)

Trucking Ser . y xpress Service

o I IVIce and Warehousing

t ier Transportation Communications

Utilities and Sanitary S .

Wh ervices

V' olesale Trade

Food and Dairy Products Stores .

Ge~eral Merchandise and Lim" and _Mtlk Retailing

Eatmg and Drinking PI ited-Price Variety Stores

O.ther Retail Trade aces

FIll~nce, Insurance, and

Busmess Services Real Estate

Repair Services

Hotels and Lodging Places

Other Personal S . .

E erVIces (mel .

ntertainment and R ." pnvate househOld)

Medical and Oth H ecreation Services

EdUcational S ~r ealth Services

. ervices Gove

Educational Se .' rnment

\Velf ' . rvices, Private

are, RelIgIOUS, and N

~thl el~ Professional and R~~~:~fi~ M~mbership Organizations

u ) IC Administration ervlces

Industry Not R

eported

(U,S. Census. Extracted f

Employed I rom Table 209 "I d

, )y OcCuption and Sex for t • ~ ustry Group of the

he Umted States: 1960.")


Table III

ESTIMATED RATE OF GROWTH IN NUMBER OF PRACTITIONERS

Public Relations Men and Publicity Writers

23,358

1950 19,000 17,000

2,000

Per Cent Increase 1950·1960

63.9

40.4

263.6

Total Male Female

1960 31,141 23,870

7,271

68 116 287 5,053 118 175 92

247

(U .S. Census. Extracted from Table 201, "Detailed Occupation of the Experienced Civilian Labor Force, hy Sex, for the United States: 1960 and 1950.")

PRACTITIONERS' TASKS

353

539 366 368

74

Eight major job classifications of public relations work were developed in a vocational guidance survey conducted by the Education Committee of the Public Relations Society of America. These are:

1. Writing. Reports, news releases, booklet texts, radio and TV copy, speeches, film sequences, trade paper and magazine articles, product information. and

technical material.

2. Editing. Employee publications. newsletters, shareholder reports. and other

management communications, directed to both organization personnel and

external groups.

3. Placement. Contacts with the press, radio, and TV, as well as with magazine,

Sunday supplement. and trade editors, with a view toward enlisting their interest in publishing an organization's or a client's news and features.

4. Promotion. Special events, such as press parties, convention exhibits. and special showings; open house, new facility, and anniversary celebrations; special day. week. or month observances; contests and award programs; guest re-

lations; institutional movies; visual aids.

5. Speaking. Appearances before groups and the planning requisite to finding appropriate platforms. The preparation of speeches for others, organization of

speakers' bureaus. and the delivery of speeches.

6. Production. Knowledge of art and layout for the development of brochures, booklets. special reports, photographic communications. and house periodicals

is required.

7. PTOgramming. The determination of need, definition of goals, and recom-

mended steps in carrying out the project. This is the highest-level job in public relations. one requiring maturity in counseling management.

8. Institutional Advertising. Advertising a company's name and reputation through purchased space or time is a function of public relations. Close coordination with advertising departments is maintained, and frequently the advertising-public relations responsibility is a dual one.

345 630

50 31

625 490 84

460 249 174

462 1,282 861 890

95 122

66 290

2.415 4,056 62 133 118

873 447 630 980

2,062 276 1,222 69

THE SIZE OF PR STAFFS

Public relations departments and agencie-s range in the size of their staffs.

Similarly, organizational budgets range from a few thousand dollars to the


Press- Radio- TV Employee Publications Special Events

Policy Making

Miscellaneous Manuals and Leaflets Editing and Writing

Annual Reports

Photography .

Community RelatIOns

Speakers' Bureau. .

Mailing and Distnbu~lOn Training and Education Survey Research Advertising

Movie Distribution Stockholder Relations Employee Relations Contributions

Movie Production Customer Relations External Publications

. data collected by Advertising

., li firm functions.

As for variations m counse.mg f d" beyond the clearly defined area

Age showed these "other services per orme

of communications:

Spot Assign~ents

Labor RelatIOns stockholder Relations . . Trade Shows and Exhibits

Legislative Work .

Advertising Agencies SelectIOn . Institutional Advertising Planning

., Preparation

Institutional AdvertlSlng .

. of the Information Center Commlt~ee,

The manpower and functwn sur~ey d that 166 PR staffs were doing

. . ,. ti s m the or er

PRSA, listed the followmg actrv I ie .

hei ing programs.

these jobs as part of t err go


multi-million-dollar budgets of General Motors, U. S. Steel, du Pont de Nemours, and other corporate giants. Counseling firms show a similar spread. Many are comprised of a man-and-wife team or man-and-secretary; n:ore ha:,e larger staffs of specialists. The largest agencies are Carl Byoir & Associa tes, Hill & Knowlton, Inc., and Ruder & Finn. The advertising agencies of N. W. Ayer and Son, J. Walter Thompson, and Young & Rubicam have large publicity departments.

The trend is clear. The Gallagher Report, in a survey made in 1963, found that nearly 82 per cent of 344 corporate PR directors responding agreed that their companies were putting more emphasis on PR than they had five years before. Over this same five-year period, 56.6 per cent of all U ni ted States companies enlarged their PR departments and increased their PR budgets. Less than 3 per cent had cut the function down. The average company in this Gallagher survey had had a department 13 years and at the time of the survey had a professional staff of II. The majority of PR directors reported directly to the company president or the chairman of the board. Nine out of ten PR executives said that they had very satisfactory access to top management. The average PR director studied in this survey earned $21,500 annually, although, in the companies with sales of a billion dollars a year or more, salaries passed the $65,000 figure. In 100 million-dollar to 500 million-dollar companies, the average is about $19,000.2

. A survey of manpower and function among 166 product-making corporanons by the Information Center Committee, Public Relations Society of America, showed these figures:

Responsibilities

Size ot Companies in Sales

Average Number ot Persons in PR Dept.

Average Number ot Persons Doing P R Jobs

Over $1,000,000,000 $500,000,000 to $1,000,000,000 $250,000,000 to $500,000,000 $100,000,000 to $250,000,000 $50,000,000 to $100,000,000 Under $50,000,000

65 20 13 12

6 4

77 26 17 13 10

6

Number ot Companies

99 50 45 43 40 36 34 33 31

28 20 19 19 16 16 15 14

11 11 7

Per Cent

Activity

92.7

Press Relations

Product Publicity . Company Contrib~tlons Community RelatIOns publica tions

Photography .

Speeches for .Executlves School RelatIOns

I . s

Investor Re atlo~ Communications General Interna

d to confirm the variation

. are known ten . .

The titles by which PR execuudvesA ong counseling firms and advertising

h d . s performe. mIt gent or account

and scope of t e une I unselar cansu tan, a ,

. ally caunse , co ,

agencies, the titles are usu . .

executive. Company survey disclosed this roster.

In industry, the Champion Paper

THE SCOPE

OF THE FUNCTION

The .

, '. ~aflety of functions performed is indicated by the response of 108

OIganlzatlOns to the questI'on' "Wh t ibili . d he

. . a responsl 1 ities might fall un er t

normal functIOning of a PR d ?" . .

b epartment The question was asked III a survey

y the Champion Paper Company, with these results:

2 The Gallagher Report, Vol. 11, July 22, 1963.

92.7 88.6 88.0 88.0 83.1

82.5 81.3 76.5 60,2


Title


Per Cent

In their study of the practice in Columbus, Ohio, Prof. Walter Seifert and William Moore found that practitioners' salaries ranged from $5,700 to $50,000. The majority of them, 67.5 per cent, earned from $5,700 to $12,000, whereas the remainder earned from $13,000 to $25,000, with the exception of one PR director, who received $50,000 a year.! The pattern of compensation characteristic of individual industries and organizations can be expected to apply to the pay of public relations workers. Variations according to geographic location will also be found, as a comparison of the Chicago and Columbus figures indicates. Workers in the nonprofit field are usually paid less than those in business and industry, and in the welfare field there is limited opportunity to climb higher than the $15,000-$20,000 range." Women's salaries are generally less than those paid to men.

Director of Public Relations M_anager of Public Relations VIce-President

Assistant to President

Assistant Vice-President Vice-President and Director of P bli

Relations u IC

D~rector of Industrial Relations DIrector of Advertising

Corporate Director

General Manager

Assistant to General M I

S I anager I

a es Promotion Manager

Supervisor of Public Relations I

Publications Editor I

. It is significant that in at least 70 I

given an identity as "publi I' ~,er cent of the above list, the function is

h . IC re auons and obvi I

as sue , mdustrial relations VIOUS y apart from advertising

so ' or personnel I '

me noteworthy consolidati f . n recent years there have been

so 1 . ons 0 PR and d ..

nne, mamly in very lar . a verusmg and of PR and per-

sid f . ge corporatIOns. Th .

e 0 separate Identities for th . . e preponderance remains on the

ese speCIalIzed staff functions.

. . REMUNERATION

The vanatlons in staff .

do not m h WIth respect to size f .

. ean t at the professional . ,unctIOn performed, and titles

It means that th practIce has no sh d'

tal e practice has had to b flexi ape or imension. Rather,

bents and manpower to cope with th e exibls, It has had to take on the

een able to sele t II e tasks assigned It h

Thi ft . " c a tasks for itself Thi ft . as not, being new,

IS e~lblhty extends to the inco' hl~ re ects the fluidity of the concept.

manner in whi h h me w ich pra titi

. IC t ey are paid. c I toners receive, and to the

Early 10 this decad h

ranges in bli e, t e Publicity Club f C .

respondedPu IC r.elations in that city. Eight 0_ • ~lcago made a survey of pay

$50,000 T retort1O~ ~ salary range for pUbi- elg t ~mployers of practitioners

. we ve positIOns were report d IC relatIOns work from $4,000 to

P " e as follows' 3

M~n •

PR Director Pay Range

PR Writer $ 6,000 to $50,000

Assistant PR D' 4,000 to 16,000

I' ! I' . Irector

uu ICIty Director 5,000 to 30,000

Staff Assistant 5,300 to 21,000

Account Executive 4,500 to 12,000

Editor 6,500 to 50,000

Radio·TV Mana er 4,000 to 21,000

Industrial Relat~ns D' 5,500 to 20,000

~und RaiSing Directo/rector 10,000 to 30,000

sst. Fund Raisin D' 7,500 to 15,000

Community R I .g Irector 6,000 to 8,000

____ e allOns Director

3 R 6,000 to 9 00

eported in B/ b ' 0

UT s, club pUb!" .

«auon, January, I 961, p. 2.

56 13 11

3 3

2 2 2

COUNSELING FEES

Counselors use several methods to charge clients for a sustained service or for a particular project. You can distinguish the more common methods by

these definitions:

Average $15,500 9,500 II,500 10,500

8,500 15,000 10,000 12,500 17,000 10,000

7,500 8,000

Fixed Fee. This is a one-cost contract. It is common with small or new accounts because it allows a fixed budget. The fixed fee tends to be a speculative and somewhat unpopular method so far as the counselor agency is concerned. Frozen revenue, with not always fully predictable expenses, makes for uncertainty. The exception would be a long-established account where the job to be done is well known and the annual expenses can be accurately forecast.

Fixed Fee with Out-at-Pocket Bill-Back. This provides for a flat, one-cost contract for internal services. External trade services, such as modeling or printing, are billed back to the client at cost.

Fixed Fee plus Hourly Billing, Plus Out-at-Pocket Bill-Back. This provides

for personnel time-charges, such as salary for specific job assignments, as a breakdown of internal costs. This is usually rendered in addition to an agreed monthly retainer fee. Outside services are then billed back at cost.

Fixed Fee plus Hourly, plus Overhead, plus Out-at-Pocket. This provides for a breakdown, not only of personnel time or salary charges, but also of overhead, to include rent, light, and accounting. There is usually ~n agre~d monthl~ retainer to cover the cost of supervision and profit. Outside services are billed back at cost. Advertising agencies with PR departments, lo~g. adjusted to. the idea of 15 per cent commission, tend to introduce the commiSSion, as such, Into

billing procedure.

Although these four basic systems are used in establishing charging practices for public relations services, the actual cost to the client for such services varies considerably, based on five factors." In a study of fees and charging prac-

4 William C. Moore "A Critical Analysis of Public Relations Practitioners in a Midwestern Metropolitan A~ea." Unpublished master's t~esis, Ohi~ State l._Jniversity, 1962, ~. 18. 5 Public Relations Society of America, Let's ConSIder Public Relations, An Occu pational

Guide (New York: PRSA, 1963), P: 18. .".' .

6 The Rubel Service "Public Relations Charging Practices, pubbshed and distributed

by Robert Associates, 862 Grove Street, Glencoe, Ill., Vol. 3, September, 1960, p. 498.

tices by public relations agencies, the Counselors Section of PRSA found a broad understanding that these elements must be included or reflected in a cost statement if the counselor is to stay in business: 7

l. Cost o~ the, staff used on the project. 2, Executive time and supervision,

3, Overhead costs,

4, Out-of-pocker costs-for example, telephone and travel. 5, A reasonable profit for doing work,

There are wide variations ' ,

I, m accountmg procedures and in arriving at

c lent costs, For example ther diff

h 1 ' " ' e are I erent ways used. in determining the

our y value of mdlvlduals w ki

, b d or mg on accounts, Some firms use cost account-

mg ase on dollar salary cost h 1

b h ' per our p us overhead and profit determined

y mat ematIcal formulas' som fi

h "e rms guess at their approximate cost, and

t en apply an arbItrary factor f 11 I"

diff I' ,or a c rents: others use different factors for

I erent c lents, There IS equal " , , ,

firms b Old ' , vanauon m arnvmg at overhead costs, Some

UI time spent gettmg new busi ,

Publi lati , usmess mto overhead; others do not,

IC re ations agencies generall ki

procedures and m ' y spea mg, need better cost accounting

ore common agreement h d

on met 0 s of charging clients,

THE PR DEPARTMENT'S ADVANTAGES

96 . The Practitioners-StaDs and Status

The Practitioners-StaDs and Status· 97

THE WORKING OF A PR DEPARTMENT

Where there is no outside counsel" '

four steps in the PR ,mg, an internal department handles all

process, Operatmg on b d h

finding, They set up obi t' a u get, t e staff undertakes fact-

jec rves and plan p Th

the necessary communicat" rograms, ey follow through with

IOns and events Th I

ments vary this pattern b hi ,: ey eva uate results, Many depart-

, , y mng opmIOn rese h fi '

oprrnon and to evaluate results arc rms to measure public

The work of the staff will in all r ' ,

be designated to edit the h ,P obablhty be segmented, Someone will

house magazme to handl h

t e press, to stage special 'e t e news service, to contact

TI events, to conduct the 1

ie alternative to div'd' h p ant tours, to prepare speeches,

J k f I mg t e tasks h

, ac -0 -all-trades group as" , among t e staff is to establish a

In both of these set~ps s~~~~ng ~l~o~ects on a "who's not busy now?" basis, ices, because either time le WI, e the need to retain some outside serv-

, '1 or ta ent IS Iackin '

Ices wou d be the layout art k ' , g mternally, Typical outside serv-

anniversary booklet Tlu , wor ,pnntmg, binding, and mailing of a fiftieth-

, ' e mternal staff iah

«mlent and distribution and ha ' mIg, t have planned the book and its

Other examples could b h ve wntten Its copy,

monitoring of press noticesertad~ refredshments catering for an open house the

1 he m: . ,10 an TV b d '

anc t ie mImeographing and m T roa casts, lecturing at a seminar,

. ar mg of news releases.

7 "F

ees, Charges and 0 h

Sponso d b ver ead in the P .

1961 . p; 7l the Counselors' Section pUb~~etIce of, PUblic Relations," A Study Report

• '-. ' ic Relations SOciety of America, December,

An internal staff practitioner has four factors working for him:

I. He has team membership.

2, He has knowledge of the organization.

3, He represents economy to the organization. 4. He is available constantly to his associates.

Team Membership is a great advantage. The confidence and support of team members go with it. This tends to overcome or to relegate into unimportance the natural antagonism toward any new function or person. At the same time, the close connection between the PR work and the chief executive office of the organization provides first team membership, rather than remote or insignificant membership,

Knowledge of the Organization means an intimate, participating knowledge that comes from being an insider. The staff man knows the relationships between individuals and their functions within the organization, He knows the undercurrents of influence, the key people, the conservatives, the harmful ones who put personal ambition and expedience ahead of the organization'S interests, the articulate and the tongue-tied,

This kind of knowledge can be acquired by an outsider. But the insider is in a position to do most about it continuously. He can advise where needed, conciliate, and render services from within to induce attitudes and actions which will bring about harmonious relationships inside as ,:ell. as outside,

Economy can result simply from residency in an orgamzatIOn" an~ from integration in an organization, For example, the PR depar,tment s bills for rent, heat, and light in a large organization are not expressed in a manner that looms large, They are expressed generally as a small part of an over-all cost for

many departments and offices. ,

Similarly, for an event like a 100th anniversary, the PRo department s activity is not a single, separate cost. It is part of a celebratIOn cost. Perhaps the only separate departmental tasks are to prepare a booklet an~ to place a giant cake with 100 candles on the front lawn, Concurrently durmg the year

th d .. ' 1 d The Board of Directors may

e a vertIsmg department may run speCIa a S. .

establish a scholarship in memory of the founder. All emp~oye:s may be grven a holidav on the birth date. These activities, to the publics Involved, would all be PRo Only two, however, were in this instance charged or executed

departmentally. .

Availability of the staff practitioner has many facets, When th,Ing~ g~ wrong, he is not one minute from a face-to-face meeting with the orgamzatlO~ s officials. As a deputy he can be entrusted with delicate matters, When a semor

. ' . PR man on the spot who

exeCutIve resigns in a huff the president wants a

knows the background, understands the dangers of mishandling the news, and

THE OUTSIDE COUNSELOR OR AGENCY


has credibility with th I .

w Id fie. press. n such a situation the head of an organization

ou .ee .u?easy dealmg through an outside PR man

Availability means that the staff' .

and decentralized units Th ff IS on call for all departments, divisions,

. e sta man ca l' .

and meetings. He belon H' h n SIp into and out of committees

gs. e IS andy for . I .

cepta?ility and authority. consu tation. He has both ac-

HIS availability to perform service fun" "

of PR-oriented activities H b ctions Involves him m a broad range

. e may e asked to h II

some foreign visitors who d anc e a tour of facilities for

tion on a local Civil Def 0 not spe~k English. He may represent his organiza-

ense committee He d .

on the recovery of a lost child H . maya vise an employee's family

of a citation. Or he rna k' ehmay respond for the organization on receipt

f ,y rna e t e arrangem f hi .

or or the wedding of hi d h ents or IS president's vacation

IS aug ter.

The Practitioners-Staffs and Status' 99

A HOST OF PERSONALIZED SERVICES

.The personalized-service as ects .

senous.ly. They are numerout Theof pro~esslOnal practice should be regarded

~nd clients. The outside co I yare Important in the eyes of employers Illustration, here is a list ofunse orp' too, becomes involved frequently As an

Pr " some R or' d .

actltlOner's calendar during f - rente tasks. All these appeared on a

a ew months of

Formation of lette " one year. They are typical.

. r-wntmg r .

Consult on athleti .: c imc for secretaries

D . IC assoo a tio b I

evise program for n y- aws

Establish . golf tournament

memonal fund

Arrange for employee's son t

Speak at "Press Club" f h 0 enter Soap Box Derby

Don' 0 ouse ma .

ate pnze for foremen's b gazme reporters

Judge beauty contest anquet

Arrange loan of .

Participate in th equ.lpment. for outing

Review little-th ree Industnal exhibits

C eater plays f I

ounsel on high h or ocal newspaper

J d sc 001 comm

.u ge YMCA handicraft h'be~cement program

Arrange loan of h li S ex I It

Supply Sports c I ~ I:opter to civic event .-\rrangc for di ele my to Little League ban

p '. sp ay of guid d '. quer

artlClpatc in sur' e missile

v ey on future housing

by the te~m, he tends to be conciliatory in his views. He is in constant danger o~ becomm.g a "?,es" man. Much of his time is diverted from long-range planmng to dally cnses of small import. These handicaps add up to domination and subjectivity.

A Biblical saying describes the occupational hazard of the staff man. "A prophet is not without honour save in his own country and in his own house." At a glance that seems in strange contradiction with the support and deference often rendered him by teammates in an organization. It bears closer inspection because the support tends to become possessive in the manner of a bear hug.

The staff man is in his own country. He is in his own house. He is contained by all the emotional elements of belonging in an organization. He is harnessed to an office a large part of the time. In that office are a desk to catch the daily mail, a telephone to receive the daily calls, and chairs to accommodate the daily visitors from down the hall. As a result, the details preclude the benefits of regular outside contacts for refreshing stale viewpoints. The people wi th whom he exchanges opinions daily tend to look, to feel, and to talk the same as they did the day before. They place him in the middle of conflicts. There is the daily necessity of making innumerable small decisions that push from his mind the challenge of grappling with larger or more remote matters. Availability exacts a price.

As a part of the restrictive influences, the staff man's viewpoints on specific areas of communication trouble tend to be subordinated to the viewpoints of operating officials. The staff man must strive to hold to an objective viewpoint.

This is never easy to do.

THE PR DEPARTMENT'S HANDICAPS

The staff man's d

b'I' a vantage f

a I Hy, are hand' 0 team membersh' .

Icaps on occasion H I .Ip, and hIS continuous avail-

. e oses obJecti't I .

in y. n being supported

Public relations counseling firms in the United States range widely in size and scope of service. In addition, there are more than 200 advertising agencies offering public relations services to some degree.

The majority of counseling firms are engaged in public relations work exclusively. A growing number, however, are offering advertising, graphic arts, trade association management, and sales promotion services as well. There is a discernible trend toward specialization among public relations firms, for example, in financial relations, employee communications, and association

management.

Most advertising agencies find it difficult to determine what, if any, public

relations services to offer and how to effectively organize the PR function. N. W. Ayer pioneered in 1920, when it offered a publicity service for its advertising clients. In 1925, Albert Frank-Guenther Law took the next step when it expanded its operations to offer a full-fledged PR and publicity service. In the next few years, J. Walter Thompson, Young & Rubicam, and Benton & Bowles followed suit. By the mid-1940's, 75 agencies were providing publicity



service for clients, according to an Advertising Age survey. In 1953 Advertising Age made another survey and concluded: "The role of the public relati~ns department in the advertising agency is a strange one. Many topflight agencies billing over $5 million a year still do not have one. Many of those that do regard it purely as a service function."

In 1956 Marion Harper, of Mcflann-Erickson (now Inter public), broke new ground by setting up that agency's public relations department as a wholly owned subsidiary corporation, Communication Counselors, Inc. Other agencies to follow suit included Benton & Bowles, Inc., with its General Public Relations, and Chirurg & Cairns, which set up Creative Public Relations. Harper ultimately folded CCI into Communications Affiliates, Inc., an Infopublic subsidiary, which includes market research, advertising and sales communications, and Infoplan, a worldwide public relations organization.

Today there are basically two kinds of advertising agencies-those offering some measure of PR service and those who shun it. Most agencies service only advertising clients; a few take on nonadvertising clients for public relations or publicity service. Most PR work in advertising agencies is spent in product publicity. Few agencies are adequately equipped to offer broad-gauge public relations counseling. A 1962 study of New York City advertising agencies by Public Relations Aids, Inc., found that 77 agencies (some 44 per cent of those queried) have either a separate PR department or a wholly owned subsidiary, or ~ave set up an outside PR agency with interlocking ownership. Irving Smith Kogan asserts that "in spite of its growth, PR in the advertising agency business has had Spotty success." 8

E~ecutive Report, a Prentice-Hall publication for top management, has predicted ~fter making a special study that both public relations and advert~smg ser~lCes w~l1 be taken over by agencies offering a complete communicanons servICe to mdustry by 1980. Marion Harper's Communications Affiliates was ~n effort to move in this direction. In a special report, Executive Report predicted that "the communications specialist will cut across artificial boundanes. to solve the specific corporate problem most effectively." This publication predicted a need for an agency to which a client could take a total marketing or ~ther communications problem and have it handled under one roof, coordl,nated thro~gh one account executive. Executive Report concluded: "We do~ t get PublIc Relations 1980 until the entire communications structure is

unified. In part most publ] I'. . .

. .' IC re atlons agenCies handle a vanety of commurnca-

nons services. But all t d . _

' 0 ate, stop short of total commUnICatIOns serv-

ice .... " 9

. has to serve" 10 If Sa fire's predictions come

with the publics that ~ny busdmess. . nd ~arketing agencies undoubtedly

true the public relations, a vertismg, a c

will' find the amalgamatio.n painful. . . d promotional services are mu-

Wherever public relations, advertising, an'd tif the firm as offering a

here j lly an effort to I en I Y

tually rendered, t ere IS usua hi that client organizations are in-

. ." T IS assumes

"complete marketIng. service. l' I it b an automobile, a safety cam-

vested with a marketmg problem, w le~ ier it ne :

paign, better medical facilities, or chhantyff· range of services there are some

I" g firms t at 0 er a ,

Separate from counse m. . Ii d t re Some offer only research,

. f hi hly speCIa ize na u .

which offer services 0 a g . 1" . Washington financial PR,

. ti s advice lalson In V\ L '

or employee commuruca IOn . n Diversification within a single agency

press contacts, or product promotIO . . 1

- . li d rvices is also takmg pace.

to offer clients speCIa ize se . f 'Thev send out literature about

fi 1 1· . a vanety 0 ways. I •

Counselors nc c rents In . _ fessional advertising. Perhaps

1· . . t r iews They use PIO L •

themselves. They so ICIt in e v : . li t is the endorsement of satisfied

. f acqUlnng c len s I

the most effective means 0 dverti agency en]' ovs an advantage

t of the a vertrsmg 'L I

clients. The PR departmen . fferi its services to those clients for

. d nselor In 0 enng I .

over the indepen ent cou . II the advertising agency provides

. dv ., OccasIOna y, L , •

whom It performs a vertismg. . s to adver tisinjz clients at no

d tion services uo j L

limited publicity or pro uct-promo

extra charge.l- h the counselor who does the seek-

. . . h I" nt rather t an , .,

QUIte often It IS t e c ie '. h mergency situation or Imminent

" 1 the chent as an e . k d

mg. ThIS happens w len 1 h medical research reports Iin e

threat. This was the case, for exa~p e, w en rgency situation, the counselor

. . Entenng an erne . d

Cigarette smoking to cancer. t the existing misunderstan _

. diately try to correc

has no choice. He must imme I of the communication or per-

. (gate the sources

ings. Later on he can mves 1 . measures for the future.

I gest preventIve .

formance breakdown anc sug 1 '11 b 'n his service to a new chent

. the counse WI egl .

In normal CIrcumstances, . b n the client and those public

f 1 - I rionships etwee

by exploring the health 0 t ie re a I .,. 1 ploration might take months.

d d The mina ex

groups on whom he epen s. hi can be expected to happen. The

. . 1 d e of three t mgs .

't\lhenever It IS comp ete , on blem or threat of harm In com-

. h t he finds no pro . h

counselor tells the client t a . id ssistance. Or, he tells him t at

. d require ou tSI e a h

munication of a magmtu e to . ealm other than that of t e

. b h esearch are in a I' d

the problems disclosed y t e r are roblems which can be solve

PR field Or he tells him that there p.

. , . - bI" relations techniques. .

through the application of pu IC ke a presentation of his find-

h el arranges to rna . 1

In the latter case, t e couns d: the central core of the difficu ty,

ings. In this presentation are expose . (a) h organization, (c) related dif-

. of harm to ted

(b) its current status In term~ red (d) ultimate alternatives to be face ,

ficulties which must be conside ,

, A p~'actitioner, William Safire, predicts the same thing in his The Relations

i'.xp/osum. He thinks "r 1 ti .

, e a Ions servIces must change swiftly to meet the changI ng character of business" H d' "A d

'II I 1 . e pre icts new type of communications metho

WI ( eve op. It will fuse together all the relations services to deal cohesively

8 In "Public Relations' Agency St hild," M .

9 Special study. "Inside Publi epc I. ' " ~d,son Avenue, june, 1962. pp. 14-15 and 30.

Published by Prentice.H 11 I c Relations. ISsued by ExecutIve Report, August. 1963.

a • nco .

1963. with subtitle: "The Coming Boom and

. 1 C mpany

10 Published by The Mac~lJlI ~~ 0 , •

Shakeout in Corporate Relations. H' . in Selecting a Public Relations Counsel," Tide,

11 For one example, see "Case istory

Vol. 30, October 26, 1956, pp. 24-26.


(e) desirable objectives (f) a Ion I h d .

. . ' g-range p an s ape toward the objectives, and

~g) an immediate program of actions involving anything pertinent even if it

mvolves the removal of a senior officer. '

Not all of these factors in .

" Th a presentanon are exposed invariably at one

sIttmg. e counselor how bl"

b . .' ever, to esta Ish a suitable working climate must

o .ttatmd a? understanding on the full range before his firm's talents can be comrm e smcerely to the tasks.

The burden of proof for th ff . .

tI lee ectrveness of advice and actions rests with

ie counse . Many results are inta ibl

many extra dollar f hari ~gI e, or even nebulous. Who can tell how

s or a canty drive came in b f h

about the work of th h . d . 1 ecause 0 t e newspaper stories

the common yard t·ekc anty urmg the year? Polls are helpful, but many of

s IC s are not app . I .

counsel submits report f ropnate. n oversimplified terms, the

. s 0 progress holds per' d' . .

m the client's organiz ti d" 10 IC meetIngs WIth key people

. a ion, an coordinates th A

client relationship matu h h e program. s the counselor-

res, t e s ape of the Iienr' . .

undergoes cloud-like " c lent s enterpnse most Iikely

varratrons Commu . (

scrapped, or replaced N . . mea Ions programs are revamped,

. ew ones are activated S . I d .

to deal with peculiar needs. . pecia evices are imagineered

The counselor usuall fu . .

y nctions In one of three ways with clients:

I. He provides advice The .

2. He provides advice' and exdecutlOn of plans is left to others.

3 H un ertakes full .

. e provides advice and II I . execunon of plans.

co a lora tes with th li '

. e c lent s staff to execute the plans.

Burger lists six reasons wh .

y outsIde agencies are retained: 12

I. Management has not .

gr- d I prevIously conducted f

, ,1111 an acks experience i . . a ormal public relations pro-

2. Headquarters may bIn orgamzlllg one.

tions a I fi . e ocated away from Ne Y k .

3. " ' ne nannal center of th' w or City, the cornrnunica-

I he wide range f e nauon,

1 -\ r, 0 Up-to-date contact .

' •• 11 outside agency can pr'd . s mamtained by an agency.

he unwilli OVI e serVIces of ex . d

I . I II1g to move to other " penence executives who would

l)' a sll1gle firm. CitIes or whose salaries could not be afforded

;). :~ n .organization with its p

~;~Ihzed services which it ~;~ot~ffde~artment may be in need of highly spe-

6 .. ie need in crucial matters or on a permanent basis. •

Judgment of an outsider. of over-all outside policy for the independent


THE COUNSELOR'S ADVANTAGES

The greatest single ad

tunity for objectivity. Th~a~tage °df the counselor to the client is his oppor-

an a vantage he .

enJoys over the staff man and

12 In "Why Haven't PR .

AgenCies Grown?,"

op. cit., pp. 18-19,

the client. He need not be confused by the internal frictions of the organizations he serves. He need only be concerned with recognizing them and helping things run more smoothly. The fact that one vice-president's wife snubs another vice-president's wife is no cloud on his vision. He need not live with the dayby-day minutiae which plague his clients. He can stand apart from the complaints that reach the top official's desk each day and keep him so busy patching up communication chinks in the organization that he has no time to think through plans for a major overhaul. The counselor can conceive the overhaul without wasting time on the chinks. He is, in a phrase, a free agent.

A second advantage to the counselor is the scope of his operations and variety of skills. From an office in New York, Washington, or Chicago he can serve clients in Colorado, 'Vest Virginia, and Vermont. If that becomes impractical, he can open branch offices in major population centers. He can exchange services with firms in other cities. In cases of need, he can install sandlot offices in Colorado, 'Vest Virginia, and Vermont. Reasonably intimate contact can be maintained through periodic meetings on the premises of clients. If that does not suffice, the counsel can help the client obtain a suitable staff director, or he can lend someone from his own staff.1~ At the same time, the counselor's central location in a metropolitan communications hub permits frequent and personal contact with the press, radio, magazines, and TV-the main means of external and outward communication for all clients. His contacts embrace the press in New York, 'Vashington, Chicago, San Francisco, and Hollywood. Several firms offer publicity sen-ices on a United States network basis.

The staffs of large counseling firms or advertising agency PR departments might include news writers, magazine writers, trade journal writers, and speech writers. There might be radio and TV programmers, trained researchers, home economists educators sociologists merchandisers, fund raisers, economists, engineers, 'poli tical ca;npaign ~xpe~·ts, artists, and photographers.

Third in importance among the advantages accruing to a counselor is his flexibility. In the course of any year, a counselor will be confronted with communication problems of unbelievably varied nature. Typical would be a strike in a small town, a brutality case in a public institution, the introduction of a new product by a manufacturer, prospective legislation harmful to the interests of a trade association, and the inauguration of a new university president. The range of a successful counselor's services is wide. If the agency is a successful, substantial one, its range of experience is equally wide. In a sense, a public relations firm is a useful repository of living case histories. Each project adds to its fund of knowledge. Experience and versatility of staff make this possible. The counselor approaches the situations bolstered by past familiarity with them and the success or failure that attended previous encounters.

13 For example, see James R. Hanson, "Prefah PR Department," Public Relations Journal, Vol. 12, April, 1956.

104 . The Practitioners-StaDs and Status

The Practitioners-StaDs and Status . 105

THE COUNSELOR'S HANDICAP

. The foregoing may make it sound as thou

simply to arrive on the' gh the task of the counselor were

d . premises. In the rend' f .

an this applies to almost II ermg 0 a counseling service-

a consultants-the . . h

area of antagonism. That' h re IS, Wit rare exception, an

id IS t e counselor's ha di Th

OutSI ers is a natural human r-s: n Icap. e antagonism toward

'. man trait. The old d .

Its secunty. That goes fo th . guar resists change as a threat to

'. renew Idea th

reSIstance IS common It i I ' . e new approach, the new look. This

. f . IS a most a certamt .

static or years. y m organizations that have been

An ~nderstanding of this resistance is

same kind of resistance is f d j a course of study in itself. Much the

from oun m a household h

one year of college and d I w en a student son returns

the h' ec ares to his par t h

ouse to mclude some of th d . en stat they should remodel

or the dormitory. There is r ~ mo ern devices found in the fraternity house

mean th h eSlstance-probabl I

at t e idea is no good It y p enty of it. That does not

changes f d . means that h '1'

o rastic or SUdden osti tty comes naturally when

The counselor more ft nature are proposed.

changes desi ' 0 en than not is in th . .

. I esigned to improve relati shi e posiuon of having to suggest

mvo ve pol' '. Ions IpS Wh h

h . icies, equipment meth d '. et er the suggested changes

t em historic II ,0 s, or practices th

. . a yare alienated. Th . .' e people responsible for

merit IS being" '" err realm IS be' ".

. cntlClzed." Th mg invaded." Their iud -

busmess?" e offended ask "Wh d J g

, at oes he know abou tour

Other hand'

Icaps for th

antagonized m e counselor grow fro hi

possible ay ~ttempt to discredit a c I m t ~s embryo. The insiders

A fi connotatIOns of the term "0 t .~un~e or. He IS labeled with the worst

nger of accusation' u SI er.

selor's gras f might be pointed at h

problems, fh 0 ~he ?rganization's uni ue r t e superficiality of the coun-

method e h~stoncal contributions \ p oblems, the local angles of the

snow bemg m I' 0 success made b h . . d

costs entail d . a igned. A finger of '" Y t e policies an

gram he p: in retaining the counselor's cnt~Cism might be pointed at the oposes-with no guarantee th se~vlces and carrying out the proat t ere will be concrete results.

In recent years there has been increased interest of counselors and advertising agencies in PR-oriented marketing services. This has been reflected by the internal PR staff's increasing role in product promotion and product publicity. Some professional resentments and frictions have grown. A few quotes will suffice to outline the situation and indicate the fervor of the feelings.

. Corporate PR Executive: "It is not the proper job of a corporate public relations staff to devote its primary efforts to the direct selling of products or services. That is the function of the marketing or sales department.

"The primary job of the public 'relations man is to achieve broad public understanding of the manner in which his company operates to satisfy those for whom it was created to serve."

· Corporate PR Executive: "Advertising and public relations can work together If each realizes ... that the former is selling the products of industry, while the latter's job is to sell the institutions behind the products."

A Former President, PRSA: "Advertising is primarily an adjunct to the marketing effort. Public Relations is, on the other hand, an adjunct to marketing, to shareowner relations, to community relations, to employee relations, and to management: voice and eyes and ears."

New York Times Columnist: "The advertising agency is moving to a radically new concept of a full-scale marketing organization. In this type of operation advertising will be merely one function of the agency's work.

· "Perhaps the biggest push behind the change is the fact that profits are shrinkmg under the setup calling for compensation on the basis of 15 per cent of

media billings.

"Public relations people, unless they show the courage to reverse a trend

· . . are faced with commercial suicide.

"Ad agencies are taking over more and more of the public relations work and 'downgrading' it by making it a publicity function of their operations."

Financial Editor: "Any concerted movement on the part of the advertising agencies to integrate their public relations and advertising business would be a step backwards in the over-all relationship of our corporations with the general public. It could only result in the public's interest being supplanted with the corporation's private interests-the increased sale of products."

Regardless of variati .

practitioners have th ons in staff and scope adv

questions Is th e same philosophy of '. antages and handicaps, all

. e couns r . servIce Th

ment of the adv " e mg firm more or le . ere are several natural

sary? If so. ertJ~mg agency? Than th . ss effecti.ve than the PR depart-

, III combm . e mternal PR ff

anon or separately? sta ? Are they all neces-

THE DIVISION

OF RESPONSIBILITY

Howard Chase, a counselor who has served as a staff director in a corporation, as head of McCann-Erickson's PR subsidiary, and now head of his own agency, rightly describes advertising and public relations as "un-identical twins." He has asserted: "While the target of both advertising and public relations may be a share of the human mind, the scope of advertising is limited, and will be limited, by the availability of purchasable media. There are no limitations on the scope and range of public relations .... It is my impression that recognition of these functional differences will gain wide acceptance in the years ahead at high ex;ecutive levels." To date no single pattern of successful operation of a public relations agency within an advertising agency ownership has emerged. The basic difference which Chase suggests may be

the reason.

An effective working combination is the trend. The corporate publicit~ or product function being contested is but one segment of PR work. C~rta~nly no advertising agency has claimed superiority in employee commUnI~atIOns or civic events. Certainly, the matter of product promotion is not a m~Jor ~R interest to the chairman of the Red Cross campaign, or to Cornell UnIvers~ty. This division of responsibility would not concern a manufacturer of capital earth-moving equipment to the extent that it might interest the manufacturer of consumer garden tools.14

In practice, one-man crusades are less and less a part of the organiza~io?al concept. The team is the thing. It constitutes a logical trend in the spe~lal~zation of industrial and institutional work. It is logical in the decentralization of industry, in the departmentalizing of government and the Armed Forces. Among corporations with products or services for mass consumption, comp~ementing of counsel and staff is common. The same can be said of trade aSSOCIations, trade unions, and welfare agencies, to name a few.

Exceptions are found among several very large corpora te en terprises ". In these instances-General Motors is a case in point-there is no regular outside counseling, but the internal staff is of such depth that its top level can devo~e itself to the counseling function. Other very large undertakings-Standard Or! Company of New Jersey, for example-are staffed internally in depth, yet retain outside counseling. Still a third setup provides for wide internal staff with outside counseling called in for special matters.

In organizations financed by public funds-the Armed Forces and state institutions_the general practice excludes expenditures for outside counsel, although the Armed Forces have used counsel for recruiting programs and ~erhaps other special government programs. The restraint seems more a conSideration of politic usage of tax monies than a decision based on evaluations of the most e~ective approach to communications problems. Then, too, in these :as~s quite often specialized talent is already located somewhere in the orgaOlzatlOn, needing only reassignment and integration of efforts.

Two team organizations are common and both have been successful. One ~s a combination of outside counsel, either PR firm or ad agency, with a small mtern~l staff to handle the localized problems. In the other organization, a large 1l1terna~ sta~ calls on counseling firms for advice in problems which need the Outside Viewpoint. In these two types of teams, each component aids the other. The outside counsel adds to the stature of the internal staff among

Additional Reading


THE TREND-

A HARMONIOUS TEAM

ff d Status . 107

The Practitioners-Sta s an

. I staff aids the coun-

the top-echelon people in t~e organization. The mterna

selor by easing any antagonism. bi . Public relations teams must be

t d com matron. . tion

There is no guaran ee d from one orgamza I

. . They cannot be remove 'fz

lee ted for each orgamzatron. . Adaptation to the speci IC

se . h without some alteration,

and slipped into anot er. .

problems of each organization IS a necessity:

d Advertising Are

. H Public Relations an

" f N . al Advertisers, ow . N York' The Association,

ASSOCIation 0 anon C pany Objectwes. ew .

ki T'oeether to Meet om

WOT zng b Y rk 17. bli Relations,"

285 Madison Avenue, New 0 "You Have to Manage Pu c

B' d d Thomas D. Yutzy, 957

Caroline rr a.n . Vol 35, Nov.-Dec., 1 '. P blic Relations and

Haruard Business Reoieur, . . Society of America, II I

Counselors' Section, Public. Relations k: PRSA, 1962. 12 pages. nt."

Public Relations Counseling. ~ew Yor . 1 Works With Corporate Manageme ,

B C G "How Public Relations counsebl. h d by Hill & Knowlton, Inc.

ert . oss'. . 6 1956, and pu IS e . 12 Mav, 19.1)6.

a speech gIven Feb.ruary ~' (I" Public Relations [ournal, yol. " The'i\'ew YOTk

William J. Long, "Inside or u". P onal Service BUSIness, •

. "Profit Control In a ers

Alfred G. Paulson, t Vol 33 January, 1963. I R view of Public

Certified. Public Accountan , hli . R~lations Agency," QuarteT y e

"Budgeting in the Pu IC .

' 6 F 11 1961 " ibid Vol 6 WInter, 1961.

Relations, Vol. , a, . f the Effort Spent, I I., ., Inc 1959.

"Fee Billing: A Return or k: Doubleday & Company, .,

----, M rchants. New Yor .

Irwin Ross The Image e I

Profiles 'leading New York counse ors.

114 For typical patterns of organization, see "How Companies Run Their PR," Tide,

Vo. 30. Decemher 28 1956' Nat" 1 I d . I '. .

I d t (N Y . ' , Ion a n Ustna Conference Board, Pubiir Relations In

11 US ry ew ork: The Board, StUdies in Business Policy, Number 80, 1956).

Chapter Seven

THE

PR PROCESS:

FACT.FINDING-

THE

FIRST

STEP

"If we could first know wh

d hi ere we are

an w ither we are tend'

be zng, we could

titer Judge what t d

. 0 0 and how to

do It." -Lincoln.

Organized practice is the continuing effort to bring about a harmonious adjustment between an institution and its publics. This adjustment requires, among other things, exchange of opinions and information. This does not just happen in today's complex society. It must be planned and provided for. This is the practitioner's job. He serves, in turn, the role of listener, counselor, communicator, and evaluator in this process.

The process has four basic steps:

The PH Process: Fact.Finding-The First Step· 109

The program moves steadily forward in one whole, continuing process.

The fluidity of the process does not permit a neat compartmentalization. As one has observed, the "public relations processes of analysis, synthesis, communication, and interpretation are continuous, spiraling, and over-

lapping processes."

One minute the industrial PR man wiII find himself called into the presi-

dent's office and asked to ascertain, quickly, what the community's reaction will be if the company does not join the drive to keep the local professional baseball team. This requires fact-finding. Next he may go into a conference with the sales and advertising executives to devise plans for introducing a new product. This requires counseling and planning. He may break away from this huddle to keep a luncheon date with a reporter from the local paper for an interview on the firm's new pension plan. Here he serves as communicator and interpreter. In mid-afternoon he may hold a meeting

THE PU BLI C R E LATI ON S PROCESS

I. Research-Listening. This means probing the opinions, attitudes, and reactions of persons concerned with the acts and policies of an organization, then evaluating the inflow. This task also requires determination of the facts regarding the organization. "What's our problem?"

2. Planning-Decision Making. This means bringing these attitudes, opinions, ideas, and reactions to bear on the policies and programs of an organization. This will enable it to chart a course in the mutual interests of all concerned. "Here's what we can do."

3. Communication. This means explaining and dramatizing the chosen course to all those who may ?e affected and whose support IS essential. "Here's what we did and why."

4. Evaluation. This means evaluating the results of the program and the effectiveness of techniques used. "How did we do?"

CUSTOMERS

su PPLI ERS GENERAL PUBLIC

KEY POLICY MAKERS SUPERVISORY PERSONNEL EMPLOYEES STOCKHOLDERS

Each one of these steps is as imP?rtant as the others. Each one is VItal to an effective program. Too ~ften there is too little research, too

Iittle plan . d

. _ mng, an too much pub-

Iicity. Emphasis on fact-finding and plan?ing largely distinguishes public relatIOns from straight publicity.

108

no . The PR Process: Fact-Finding-The First Step with his staff and representatives from Industrial Relations

the purpose and content of the em I " . to . re-evaluate tion. p oyee publicatIOn. This requires eualua-

So goes the day as the PR man arti .

such tasks he may be a . p ticipates m a gomg program. Between

nswenng a query fr fi .

ing for a series of on th . b f om a nancial magazine, arrang-

- e-]o sa ety p' t I'

tails for a Boy Scout dri di lC ures, c eanmg up last-minute de-

lve, Iggmg out material f h •

proofs on the forthcomin I or a speec , or checking

g annua report.

In order to understand the . .

amine each phase Th t' h process, It IS helpful to break it apart and ex-

. a IS t e purpo f hi

follow. The unity overl pp' se 0 t IS chapter and the three that

, a zng and continuit f h

be kept in mind as the' I y 0 t e whole process should

. . parts are taken out f h . .

exammanon, 0 t e runnmg mach me for

S The four-step process is illustrated

tandard Oil's PR staff s in this problem which confronted

orne years-ago:

Standard Oil decided t I .

of . 0 c ose Its Mankato M'

a company-wIde reorganization to' ,mn.esota, sales division as part

employees would have to m gam more effiCIency. This meant that 600

would s ff I ove or find new job Th

. u er a oss in income Minn s. e Mankato community

g~ttmg equally good service u~der thesota customers would be concerned about a )OTuththe meaning and implications o~ t~~W setup. The public would he curious

e first task Was to h I IS move.

si I mars a all th f h

~n cou d be explained and justin d e ~cts t rough research so that the deci-

r ~n announcement of the decision e T~o .t ose concerned. The next step was to 11a to be broken swiftly before r' Immg was an important factor. The news f:~:ed un~il plans were complete~~~;s .star~ed. Still, the news could not be re. ed. With plans completed th Its SImultaneous release to all those af-

:~e acl:~n:er calculated to g~in e;n~::~a~~~~ask of communi.cating the decision

M ~. . g of the necessity and wisdom of

atenals mcluded'

tion script for ."" a procedure memorandum .

to all dealers meetmgs, letters to several differe to gUIde PR staff; a presenta-

banks a ge '\ news release, a statement 0 b ;t groups of employees, letters meeti~' • nera office letter, plans for ~ an mg arrangements for Mankato

Finally~Sp~t~~s ~o all the different grou;:~~~~:~e~he news was released throu?,h improving't p rtment evaluated its handl" f' and through the mass media. municated I s procedures when the next m mg 0 this problem with an eye to

. ove out of a community must be com-

The PR Process: Fact-Finding-The First Step' III

cisions can be made. Executives are coming to realize that an organization'S human relations problems are just as specific and researchable as are other problems. This parallels the maturing fields of opinion measurement and public relations. Methodical, systematic research is the foundation of effective public relations.

Counselor John F. Moynahan offers this example of how research can be utilized to make sound plans and strengthen communication with a particular public: 1

A New York department store's earnings were running above the level of previous years and an extra dividend was indicated. The store's employees belonged to a militant union and the executives feared an extra dividend would create hostility among the employees. Accordingly, the advertising department prepared a brochure intended to gain the employees' "understanding" of management's view on profits. Just like that! Before the brochure was released, management wisely had an opinion survey made. The survey showed that most of the employees neither understood nor were impressed by the relationship of profits to gross sales, which was the main theme of the planned brochure. Depth interviews revealed that most of the store's employees thought of earnings in terms of the mark-up on the store's merchandise.

This opinion survey had three benefits; (1) It helped management plan a more effective brochure; (2) It provided a guide for a continuing inforuat ion campaign to employees; (3) It provided a base against which changing employee attitudes could be re-measured in the future.

The "research attitude" can be as valuable as the research itself. A great researcher who helped build the automotive industry, the late C. F. Kettering, once described this desired attitude in these words: 2

RESEARCH ATTITUDE NEEDED

. Research is a high-hat word that scares a lot o~ people .. It needn't. It i.s rathe.r Simple. Essentially, it is nothing but a state of mmd--:-a friendly, ~e!commg .attItude toward change. Going out to look for change, mste~d of wa rtmg for It to come. Research, for practical men, is an effort to d~ things better and not. be caught asleep at the switch. The research state of. mind c~n apply to anytlll~g. Personal affairs or any kind of business, big or lIttle. It IS the problem-solvmg mind as contrasted with the let-well-enough-alone mind. It is the composer mind, instead of the fiddler mind; it is the "tomorrow" mind instead of the "yes-

terday" mind.

1. RESEARCH PROVIDES MUCH-NEEDED EMPHASIS ON THE LISTENING PHASE OF PUBLIC RELATIONS AND GIVES SUBSTANCE TO THE "TWO-WAY STREET" CONCEPT. One of the vitiating weaknesses in the past has been .a misp~aced em~l:asis on publicity. Communication starts with listening. ThIS reqUires humility and systematic effort. F. J. Roethlisberger asserts: "The biggest block to personal communication is man's inability to listen intelligently, understandingly, skillfully to another person. This deficiency in the modern world is

Public relations ma .

lInseen belo y be hkened to an . b

often tak w the surface. The one-fourth Ice .e:g. Three-fourths of it is

ning c len ~or the whole iceberg Th -publIcity-that does show is too

, eva uatll1g . . e unseen thr f

high k -IS generally more im . ee- ourths-research, plan-

sta es, executiv . portant III the Ion

officers are es must lllcrease the . . g run. Because of the

, expected to provide fa t preCl~IOn of their decisions. Staff

c s upon whIch

sound administrative de-

1 In "Opinion Research: To Solve a Problem, Grasp an Opportunity," Public Relations

Journal, Vol. 19, June, 1963, 26-27. .

2In article by him, "More Music Please, Composers," Saturday Evenmg Post, Vol. 211,

No. 32 (1938).

112 . The PR Process: Fact-Finding-The First Step

The PR Process: Fact-Finding-The First Step > 113

3 For a specific example of th _

and Almy Chemical Co and th ec~aY?ff of two-way communications see "The Dewey by Clinton Golden and Virgin' e P ~mlcal Workers," Causes of Indus~Tial Peace edited pp. 100-20. ia ar er (New York: Harper &: Row, Publisher;, 1955),

tional problems. Executives are a fact-minded lot. The surest way to counter a controller's idea of "what the people want," when he is wrong, is with surveys and case studies of similar situations. Clarence J. Hicks, pioneer in industrial relations, once said: "It is characteristic of a profession that recommendations are of value in proportion as they are intelligently based upon a thorough diagnosis of the individual case or problem." The need is for research-supported diagnoses, not new medicines.

4. RESEARCH REVEALS FESTERING TROUBLE SPOTS BEFORE THEY INFECT A LARGE BODY OF PUBLIC OPINION. Too often problems are allowed to define themselves in the form of a crisis. Too much effort goes into "fire-fighting" rather than "fire prevention." This is dramatized in industry when d~teri~rating labor relations present the problem of a strike or a lockout. Such srtuations usually have long histories. Sometimes neither party knows what c~used the blow-up. Heading off "blow-ups" is part of the PR task. The e.arher. a complaint is caught, the easier it is to handle. Continuous fact-finding w.IlI uncover many problems while they are still small enough to ~erm~t ql~Iet handling without a critical public looking on. The same attentive listening will permit the catching of rumors before they become widespread.

5. RESEARCH INCREASES THE EFFECTIVENESS OF OUTBOUND COMMUNICATION.

To obtain the maximum effect in communication. and persuasion, each public must have special study and special treatme.nt.. Pimlott says: "This emphasis on the need to pinpoint the specific publics IS one of th~ mo~t u~efu,~

ibuti . b . lati h receI'ved from the SOCIal SCIentIsts.

contn uuons which pu lie re atIOnS as . .

Much of today's publicity effort is character~zed by wa~tef~l misses of. "" target audience due to lack of prior fact-findmg. DissemmatIOn of pU.b!ICIty . . . R h enables the practitIOner

IS not the equivalent of commumcatIOn. esearc .'

. . . .' I . I d learn their values vlewpomts,

to pmpomt his publics, discover t ieir ea ers, '.,

. f h . t beam his message m on 1 ts

and language. These he must know 1 e IS 0 . '

target. A public relations effort increases in effectiveness zn proportiOn to

the specificity with which it is directed to a group.

AN IDEA SERVICE FOR EXECU-

6. RESEARCH PROVIDES USEFUL INTELLIGENCE- , f '

. . di ble auxiliary to an m ormation

TIVES. An intelligence service IS an in Ispensa .

. 1 h public relatIOns department

serVIce. Increasingly administrators re Y on t e , , ' h

. .' ti on the public s Image, t e

as a central source of information on the Olgamza 1 '.. d S .h d

, .' nd pohtIcal tren s. uc e-

mdustry or field and the SOCIal, economiC, a . f h

, .' hances the effectiveness 0 t e

rnands are to be encouraged. This serVIce en . . d ' f

. . f t stockpllmg an m orrna-

total program. To provide this serVIce reqUIreS ac - . h h .

. . . s to mterpret t e c angmg

tion analysis One of the most useful serVIces 1 .' I

.' . utives Many executives simp y

sOClal-economic-political envIronment to exec '. . First the

d R h has two baSIC purposes. J

o not have time to keep abreast. esearc . l' ourse of action

II . hi h used in p annmg a c

co ecnon and collation of facts w IC are h' f atl'onal program'

. d t of t e m orm '

and In determining channels an conte~. d and information

S . itud pmiOns expresse ,

econd, exploration of baSIC arutu es, 0 . f . gained in the

h ld . . , ubhcs In ormatIOn

e by members of an orgamzatIOn s p' Ianni

I d for long-range P anmng.

atter type of research is generally use more

widespread and appalling. And not too much is being done about it." Too often what purports to be communication is simply opposing ideas passing each ~t~er i~ psy.chological space, for example, in a management-versus-labor ~arga~nmg situation in which each side is merely waiting to score points, not ~Istenmg ,to. the other's views. As Redfield stated: "One-way communication IS ungratIfymg, unnatural, and cumulatively sterile in its effects."

Listening is not. an easy task. Channels from the worker out in the plant o.r the car dealer m Seattle must be provided and kept open. Failure to hsten leads to useless "communicating" on issues that do not exist to publics that are not there.

Before there can be rapport through communication there must be em~athy. Empathy is achieved by open-minded listening. As Thoreau put it:

It ta.kes t:"'o to speak the truth; one to speak and another to hear." Public

Relations IS a two-way street B th I' f ffi . .

. 0 mes 0 tra c must be given equal right-

of-way. Unless you know th 1 . . .

. e va ues, viewpoints. and language of your audi-

ence, you are not hkely to g t th h Th

1 . e roug. ese values and viewpoints can be

earned only through systematic and sympathetic listening.s

2. RESEARCH PROVIDES THE "

P bli lati OBJECTIVE LOOK REQUIRED TO "KNOW THYSELF.

u blic' r~ ations has been likened to a mirror, a mirror that reflects the

p~ hlc s Imag~ o~ the organization to its executives and reflects the image o t e orgamzatlon to the bli 0"

d. pu rc, pinion surveys, attitude studies and

au renee research on what I '

r I I' peop e really know, really believe and actually

eac or tsten to provide an ff t' f '

bi .' . e ec rve sa eguard against our human lack of

o jectrvrtv. Today more wr deci .

wh h " ong ecisions are made on mistaken hunches of

Bat t e. p~bhc thinks than on willful disregard of public opinion. Robert urns said I t so well:

Oh wad some power the giftie gie us To see oursel's as ithers see us!

It wad frae monie a blunder free us

And foolish notion '

The practitioner mirrors the bli

views and desires f h . pu lC~ of an organization by relaying the

o t ose publics to It Ii k .

terpret the publics f . '. s po ICY rna ers. To accurately ill-

o an mstitunon to its p I' k ..

be able to look at p bi 0 ICy rna ers, a practItIOner must

ro ems from the p bli . , h

serves as a shoehor f' u IC ineuipoint. Objective researc

. n or puttmg on the th f 11 ' .

effective stimulus t If ' 0 er e ow s shoes. It provides an

o se -correctIOn Sub' ti h

public thinks" are risky. . jec rve assumptions of what "t e

3. RESEARCH EARNS SUPPORT FO

THE POLlCY.MAKINC TA Th R COUNSELING AND PROCRAMMING AROUND

effeftive in gaining c BU::d· . e research-based approach is apt to be the most

onsi eranon for the bli I' .

pu IC re ations aspect of orgamza-


The principle of fact-finding is not new, The increasing emphasis is: PR ~en and women have long been accustomed to spending a lot of effort ferretmg out facts, In the past, however, there has been too much reliance on hunch and happenstance. ~.s the ,social scientists produce more reliable rese~rch tools for explonng the pictures in our heads," public reI a tions is usmg these tools,

, dTh~ typica~ p~acti,tioner heads up a small three- or four-man staff in an

m ustnal or mstitutional org izati Q'

f ' aniza ron, uite often a department consists

o a director and a "girl F id "

, - n ay secretary, In such setups there is little time

or money for extensive research Thi

li ' IS accounts, to a large extent for uneasy

r~ la,n:e onhthe cheap, quick, and haphazard methods, Generally i~ is not lack

o VISIOn t at prevents full use f th 1 '

Thi b 0 ese too s. It IS lack of staff and money,

IS can e the falsest sort of eco I h "

of the Sun Oil Com an" nomy, n t e opiruon of Franklyn Waltman,

is an absolutely ess p ti ~" Resde~rch for the finding and development of facts

Men ra mgre lent of any sound public relations program"

easurement and analysis f " .,

and impressionisti thO o~mlOns range from the highly informal

Cot e methodIcal and ientifi

specialized field is k db' near-scienu c. Progress in any

mar e y 1 ts advance f ' '" ,

to objective testing ith rom ImpreSSIOnIstic observation

WI accurate measurem t hn i , ,

search provides guida f en tee mques, Opinion re-

nee at our stages of the 0 ' ,

Corp, lists these as: 'process, pillIOn Research

The PR Process: Fact-Finding-The First Step' 115

(I) Current situation: what eo '

(2) Basic principles: how PU~l" pie ,t~mk today and why;

(3) Pretesting: how people re:~t °t~m:o~ works; ,

(4) Evaluation: how people did r g ven ad, article, argument, etc.;

espond and how attitudes changed, if they did,

WHAT ONE COMPANY DOES. In the Su '

department has these respo ibili , n 011 Company, the public relations

, , nSI I HIes' (1) "t bli

stant lIaIson with the ,0 esta Ish and maintain con-

, , managers of all d

prOVISIOn of counsel _ nd' epartments of the company for the

, a aSSIstance regard' h '

ties and problems'" (2) .. mg t err public relations activi-

. ,to conduct res h'

s.oClal, economic, and poll't' I bi earc m, and prepare reports on

" , rca su jeers a d t d

\ iewpomr which may ff h ... n ren s from a public relations

I a ect t e acnvities .

petro eurn industry or b . or mterest of the company the

. ' usmess generall », (3) " '

promptly mformed of currentl bli y, to keep company officials

to. the company the '1' d Y pu ished or broadcast statements relating

. ,01 In ustry db'

assigned tasks and to ca . ,an usmess generally." To meet these

s' rry out Its specifi

dill OIl PR department estabr h I C programs to build goodwill, the

departments to do so Th' p~s ed a research division-one of the first PR

, IS research division p f '

, er orms various functions.

I. lHarntenance of L 'b

. a I rary T'hi Iib "

and ~lOu~es standard reference bo k . IS I rary IS .dlfected by a trained librarian

publ~cat1ons; works devoted to 0 s .. general. busmess and oil and chemical trade

~~~~Ii~i ~el~tio~s programs; medit~~~~ys::~a~o~~. prac,ti~e and skills; reports on

ve 00 s on economic, financI'al a 'd u hlc OpllllOn and attitude surveys'

, n ot er bu 'b' '

smess su jects: a legislative

reference section, including printed sets of congressional hearings on the oil industry, current volumes of the Congressional Record, Federal Register, and services listing legislation pending in Congress and in the states; more than 2.000 fi.le folders containing accumulated reference material from newspapers. magazmes, and such sources.

2. News Intelligence. This section keeps track of what the daily and periodical press, radio, and TV are saying about the company, the industry, and business generally. News and editorial comment are abstracted from a representative list of daily papers in a Daily News Digest for top managers. Clippings and radio and TV reports are made widely available to PR staff and management. Each week the full PR staff reviews 50 weekly or monthly periodicals and abstracts items of interest. These are distributed in the company in a multilithed publication, Periodical Highlights. Annually the research section issues a Company Encyclopedia, a compendium of facts about company operations, history, etc. This is a desk bible for the several hundred managers who receive it. Another Research Division publication, Petroleum Reference Sheet, is a three-part document. It provides a weekly, monthly, and special case compilation of current statistics on oil industry operations.

3. Special Reports and Surveys. The Research Division prepares reports on specific public relations problems, such as "Government Controls Over the Oil Industry." It also sponsors periodic surveys on attitudes toward the company and toward the oil industry. Surveys are being used increasingly to learn more about the impact and effectiveness of programs. For example, this division periodically sponsors readership surveys of company publications. Also this staff is increasingly making pretests of communications materials before they are widely disseminated. The goal is to accomplish more at less cost per unit of results.

The value of a comprehensive research program as the one sure foundation upon which to build a public relations program is seen in the need for and use made of research by the United States Information Agency. The U.S,LA. must tell America's story around the world to people of many cultures and many levels of comprehension-to people ranging from the illiterate cam pesino in Latin America to the toiler in Asia's rice paddies to the Western European intellectual. To communicate effectively with these and other peoples, the Agency needs a continuous, authentic, and up-to-date body of information about its audience. Here's the way U.S.I.A. goes about this task;

U.S.LA. operates a Research and Reference Servic~, ~sing many teste? t~chniques and methods of audience sampling. The obJecuves of commuruca uons research are to: (I) discover the long-term values and aspiration~ of the world's peoples; (2) determine the current attitudes of. the w~rld auchence;. (3) s,tudy target groups which the United States is attemptlllg .to influence: .(4) mvesugate channels and methods of communication: (5) examine the effectiveness of the Agency programs. The research effort is. acco~panied ?y a prograr_n of analysis and evaluation which combines all perunent lllforma~lOn. E~aluatIons ~re provided to U.S.LA. policy and operating o~cers as a gUIdance m developmg programs that are carried out in 105 countnes around the world. In one five-year span, U.S.LA. prepared 650 such studies. Also: b~sed on its fact-gathering a~d opinion research, U.S.LA. maintains commumcatIon~ f~ct book~ on all maJor nations. These are basic reference works and contam information on popula-

DEFINING THE PUBLICS

116 . The PH Process: Fact-Finding-The First Step tion, education literacy r r' I

groups. A par~ of th ' e IgIO~, angu~ge, communication channels, and target

e researc effort Involves public-opinion polling abroad.

Obviously, only the large indus . I

to maintain research d' . . f tn~ and nonprofit organizations can afford

IVlSIOns 0 this scope B t bli . .

requires that these fun ti b . u every pu IC relations Job

c Ions e cared for to some degree. Here's how.

The PH Process: Fact-Finding-The First Step' 117

FACT-FINDING

THE FmST STEP: A FACT FILE It ha b .

come a counselor is a shi ffic seen said that all a man needs to be-

my 0 ce and a subscri ti h

The grain of truth in thi . Ip Ion to T e New York Times.

I. IS aXIOm emphasizes th t' . .

c Ip, and compile facts. a It IS Important to collect,

Locating, arranging, and anal zinz J '"

or organization. Usef I . f .y? InfOrmatIOn IS Important to a client

• '. U In ormation IS to be f d' .

nons, In libraries trade publi . oun III government publica-

I . ' icanons newspa . d

mu titude of sources Th . .' pers, III ustry reports and a

when confronted with ~ paIn~takmg fact finder will be greatly r~warded

an immediate need for' f .

many and often unexpected Wh III ormation, Such demands are

. . en the boss

wants It now! Keeping . wants some information, he

id a current organizan I "W

I ea. A common starting '. rona orId Almanac" is a useful

· POInt III the org . .

Ing of a fact file of referen . amzatron of a PR office is the build-

I ce matenals Daily re '1

n practice, the departm becor quests WI I tell what is needed.

rnost oro-o-: ent ecomes the t I . f

orgamzations. Querie hi h cen ra m ormation bureau in

wind . s w ic cannot be a d

up m this office. Newspa . nswere by other departments

to expect the office to provid pe~, kmagazme, radio, and TV men have come

couraged M di e qUlc answers Such d d

· . e Ia men should b . eman s are met and en-

mformat" S e encouraged to reI h

Ion. uch practice h y on t e office for authentic

~eporter's query often gives :sr:a~y valuable consequences. For instance, a emands should be anticipated. nnmg start on a crisis in the making. Such

From fact files co . d

rep '. me I eas and informaf f

· Orts, mstttutional adverri . . . Ion or speeches, pamphlets special

~~formation for special projec:~~;'h:x~:btts, special events, and background

e factual content of its comm . .partment IS responsible for assembling

to be whip d' unicatlOns progr Of

I pe up m a hurry F am. ten these items have

t10 get out a brief history boo' klor ~xample, a PR department of a bank had

(eposI't et III two w k

.or. ee s to help mark the millionth

This department should hav

accllra~e facts regarding the co~ the over-~11 responsibility for developing

~rrabtlO~s and for developing the ~~ny a~d Industry policies, practices and

IS asis Incre . I unensions of pub!" I' '

of btdd' . aSIng y, public relations d IC re ations problems on

. I mg and maintainin co epartments are assigned the task

~:~~ ~ns~e~s ~or tough qu;stio:P:~ ~r organiza~ional libraries. Providing

, ot msids and outside the ~ a .goodwill builder for the depart-

orgamzatlOn.

Another essential part of research is in defining the publics. This involves, too, determining the effective channels of communication with each. Precise definition of a client's publics, their composition, and their prevailing attitudes goes beyond such simple enumeration as trustees, faculty, students, alumni, and so forth. Members of a given public are constantly shifting. In public relations you must communicate with a passing parade, not a standing army. De Tocqueville observed: "Each generation in a democratic society is a new people." Socrates knew: "Oratory is the art of enchanting the soul, and therefore he who would be an orator has to learn the differences of human souls-they are so many .... "

The publics themselves change from time to time. There is a constant shifting in age groupings, economic interests, political interests, and geographic residence. The latter is increasingly true in mobile America. Also, new publics are always coming into being. The past few years, a new American buying public has emerged with an interest in foreign-made cars.

Introduction of a new product may, in the case of a manufacturer, create a new buying public. Establishment of a new branch plant brings a new community public to be studied and understood. No two are exactly alike. Normally, regroupings take place gradually, almost imperceptibly, such as the changes in family living brought on by television. Other times, the shift comes with lightning-like swiftness-as when a whole nation is plunged into war or economic depression. Thus, it is imperative to keep current an accurate analysis of your publics and their sentiments.4

Such analyses will reveal the group leaders or in{iuentials in each of your several publics. The importance of determining the real group leaders as against the presumed opinion leaders was underscored in Chapter 4. Too often in public relations there is a tendency to short-cut this task in an effort to "economize" by tagging lawyers, doctors, clergymen, bankers, as the sum total of leadership, or by assuming that a union leader is a leader in political or social affairs as well as in union matters. This short cut is full of risks. For example, barbers talk to union members more often than do their officers. So do bartenders. Persons may be influential in their groups and yet not prominent in the community. Each social stratum generates its own opinion leaders. Individuals look to different group leaders for guidance in different facets of their daily lives. Sighting respected group leaders requires laborious fact-

finding. There is no short cut."

In conducting this "publics" research, learn and recognize the interrelated-

4 For examples, see Glen Perry, "Which Public Do You Mean?" Public Relations Journal, Vol. 12, March 1956

I) For supp~rt {){ this view, see Katz ~nd Lazarsfeld's Personal Influence and Floyd

Hunter's Community Power Structure, op. CIt.

1I8 . The PR Process: Fact-Finding-The First Step

ness of all these groups Th . .

. . e practItIOner needs to know which of several ap-

~eals will ?e most effective with a specific public. He needs to gau e the reactIOnsbof hthls group and also of those that "listen in." What is said t; one group

may e eard by another This dil

diff .' I presents a I emma; the more you appeal to

dl erentfgroffups.m terms of their self-interest, as you must, the greater is the

anger 0 0 endmg other groups Oft h

want on your side. . en you ave to choose which groups you

Systematic definition of a ", '.

mine order of priority A d ~ o~~all1ZatlOn s publics IS needed, too, to deter-

. n pnonuss must be ass' d '"

infinite number of bli R Igne to an institution's almost

pu ICS. arely does a ..

money to do all th thi h' practItIOner have the staff and

e mgs e thinks need be d Thi .

terms "the perpetual priorit bl one. IS NIcholas Samstag

IOn y pro em."

PUBLIC RELATIONS WORKS FROM T

defining the publics is t th h HE INSIDE OUT. The place to start in

a e eart of an org . . '.

It is there that the essenti I h amzatlOn-ln Its power structure.

ra c aracter of an 0 . . ,

determined. The key I' rgaruzation s relationships is

po ICY makers must be th fi

from this inner circle th '. erst concern. Working out

h ' ere are [uruor executi .

orne communities consu' ives, supervisors, employees,

. ,mers, Investors don' d II

Immediate publics attenn ,ors, an a others. From these

. ,Ion moves alon b d

publics within the general publi Th ? a roa front of special-interest

sociations, farm groups p l't' llC. ese include labor unions, industrial as-

d ' 0 I rca groups w '

e ucators, veterans and si '1 ,omen s groups, professional groups,

b ,Iml ar common' t

pu lics will be discussed in Ch -m erest groupings. These special

apter 16.

, SELECTING THE AUDIENCE. Research'

of reaching publics once th h IS ~sed also to determine the best ways

ti f ey ave been identifi d Thi

IOn 0 channels of influe meu, IS requires deterrnina-

th nce and communicaf P' "

e message is to be des' d ] Ion. mpomtmg is essential if

. h igne m terms of th di

gam t e intended audien ' . e au renee. This is required to

tt ' ce s attentIOn It' t

a ention or to hold it . . IS no easy to attract the public's

d s znterest. Careless I

an geographic boundaries' or casua determination of group

various publics the mor IS too common. The more carefully you define the

li ' e ways of r h . .

C tscouer, Research will best d fi eac zng and mfluencing them will you

as a b 'd e ne the mutual't f'

rz ge to carry your persuas' . ~ y 0 mterest that will serve

LISTENING IS AN IN tue communlcatzon.

. TEGRAL PART OF

t~one~ of another generation Ab hA SUS~AINED PROGRAM. An able practi-

ltstenmg I' 1 ,ra am Lmcoln k h'

.. "meo n once advised fri ' new t e Importance of

,~lways right and will mislead ~ nend,: "Keep close to the people-they are

San.dburg in his biography tell ~ one .. He followed his own advice. Carl period of his valuable time for s conve LI~coln, ~wice each week, set aside a

WIV~S, farmers, merchants, and ve~satIOns WIth ordinary folk, the house-

patIently to What they had pensIOn-seekers. He says Lincoln listened

or how tri . I h . to say, no matter how h bl '.

IVla t eir business An fficer : urn e their Circumstance

to the President that he was WO ~er III the War Department once protested people. Lincoln rebuked him a.stmg valuable time on these unimportant , saymg:

The PH Process: Fact-Finding-The First Step· 119

" ... ~o .hours of my day are better employ ed than those whic h bring me again within the direct contact and atmosphere of the ,ncI,lgc of our whole people ... all serve to renew in me a clearer and more vivid image of that great popular assemblage out of which I sprang and to which at the end of two years I must return.

"I tell you, Major ... that I call these receptions my public opinion baths ... the effect, as a whole, is renovating and invigorating." 6

Prudence dictates the systematic listening to an organization's publics through scientific research. Yet many organizations still fail to utilize fully this tool. Why? Because: (1) Sound opinion research is expensive; (2) A time lag exists between the formulation of an opinion study and the time when the results are needed; (3) Management does not want to listen to the views of their publics; (4) There is a lack of knowledge about these research tools on the part of publicity-minded practitioners; (5) There is a lack of confidence in the precision of the research tools now available. Typical is this comment found in Trends in School Public Relations: "Two-way communication is slim in some school systems because superintendents are afraid of it. They see it as organized back talk and a potential threat rather than an essential tool of modern management. But in most systems, the two-way flow is a trickle because it ta kes a lot of effort and skill to obtain reliable feedback."

INFORMAL METHODS. Pioneers in this field lacked the precision tools that are available today to gauge opinion accurately. They were forced to fall back on what rough-and-ready means could be devised. Despite the development of the more accurate measuring sticks, reliance on the informal methods still dominates many programs.

This is due to lack of funds and to the necessity of making quick, on-the-

spot evaluations. These informal methods include: (1) personal contacts by telephone or mail of persons you know; (2) advisory committees or panels; (3) analysis of an organization's incoming mail; (4) reports of field agents or salesmen on their evaluations of opinions about the organization; (5) press clippings and radio and TV monitorings on what has been said on a particular subject; (6) conferences of those involved in a particular problem or situation; (7) study of national public opinion polls to gain a sense of opinion climate and trends; (8) study of election and legislative voting which reflects public opinion on certain issues; (9) speeches and writings of recognized opinion

leaders; (10) sales records. . .

These informal methods can be helpful. Recognize their weaknesses,

however. Inherently they lack representativenes~ and. objectivi.ty-.the keys to sound opinion research. Such methods can provide vltal.and significant cl.ues to opinion trends and reveal sources of things people like and do not Iike,

PERSONAL CONTACTS. In 1893 Lord Bryce said, "The best way in which the tendencies at work in any community can be best discovered and estimated

6 Carl Sandburg, Abraham Lincoln: The War Years, Vol. II (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1939).

120 . The PH Process: Fact.Finding-The First Step

is by moving freely about II

. . he atti among a sorts and conditions of men" Skill in

:~~n;r~~et qe u:~~~~!~o °nf infdividuals has long been and always will' be one of

s 0 a counselor There . I"

quaintanceships with repr t ti I' IS great va ue III wide ac-

I . . esen a tue eaders from all walks of life.

. t IS a good practice to win friends ill' . .

listening, and analyzing h n a publics. By probing, talking,

as e moves freely about th ..

a great deal The politici h ' e practrnoner can learn

. ICIan as been doing thi I .

Wilson wrote Mrs. Crawford To . "D ~s a ong. time. As Woodrow

with which you may ch Y·. 0 not hesitate to give me any opinion

. ance to come III contact Th . h

III which the mind of a h . . at IS t e only atmosphere

man c arged WIth pub!" d .

cessfully function the at h . IC unes can properly or sue-

, mosp ere of opinio "7 M ..

regularly with such bellw th . n. any practrtroners consult

beers as edl tors report "

artenders, civic leaders ba k ,ers, mimsters, labor leaders,

, n ers, and housewives

.IDEA JURIES, PANELS. It is onl a sh . .

socrates for their reactions t y.. ~rt step from asklllg friends and as-

o organlZlng Idea" . .

range from ad hoc to highl f Junes or opmion panels. These

d '. Y ormal arrangement Th d

an contlllUlty in these so di b . s. e egree of formality

. un Illg oards var

IS one of the most economical" II" 8 res a great deal. The jury panel

working idea of opinion withi pOh s. Careful selection can provide a rough,

f I I m t ese groups B' .

or a unch or dinner 0 . rmgmg such a group together

nce a month can p d di .

ADVISORY COMMITTEES A '. ay goo ividends.

committee. The honor of ser :anatlOn of this informal device is the advisory

t . Vice on such a c . .

o an orgamzation the service f ommlttee quite often will bring

be hel ful i soan able group Ad'

P u III preventing man' . n a vlsory committee can

aid of skilled PR people i th~ a misstep. Nonprofit organizations can tap the

or A' n IS way Format" f h

rmy mstallation can ser . . IOn 0 sue a group for a college

fl . ve to Will th .

~entlal pers?~s in the communit . Advi e Illterest. and participation of in-

nrty for partiCipation On . y ISory committees create the opportu-

. ce Illterested d j f

retur.n to their own circles and car an III ormed, members are likely to

a price to be paid in using su h ry the. ball for the program. But there is earnest consideration, or else th~ COmmlitr:es. Their advice must be given as a show-window mannequin. gesture will backfire. Noone likes to serve

MAIL ANALYSIS Anoth

quenrl I· er economical wa f .

y over ooked-is a peri d' y 0 gauglllg opinions-one fre-

The c 0 IC analysis of '.

orrespondence will reveal an orgallizatlOn's incoming mail

tion, There is a tendency of l:;~as of favor, disfavor, and a lack of informa: mendatory. This should be k ~r wr.lters to be critical rather than com-

often will h . ept III mind in m ki

d OISt warning flags on . a Illg such analyses. Letters

etect the boomerang effects of a Sources of Ill-will or service breakdown or

but they do not measure it. program. Letters reveal indications of opi~ion

The PH Process: Fact.Finding-The First Step· 121

.. ,7 For an article on Wilson'

\\ oodrow Wilson and P . s efforts to influence ubli "

8 For plusses and rni lIbhc Opinion," Public 0 i';' ic opinion, see Henry A. Turner,

Communication (New ;nllses on consumer juries, s!e SIO~ Quarterly, Vol. 21, 1957, 505-20.

ork: MCGraw. Hill Book Co . atson Dunn. Advertising Copy and

mpany, 1956), pp. 494-98.

Specific mail responses can be significant, too. A district manager of a large Western oil company became concerned about the large number of inactive accounts among credit-card holders. He sat down and wrote them a personal, friendly letter. Thirty-four hundred letters were mailed and I, 100 responses came back, although no incentives or premiums were provided. An amazing response! Analysis of the letters revealed many implications for the program of that company.

FIELD REPORTS. Most concerns have salesmen, district representatives, or field agents who travel the organization's territory. These agents should be trained to listen. They should be provided an easy. regular means of reporting opinions encountered. In this way they can serve as the "eyes and ears" of an organization. Systematic reporting of opinions, complaints, and commendations should be included as part of their job. The PR department can promote this. Reports of such representatives tend to be optimistic, however.

For example, in an effort to measure the impact of a certain Progress Week, the industry's sales representatives in Bangor, Maine were asked for an evaluation. Forty per cent would venture no opinion. About half of those responding thought that the week's promotion had produced more favorable attitudes toward the industry. Actually, in a cross-section survey it was found that only 1 I per cent of the Bangor population were inclined to be more favorable toward this industry. In this case only 12 of the 42 "grass-roots" observers were able to gauge opinions correctly. All impressionistic measurements must be studied with caution. Field reports can be helpful when the natural margin of inaccuracy is kept in mind.

Another way of determining impact on the public by an organization's personnel is through the use of "comparison shoppers." Retail stores have long hired shoppers to test the efficiency and courtesy of their sales clerks as well as to compare merchandise and prices of competitors. Other establishments dealing with the general public frequently hire "customers" to check on the performance of their personnel.

MEDIA REPORTS. Press clippings and radio-TV monitor reports-all available from commercial services-have long been used as yardsticks. These devices will indicate what is printed or broadcast. They cannot report, however, whether the message was read or heard and, if so, whether it was believed and understood. Newspaper clippings are useful .in measuring acceptability of releases sent to the press, but they cannot measure impact. These services can be used to detect what is being disseminated about your organization or about a competitor. One hundred per cent coverage on newsclips is difficult to achieve, and returns from a particular service will vary.

The press, when used with extreme caution, can be a fairly reliable guide to current opinions, particularly those of protest and criticism. The wide disparity between the voting opinions of the people and the editorial opinions of newspapers is demonstrated in elections. This should warn against uncritical acceptance of newspaper editorial opinion. The same is true of radio



and T,V news com~entator~, Caution should be use in accepting interpretive reportIng as refiectinp public opinion, Mass media can be used as indicators not as yardsticks. '

MORE RELIABLE METHODS

interviewed several times over a period of time. The selection of participants is determined on a cross-section basis. Panels are used to learn what happens to people under varying conditions over a span of time. It is an effective device for controlled experiments. A panel could be used, for example, to measure the impact of a series of projects in community relations, or, to follow people's buying habits in a grocery store. Panels are difficult to administer, and it is hard to keep all members interested over a long stretch. Panel members, in time, also tend to become atypical rather than typical.

3. DEPTH INTERVIEW. This is a qualitative instrument to probe the attitudes underlying expressed opinions. It is an informal kind of interview. The respondent is encouraged to talk fully and freely. This method takes highly trained interviewers and skilled analysts. Elmo Roper says: "Because of the informal nature of this technique and the fact that the most productive depth interviews are those which give respondents the widest range of latitude for responding, one major problem in its use is how to evaluate its meaning." He thinks the really qualified depth interviewer is rare. The depth interview is one of the techniques used in motivational research, one of the newer tools in the marketer's kit.lO

4. CONTENT ANALYSIS. This is a method of systematically coding and classifying the content of one or all of the mass media. This method can tell an organization what is being said and published about it and in what context it is talked about. Media content can be measured as to how much is descriptive, how much is favorable, how much is critical. Content analysis will show the pattern of mentions of an organization. Such analyses provide helpful clues to the kinds of information your publics are being exposed to, not necessarily what they consume and believe. It is also possible to couple content analysis with a sampling procedure and obtain from a sample of some 50 daily papers an accurate picture of nationwide dissemination of a given subject.P Content analysis also can be useful in periodically assessing content of informational

output against stated PR objectives. .

5. MAIL QUESTIONNAIRES. Use of mail instead of face-to-face questIOnnaires is economical. It is thus tempting to the 'penny-pinched practitioner. The danger is that there is no assurance the =r+:: will be represent~tive of the whole population. In putting questl?ns b~ mail, y?u I.ose the flexibility and interpretations possible in personal mterviews. It IS difficult to get an adequate response to many mail questionnaires. ~any pe~ple hav: been polled in this fashion. There is some resentment. This economical device can be useful when used with due caution. It is most effective in soliciting opinions of homogeneous groups and where the cleavage of opinion is decisive-such

The surest way to lear " ,

. d n OpInIOnS and underlvi ng attitudes would be to

Sit . 0lw~ an? talk things over face to face. This is not often possible Instead sOCIa sciennsrs and market re h h ., . searc ers ave developed the technique of talk-

Illg to a smal~ bu! representative group in each public. This is the sample

survey. Samplinp IS a great m .

r P tati oney saver. It IS accurate when the sample is

e resen attue It IS b 'It h I

B ki . . Ui on t e aws of mathematical probability.

y as Ing preCIse, understandabl .

of a whole publi " e questIOns of a truly accurate miniature

, IC OpInIOn can be d wi h .

Just as the practitl'o d d measure wit a high degree of accuracy.

ner epen s largely on th bli h

to the public h . e esta IS ed channels to talk

, e surveys to Iisten to th bli Th '

sentatives of the publi e pu IC. rough such devices repre-

IC are encouraged t t II h'

These survey tools offer ffecti 0 e t err story to the institution.

an e ective means f f '1" ,

tion and opinion Th h h ' 0 act Itatlllg an Inflow of informa-

to the institution» roug t ese deuices the practitioner interprets the public

I. CROSS-SECTION SURVEYS A f

of a cross-section sample f' . care ul!y prepared set of questions is asked

between an organization 0 d given public. The questionnaire builds a bridge draw the sample to be inte ~embers of the public. There are three ways to

. In erviewed (I) p b bili "

to be Illterviewed are h ro a I tty sample-Ill which people

c osen at random by h .

every 11th name on a list. (2) some mec ani cal formula, such as

which geographical are~s arel~ sample-a form of the probability sample in

are isted for e I "

surveyed are chosen t d ' xamp e, crtres, then units to be

. . a ran om' (3) t I

IS analyzed by known h .', quo a samp e-population in question

I c aractenstIcs-sex id

evel, and so forth the" ' age, rest ence, occupation income

, ' n Illtervlews are assigned b . '

nons as these characteristics ' . y quota III the same propor-

All these methods in I exist m the whole population.

, hi vo ve a degree of sam I'

wit III tolerable limits S h P mg error. This can be kept

fi . uc surveys are d b

rms. They can be arranged th h ma e y many commercial polling

obtained through cross- . roug one of several universities. The results

. sectIOn surveys are . .

111 nature. They often f '1 more quantnanv- than qualitative

, at to reflect the depth d' .

pressed by respondents. an mtenslty of opinions ex-

2. SURVEY PANELS. Under this method

, a panel of people is selected and is

Il Discussion of the tool d '

h k S s an techmques f

~~dl' ~gested are such standard works 0 ~~~~eys does not fall within the scope of this

R~e::;~h. antril's Gauging Public Opinion, ~~d ~, ~~ B~:~~n's ~u,TVeys, Polls and Samples,

ensh ip s Consumer and Opinion

10 See Perrin Str ker, "Motivation Research," Fortune, June, 1956, .

11 S H ' Y H ' d P II 1\1 Lewis "Some Methods of Measurmg Press Atten-

ee untmgton arns an at 1 " ..'

tion" PR V I lOt b 1955' Wendell Coats and Steve Mulkey. A Study in Newspaper

, ,0,. coer. • b ' f' d '

Sam I, .. P bli 0 " Q t lv Vol 14 Fall 1950, 533-46, For rre mtro ucuon

pIng, u Ie piruon uar er, ' • . ,

t thi h R' h d W 'Budd and Robert K, Thorp. An Introduction to Con-

o IS researc tool. see rc ar ' li 1963

tent Analysis (Iowa City: Iowa University School of Journa Ism, ).

124 • The PR Process: Fact-Finding-The First Step


as of a group of employees on th' .

tool can be helpf I . . e question of overtime or night shift. This

u m uncovermg sour I cri . .

be provided for addition I ces 0 crrtrcisrn and praise. Space should

a comment at the end.

6. SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL Thi . .

me nt, one easy and economical IS IS a relatively new technique of measure-

. rca to use-thus one of '1' f

honer who invariably fa "b d ' great un tty or the practi-

. ces a u get probl .. .

Differential was developed b P f em on research. The Semantic

and Percy H. TannenbaumY : ~ssors Charles E. Osgood, George J. Suci, Measurement of Meaning It . adn . IS presented in full in their book, The

. IS esigned to assess " .

meanings of objects and w d d . variauons m the connotative

. or s, an IS based on th .

constitutes one of the m t . ifi e premise that such meaning

Th os sigru cant variabl di

e procedure consists of h . . es me latmg human behavior.

. d avmg the subject t

.Iu gment (or concepts) again t f ra e one or more objects of

opposites, with seven steps beSt a set hO scales defined by a pair of adjectival

. d f ween t em For e I

m ex 0 an individual's me' f . xamp e, one could obtain an

vidual allocate this concept anmg 0 Lynd~n B. Johnson by having the indi-

act' , p . on a set of bi-polar I

me- assroe, valuable-worthl h' sea es, such as strone-uieak

Th ess, eavy-lIght pl t b'

e respondent rates th ' easan -unpleasant, and so forth.

hl e central concept'

rm on each of a set of s him terms of what it means to

I bei uc sea es the p ti I

sea es emg unfixed Th ,ar ICU ar selection and number of

s bi . e seven steps betwee th .

U ject to express both th di n e pairs of opposites allow the

a I' e IrectlOn of his " .

neutra point in the middle assoCIatIOn and Its intensity, with

f . Thus, confronted with a scale such as

sae_._:

the subject can indi _. _: _: _: --: dangerous,

very s f d reate whether he regard th .

a e or angerous quit f s e particular concept to be

with th idd ' e sa e or dangerous 1° h l

e mi Ie point reserved f h .' or s 19 t y safe or dangerous,

safe nor dangerous. With su h or t e feelmg of either equally or neither

variou c sets of scales

s concepts can be obtained fr . ' measures of the connotations of

repn:se?tative samples of i:he ubrom speCially selected individuals or groups, r~stnctlOn on the kinds of co: IC, hand so forth. Similarly, there is no basic

ties, corpor tion j cepts t at may be J' d d' "

a Ion Images, and so f huge -mdlvldual personali-

te~ted to by the wide range of u or~ 'hThe generality of the technique is at-

-Ill attitud ses It as had in . t I'

e measurement lin . . 1 S re a tivelv short existence

profiles in public relation:,12 gUlStlcs, psychotherapy, advertising, and image

more than 50 years. The pioneer N. W. Ayer ad agency started to make market analyses for clients as part of its regular procedure around 1910. Market research embraces consumer and product research and is of primary concern to production and sales in business. Yet much is learned in market research that is of value to the PR staff. Reliable methods of surveying consumer goods and tastes have been developed to measure potential markets and effectiveness of marketing programs. Market research is of immediate interest for product publicity and PR counseling on marketing projects. Accrued results offer much valuable knowledge and insight concerning American buying habits. This fact-finding will payoff with efficiency and economy in sales promotion. It will also provide information needed for better control of a product's destiny among retailers and consumers. Such research serves to eliminate waste, cut costs, and point the way to new markets for new products or for old ones designed anew.

Opinion research which probes attitudes and the complexities of human motivation is considerably younger. It dates largely from the early 1930's. The emphasis is as much on the development of more reliable methods as on the findings themselves. Even though it is barely of age, opinion research offers

vast potentialities.

It should be fully understood that opinion research is not a substitute for

decision making. It is only a guide to it. The role of public opinion research is put in focus by Angus Campbell of the 'Michigan Survey Research Center:

Knowing your public is a difficult assignment. Leading your public is an even more exacting charge. Studies of public attitudes will give much more useful information to the administrator of public relations programs but they will not relieve him of the responsibility of leadership .... The growth and development of all ... institutions depends on the initiative of [those] ... who are not content merely to keep the public satisfied with things as they are.

The oldest type of

pro' h research of value . k

vmg t e distribution and mark' IS mar et research. Aimed at im-

etmg of cons

12 For elaborat" umer goods, it dates back

(U b . . ion, see Osgood S .

. r ana. University of Illinnt ,UCI, and Tannenbaum

Into Semantic Space" i ~nOls Press, 1957); and Charl E' The ~easurement of Meaning n hramm's The Science of H es . Osgood s essay "An Exploration uman Communication.

OPINION RESEARCH IN PUBLIC RELATIONS

Opinion measurement has been used by a few pioneer practitioners for decades, but extensive utilization of this tool has been a fairly recent development in public relations. American Telephone & Telegraph has been one of the longest and most imaginative users of opinion research. A. T. & T.'s first survey, using a formal questionnaire and sampling methods, was made in Detroit in 1926, and this was followed by a similar study in Pittsburgh in 1927. In 1929 A. T. & T. had a survey made in Milwaukee to get information on the effectiveness of Bell System advertising. All these studies were made by J. David Houser and Associates, one of the pioneer research firms.

In 1929 Bell set up an opinion research unit of its own. Since that .ti~e, this organization has been developing improved survey methods and assisung Bell subsidiaries with their own studies. These Bell polls have varied widely in scope and purpose. All have been aimed at facts about customer ~pinions, employee opinions, and public opinions needed fo~ Cl~rrent operations and policy decisions. Since 1946, Bell has conducted periodically a Customer Attitude Trend Study; and since 1949, all the Associated Operating Companies

I. That customers were willing to give their opinions when asked.

2. That the information the company got by going directly to the customers made sense.

3. That this information was useful to public relations and operating telephone people.

CASE PROBLEM

126 . The PH Process: Fact.Finding-The First Step

The PH Process: Fact-Finding-s-The First Step' 127

have been conducting their own trend surveys. Early in its experience, Bell's opinion researchers learned: 13

Generally, extensive use of opinion polls and attitude surveys in public relations has accelerated since World War II. The trend is growing. This is illustrated in the intensive use made of polling by modern political leaders -John F. Kennedy, Richard Nixon, Lyndon B. Johnson, Nelson Rockefeller, and others. Too often, however, no one thinks of a poll until an emergency develops, such as an airliner crash in the neighborhood of an airport. When such crises arise-and if there is still time-a poll can be used to define clearly the problem and to suggest its solution. A poll can reveal who is angry, who is not, who has the correct information, and who is off base. It can demonstrate the relationships of information, misinformation, and dominant attitudes. It will isolate urges and identify motives. It may indicate the positive and negative symbols to which people will react in a given situation. Usually time does not permit crisis polls. The prudent practitioner uses surveys to head off problems before they crystallize into crises. Opinion research is most productive when used as a guide to long-range plans and for improving communication techniques.

. as director of public relations of your college

Let's assume that you are servmg d . itation to give the main talk at the

. Th 'dent has accepte an mv 30

or university. e presl W ek He asks you to prepare a _

annual alumni banquet during Commence~ent :ge~) on "The Problems Facing

h ( imately 10 typewntten p

minute speec approxi t this assignment, you must:

Higher Education Today." To carry ou

1. Define your audience. . t nd long-range objectives.

2 Determine themes to Implement pres en ha

. Itt through researc . .. d t

3. Assemble factua con en , to a conference WIth the presl en

4 Outline the suggested speech preparator)

. on theme, tone, content, and so forth.

5. Write the speech.

Additional Reading

Robert O. Carlson, "The Use of Public Relations Research by Large Corporations," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 21, Fall, 1957.

William P .. Ehling, "Public Relations Research: A Few Fundamentals," College and Unzverslty Journal, Vol. I, Fall, 1962.

Pierre Martineau, "It's Time to Research the Consumer," Harvard Business Review, Vol. 33, July-August, 1955.

Ralph O. Nafziger and David M. White (eds.), Introduction to Mass Communications Research. B,~t~n Rouge: L~uisiana State University Press, rev. ed., 1963. The . chapter on . Field Methods III Communication Research" is especially helpful. Edward J. RobInson, "Research in Public Relations," Public Relations Journal, Vol. 17, January, 1961.

Wilbur Schramm (ed.j, The Science of Human Communication. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1963.

Claire Sellt~z, Marie Jahoda, et al., Research Methods in Social Relations. New York:

Holt. Rmehart, & Winston, Inc., 1962.

1:1 From mss, ~f a talk. given at the University of Wisconsin, April, 1962, by C. T. Smith, Market and Public Relations Research Administrator in A. T. & T.

Chapter Eight

PLANNING-

THE

SECOND

STEP

Planning requires a searching look backward, a deep look inside, a wide look around, and a long, long look

ahead.

The second step in the process is the laying of plans. Once a particular problem is defined, then comes the decision of what to do about it. Effective plans, when they reach the action phase, become effective programming. As public relations matures, more, emphasis is put on planning. Lack of thorough planning often leads into wheel-spinning busywork or into defensive spur-of-themoment projects. Harried, hasty planning is makeshift at best. In times of crisis it tends to produce negative results. Prudent, long-range planning IS more likely to result in:

1. An integrated program in which the total effort accumulates definite accomplishments toward specific goals.

2. Increased management participation and support.

3. A program emphasis that is positive rather than defensive.

4. Unhurried deliberation on choice of themes, timing, and tactics.

Planning is based on adequate fact-finding and the common-sense idea that people ought to know where they are going if they are trying to get somewhere. Even though the values of a planned program are clearly evident, there is still too little emphasis on this step. A survey made in Columbus, Ohio found that only 53 per cent of the practitioners were being guided by written objectives.' Why? These appear to be the main obstacles to public relations planning:

Planning-The Second Step . 129

1. Failure of management to include the practitioner in deliberations that lead to policies and programs.

2. Lack of clearly agreed upon objectives for implementing the public relations program.

3. Lack of time, which is stolen by the pressures of meeting daily problems.

4. The frustrations and delays which practitioners encounter in the endless task of internal clearance and coordination with other departments.

5. The practitioner's faith in the ultimate value of getting publicity as it develops in organization day by day.

Planning requires:

1. A searching look backward-to determine all the factors which led to the situation under study.

2. A deep look inside-in which the assembled facts and opinions are considered in the light of the institution's objectives and weighed as to their validity.

3. A wide look around-in which there is study of like situations in like organizations; political, social, and economic trends; and the mood of the times.

4. A long, long look ahead-in which goals for the organization and for implementing the PR program are set.

Planning starts with the realistic aims of the organization. It encompasses a determination of goals, of strategy, of tactics. It sets up objectives, or targets, at close and long range. It decides between preventive and remedial activities in specific situations and works toward an atmosphere that is as nearly preventive all the way through as possible. Then there is the staffing and the action or follow-through to implement the plans.

A public relations firm that specializes in political campaigns once set down this outline:

While there is no master blueprint which can be f?llowe~ in successive campaigns, there is a fairly definite table of contents. ThIS applies to each plan. of campaign, and serves as a guide in drafting it. Here are some of the major requisites:

1. Careful delineation of the strategy which will be followed in every aspect of the campaign and of the steps which will be taken in the development ?f that strategy so 'that the action moves forward with precision and reaches Its peak of impact in the closing days before election.

2. Thorough appraisal and development of all the princip~l issues o~ the ca~paign, and agreement on the relative impor~anc.e to be gIven each Issue. ThIS keeps the focus of public interest on the objectives and issues which have

the most widespread appeal. .

3. A complete outline of all the organization aspect~ o~ the c~mpaI?n-the foundation and framework for the vast volunteer organIzatIon which will man the battle lines and carry the crusade personally to th~ voters.

4. Detailed plans for the use of all media-campaIgn pam~hlets, newspaper

ad' . . . . di d television billboards, movmg

~ magazme advertising, direct mall, ra IO an ,

PIctures, newsreels, "literature" of all types, et cetera.

lWilliam Carter Moore, "A Critical Analysis of Public Relations Practitioners in a Midwestern Metropolitan Area," Master's thesis, Ohio State University, 1962. A brief summary of this study is found in "Testing a Test City for a Public Relations Profile," by Moore and Walter W. Seifert, Public Relations Journal, Vol. 18, September, 1962.

128

Note the sequence of planning, programming, and action.

STRATEGY AND TACTICS

130 . Planning-The Second Step

Planning-The Second Step' 131

A BACKDROP OF IDEALS AND AIMS

Planning takes two general directions. One is concerned with long-range programs to achieve the PR mission. These are defined by the institution's basic policies. Within this framework will be fitted short-term plans for specific projects. It is important to keep the short-range programming subordinate to the long-range plans.

The initial fact-finding and analysis compares with the "intelligence" function in the military. The planning compares with the strategy and tactics of a military campaign. Long-range planning relates to broad outlines of strategy; short-term projects, to the tactics that make the strategy work. All are interrelated. Strategy is a master plan for winning a campaign. Tactics cover skillful use of tools and techniques in winning the several battles that make a campaign.

Long-term planning jells in decisions on ultimate aims. Although aims are usually couched in broad phrases, one must guard against the tendency to permit them to become vague, vaporous generalities. Formulation of aims is the task of management with aid from its communications specialists.

Within the framework of basic policies and long-range planning comes the implementation. For example, The Parker Pen Company, as one of its basic policies, supports the idea of free-flowing world trade. Long-range planning looks to the day when the markets of the world will be open equally to the pen makers of the world. Meantime, to dramatize the desirability of this ultimate aim, projects in the company's home community have included a "Peso Pay Day" for employees, a "Path of Nations" across the front of its plant, a World Trade Fiesta in the community, and so forth. This programming pursues the company's long-range goal by keeping attention focused on the basic policy.

Parker officials found in this basic theme the guide to solving a difficult PR problem-How does a relatively small company compete with the giants of industry in an extravaganza like the New York World's Fair of 1964? After two years of planning talks, the firm set down these criteria which had to be met: tie-in with the Fair theme, "Peace Through Understanding"; people-participation rather than just people-observation; involvement of non-Fairgoers, too; an exhibit and pavilion that related to its basic business-selling pens. Parker's theme became "Peace Through Understanding ... Through Writing," and it launched the biggest international letter-writing exchange ever attempted, using a computer to store and carefully match hundreds of thousands of names. Called the Parker Penfriend program, the company's dealers from all over the world helped collect names and thus won traffic to their stores by providing a welcome service. First letters were writte~ in Par~er's pavilion at the Fair which became a catalyst for Parker to gam attention, ~hen involvement,'pius contributing in its modest way to world understandmg. This is PR planning with a capital P.

Without ideals to for d d

portant incentive toward ~h;t:n. ar s of perfection, there would be no im-

Without some d fi . . hmgs that make up what we call "progress."

e I11te, attainable go I h b . .

Progress. Life Id has, t ere 0 viously would be lIttle

wou ave no sense f di .

on procurement of th b .. 0 irectron. People would concentrate

own lives or to hel eh are TnhecessItles. They would not seek to better their

p ot ers. us our con t t f . . .

goals gives promise f b ' s an process 0 linking Ideals and

o a etter tomorrow Th .

pose and direction It I . . e process provides us both pur-

. a so Imparts a certai d

Organizations as well . di . am rama to day-by-day living.

as in ividuals ha . did

and direction to their f' ve I ea s an goals that give purpose

unctions. As a pr f h' .

the organizational pro '" e ace to t e plannmg that goes mto

cess, It IS Important t .

tions. 0 recognize these underlying motiva-

To gain rewards. To help others.

~o ~e supported within the organization TO e :espected within the communit .

o delIVer a necessary d y.

To be free from needl an a u:anted product or service.

To have an infl ess outside restraints.

uence on public opinion.

Pro?lems involving an organization' . . .

downs m communicati I . s public relatIOnships, including break-

I' on, re ate readil t

n a busmess, for exam pi y 0 one or another of these basic aims.

d e, a common pr bl .

rop, or something else . 0 em IS economic distress. Sales

. . . ' causes earl11ngs t r if .

IS not gaming rewards. 0 s Ip 0 . The bus mess, in that case,

In social welfare work a r bl

k ' poem ari if hari

wor ers to help solicit fu d . ises I a canty cannot get volunteer

t ki . n s m the annual .

a mg IS not being supported . hi campaign, In that case, the under-

a pr bl' WIt in the 0 '.

o em exists if the 'd' rganlzatlOn. For a military camp,

. rest ents m th . hb

sion, In such a situation th '1' . e neig orhood resent it as an intru-

Or . f . ,e rrn Itary IS not p "

,I congreSSIOnal actio . res eeted uiithiri the community.

th '. n were pendmg t b

e orgal1lzatIOn would not b f 0 an women from military service,

In the perspective of e ree_fro.m needless outside restraints.

thr t . an orgallizatlOn's basi .

ea enmg, or able to threaten should be i aSIC alms, the specific problems

steps should be taken: ' e Isolated for study. Three preliminary

I.

Determine by anal . h

com '. YSIS t e policy mak . .

D mU~ICatton has broken do ers attitudes toward publics with whom

2. etermme with wn.

3. Bl k equal care attitudes f h .

these out the areas of commo 0 t e publics toward the organization

ese areas i d " n agreement and' .

tilities. n eVlSing a program to iron .common interest. Work from

out dIfferences and soothe the hos-

PLANNING STARTS WITH A PLATFORM



THE TWO KINDS OF PLANNING

Nugent Wedding, professor of keti ,

provided definitions of . mar etmg at the University of lllinois, has

prevennv- and remedi I 2

has been too much re di I' a programs, In the past there

me ia public relation t h '

too little preventive Quit f s- 00 muc occasron for it-and

,Ie 0 ten a matter callin f d'

the spark that touches II ' g or reme ial action provides

o preventIve plan' f h

one PR department has b b ' ,mng or t e future. More than

een orn rn a time of "3 M k i

sumers for a faulty lot f h ' , crisis.' a mg good to con-

h 0 mere andise IS a rem di I '

ave experienced at one ti e ia acnon most manufacturers

trne or another Usuall h ' ,

so much of a threat that I ' , , . Y t at experience constitutes

C pans are mltlated for I di "

ontrols are installed to " , r rmme late corrective action.

mlUlmlze chances of ' ,

surveys that will provid d ,a recurrence, such as periodic

Th ,Ie a vance detectIon

e telationshlj, of fact-findin and .',

seen in these examples. g opmion surveys to planning can be

The Association of American R 'I

long-term campaign to get relief fr~::o~ds has been enga~ed in an intensive, a day When the railroads had ., tight regulatory legislation imposed in

ft b a virtual monopol fbi'

o en a used this power Th " Y 0 pu IC transportation and

achieved with enactment' f he aSSOCIatIOn's PR objectives were partially bOt e Transp t .

rought a new public I ' or ation Act of 1958. This victory

, , re ations problem "H

malUtamed until the r " - ow was public concern to be

di emamlng prob1

Irector, Handly Wr' h . ems were solved?" Basically as its PR

ti ( Ig t, saw It the pr bl '

IOns: I) Was the publi I' 0 em was contained in two ques-

th f IC at ast aroused en h

so ~t urther action could b oug over the plight of railroads

the public believe that th 'I e successfully pressed in Congress? or (2) Did they should get on with th r~I roads' problems had been solved and that now

Re h C err work? To an h '

,searc orp. was employed t k s,,:er t ,ese questions, the Opinion

t~IS survey came the associatio ,0 ml a e a natIonWIde opinion survey, Out of

nd of k n spanned camp ,

wor rules that requir d h' aign to concentrate on getting

were ess . lIe t e raIlroads t hi

entIa, The survey sh d 0 Ire more employees than

thought "featherbedding" w o~e ~hat one out of every three respondents

One city's United G' -R t e raIlroads' most serious problem 4

, . . Ivers- ed F th " .

lalSlng goal three years in a r 0 ea e~ orgamzatIOn failed to meet its fund-

survey. This poll revealed a::w. nhadvlce of counsel, it sponsored an opinion

, ong ot er things th t

2 N ' a many persons thought that

ugent Wedding "P su

47. July. 1950 32 ' u Iic Relations in Business" , ,

3 For exa~pl' f'" , ' Unioersit» of Illinois Bulletin, Vol.

F es 0 (;fISIS" P bl'

ortune, Vol. 48, Se t u IC relations, see "Sh k

For proof that th pember, 1953; "Ford's Fi ht for F' ,~ Treatment for Parke, Davis,"

Edsel;" New Yorke: ~ost careful planning loes not li~!~rFortune, Vol. 50, September, 1954,

4 In "Ass . , ' art I, November 26 1960' P e success, see John Brooks "The

oclatlOn of Am ' " art II Decemh 3 19 '

lions Foru m M' encan Railroads" P di ' er , 60,

, mneapolis: University of M: rocee zngs, Seventh Minnesota Public Relamnesota, 1959, 8-9.

the agency's new headquarters were much too large and luxurious, Most of this criticism was based on the erroneous belief that only the United Givers staff occupied the building, A corrective campaign to publicize the fact that this building provided offices for many of the Red Feather agencies was planned and undertaken, This included placing a large sign listing all agencies headquartered in the building on the front lawn. As the result of this and other information projects planned on the basis of the survey, the organization's fund drive went over the top the next year.

After taking any remedial measures needed to cope with emergency problems, the practitioner is freed to develop a continuing program to improve conduct and communication, This broad-gauge effort will customarily be punctuated by projects along the way that speed the process and lend drama,

PUT IT ON PAPER. The over-all program should be set down on paper, in the form that is approved by the governors of the organization, Effective programming requires an agreed upon, clear-cut platform,

Without a platform, public relations is, in one practitioner's view, "in danger of becoming tremendously expert in selling a grab-bag package without having any clear idea of what our merchandise is," Surely aimlessness is one of the main factors vitiating much of the effort and expenditure in this field. Veteran counselor Paul Garrett years ago said: "Set down on a sheet of paper the policies of your company you would like the public to know about. Then build supporting projects," The values of such a platform are listed by

Oliver Gale: 5

I. Opportunities are legion. If a company knows what it wants-it can do a

more intelligent job, ' ,

2, The public relations department and. , , the whole orgamzatIon can

devote their efforts in the same directions,

3, A written statement can be studied and accepted by top management and

all departmental heads.

Arthur W, Page, architect of the Bell System's p~blic ~elations program, said repeatedly that this is the first thing to be ~one m settmg ,up ,a program, "This (statement of policy) is equivalent to saymg to the ~ubhc: ':"e should like to serve you and we offer you the following contract which we think .would be fair to all concerned and mutually profitable: The statements of policy are hostages for performance." A corporation that pays lip s~rvice to free ~ompetitive enterprise through a series of advertisements and IS then ca~ght 10 a deliberate violation of the antitrust laws learns, the hard way, that ItS profes-

5 Quoted in Conger Reynolds' article, "And What Is Your Public Relations Platform?", Public Relations Journal, Vol. 11, October, 1955,

CHECKLIST FOR PLANNING


sions of faith constitute a hosta M

public policy statements. There ge. r. Page suggested a sou~d reason for

policies of the e te . k are also good reasons for having the basic

n rpnse nown and underst d i II .

and collaboration fr II h 00 mterna y. It Invites support

om a ands In expressi h ..

tion, the position of offici I .' . essmg t e position of the organiza-

for the counselor. a s IS also clanfied. This is particularly important

Here is a typical statement of Ii

this statement could well d po ICIes for the Merck Company. Note that

stan exposure to publ' . . . d

for the internal audienc f h b . IC scrutmv, yet It IS phrase

e 0 t e usmess,

First, we want to make sure that our co .

for. In other words we must t h mpany IS a good organization to work

, s art at orne b ildi

goodwill among our worker thei I" Ul mg understanding and deserved

Second, we must be a goc d ~I~ re atives, and close friends.

do cmzen of our c .

we an others need to d if ommullIty. There are some things

neighbors. 0 1 we are to enjoy topnotch relations with our

Third, we want to bring about

our home towns of the sci ifi greater understanding beyond the borders of

. d crerrn c advances whi h b .

exerCIse to provide quality and I' IC are emg made, and of the care

Fourth, we want the g I va u~ m our products.

d . enera pUbbc to k f

are ommated by a genuI'ne d . now rom our deeds that our motives

" d . esrre to se Th

en s-mmded" than "means-minded" Th rve. . e American people are more

and your results. . ey bke to feel they know your goal

Planning-The Second Step· 135

In a more recent, though more narrowly based, study, A. Douglas Lyke found these the major objectives in 24 Chicago-area companies: 7

1. To interpret the company, its goals, policies, practices, and types of business to the company's publics.

2. To interpret to management the attitudes and opinions of the publics about the company.

3. To anticipate, ferret out, and prevent internal difficulties that might cause

trouble for the company. •

4. To obtain customer acceptance of company products, increase sales, and obtain franchises by winning customer friendship or improving service.

5. To take care of several miscellaneous company functions which don't belong in other departments.

6. To guide management in making the right moves for the company.

Elgin National Watch C

I T ompany put down these broad-based objectives:

. 0 help develop ad' . .

trade. n mamtam fnendly relations with

the retail jewelry

Planning, its detail and procedures, too often appears as an abstract, academic sort of business. It can be overorganized and thus become quite theoretical. It can also lead to rigidity. Informal planning is realistic. Its danger lies in ignoring the necessity of planning altogether. There are a number of yardsticks which serve to measure programs as projects before they go into action. Well-planned programs should be:

.2. To secure public and deSIgn.

3. To secure public and research.

Objective

57.6 48.2 45.8

1. Sincere in purpose and execution.

2. Durable and in keeping with organization's purpose and character.

3. Firm, positive in approach and appeals.

4. Comprehensive in scope and continuous in application.

5. Clear and symbolic, with simple messages.

6. Beneficial to both the sender and the receiver of the message.

In planning a program to advance organizational goals, it is important that the content be devised so that it tells, over a period of time, the institution's history, ideals, and achievements, publicizes its people, its policies, and its products or services, and projects its plans for a better tomorrow. Unless such yardsticks are used periodically, emphasis is apt to become disjointed under exigencies of the moment. To touch all bases, program content must be planned and devised.

By following a checklist, each press release or special event will bring progress toward the broad goals of good repute and wide rec~gniti~n for public service. The DuPont Company measures each program project With an "analysis formula."

What is the objective this project is designed to gain or approach? Is the objective sound and desirable?

trade recognition of our I

eadership III the field of

trade recognition of our I

eadership III the field of

In a survey conducted b N

following objectives y ugent Wedding among 85

were mentioned most often: 6

business firms, the

Increased sales

Per Cent of Total Respondents

Public understandin f h

BUilding pUhlic or cg 0 t ~ company and its policies Employe contentm ommunIty goodwiII

ent, reduced tu '.

employees rnover, aId In recrUltmg new

Developing b t

e ter understandin b

pl_oyees as an aid to b t g etw~en management and em-

Explaming the part I e ter productlOn

Preserving the free / tayed. by the firm in the economy Selling the compa n erpnse system

K' ny and the prod

ecplIIg emplovees . f uct to the public

S· ! III ormed abol t h

ecunng favorable legislation I t e company and its operation

21.2

20.0 20.0 17.6 15.3 12.9 U.8

6 Nugent Wedding op 't

' • CI ., p. 19.

-

7 Public Relations as a Management Function in Chicago-Area Cbmpanies (New York:

PUblic Relations Society of America, 1954), p. 99.

Are there .collateral advantages? Is the project feasible?

Can i~ ~e done with existing personnel?

~o:s It Involve cooperation outside the department? / ~t counter to sound public relations policy,

s It counter to company policy? .

Is the expense t hi h .

~a;: it :mbarras~~al~~ p~:~~~~~::~ :~s:a~~~~le gain?

ere IS the money coming from?

What ar~ the penalties of failure? Why do It now?

Why do it this way?

Who must approve the project? Who must be informed?

THE PR MAN'S ROLE



PLANNING AND BUDGETING

Planning and b d .

u getmg for public r - .

a budget for the next year th d elations go hand in hand. To prepare

not b . , e epartment mu t I h

e Implemented with . span a ead, and plans can-

. . lout a supportmg b d .' .

requrres plannmg in ad' u get. Systematic budget-making

fl ibili vance Instead of on th

eXI I Ity must be provided th e spur of the moment. However,

ties th at enables a staff t "

. at cannot be forese B d . 0 capitalize on PR opportuni-

WIth plans as these are sh end' u gets provide means of relating obj ectives

. ape and I' . d b

includes all phases of man unite y funds available. A sound budget

upon I f agement planning a d I'

P an a action. n resu ts in a unified, agreed

An example of how bud .

lined b R getmg and PR I .

Y obert H. Herrick of h p annlOg go hand in hand is out-

pany: 8 t e Cleveland Electric III . . Com.

ummatmg

The role of the counselor or staff director In the execution of programs is well established. His role at the earlier stages of fact-finding, analysis, and planning is not so clearly defined nor firmly established. Ideally, he serves as analyst in the investigating phase and as adviser in the planning phase. Once the program and its projects move into action, he becomes advocate.

There are two reasons which stand out above all others for the practitioner to participate in the preliminary as well as the action stages. First, it is here that he brings the public'S needs, desires, and opinions to bear on the policymaking process. He cannot later on interpret the organization to its publics if the organization's officials are deaf to what those publics think and feel. Second, only by participation in the planning can he fully understand and interpret basic policies. No one can effectively explain or execute something that he himself does not understand; it makes little difference how skillful or adroit he may be. Without such understanding, his efforts to translate are likely to be vague. Possibly they may not even relate to basic goals.

In actual practice, the PR man is often confined to matters of publicity.

All too often he cools his heels in the outer office while a major policy decision is formulated. He is called in and given a ten-minute briefing on the decision with a completely subjective analysis of why it was the "right" decision. Then he is told, in effect: "Now, you get your gang to explain in the newspapers why this decision was made and why it is the right one, so that we'll get the credit we deserve." Obviously, in such cases the practitioner is,

and is expected to be, simply a paid apologist.

Odom Fanning illustrates the consequences of this. A group of university experimenters were studying underwater explosions in a government.sponsored research project, but no plans had been made to allay the predictable fears of residents in the nearby off-campus area that these would not be dangerous explosions. One night the scientists worked late. Their explosions shook the neighborhood, rattling windows and knocking pictures off walls. The alarmed ?e~ghbors called police. In due time the neighbors' fears were replaced by Irntation at the university. For months the university's public relations director had urged the president to adopt an emergency plan in connection with this research project but to no avail. The president kept insisting, "We'll handle each emergency as it comes along." Fanning observes: 9

The president didn't realize that a lack of public relations planning on his part was accompanied by a widespread lack of public relations appre.ciat~on on the pan of faculty and staff. So he discovered what ma~y an executive In college.s,

in Industry, and in the government could have told him: Years of excellent public relations can be toppled in a moment under the stress of an emergency.

-

9 In "Planning and Candor-Key Words in an Emergency," Public Relations Journal, Vol. 17, March, 1961, p. 23.

1. The starting . .

POInt .IS an annual bud e .

1. Management with a I' . g t·plannmg report to provide:

policies. na ytIcal Information needed to modif d'

2. Irn . d . I Y an Improve

laPrO\e coordInation for plannin

Ap ns to test consistency with th g and to make possible a review of all

3. common dsri e company's Ion t I

yar stICk for the nex ' g. erm pans and objectives.

1'1 measured and defining standards t year s progress by stating what IS to be

lese repo t .

r s are prepared in three . .

I. A progress . main secnons.

, . sectIOn revi . .

progress ,VIeWIng accomplish

repon.' compared with plans established~~n~~ of the. past year. It cov.ers

2. '\ p! . e prevIous budget-planning

, anlllng section h

plained. < , Were next year's plans and I

3 _\ b d goa s are stated and ex-

", II get support section .

Illents for the f I -narratIve justificatio f h

lated into d II ort lcoming year. Specific plans n 0 tf e budgeted require-

___ 0 ar costs. are set orth and then trans-

8 In "Planning and B .

Journal Vol 17 J udgetmg-Siamesc Twins of P su .

, . , anuary, 1961, pp. 14.15. u rc Relations," Public Relations


The extent of this problem in recent years was indicated in a series of

talks by William M Freema 7\1 Y k T'

, n, 1\ ew or tmes staff member who served for

years as advertising and marketing columnist.

How many men with a p hli I' , I

? ' , ,u lC re auons tit e actually take part in manage.

ment , , , Public relatiom, IS II' I '

, , , an a ·InC USIve concept, defined as the effort

to Improve the relationship of d

lie Y t h ' a pro uct, a person or a company with the pub.

, et, w en It comes to a showd "nubli I· "

Publicity th' own, pu IC re ations" IS watered down to

, e runnIng of errands bet h d ., ,

I d ween t e ecisron makers and the media

se ecte to spread the news If th bli ,

title, he should be a full-seal e, pu lC relatIOns man is to be worthy of the

in the mapping of I fe, advlse~ to management, and he should take part product is held, pans or ImproVIng the regard in which the management's

Management is quite willin t I ' ,

ence room The ad e t' , g 0 et an advertising executive into the confer-

, V r ISIng man comm d h

his work in improvin th I' , an S rat er more respect, possibly because

more exactly, g e re auonship with the public can be measured rather

It is important to remember th bli '

advertising and publi it ' at pu IC relatIons at the highest level uses

ICl y as techmques Th PR .

he isn't doing the job h h'" e man IS out in the cold because

blame for this state of aeffs~ys I e IS doing, PR people have only themselves to

airs. nstead of p tici b ' ,

merely using the title, and en " r~~ ICIng pu lie relations, many are

gagmg In publicity, or press-agentry,

PROPER INDOCTRINATION

When a continuing program has b '

necessary and desirabl t . d ' een Jelled at the policy level, it becomes

, e 0 In octnnate the t hi' ,

IS to follow, Otherwise th ' op ec eons of executives In what

, , ese Important colI b ' d

like the counselor wh ' a orators may wind up uninforme ,

o IS not allowed t . ,

would not be able to d h. 0 partICIpate in the planning, They

, 0 t elf part Nor ld h '

Importance into support from the· wou t ~y be able to translate ItS

The mechanic 1 ,people under their supervision.

a process of mdocrr; t· ,

of personal skill in ' ina 109 an organization is actually a test

persuasIOn and di

generally accepted tenet ' ,coor matIng. In this connection, some

, s mern notmg

Startmg with the top echelon of a' .,

be explained in terms of th h n organizanon, the basic problems should

Then, the immediate re ed' a;m that can be done if they are left unattended. the long. term plans Thme ra m:as~res should be explained in relation to

S . e use of similar 1 '

. mveys should be reli d ' case examp es IS often very helpful.

1 1', e on to substantIate th 1

ie e nruna ted except" e pans. Personal opinion should

as It applies to ' I k

program should be rel t d ,speCIa nowledge already possessed. The

a e to the clim te i hi

and hopes to enJ·oy in th f a e In w ich the organization operates

Ie uture It sho ld b

)c undertaken will h . u e stressed that the activities to

I, ave a profound ulti ff

P dnatlOns should b h mate e ect on public opinion. Ex-

t ' e s ort and to the . T

( {'ClSIV£', a quality highl POInt. he practitioner should be

. Y respected by m d· .

Havmg gained the u d . anagers an admmlstrators

n erstandmg and .

support of the top echelon, the next


group to be tackled is that upper level of the organization where executive collaboration in news preparation and the like is necessary. Such collaboration can best be acquired through informal sessions in which individuals can air their views and talk things out. Quite often meetings are arranged in which the practitioner presents the programming, then throws open the meeting to discussion. Where this is done, a summary should be supplied afterward to all participants in the discussion. This can take the form of meeting minutes, a program timetable, a roster of projects, or a brochure explaining the plans. It is important for the future relationship that the programming agreed upon be a matter of record. Getting it down on paper tends to pin the details in the right places.

For an example of the whole process, assume that the A.B.C. Manufacturing Company, makers of parachutes, has decided to convert from the use of nylon to a new type of material called Chemthin. It is claimed to be better and is known to be lighter in weight and bulk. The raw materials for it are in free supply.

Assume, too, that the conversion idea originated years earlier. At that time the organization learned that the weight and bulk of standard parachutes were a source of concern to military officialdom and flight personnel alike. Consequently, a specific research program was activated. Chemthin was created and engineered by the A.B.C. Company as a private undertaking.

The prospect of introducing the new material posed problems involving relationships between the company and the military, the suppliers, the parents of flight personnel, and others. Long before the fabric was ready, the PR man or woman presented a carefully planned program of information and events. These were devised to gain a sympathetic understanding from certain publics and the enthusiastic support of others. The program was approved.

Indoctrination of the organization followed. The plans were explained down the line from executives through supervisors to employees in the offices and shops. Auxiliary channels of information were used. A let~er :vent from "" president to each employee's home. Everybody in the orgam~atIOn, by be 109 Iullv informed, became a Front-line participant in the converSIOn.

Next the practitioner opened the communication gate a bit wider. This might have been planned to happen in a rapid succession of events and news :eleases requiring no more than a working day or two for the full, range. Or, It might have been planned to fan slowly out, first to the commumty, then to the national level

In the dissemination of information externally, there were three basic components: (1) news, (2) media to carry the messages, (3) funds and staff

adequate to get the job done. . '

Continuing the example, assume that it was agreed the mformat~~e phase should tell a story of research, product refinement, quality, dU,rabllIty, an.d ~afety. A thread was to emphasize that the company's action was 10 the public Interest because it contributed to the national defense effort. The arrange· ments for external communication might have looked like this on paper.

140 . Planning-The Second Step COMMUNICATION VEHICLE


nrMEDL\TE PURPOSE

path of information is from those most intimately involved to those who are only incidentally interested. A third reason is that news or advertising naturally follows the logical sequence of happenings.

TIMING IS A KEY ELEMENT. The several elements of a program, such as Chemthin's, must be spaced and timed to produce the desired effect at exactly the right time. In political campaigns the strategists and practitioners strive to bring enthusiasm and support for their candidates and their cause to a peak the weekend before Tuesday's voting. Like timing is sought in fund-raising campaigns. However, such plans cannot be made in a vacuum. They must be related to the total situation in which actions and communication will take place.

For example, some years ago the-United States Internal Revenue Service was rocked by a series of scandals. Headlines reporting cheating and fraud on the part of a few Revenue officials darkened the nation's front pages. In the midst of these exposes, the Commissioner of Internal Revenue sent a letter to the nation's taxpayers chiding them for their carelessness in making out tax returns. He sternly wrote: "Our National Defense Program demands much from us. It places a reponsibility on both you and me, as fellow taxpayers, to see that our taxes are correctly and completely paid." At another time such a letter might have produced the desired result. In the climate in which it was received, it produced a hollow sound and brought much additional criticism to an already harried commissioner.

The calendar offers many opportunities for positive timing. For example, the public relations director of Atlanta's schools wanted to get the public's attention focused on the serious school-dropout problem. She prepared a documentary entitled, "The Ghost Story-School Dropouts," and it was broadcast on Halloween night. Shrewd timing is also used to s~other a story ~ather than have it spotlighted, or to smother an op.ponent s story. Fran~hn D. Roosevelt, probably coached by Louis M. Howe, m 1932 held the heanngs on the ouster of Mayor Jimmy Walker of New York the same day that He~bert ~oover was accepting the Republican nomination. The ~a~ker heanngs, highly sensational overshadowed the Hoover story on the nation s front pages.

Here are some 'other examples: A leading manufacturer of home applian~es took advantage of the news lull on Christ~as Day to a~nounce ~ sharp pnce cut effective January 1. Many a husband eyeing a shiny ~pphance by the Christmas tree and thinking of the higher price he had paid: was rese?tful. Many said so. A leading steel firm announced that it was boostmg the pnce of steel $4 a ton because of increased labor costs. Forty-eight hours later it released its annual report boasting of record profits. The coincidence of these two announcements brought public criticism that sh~uld have been expected. The time of the annual report was fixed. The pnce boost could have been delayed for a better psychological time. A few years ago the DuP~nt ~~mpany announced grants of neatly one million dollars to over 100 umversines and COlleges. This laudable act of corporate citizenship should have brought Dupont much favorable publicity. But the news was smothered. It was released

Third, a special letter to the shareholders o~ A.B.C. Company.

Fourth, special magazine articles telling about the development of Chemthin.

First, a statement to the horne town T

o relieve any a nx ictv about the com-

press. I

munitv's economic securitv due to the

changeover. .

Second, a statement to the national press. T

o confirm publicly that the move

served the national interest as well as private interests.

To reaffirm the confidence of investors i~ the stability of the company.

To Impress on segments of the general public the safety and quality features of the product; to establish leader-

Fifth, an A.B.C. Hardship Committee. T ship.

o deal with employee hardship cases

due to temporary layoffs during con-

Si th I version.

x , a p ant visit by military officials.

To point up the progress of conversion

and to identify activities with the defense effort.

To reassure soldiers. parents of soldiers. educators. scientists. students. and

E' h h h h

Ig t • an. open house on completion of ot ers w 0 might inquire.

conversIOn. To demonstrate the benefits to the com-

munity and to reaffirm the interdependence of company and community.

To prove the safety. quality. and value aspects of Chemthin.

Note that the specific tar et b .

what A.B.C. was doi Th g pu Iics were those most keenly affected by

f ng. ere were sold' d

sa ety, stockholders wh b iers an parents concerned about

residents Whose livelih 0 d ore the financial risk of the change hometown

I 00 S were I' k d . '

business, new suppliers h I~ e With the ebb and flow of A.B.C.'s

military officials and thW ose matenal~ would now be needed by A. B.c. , and tiona I defense effort. e general public shouldering the expense of the na-

Seventh, a booklet on Chemthin.

N' h

I~t • public demonstrations of the fin-

ished product.

THE TIMETABLE CAN MAKE THE DIFFERENCE It will be a

pparent from are-ex . .

that the chronology Was d lib ammatIOn of the program just outlined

rebel against any sudd ehi erate, not accidental. One reason is that people

en c ange of d t" .

reassurance that everythi . . ras IC propornon without some kind of

mg IS gomg to b II' h

to acceptance of chan . e a ng t. Mental digestion leading

ge IS normally a d I .

second reason is that '. gra ua process m human nature. A

. commumcatIOn to b . .

move out 10 waves fr . " ' 0 tam a desired reaction, should

ib om Its ongmal sou I h

POSSI le, its original f d . rce. t s ould preserve insofar as

orm an mtegrl t I h '

1 y. t s ould be accurate. The normal


the sa~e da~ t~at ~he Ford Foundation announced a $500 million grant to educatlO?al rnstrtut ions and hospitals. The public plaudits went to the Ford Foundation.

One of the many valuabl id h ..

" . e gUi es t at pracnnoners have learned from

social s~len~e research IS that "Change in attitude is more likely to occur if the

suggestion IS accompanied by h . h

. " . c ange In at er factors underlying belief and

attitude. It IS obvious th t th L

a e more we can make the environment give

credence to our communicati th lik I' L

b . IOn, e more I e ihood there is of our message

etng accepted. It is equall . . .

'. y Important to avoid, If we can, contradictions of

our commUllicatlOn current in th' .

Wilb She enVIronment In which they are received.

I ur cnramm sums up' I' .

. . Imp rcatrons of research on this factor in com-

munIcatIOns: 10

In general, (a) if we can make

wants, (b) if we can rovide or o~r messages. appeal to individual needs and

tudes (c) if we can I' Pt d pomt out SOCIal support for the desired atti-

. ' n ro uce our messag t h' .

rem forced by related ev t d'f es a . suc a time as will let them be

action along the line of e~ s, d ). I we ~an point ~ut or provide a channel for possible or point out wa e f esirer] attItude, and If we can eliminate so far as can be as confident as Pys ~blsurmounting the barriers to such action-then we

. OSSI e of r h'

plish with our suggestion. . " accomp IS mg what we want to accom-

PLANNING FOR DISASTERS

It is usually possible to t'

local events. It is usuall nne .an open house so that it will not conflict with

nificance at a time wh y. po~slble to announce a decision of national sig-

. en It will not b d d

alTwaves. e crow e off the front pages and the

There is one type of event whi

it can be planned for E '. IC~ cannot be forecast-a catastrophe. But

. . very InStitutIOn d' d . .

a dIsaster and should I . an In ustry IS subject to the fate of

. p an accordIngly Wh . h "

ment In the handling f ..' en It appens, time IS a key ele-

o commullicatlOn There I .

and carefully a progr f' . ere IS no time to plan cautiously

. am 0 Informatio PI .

calamity procedure mu t. n. ans made far m advance for

would normally be . s go Into action. The on-the-spot planning which

f given weeks must b d .

ew hours at most. e cramme mto a few minutes, or a

A thoughtful and co id

nSI erate hand!' f '.

emergency Was demonstrat d . I~g? commullicatlOns in such an

E· e In the tragic S C'

ago. ighreen employees of S if IOUX Ity explosion some years

mercial trucking companj I WI t ~ <?ompany and three employees of com-

L ki rues ost their lives M h

00 109 back later G CR" . ore t an 100 others were injured.

C , . . eltmger Publi R I .

,ompany, reported the f II' .' . IC e ations Manager of Swift &

D· 0 owlOg activit! . h

Isaster Plan: res m t e communication phase of the

10 In The P

19 rocess.and Effects of Mass Co '.

54), p. 214. A helpful volume of read' mmud~lcatlOn (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, mgs e !ted by Schramm.


1. Twelve executives, including two PR men, were sent by chartered plane from the main office in Chicago. They arrived within seven hours after the accident.

. 2. A brief statement was issued to the press emphasizing that the company's prImary concern was for the welfare of the disaster victims and their families.

3. Full assistance was rendered to the press. That included an adequately equipped headquarters from which the press could work, availability of facts and figures on casualties, cooperation with photographers, and emphasis on the care and welfare of those affected by the tragedy.

4. Teams were organized to visit families of those who died, the hospitalized,

and families of those seriously injured.

5. There were follow-up visits.

6. Financial aid was arranged for those in need.

7. Assistance was rendered in funeral arrangements.

8. Flowers went to funerals and to the injured in hospitals.

9. Facilities for paying wages and salaries were set up in a local bank. The accident occurred the day before pay day. Arrangements to pay all employees were set up two days later.

10. Assurance was given to all employees that they would be kept on the payroll.

II. Assurance was given to the community that the plant would be rebuilt. 12. A special message in a half-page advertisement appeared in Sioux City papers. The message was signed by the president, John Holmes, expressing appreciation for the help of all organizations and individuals. The injured were assured of the best medical care, and sympathy was offered to bereaved families.

13. Company executives visited every community official who had helped, including the relief organizations such as the Salvation Army and the Red Cross. 14. Handwritten notes from President Holmes went to the family of each person who had died.

IS. Personal letters from the president went to those who helped in the emergency.

Cooperation with the press netted the company every consideration. There Was no unreasonable sensationalism in reporting and photography. The community and the bereaved families of the victims were outspoken in their appreciation. Quick planning, but planning nonetheless, proved invaluable.

Standard Oil Company of Indiana experienced a like disaster at its Whiting, Indiana, refinery years ago, when a hydro former unit exploded. Fragments of steel killed a boy, injured his brother, and smashed into nearby houses. In the refinery, steel fragments tore into storage tanks. Crude oil was soon ablaze in a lO-acre area. The fires lasted for eight days. Smooth, skilled handling of the events which followed the explosion and fires brought the cO.mpany public understanding and its PR staff praise and awards. The underIYlllg policies called for consideration for those affected and for complete coOperation with news media. The PR staff had planned for just such an emergency and thus was prepared to act swiftly.ll

--

11 John Canning, "The Whiting Fire, a Case ~istory i'_l Dis.aster PR," Proceedings,

FOurth Annual M,' t Phi' R lations Forum (Mmneapohs: Mmnesota Chapter, PRSA,

195 nneso a u Ie e " hi' R I .

5), pp. 18-24. Also see John T. Hall, "A Fire Made Them Famous, Pu IC e ations

JOurnal, Vol. II, July, 1955.


Planning-The Second Step' 145

Its first "Procedure for Reporting News of Serious Fires and Other Unusual Emergencies" was drafted in 1947. It has been revised periodically since that time. After outlining the procedure for reporting such emergencies to management and to public relations oficials-including names, phone numbers, home addresses, and so forth, in sequence, the SO memo as last revised carried this policy statement:

The general policy will be to receive all press and radio representatives courteously and to do everything possible to facilitate their getting the objective facts regarding the fire or accident.

Watchmen in particular should be courteous at such a time. They will generally be the first company representatives with whom reporters and photographers will have contact.

When press representatives ask watchmen at Refinery gates for permission to enter the Plant, as they always do at such a time, watchmen will tell them as politely as possible that watchmen do not have authority to grant such permission. They will suggest that for official information they go to the emergency press headquarters in the Personnel Office Section, Industrial Relations Div. Bldg .. 1915 Front St .. Whiting.

Reporters and photographers are not to be permitted inside the Refinery during emergencies.

There ~s to be no company interference with reporters and photographers at work outside R~finery fences. So far as our company is concerned. photographers have a. righr to take photographs from public highways. railroad property, and the like, Employees. particularly watchmen. are not to expose film or confiscate camera when photographers are working on property which does not belong to our com~any a~d is not inside Refinery fences.

Our re~resentatIves will not do any guessing or speculation. They will state only establIshed facts.

In regard to monetary damages. they will make no statement until one has be~~ authonze.d by the head of the Refinery or one of his superiors .... To inqumes regardmg the cause they will reply with only such information as is ~Iear~y correct. Whenever the cause is in doubt. they will courteously request InqU!r~rs to defer their questions until there has been time to gather more infonnatIon.

!n proceeding cautiously in such matters, company representatives are to use

theIr common sense d t b . h .

. an 0 e neit er overly conservatIve nor too ready to

Jump to conclusions.

'Whenever it is evid t th I '. . f

..' en at t ie reporter IS trYIng to make a sensation out 0

the mcideru to repres t d I' . .

. ' en anger or oss as beIng much greater than It IS, our

representatIVes .are to endeavor tactfully to make him see the facts in their

rorreci proportIOn TI" .

. lIS IS partIcularly necessary in case of oil fires, which are

usuallv sl)ectacular a d I k d

' . < n 00 more angerous than they usually turn out to be.

Glen Perry, "Plugging Up the Holes," Public Relations Journal, Vol. 7, September. Publli:IRelations Society of America. "Budgeting the Public Relations Dollar." New

York: the Society, 1960. . P bli R It's" Public Relations

Edgar Stephens (pseudonym). "Programming for u IC e a IOn .

Journal, Vol. 13, May, 1957.. Universit 's Celebration," Public

William Taylor, "Long-Range Planmng-Key to ruversi y

Relations Journal, Vol. 18, July, 1961. , Q t I V I 7 Summer 1962.

Burt Zollo, "Setting Your Goals." Public Relations uar er y, o. . ,

CASE PROBLEM

. . I al ublic relations counseling firm. You

You are an account executive III a. oc p ., events Your firm is retained

specialize in handling retail stores and III s;agmg ClVIfty and' construction company. on an annual basis by Duffy Enterprises, ~c.. a r:a new shopping center. The

Y fi h i d b the Duffy firm IS openmg a

our rm was Ire ecause ..' weeks You are assigned to the account.

Eastgate, at the eastern edge of the CIty. m SIX .

You don't have much time, but- .' PR publications.

.. h . enter and like events III

I. Study accounts of similar s oppmg c I'

. f ." -ou need for p anmng.

2. Assemble necessary :'Ill ormatlO.n ). h Duff executives, an advertising agency

3. Canvass and select. III cooperation .WIt Y

to handle advertising for the opemng. ith you in planning and staging

. , C ittee to cooperate WI

4. Orgamze a Tenants omrm

the opening celebration. . f East ate to present to a conference

5. Draw rough plans for a gala openmg 0 g representatives of the advertis-

of Duffy executives. other officers of. your firm.

ing agency, and the Tenants' Committee.

Additional Reading

louis H Bell "C I I " 1\

.: .:.' ,.0 1I~ na s fagic Bicentennial Theme," PR, Vol. I, October. 1955.

Ldw.Il,d L. Bernays, 'What Every Executl've Should Know . "

P About Public Relations.

n~l/ers' Ink, Vol. 240. September 12. 1952.

John S DuB' "B ildi

. 61' F'· b 2701s .• UI mg the Company Image." Public Utilities Fortnightly, Vol. ' e. ,19:>8.

Chapter Nine

COMMUNICATING-

THE

THIRD

STEP

The fleeting attention today's citizen can offer is caught by those in whom he believes and who talk to him in terms of his self-interest in words that

he can understand.

THE NATURE OF COMMUNICATION

Communicating-The Third Step' 147

objects, table, chair-thing words. There are words which are symbols of abstract ideas, such ::3 freedom, love-nothing words. Children are taught, for example, that a furry little animal with long ears and a short, fuzzy tail is a "rabbit." Once the word and the little animal are associated, the word will always evoke the image of that creature. Word symbols for real objects are readily understood with a high degree of agreement. Not so with symbols for abstractions.

Abstractions, like "free enterprise" or "military morale," have no simple or universally agreed on referents in the real world of objects. It is difficult for people to agree on an image of free enterprise when they cannot see, touch, hear, taste, or smell it. This difficulty goes right to the heart of the communications problem. To communicate effectively, the sender's words must mean the same thing to the receiver that they do to the sender. The more thing words and the fewer nothing words the communicator uses, the

easier his message is to understand. . .

The word communication is derived from the Latin comrnunis, meanmg "common." The purpose of communications is to establish a commonness. There are three basic elements in communication: the source or sender, the message or symbols, and the destination or receiver. A breakdown can. involve one or more of these three elements. Effective communication reqUIres efficiency on the part of all three. The communicator must ha:e ade.quate information. He must be able to present it in symbols the receiver w~ll understand. He must use a channel that will carry the message to the recerver, The message must be within the receiver's capacity to comprehend. And it must motivate the receiver's self-interest.

When there has been no common experience on which to establish co~tnonness then communication becomes impossible. A sender can encode hIS

, , . I' f his experience and knowl-

message and a receiver decode It on y m terms 0

d " , ' b'l' t nderstand an Einstein and a

e ge. ThIS explains a layman s ma 1 iry 0 u

non-baseball fan's bewilderment at the cry of "Bunt!" Common knowledge and experience provide the connecting links, like this: 1

The dictionary describes communication as "intercourse by words, letters, or messages; interchange of thoughts or opinions." It would be difficult to think of anything that takes place, makes a sound or a gesture, that does not in some way communicate. Our social life abounds with communication, some of it overt, much of it unverbalized. The average American spends about 70 per cent of his waking hours communicating verbally-listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Truly, Americans live under a waterfall of words. This is inescapable in our interdependent society. Communications is the cement which holds society together.

The newborn infant's first cry communicates. It says, "I am alive." From then on through life a winked eye, raised eyebrow, smile, cupped ear, shaken finger communicate. Notice, however, that these simple human gestures are not in the form of actual words. Still, they inform eloquently. The same is true of sounds for which the audience forms words. There's no doubt what's going on when one hears a church bell, snap of a mousetrap, or thunder.

Building from sights, sounds, and sensations, one finds the means to express himself, to be understood, and to understand. In the process, words form the main carrier. The use of words, whether the communicating takes the form of a news release or an open house event, constitutes the first common denominator.

Words are symbols. There are words which serve as symbols for real

146

NOISE

~ ~

-----.., Channels ~---..,

Signal

Next it is Encoded and sent by Sender

148 . Communicating-The Third Step

Communicating-The Third Step . 149

THE TWO-STEP FLOW THEORY

shown this image of the simple, direct effect of the m~ss media to be a great oversimplification. As Lazarsfeld says: "Paradoxical as It. may seem, the clos~r one observes the workings of the mass media, the more It turns out tha~ ~h~lr effects depend on a complex network of specialized personal and socia mfluences." 5

Modern practice prefers a communications model which takes. into account the relay and reinforcement roles played by individuals. This means

. . d aching thought leaders. Com-

less reliance on mass publicity an more on re . fi d

. ti . both a vertical and a horizontal process. This was rst no~e

~umca IOns IS I d G dec's study of the 1940 Presidential election m Lazarsfeld, Bere son, an au. . stratum of a community

when "it became clear that certam people III every.. . d .

. ti n of election information an in-

serve relay roles in the mass com~umca 10 . must be paid to the

fluence "6 To communicate effectively, more attention d

. . I I its leaders These leaders ten to spe-

group, its grapevine, and, partIcu ar y, 1 •

cialize in issue areas. . I I I I or national levels, serve

d h h peratmg at oca eve s

These lea ers, wet er 0 . . k nd the IT. eneral ci tizenry.

I· k b the official decision rna ers a 1">

as the key m etween 1" 1 ientist these leaders-"the talkers,

In the view of the late V. O. Key, po It.lca sChi th' advocates the opponents

hit rs the philosop ers, e ,

the persuaders, t e speClI a 0 , d I· events and the mass of

. h 11 of remote an comp ex

+mediate between t e wor ( . h t the mass of citizens limit

. hi k rly in our VIew, t a

the public." He t m s, prope '. ti or vetoing the policy al-

. .... blj c affairs to suppor mg .

their partrcrpation m pu I . . st develop a more realistic

ternatives developed by the leaders. Pra~tltlOners mUt glll'de their communi-

. . . kmg process 0

model of the democratic deCISIOn-rna

cations programs. A . 's communications efforts

h findings to menca

In relating recent researc . ptions that mislead com-

abroad, W. Phillips Davison lists these misconce

municators: 7

. . instrument for influencing OpInIOn be-

l. That propaganda IS an effective ki d

h . ents of man In . . d

cause the media govern t e sen tim audience with mass attitu es

h ld be aimed at a mass

2. That propaganda s ou . .

as the primary target. . d t those who hold opposing opInIOnS

3. That propaganda should be d~recte \.. ost difficult, if not impossible

in an effort to win them over when, In fact, t IS IS m

to do. k . ind:

the communicator must eep III rru .

There are three fundamental facts . . ns consists of people. These

. f hi commumcatlO

(1) That the audience or IS

In this seemingly simple process, there are a number of variables which intervene. Research, dating roughly from the 1920's, has successively isolated and identified these variables as: (1) exposure, access, attention given the communicator's message; (2) the differential character of the media of communication; (3) content of the message-its form, presentation, and appeals; (4) receiver's predispositions which cause acceptance, modification, or rejection of message; (5) interpersonal relationships of individuals as members of groups. Each one of these variables must be taken into account.

The most recent variable found to be influential is that of the receiver's interpersonal relationships. This has led to formulation of the two-step flow of mass communication theory.s Spurred by the performance of the Creel Committee in World War I, communicators in the 1920's developed a mass communications model which is now outmoded. This Model T vehicle was built on assumptions that: (1) the people were an atomistic mass of millions of isolated readers, listeners, and viewers eager and ready to receive The Message; (2) that every Message had a direct and powerful stimulus which would get an immediate response; (3) that there was a direct relationship between information and attitudes.

In short, the growing mass media were looked upon as a new kind of unifying force. This force would reach out to every eye and ear in a society characterized by an amorphous social organization and a loss of interpersonal relationships. This vertical theory of communication presumed that the Message from the Mass Media beamed down in a direct line to the newly urbanized, isolated, and I~st individuals-"the image of the audience as a mass of disconnected individuals hooked up to the media but not to each other." 3

The naive notion underlying the obsolete Model T theory is seen in this advice given to professional publicists after World War I: "Although clearness and logical arrangement toward a climax are necessary in presenting arguments, the chief thing is to emphasize a supreme point by which ... a prospect is 'swept off his feet:" 4 Research and pragmatic experience have

1 This process is elaborated in Wilbur Schramm's introductory essay, "How Communications Works," in his The Process and Effects of Mass Communications, pp. 3-26.

2 For a full discussion of this significant theory, see Elihu Katz and Paul LazarsfeId, Personal Influence: The Part Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communications (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, Inc., 1955), pp. 15-42.

. 3 For later evaluation of this theory, see Elihu Katz, "The Two-Step Flow of Communication: An Up-tO-Date Report on an Hypothesis," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 21, Spring, 1957.

4 Herbert F. deBower, Advertising Principles (New York: Alexander Hamilton Institute, 1919), p. 91.

"b Lazarsfeld and Herbert Menzel, 5 In the essay "Mass Media and perso.nal Ibnfluwe~lcbe~r S~hramm (New York: Basic Books,

' . ti edited y I

in Science of Human Communica Ion,

Inc., 1963), p. 95. b. University Press, 1948). . ..

6 The People'S Choice (New York: columI ra ment of Foreign Policy," Public opmlOdn

. . As an nstru h has been leame

7 In "Political Communication full analysis of w at h T

Qua1"terly Vol. 27, Spring, 1963, 28-36. For ad' in influencing opinions, see Josep .

' . ., of mass me ra P of Glencoe, Inc.,

about effectiveness and Iimitattons . . (N w York: The Free ress

C mUnlcatlon e

Klapper, The Effects of Mass om

1960).


people live, work, and play with one another in the framework of social institutions. Consequently, each person is subject to many influences of which the communicator's message is only one. (2) That people tend to read, watch, or listen to communication which presents points of view with which they are ~ympathetic or in which they have a deep personal stake. Each person lives m the shelter of a cocoon of his own spinning that insulates him from the ~ommu.nic~tio?s ba~ble that beats in upon him all day long, a babble steadily mcreasmg m intensity. (3) The response we want from our intended receiver must be rewarding to him or he is not likely to respond.

I. Walter Lippmann Pub!" 0 . .

2. Elmo Roper "Re~chi IC h P~nzon. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1922, p. 30.

3. George Gall~p "ThengAbt e .eneral Public." PR, Vol. 1, October, 1955, 1-6.

, sorpuon Rate of Ideas" P su 0 . . I

Vol. 19, Fall, 1955, 234-42. . U IC pinion Quarter y,

UPPMANN'S BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATIONS

1. Artificial censorships

2. Limitations

of social contact

3. Meagre time available for paying attention to public affairs

4. Distortions because events must be cOmpressed into short messages

5. Difficulty of making a small VOCabulary express a big, complicated world

6. Fear of facing those facts which seem to threaten established routine of men's lives

ROPER'S HYPOTHESIS

l GREAT TIDNKERS
Adam Smith, Jefferson
- - - - - - - -
l GREAT DiSCIPLES J
Robert Taft, FDR
- - - - - - - - -
GREAT DiSSEMINATORS
Luce, Lippmann
Meany, Murrow
- - - - - - - - -
-
LESSER DiSSEMINATORS I
Clergy, Editors, etc.
- - - - - - - - -
POUTICALLY ACTIVES
10 to 15 million Citizens
who take active interest in
public affairs and provide
local leadership.
- - - ~ - - - -
POUTICALLY INERT
75 to 80 million
citizens who seldom
voice opinions but who
vote, buy, decide. Communicating-The Third Step . 151

ROPER'S CONCENTRIC CIRCLE THEORY

GALLUP'S REGULATORS OF ABSORPTION RATE OF NEW IDEAS

Gaining acceptance of an idea or point of view, then, is more than simply beaming it at an audience through a mass medium. There is still not sufficient evidence to be positive about how ideas are disseminated among Americans. Elmo Roper, after nearly 30 years of opinion research, formulated a hypothesis which he calls the "concentric circle theory." 8 Roper assumes that ideas penetrate the whole public very slowly. They do so by a process similar to osmosis. They move out in concentric circles from Great Thinkers to Great Disciples to Great Disseminators to Lesser Disseminators to the Politically Active to the Politically Inert. The flow of ideas as hypothesized by Roper is charted on the opposite page. This hypothesis assumes that American society can be stratified as indicated. It emphasizes the importance of using opinion leaders in the PR process. His theory squares with the findings of Lazarsfeld, Katz, and others. It deserves further testing.

The rate of flow in the transmission and acceptance of ideas is governed by many factors. These include the five variables listed on page 148. They also include the "Regulators of Absorption Rate" named by George Gallup on the basis of three decades of opinion research, also listed on the chart.

1. Complexity of the idea

2. Factors of difference from accustomed patterns

3. Competition with prevailing ideas

THE DIFFUSION PROCESS

4. Is idea susceptible

to demonstration and proof?

The communications step in the process requires influencing opinion among both sizable and distant groups. The United States Department of Agriculture has been working at this task longer than most. The USDA has learned that getting new ideas accepted is not the simple. pro~ess of discovering a new grain and publicizing it. It took 14 years to gam wldesprea~ adoption of hybrid seed corn on America's farms, for example. Out of their long experience and evaluation, agricultural sociologists have concluded that acceptance goes through five stages."

1. Awareness. The individual learns of the existence of the idea or practice

but has little knowledge of it. .' .

2. Interest. The individual develops interest 111 the Idea. He seeks more 111-

formation and considers its general merits. . . .

3 E I . Th' di id al makes mental application of the Idea and

. va uation, e In IVI u .,

weighs its merits for his own situation. He obtains more information and de-

cides to try it.

5. How strong are vested interests which will block proposed change?

6. Does proposal meet a felt need?

7. Frequency with which public is reminded of new idea

8 Outlined in "Who Tells the Storvtellers?", Saturday Review, Vol. 37, July 31, 1954.

9 This theor of the diffusion process has emerged as the ~esult of researc~ of m~ny people Over a n~mber of years. It is summariz~d i~ Herbert F. LI.o~bergel' ~~t!~i: Of .. J~~~ Ideas and Practices (Ames la.: Iowa State UnIversIty Press, 1960), ~n E.. . g, d f c '. . A . It r " in Studies of Innooation an 0

ommunication of Ideas on Innovation In gnc~ u e, C . tion Research 1962).

Communication to the Public (Stanford, Cal.: Institute for ommumca ,


Communicating-The Third Step > 153

4, Trial, Individual actually applies the idea or practice-usually O?, a small scale, He is interested in how to apply practice, techniques, conditions for application,

5, Adoption, If the idea proves acceptable, it is adopted,

(I) Both studies plot curves of diffusion to map the ,spread of innovati~~, over time, within the social structure or various parts of, It, The authors of t e corn study inferred from the curve that interpersonal Influence would appear to account for the observed pattern of spread, The drug stu~y .lwen~" o~e step

further and by comparing the curves for "integrated" and "ISO h te , would

" " I w iere It wou

could show that interpersonal influence was operative preCIse y

most likely be expected-among the "integrated" doctors, , f

. '" f " t enough't=neither armers nor

(2) Both studies find that In ormation IS no, h

' fi h ring It was shown that t ere are

doctors accepted the innovation upon rst earmz. , , d that

' , h 'II' f potential adopter about an mnovation, an

media whic dt!Plc~, Yh I~ o~;:llay "activate" or "legitimate" the decision to adopt. there are me ia w IC yp 'I d f rmal: the latter more pro-

The former tend to be more commercia an more 0 ,

fessional and more informal.

I "Whether these generalizations apply

Professor Katz proper y warns" ' "

equally to the diffusion of other innovations remains to b: s~en, id

ions xl t that commumcatmg a new I ea

The research conclusions emonstra e Ive at xliff t

' k D' fferent media are effective at I eren

or practice is a long, tedious task, I f he j tor or influential

' diff The influence 0 t e mnova

points and m I erent ways, , f the communicator to

" ity It is Important or c

leader IS great m every commun , , d how to

h ' t use at different stages an

know what media and tec mques 0 h . these theories provide

' , influences ff ti ely Taken toget er,

mobilize these m uences e ec IV, ", "t ' in

' mmurucation is cxpenstue In tme,

a much surer approach, Effectlve co h t' higher than is com-

' l antral T e cos IS

understanding) and In emottona c '

manly supposed,

STAGES IN THE ADOPTION PROCESS

AWARENESS INTEREST EVALUATION TRIAL ADOPTION
L earns about a new Gets more infor- Tries it out Uses or tries Accepts it for full-scale
idea or practice matdon about it mentally a little and continued use

1. Mass media radio. TV, 1. Mass media 1. Friends and 1. Friends and I Personal experience Is the J
newspapers, magazines neighbors neighbors most important factor in con-
tinued use of an idea
2. Friends and neighbors 2. Friends and 2, Agricultural 2, Agrlcul tural I. Friends and neighbors
meetly other farmers neighbors agencies agencies
2. Agricultural agencies
3. Agricultural agencies, 3. Agricultural 3. Dealer-s and 3. Dealers and
extension. yo-ago etc. agencies salesmen salesmen
3. Mass media
4. Dealers and salesmen 4. Dealers and 4. Mass media 4. mass media 4. Dealers and salesmen
salesmen Used by permission from Herbert F. Lionberger ADOPTION OF NEt{ IDEAS AND PRACTICES. page 32.

They have concluded that information about new farm and home practices are communicated by these agencies in order of appearance: (1) mass media-radio, TV, newspapers, magazines; (2) friends and neighbors-mostly other farmers; (3) agricultural agencies-extension agents, vo-ag instructors, and so forth; (4) dealers and salesmen-purveyors of commercial products and equipment,

These media or agencies have a varying impact at each stage of the process, The mass media have their greatest impact and usefulness in creating awareness. For farmers and farm wives, at least, the mass media become less and less influential as the acceptance process advances toward adoption. In the interest stage, mass media still play an important part, But, to learn more, the farmer turns to agricultural agencies and friends, In the evaluation stage, friends and neighbors play the dominant role, In the trial stage, agricultural agencies, friends, and neighbors are all important. Dealers and salesmen are influential in this stage when commercial products are involved. The time span in each stage varies.

This diffusion model, developed on the basis of extensive research among rural families, was confirmed in a comparable study of how doctors in four communities responded to the availability of a new "miracle drug," Despite the differences between a new seed and a new drug, and between farmers and doctors, the results are quite comparable. Comparing the study that traced the adoption of hybrid seed corn and that which traced the adoption of the new drug, Elihu Katz concludes, among other generalizations, that: 10

THE BARRIERS AND DISTORTION

, ' ortion of message exist in the eommuni-

Barriers to understanding and dist I' tty much by his own sym-

, lik E h person ives pre .

cator and the audience ale, ac , barriers language or vo-

ial barners, age ,

boIs and stereotypes, There are SOCI ic b ' Finally there is the con-

"I d nomic arriers. ,

cabulary barriers, politica an eeo ,

" f eople's attenuon. ,

stant roar of competItIOn or p hi that touches the consCIOUS-

, b ut everyt mg

People have impressions a 0 , ' into four groups.11 One

k d th se impressions 1 ,

ness, Lippmann has brae ete ed' his stereotypes, the third

' h Id the seeon IS ,

IS the person's approach to t e wor , " f the world, Everyone Iives

hi , d h f urth hIS Image 0 , if

IS personal mterests, an teo, f example, during their II e-

' b I Publjc figures, or ,

ill a world of his own sym 0 s. h ersonality created by Images

' k partly throug a p hili

tIme and afterward are nown J h Glenn and Prince P 1 Ip are

fi ' , Astronaut 0 n , I

xed in the public imagination. 'k w them as people entire y

'I' . d aSSOCIates no , f

good examples, Their Iami res an " P le who live on one SIde 0

d'ff 'hI' ersonalIties. eop " ,

1 erent from their pUI-' IC P 'd f town or in remote cines In a

h other SI e 0

town tend to know people on t e

half-fictional, half-imagined way.

10 Elihu Katz' essay, "The Social Itinerary of Technical Change: Two Studies on the Diffusion of Innovation," in Studies of Innovation and of Communication to the Public, loco cit" pp. 5-115,

t Brace & World, Inc" 1922),

(New York: Harcour , 11 Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion


Communicating-The Third Step· 155

In communicating, nothing raises more problems than the fact that the audience has limited access to the real facts in any given situation .. Acce~s, as Lippmann has made clear, is limited by the six II_Iain facto:s listed. In the chart. With limited access to the real facts, and WIth some information tending to confuse as much as it clarifies, people rely heavily on stereotypes. Specific and significant impressions become generalities.

From the cover of a magazine, for example, with a picture entitled "criminal," the person looking at it may pick out two or three sharply defined features. Perhaps he selects a low forehead, a squinting eye, a scarred face, or a mouth that curls at the corner. From then on, the impression may be so deeply rooted that he feels sure he knows the "criminal type" whenever he sees it. He can classify everyone, including his friends, as to whether or not they are criminal types. Indeed, he has classifications into which he can fit almost everyone he sees or hears about.

Lippmann emphasizes the sacrosanct regard that people have for stere.otypes as "the core of our personal tradition, the defense of our position In society." Stereotypes tend, as a defense mechanism, to express the hopes of the audience. They form a moral code from which personal standards are derived. The PR specialist learns to recognize the influence and the pressence of symbols and stereotypes in the seeming contradictions and contrariness of public opinion. Stereotypes are used to counter stereotypes.

Another system of barriers encompasses the superstitions, prejudices, and vanities to which we all cling. Considering superstitions alone, one man may laugh at another for his refusal to open an umbrella in the house. The same man who laughed at that superstition might well walk two blocks out of his way, however, to avoid letting a black cat cross his path. We believe what we want to believe. That is perhaps the best way to explain, in oversimplified terms, the grip that superstitions, prejudices, and vanities have on us.

. . . lace and audience. It means careful selection

signed for the situation, time, p , . I b se it worked once before

. N rogram sImp y ecau

of media and technique, 0 p 'b lik trunk full of clothes and

. .. be carted a ou tIe a . h

in a gIVen situation, can With rare exceptIOn, t e

. . f the same type. '

deposited in every new situanon 0 f hi else they'll be out of style.

fi h - nd wearer I not mg ,

clothes will not t t e seco . d have people as a common

. I' roblems however, 0 h .

All public re ations p , ., bring the people and t err

. e commurncanng to 1

denominator and reqUIre som is a lies whether the program calls for news

viewpoints closer together. Thi pp . other tool of contact.

. . I d tisi g meetings, or any .

releases, inst~tutlOna a ver Ism, which intelligence is acquired pomt up

The barners and the means by . . Th emphasize the need for

. . . comrnurucatmg. ey I

the need for conunuity m .' I f They urge careful se ec-

. t essage m SImp e orm. . f

repetition of a consisten m d the use of a vanety 0

1 method They recommen

tion of time, place, anc di . from several avenues.

media that converge on the au renee

THE ACT OF COMMUNICATING

NEED FOR BETTER COMMUNICATING

- d by the audience with a

. . that IS answere . f

Only through commurncauon . h be a solid platform or

cator can t ere id

reaction favorable to the communi . nd placing it alongsi e

.. . that premIse, a d.

congenial relationships. Accepting . tion Wilbur Schramm has IS-

ff t' e commuruca 1 ,

todav's lack of adequate e ec IV

k t be done.P

cerned the tremendous tas 0 d . e Industrializa-

h eneous an massive. .

The typical community has become ~~~~g changes in social patt~rns "'. one

tion and fast transportation have m~de turies Individuals have increasingly lifetime than were formerly ma~e m cen s so· that the world presents a sce?e been forced to delegate their affairs to grouh, aid advocates who are_ ofte~ I~_ of groups dealing with each other throug nl understanding. Increasmgl~, fmdl-

., I' in agreement a . h nd to in orm

teres ted more m victory t Ian di ies to mform t em, a

d interme Ian - . n has come

viduals have had to depen on second-hand commumcatlO f . I

others for them. This dependenceh o.n I skills have drawn far in front 0 sOCIa

. hen tee mea . k d constant com-

ironically at the very time w wonder whether qUlC an . ilized

skills and when we have begun to , may not be the only way a. ClVI

' d If tive informatIon, h I rge media to cut

munication, wide an e ec have to depend on tea . technical

society can survive. That means we rou s carry the informatIo~ .on d the

through the differences, penetrate the ~b t~ ~o the exchange of opmlOns an

. and contn u .

skills and social adaptations, d . great and growmg.

. . s The nee IS • • •

creatIon of SOCIal consensu . ired with causes and institutrons.

. d and surfeited w b t ive

Today, the citizen IS swampe. ith pleas to listen, to uy, 0 g ,

People are bombarded from all SIdes WI I' ing permits less and less atten-

d h t Faster IVI I" tak-

to vote, to do this, or not 0 t a. emands of grubbing out a rvmg, .

tion to these pleas. The day-to-~aYl ~ recreational pursuits, and fulfillmg

. '1 h s multip ymg

ll1g care of fami y core, 2

. ity of Illinois Press, 1948), p. .

. (Urbana: Umvers

12 Communications in Modern Society di edited by Schramm.

This is a book of 15 studies of the mass me ia,

With such barriers and obstacles it would be disapPOinting, if not futile, to establish any single set of sure-fire rules. Such a set could appear perfect in principle yet be rendered ineffectual by an unseen characteristic of the audience. The timing could be bad. This was the case when a TV maker tried to push color TV before millions of Americans owned a black-andwhite set. The audience could harbor an unspoken prejudice, such as confronts a Democrat campaigning in a Republican precinct. The wording of the messages could be such that it does not square with the images in the heads of the audience. Or perhaps the audience is not in a listening mood. Regardless of the specific barrier, results from standardization of programming are generally frustrating and futile.

Effective communication means tailor-made programming specially de-

ords really mean. 1

Semantics is the science of what w . d from the dictionary to popu ar

. W rds are raise . d b buse In

Word meanmgs change. 0 1 ct or are bamshe y a .

usage. Other words wither away from neg e



growing civic obligations take most of the available time and energy. There is little time left to listen, less to read, and precious little to think.

The mass media are pitched to these facts of life. These media, though vested with heavy public responsibilities, are primarily private businesses. In order to compete successfully, they find it necessary to emphasize t~at which excites and entertains. In determining content, they tend to headlme the values of the sensational, the controversial, and the amusing. Factual, less interesting information tends to be subordinated. Values are hitched more to emotion than to reason. It is a sad but real fact that readers and listeners are much more interested in sin than in virtue. A felon is better copy than a professor of Greek.

These mass media must appeal to the common denominators. Audience begets advertising; advertising begets revenue. The audience is attracted by the satisfaction of its wants. Such generalizations reflect current values of society rather than indictments of the media which serve it.

This matter of emphasis-the reference is more to the degree of emphasis than to total content-makes it necessary for all institutions invested with public interest to take the initiative in constructively telling their sides of the story to the public.. The press will take the initiative to report strikes. Industry and labor must take the initiative in reporting peaceful, productive labor-management relationships. The press will take the initiative in reporting student escapades. The universities must take the lead in reporting the substantial, though unspectacular, educational achievements. The press will quickly and fully report the conflicts of political personalities. Government must provide the less controversial story of its constructive achievements and of its services.

As James Reston of the New York Times observed: "The Presidential campaign dramatizes the American habit of looking at everything in terms of personalities and in terms of triumph or disaster .... Meanwhile the great issues of world politics are not turning on who is in power or in any conflict between violent extremes .... "

These, obviously, are broad generalities. Many exceptions can be found.

It is difficult to generalize on the press, for example, when the term embraces such extremes in philosophy as the New York Times and Christian Science Monitor, on the one hand, and the New York Daily News on the other. Similar extremes are found in magazines, books, radio, motion pictures, and television.

These media do afford readily accessible channels for the institution that chooses to tell its story candidly and constructively. This is proof of an urge and an effort toward a more significant and balanced content. There is ample evidelKe that news values are undergoing steady self-examination and revision t-oward a more significant and more responsible definition of what interests people. The transition, however, is a long way from complete. The point is sharply illustrated by one capital-city newspaper. It has four writers to cover spectator sports. It employs only one man to cover the state capital

. h f tions and policies

with its more than 60 governmental agenCIes w ose unc 1

affect the lives of four mi::i~~e c!~~ens~f an industry or institution is not so

Hence, the need t~ te "f ry blicit " It is the need to be accurately much born of the desire for ree pu . y. ublicit efforts. Those

reported. Both motives are foun~ be~I~d currer~~Ird and \ecognition fail who maintain that good deeds brmg t sel' own derstood Unless they make

d f king themse ves un .

to see the urgent nee 0 ~a I in misunderstood and misrepresented.

that effort, they run the nsk of be l I to misinformation but also Many misunderstandings can b~ tracke nothon Yrt of those with whom con-

. f . This lac on tepa

to the lack of in ormation. b h t of needless frictions and ag-

genial relationships are sought can e t e roo

t i trong sure support.

gressions. Informed suppor IS s ,

NEW PERSPECTIVES NEEDED

. hasis still more in terms of people's interests

There is the need to shift emp blicit in perspective as a part

., The i d I is to keep pu ICI y .

and mental capaCIties. e 1 ea "1 ed with the absorption

. nman y concern

of the whole process, but remam p . sed by the actions that the

. W t be more Impres f

of messages-the reaction. e ~us. d d' transcripts. The pounds 0

b h lippings an ra 10 . . '11

audience takes than y t e c littl if the organizatIOn IS su

. . mean very leI

clippings and the hours of air time .

t be on the audience. idl

misunderstood. Our focus mus told continuously, clearly, and ca.ndl y.

The facts of the story should be f hei story must reckon With the

. hh Id the facts 0 t err .

Those who seek to wit 0 . h be circulated. The negatrve

. . h t ry Will some ow

practical certamty that t e so. h d the telling.

. I b told If ot ers 0 .' ki

aspects are more Iike y to e . f d . g their own tellmg or ns mg

. h h choice 0 om

Institutions are faced Wit t e . d backfence and tavern con-

f gOSSIP rumor, an f '1

relationships that develop rom '... either succeeds or ar s to

. hoi the mstltutIOn . d

versation. In makmg that c oice, .' . the affirmative, an a

. 1£ the choice IS in h

invest itself with news interest. llary everything newswort y

. f II that as a coro , d

green light is given, It 0 OWS , . othing but trouble an em-

There IS n ..

about the institution becomes news. . to have the good thmgs

. . tion that tnes .

barrassment ahead for the insutu . I e and the bad thmgs sup-

. h dlinmg news va u , . l'

about itself invested With a ea unicating phase Imp res an

d ke the comm

pressed. The decision to un erta

all-the-way attitude.

SEMANTICS

THE PR MAN IS EXPECTED TO BE THE ANSWER MAN



this text, this science of semantics can only be kissed lightly in passing. Space denies a full courtship. Don't be misled by that. The subject really deserves and gets more attention than that from men and women in public relations work. For, in communicating and interpreting, PR people live by words. They make their living by them. Practitioners seek mastery of word meanings both as users and as understanders. For communicators, there is no escape from what T. S. Eliot described as "the intolerable wrestle with words and meanings."

The basic importance of semantics must never be lost. In communicating, a person is constantly making decisions on word meanings. Stephen Fitzgerald put it very well by saying, "When you decide whether the refusal of men to work should be called a strike, a work stoppage, or a damnable crime against the people, you are making a decision in semantics."

In selecting words to use as weapons, the practitioner must remember that the same signs and word symbols have different meanings for different persons. There is no l-to-I ratio between a word and its meaning; more likely, the ratio is 1-to-50. Not only do signs and words have different meanings for different people; they have two different kinds of meaning-denotative and connotative. Denotative meaning is the common dictionary meaning generally accepted by most people with the same language and same culture. Connotative meaning is the emotional or evaluative meaning we read into words because of our experience and background. For example, all persons will agree that DOG denotes a four-legged, furry, canine animal. For most persons, the wo~d DOG connotes a friendly, faithful pet and usually awakens nostalgic memones. To some people, however, the word DOG connotes a dangerous animal to be f~ared. Another example would be the term bullfight. North and South Amencans fully agree on what the term denotes but the connotative meaning of bullfight differs sharply in North and South America.

specialize language to talk about television, cybernetics, antib~ot!cs, _jets,. auto-

ti and atomic power. There will have to be more specialization m the

ma ron, 'I . d

years ahead to handle such things as earth satellites, microe ecrrorucs, an

computers. Meantime, there are already special la~~uage arrangements for scientists, immigrants, deaf and blind people, mUSICIans, and even baseball fans,

The 'I' ti has not been restricted to language, People, them-

speCIa Iza IOn . , ld '

I ' hei rk and outside pursuits have specialized. The 0 -time

se ves, In t elf wo is th . I'

family doctor has become a dozen specialists. Then, there ,IS t e ~peCIa 1Z~-

tion of thought patterns. Once there were nice, broad philosophies as big

h any more smaller areas

and comfortable as a roll-top desk. Now t ere are m , . I

of thought categorized in pigeonholes for the precepts, concepts, pnnCIp es, tenets, and the like.

THE ROOTS OF MEANING

, lk h ublic relations man, Studying

Into the midst of the confusion wa s t e p f newspapers and

I ' uths stare up rom ,

the words that leap out of peop e s mo ted t nd then to be able

' , b he' s expecte to reac a

smile out from a television tu e, e h b t what they really

d not what t ey say, 1l

to tell what those wor s mean . . . h 'II orrect the misunder-

, d bine words t at WI c

mean, Then, he s expecte to com I f d t ding and in general,

h . lack 0 un ers an , ,

standings, educate where t ere IS a

clear up the confusion. . h t all cannot tell anyone

. ,. k' the effort IS t a y ,

A cardmal premise in rna mg tell anyone something

d t d Rarely can you

something he cannot uri ers an . d 't first and then you have

I Y h e to understan I ,

you cannot urulerstand. au av Wh ther you are dealing with

to make it understandable to the other pers~n. e

. d it' the same thmg. , f

one person or with a crow ,I S d . the various meanmgs 0

' , 1 t be tune in on

Public relations peop emus Th d farmer when used by a

. d roups e wor ,

words used by all self-intereste g . I' t when spoken by a city

, I ays a comp imen

farmer is a compliment. It s not a w k d a shoe or a man. There

hi when tac e on

man. A "heel" is a different t mg b II f a Southerner, and a Con-

. "Yankee." Ask a base a an,

are several kinds of Yan ee, 13

' , 'II t three answers. . ,

nectlcut farmer. Likely, you ge 1 t nd to transmit for vanous

'. b able to se ec a

Public relations people must . e ki f lk Think of the harm that has

audiences words that will be received as III o. A book could be written

d b legal language,

been done, the confusion create, y d b legal language. Perhaps a

b ., h h been create Y

a out the confusion whic as

single illustration will be enough.

The so~rce is the alphabet. It was man's greatest invention and has pl:oved at times his most troublesome one. It repeatedly gets him into trouble WIt~ other people. Yet, the alp!,!abet is potentially man's best means of gettmg along with other people.

By use of the alphabet, words and sentences are formed. The words and sentences express ideas and thoughts. Some of the expressions are troublemakers, and others give people hope of getting along with each other. One man, calls another a string of names. That starts trouble. The two men fight phYSically. N_ext day they apologize and explain things to each other with the hope of gettmg along at least for a while. All but the fist-fighting was done uiitli words.

As ideas (~nd thoughts have become more and more complex, the language of words has broadened and grown more specialized. People have had to

. war of words with Russia,

" words used III our d ..

13 For a list of key positive and negauve Ch 10 "The Problem of Wor s.

Wapon ap. ,

see Edward W. Barrett, Truth Is Our e ,


Communicating_The Third Step . 161

Periodically, labor officials and management officials spend weeks talking out a new agreement on working conditions. Between them on the table at negotiation sessions is a contract. They're talking about the provisions in it. When it's all done, the union has a "new" contract, all properly drawn to stand up in court. Not more than one of every hundred employees bound by that contract could understand all of it if they read it. So, generally, they don't read it. They are told what it's all about in words they can understand. They're usually told in a manner that compliments the source, whether labor official or management spokesman. In one case it's "Here's what we got for you." In the other, it's "Here's what we are giving you." The chances are that the employee is no nearer a real appreciation of the issues and solutions than he is when he gets through filling out an income tax form or reading an insurance policy, a financial statement, or instructions for claiming unemployment compensation.

For example, here is an actual excerpt from the minutes of a labor-management Bargaining Committee meeting.

It is agreed, in response to the request by the Bargaining Committee, to change past practice and policy so that in the future when an employee is absent from work on one paid holiday qualifying day on a leave of absence that includes that day, one of the excused absences as provided in the labor agreement may be used to cov.er suc~ absence to qualify for pay for the holiday subject to the ~OI.ltractual paid hO!Iday provisions, with the understanding that this agreement IS III no. way to be mterpreted to mean that past practice and policy is changed to provide that an employee absent from work on a leave of absence on both qualifying d~ys is to receive pay for the holiday regardless of remaining excused absence credit.

That may have made sense to the members of the bargaining group.

They had ~een talking about it for several meetings. But it can't be transplanted, as IS, for any other audience. To another audience it's just so much gobbledygook.

The same is true for the language of doctors, educators, the military, and government. Each has a special jargon not readily understandable to others -.legalese, Pentagonese, educationese, and militarese. Then there are slangs, djalects, slogans, and exaggerations. The PR man must work with his cousins in the press, radi?, television, and on the platform to help straighten things out for the .publIc. Oddly, the straightening out process is not so much a matter of lIsmg only monosyllables as it is mastery in the use of words.

Chase has made sense of complex economic matters. Paul de Kruif did the same with medical science. Some popular magazines do a marvelous job with fiction and features.

. Of the communicators mentioned, Franklin Roosevelt-regardless of politics-had no equal. He always found the right word in a tight situation. He was particularly skilled in his radio projection, but radio appeal was not all of it. He knew words. For example, the Social Security Act was first drafted as an "Economic Security" bill, but F.D.R. knew "social security" would be more acceptable. A typical story comes from Roosevelt and Hopkins by Robert Sherwood.t-

Roosevelt was back in Washington for a momentous ceremony: the drawing of the first numbers under the Selective Service Act. This lottery would determi~e the names of the first 800,000 men-roughly five per cent of the total regIstrants-to be drafted into the Army. This would have been a tense, nervous occasion at any time; with the current state of the world, and with the word "warmonger" being thrown about so recklessly it was all the more harrowing. This was no moment for trick phrases. The nation was listening breathlessly for t~e broadcast announcement of the fateful numbers as they were drawn. "\V'ith hIS marvelous gift for finding homely, old-fashioned words to fit new circumstances, Roosevelt did not refer to Selective Service as a "draft"-certainly not "conscription"_he called it a "muster" thereby evoking race memories of the rugged farmers of Lexington and Concord taking their flintlock muskets down from the fireplace. . . .

Winston Churchill had little resemblance to Franklin Roosevelt in choice of Words for a mass audience. Churchill was dramatic in his "blood, sweat and tears," "the soft underbelly of Europe," and "the Iron Curtain," al~,~~ugh he didn't originate them all. He, more than any other man, ma~e

It s me" acceptable English. The fact that both Roosevelt and Churchill Could draw an audience into a deep emotional kinship had to stem from something more than words or inflection. It did. Both men in their respective use of language represented the abstract symbols they embodie~ in the mass public conception. In their words and in their delivery, they Iived up to their images.

In Contrast with the symbols of these men was the symbol of Will Rogers. lI~re was the cracker-barrel philosopher with the hometown sense of humor. His mastery of words-and it was the same with characters created by Mark Twain and Irvin S. Cobb-had no roots in a standard English textbook. It

had rOots in every county seat and imitators in every county election. ,

. Tagging your proposals with warm, favorable terms and the o.ther fellow s With unfavorable ones is an important part of the communications contes~;

\Vb b d "heme

at one group calls a "program," an opposing group ran s a .sc '"

The P lIs ita "soil bank.

T· roponent for paying farmers not to grow crops ca . "

hiS 11 it a "subsidy.

Th COuples two warm, respected words. Opponents ca" -n 'bl

ere's di "slidi . pports and eXI e

__ a Ifference in the impact of sh mg pnce su

14 R b & Row Publishers, 1948),

p, 190. 0 ert Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins (New York: Harper ,

HOW DO WE GO ABOUT IT?

There have been, within a generation, several wonderful examples of word mastery. To name a few word masters in various fields there have been Franklin ROOSevelt, Ernie Pyle, Will Rogers, and Winston Churchill. There are a few women, too. In specialized fields of word usage, Stuart



price supports," yet both describe the same plan. Industries seeking tax post. ponements on new plants talk of "accelerated tax amortization." Critics of this law call it "fast tax write-off." Labor leaders plead the case for "union security" while industrialists plead for "the right to work."

The governor of New York pledges not to ask for higher taxes; he recommends an increase in "state fees" instead. The governor of Wisconsin vows never to sign a sales tax bilI; he signs an "excise tax" bill instead. Neither semantic trick fools voters. The campaign for national prohibition made "saloon" a dirty word, so today those who drink do so in taverns and cocktail lounges. Incidentally, the drys were too wise to campaign for prohibition) a harsh word; they advocated "temperance." A great coup in semantics was coining the term "life insurance" to describe what could be called, just as properly, "death insurance." The latter would be harder to sell. Another tenstrike in PR semantics has been the successful effort of bowling promoters to change "bowling alleys" to "bowling lanes." And your ball no longer veers into the "gutter"; it goes into the "channel."

. 'Y0rds change from one context to another. "Progressive" and "education when used separately are warm, solid American words. Put them together and you get the sneer term, "progressive education." Inept choice of a word can have unhappy consequences. A few years ago in a call-up of reserves, the Army referred to the casuals called to bring divisions to full strength as "fillers." This the troops resented. The railroads campaign against fo~ced emp~oyment of more men than are needed as "featherbedding." The railroad unions counter with such terms as "dead man control" and a "full ~rew law." ,:roday it i~ not good international PR to describe any nation as

backward. Such natIOns are "emerging" or "underdeveloped."

. An. excellent. illustration of the importance of semantics in public relations "IS the United States Air Force's successful campaign to make "aerospace a part of our language. The word was coined by Air Force publicists as what The Reporter termed "their secret weapon in the bitter interservice battle for the space dollar." If air and space were one, the public relations men reasoned, then the Air Force would eventually become the Space Force. The .w~rd i~ now used everywhere, by the National Aeronautics and Space AdmlllIstratIOn, in the want ads and on the press wires-a coup for Air Force public relations.

. A flair for the picturesque, memorable term and a feeling for words are Important requisites for the practitioner.

TWO SUGGESTIONS, FOR WHATEVER THEY ARE WORTH

discarded in favor of a fresh idiom. Whatever happened to the mania for spelling things out that swept business some years ago? Where's the flapper of the 1920's? Are we still hep to jive? Does the new contingent of service men abroad fraternize? Tired from overwork to a point where the intended meaning is vague and forceless are words like revolutionary) new) security) democracy) hell) and damn. Excessive use saps words of all meaning.

Aside from overwork, words suffer from their associations. The term pub. lie relations has wavered between good and bad on that score. It has kept company with press-agentry, has been seen trying to m.ani.pulate public opinion for no good end, and has included shoddy people III It~ roster. .Th: word propaganda has the same problem. A perfectly good word m ecclesiastical use for centuries, it is today a nasty word. And a useless one.

Time changes word meanings. When a person said ':Cap~talist" in 1932 and 1962, he probably had two different kinds of .persons m. mmd. He evok:d different kinds of reaction. The word means different thmgs to people m different parts of the world today. In fact, finding an ~cceptable term that accurately describes our competitive, dynamic econormc system to people abroad has posed a tough semantic problem for ~meri~ans. For some years

we've used people's capitalism) but that doesn't qUI~e do It. .

Don't condemn writers who coin words or fashion phrases to refresh the language. Not as long as the fresh way of saying something sim?lifies rather

h· . k the process of receptIOn more ex-

t an complIcates, and as long as It rna es .

. . ld ing "The quickest way to a

CItmg. The writer who paraphrases an 0 sayl ,

man's heart is a piece of beeksteak" revives the significance of a worn phrase.

b ther way to show the exact

As for occasional foreign words, there may e no 0 . " . ."

1 . lIt that they are SImpatIco.

re atIOnship between two peop etlan 0 say .. b

d h t not in the dictionary ut

The light sprinkling of fresh wor s t a are ..

di tives Once in a while you

pop up in the news generally adds nouns or a Jec. di "

. , . rb form noun or a jecnve.

run across a crossbreed that isn't a Iegitimate \e " 1

' t ideas to work. He's a rea

As an example of that: "My fnend can pu I f

. d' ineer is not used to con use

lmagineer." Or another one: "The wor imagin . '" h

<, t to complexlfy It. In t e

anybody. It's used to unclutter the language, no diff hether

' it akes a great 1 erence w

tncks that can be played with the language 1 m , doi T k those

the writer or speaker is careful and expert in what he. s oing. ahe

lexii d transrmt them anot er way.

same two words imagineer and camp .eXI y) an . . I

F ' " h has now lived seventy years.

or example: "My friend is an irnagmecr w 0, ff ight this time.

h f I 'f" The words don t come 0 n

ave 0 ten heard him comp eXI y. p tsuguese to describe

They invite confusion. But when a professor uses s or

SPOrts jargon, he gets through. I . ht word without any

Some people have the gift of using the ~xacbt y kng f memory they keep

sr . , k 0 th moist an 0 ,

raIllmg. Others attain a knac. .n. e ri ht thought when it comes

a SUpply of fresh words ready to slip into the. g ted What a delightful

alo A k the knack IS expec .

ng: mong writers and s~ea :rs . bank residents, trigonometry

surpnse, though, when it IS discovered in P

teachers, chimney sweeps, or heavyweight boxers.

TIz.l~re is a constant need to refresh the language of the day. Words wear out. 'I hey go out of style. They lose significance from repetition. They are

SAY IT WITH SYMBOLS

terests, the traditional institutional forms held more or less in common, the family tie. The American flag, our cherished symbol, movingly and dramatically symbolizes all this nation stands for and means to us every time we see it. Think of the symbolic use we make of George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, of the Minutemen at Lexington and Concord, and of the Statue of Liberty in our patriotic and persuasive communications.

Symbols play an important role in the public relations and fund-raising programs of health and welfare agencies. Probably the best-known symbol of its kind is the Red Cross from which that agency takes its name. The Red Cross originated in Switzerland and created its symbol by reversing the white cross of the Swiss flag on a red background, Today the Red Cross flag is a welcome one wherever it waves, and this fact is exploited by its public relations staff. The upright sword of the American Cancer Society, chosen in a nationwide poster contest, was created to portray its crusading spirit. Another crusade, that of the National Tuberculosis Association, is symbolized by the Cross of Lorraine, a symbol that dates back to the Crusades. Another popular symbol is that of the Red Feather, used by our community chests and united funds. This symbol, created by a local community chest in 1928, Was modified in 1955 to incorporate a large "U" to symbolize the merging of community chests with united funds.

One of the most effective symbols ever created is that of Smokey Bear, used by the United States Forest Service to promote the preservation of our forests. The idea originated within a group of foresters and advertising people who were concerned about the need to protect our forests during the War years of 1941-1945. After experimenting with drawings of deers, squirrels, and other small animals to carry fire-prevention messages, they hit on the idea of using a bear. A bear, with its human-like posture, its way of handling himself, its universal appeal to young and old, seemed ideal to build into a persuasive symbol. The Forest Service today has an artist who serves as "Smokey's caretaker" to make certain that drawings and pictures of him reflect the personality he is intended to convey. Smokey's personality, as determined by ~rtists, has been changed over the years as various interpretations wer~ fu~ed Into this one symbol. Although a created symbol, Smokey has had WIde Impact, especially among the young people of the nation. Smoke~, shown her~, keeps a half-dozen girls busy answering his mail every day, takI~g care of .hls Junior Forest Ranger program, and sending out his fire-preventIOn campa.lgn material-not only in the United States but all. o~er t~e world .. In. a typical year, some 23 million printed items bearing hIS imprint are distributed by

the Forest Service. .

I· . . h . ing their symbols m an

ncreasmgly business corporaqons are emp asrzi .

effort to create a sharper, more favorable public image: Even .so, many- bUSIne~s firms are wasting millions in advertising and ~ubhc relations do~lars by USIng corporate marks that do not truly or effectively represent their com-

Pan' A' -. . . h orporate symbol should be

res, n industrial designer advises t at a c .

selected on the basis of (1) memorability; (2) recognition; (3) appropnateness,



The knack can be cultivated to the extent of a person's imagination. 1£ you have it in embryo, encourage it. Talk to yourself if necessary. Write down what you have said. Is it interesting? Entertaining? Is there anything daring? Anything different? Try it again, and this time leave a little bit unsaid. Don't sacrifice accuracy, but save a little room for the reader. Here's an example: "A vice-president should be nice to the guys waiting to see him in the reception room. Some day those guys might BE vice-presidents." You don't always say what will happen then. That's the part you leave for the reader to fill in.

Be imaginative and inventive. In using words to express meaning, use :-vhat. ap~eals to you. Let personality come through. With all the need for ImagmatIOn and daring, there is the need for propriety. That means a little more than. restraint in using strong words. A particular danger is in the tra~sportatlOn of wo~ds from one language to another. Propriety reaches out to include the occasion, Guest Night at the Ladies' Aid is a bit different from Ladies' Night at the ballpark. The same speech will not do. There is a tendency ~or the popular language and the words in it to grow coarse. The ~end~n.cy IS to;va~d facile writing and speaking. Propriety has a challenge m ralSlng men s SIghts and thoughts by cleaning up their language.

Communication involve h "

. s more t an semanncs; It uses symbols and stereo-

types I~ large measure. The symbol offers a dramatic and direct means of

persuaSIve communicat' . h 1

'. Ion WIt arge numbers of persons over long lines of

commUlllcatlOn Symbols h b .

. ave een used since the dawn of history to com-

Phress and convey .complex messages to the multitudes. The Star of David and

t e Cross of Chnst rem' d f hi

b I m us 0 t IS. Most persons need the shorthand of

Bsyml ~ s ~o deal with that which is abstract, diffuse or difficult In David

er 0 s VIew this is th f .' .

d ' e age 0 symbol malllpulation. "In our grandfather'S

ay, most people earned thei 1" bi . '. .

1 . err Ivmg y malllpulatmg thmgs not by manipu-

atmg symbols" The d "b s

. "Thi nee met y symbols was explained by Lippmann years

ago. IS problem of th ...

h bi f si e acqulSltlOn of meaning by things or of forming

a Its 0 Simple appreh . . h

d d"· ension IS t e problem. of introducing (1) definiteness

an IstmctlOn and (2)' ..

. . conSistency or stability of meaning into what other-

Wise IS vague and wa .

picked out in th f vermg .... We tend to perceive that which we have

e orm stereotyped for us by our culture " 15

The value and use of d b - . . . .

The B .. h C a venerate sym 01 IS seen in the British monarchy.

ntis ommonwealth f N' dav j

d' 0 auons to ay IS a free aSSOCIatIOn of inde-

~:ee:n~r~tlO~s ~eld together,. not by legal ties, but by the symbol of the ng an . She symbolIzes the traditional loyalties, the common in-

It1 In Public Op' .

IniOn, pp. 60-61. Pelican edition.


Communicating-The Third Step' 167

In general, people select those items of information which promise them greatest rewards. The content determines the audience.

4. CLARITY. The message must be put in simple terms. Words must mean the same thing to the receiver as they do to the sender. Complex issues must be compressed into themes, slogans, or stereotypes which have simplicity and clarity. The farther a message has to travel, the simpler it must be. An institution must speak with one voice, not many voices.

5. CONTINUITY AND CONSISTENCY. Communication is an unending process.

It requires repetition to achieve penetration. Repetition-with variation-contributes to both factual and attitude learning. The story must be consistent.

6. CHANNELS. Established channels of communication should be usedchannels which the receiver uses and respects. Creating new ones is difficult. Different channels have different effects and serve in different stages of the diffusion process.

7. CAPABILITY OF AUDIENCE. Communication must take into account the capability of the audience. Communications are most effective when they require the least effort on the part of the recipient. This includes factors of availability, habit, reading ability, and receiver's knowledge.

and (4) uniqueness. Surely the symbol h

h f s ould be distinct, different, and in

c aracter or the institution using it.16

Additional Reading

Bernard Berelson, "Communications and Public Opinion," in Schramm's Process and

~fJects of Mass Communication, op. cit .. pp. 342-56. . .

DaVId K. BcrIo. The Process of Communication. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Wmston, Inc .. 1960.

Stuart Chase. Power of Words. New York: Harcourt. Brace & World, Inc., 19.54.

S. 1. Hayakawa. Language in Thought and Action. New York: Harcourt. Brace & World, Inc., 1949, rev. ed.

Carl Hovland, Irving Janis, and Harold H. Kelley. Communication and Persuasion.

New Haven: Yale University Press. 19.57.

irVing J. Lee, How to Talk With People. New York: Harper & Row. Publishe.rs, ~95~; Carl R. Rogers and F. J. Roethlisberger, "Barriers and Gateways to Communication,

Harvard Business Review, Vol. 30, July-August, 1952. .

Everett M. Rogers and George M. Beal, Reference Group !nfl~ence in the Adoption at Agricultural Technology. Ames, Ia.: Iowa State Universrry, 1958.

Rogers, Everett M., Diffusion of Innovations. New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1962.

William H. Whyte, Is Anybody Listening? New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc., 1952.

THE 7 c's OF COMMUNICATION

1. CREDIBILITY. Communicatio t . .

built by performanc h n s arts WIth a clImate of belief. This is

e on t e part of the s Th

earnest desire to serv th' ource. e performance reflects an

e e receIver The . .

the sender. He must h hi '. receiver must have confidence III

subject. ave a igh regard for the source's competence on the

~. CONTEXT. A communications r " .

of Its environment M h . I P ogram must square with the realities

. ec anica media I

and deed that takes pI . dai . are on y supplementary to the word

. ace III ally hving T'h

partICipation and playback. The . e context must provide for

message. context must confirm, not contradict, the

3. CONTENT. The message must ha .

must be compatible with h i ve meanmg for the receiver and it

I IS value system. It must have relevance to him.

CASE PROBLEM

Yo ..... d . I firm which manufactures out-

u are pubhc relations director III an III ustna

b_oard and other small motors. Normally your firm employs 2.200 workers. Cancfellhation of . . . I ff 450 workers at the end 0 t e a mIhtary order requIres the firm to ay 0

month.

Th f h I ff which include a three-week

. e personnel director works out plans or t e ayo ,

nOtIce to the men as a matter of fairness to them. Personnel also makes arrangements

16 Sy~nbols. design, and printin all I '..

elal~oratlon. see Dean R. McK ~'IB'J ay a part In projectmg an institution'S image. For

,?~slgn Theme." Public Relatjo~~' JournaIS';o~s l~oW to Create a Contemporary Corporate

ow to Create a Graphic Identity-and S 'M' N~:~~ber, 1961; and Russell R. Jalbert,

ave oney, ibid., Vol. 18, April, 1962.


to. try to find other jobs for them in the commu ni .

WIth a list ~f available jobs. ommumty and to provide the men laid off

. ~s public relations director, you are asked

this mformation to company 01Ii . I f to ~ork out a plan of communicating

. CIa s, oremen uruo IIi' I h

mumty. Your plan should include: ,n 0 era s, t e men, and the corn-

I. A timetable designed to s uel I

2. Themes and tone of ann q c 1 rumors and prevent confusion.

3' ouncement

. Wordmg of announcement to em i

4. Letter from the president t . P oyees and to the local press.

o opimon leaders.

Chapter Ten

EVALUATION-

THE

FOURTH

STEP

Methodical research removes the guesswork from much of public relations practice. Evaluation IS the common-sense of profiting from ex-

perience.

The final step in the process is to seek, through research, answers to the questions: "How did we do? Would we have been better off if we had tried something else?" Evaluation leads logically back into the first step. The two aspects of fact-finding are separated here to emphasize the importance of evaluation. One of the weaknesses of contemporary practice has been the lack of yardsticks to measure results. Evaluation of results deserves a larger investment of time and money. As practitioners invest more time and money in evaluation, they will improve their precision. As they improve the precision of their efforts, they will enhance their professional status. Extensive feedback is essential to an effective communications program. The obstacles are, obviously, those of time, money, and skill.

Executives are becoming more yardstick-minded. To keep costs down, managers must periodically reexamine the worth of each function. Administrators, particularly controllers, have a forceful way of asking:

"What did we get for all the money your department spent?" Increasingly, in the opinion of Stanley Baar, practitioners "are being obliged to prove that the effort has produced measurable and valuable results and that the cost is fair and reasonable .... " He suggests four questions to answer in these periodic examinations: 1

I. How much does this activity contribute specifically to the attainment of business goals? What specific

goals?

1 In article, "Yardsticks for Public Relations," Public Relations Journal, Vol. 13, April, 1957, 20 ff.

169

170 . Evaluation-The Fourth Step

2. Are we getting our full money's worth for each expen?iture?

3. Is the over-all cost offset by its accomplishments? Specifically what accomplishments?

4. All of our public relations expenditures-how much do we really need them, and why?

Evaluation takes one of two forms, pretesting and posttesting. The de. vices used in pre- and posttesting media, methods, and content are still. in the experimental stage. Even so, they can provide helpful guides in shapmg ap. peals and selecting channels. Successful advertisers have long used these methods. Practitioners, limited by access, time, and budget, must make every item in the program count. Scientific checks, before and after, will serve this end.

Pretesting before launching an expensive, crucial informational campai~n is likely to prove economical in the long run. Posttesting will uncover mistakes that need not be repeated. It points the way to improved techniques. It is dangerous to rely on the number of clippings returned on a press release, the number of pOstcards received in response to a radio or TV program, and other equally rough indicators of impact.

Despite the broad developments in methods of evaluating program content and impact, professionals have been slow to adapt them to their n~e~s. Westley ROWland reports: "A recent survey of 272 colleges and universities ... revealed that few of them had developed any effective methods for evaluating their public relations programs." 2 A survey of results obtained among large users of public relations advertiSing revealed that only a few sponsors had made a serious effort to gauge the impact of the expenditure of tens of thousands of dollars. Baar found a like result when he surveyed 150 practitioners to determine yardsticks they used to measure the value of printed publications in PR programs. He says, "it became painfully obvious that comparatively few had the vaguest notion of the impact or effectiveness of the words in question. Millions for printing, but not a penny for evaluation!" Moors'x Columbu" Ohio "udy revealed that only 42 per cent of the I,,'at' titioners studied made systematic efforts of determine the effectiveness of their work.e

Researcher Charles R. Wright pointedly reminds: "Unread leaflets, unheard broadcasts, unviewed films-however abundantly and skillfully produced-have no chance of influencing an audience that is not there. And volume of output does not guarantee that an audience is reached." 4 Evaluation research will forcefully remind the communicator that dissemination do('s Not cquat communication. Research may be conducted by practitioners themselves or obtained through commercial research serviceS-Opinion Re-

2 A. Westley ROWland. "Do We Know How Well We're Doing?" PR Vol. 1. April, 1956,

2~-2R. ,

. a William Carter Moore, "A Critical Analysis of Public Relations Practitioners in a Midwestern MetropOlitan Area," UnpUblished Master's thesis previously cited, p. 28.

4 In "Evaluation of Mass Media Effectiveness," UNESCO International Social Science IJulletill, Vol. VII, No.3.

""""" 1IKf-

Evaluation-The Fourth Step . 171

. 0 Ro er and Associates, Dr. George Gallup, Psycho-

search Corporation, Elm p . I S D Surveys Daniel Starch and

. Alfred Politz Cross ey - , h f

logical Corporation, , . iversiti also do such researc or

Staff and many others. Several major urnversi res

profit and nonprofit agencies I dit of the finished project" h as long

The need for "a merciless persona au I h t ld the 1920 National Con-

P· Evart G Routza no.

been recognized. ioneer . 11 in=when the last meetmg

k "After the returns are a I ...

ference of Social Wor :. . . f rinted matter made, and all activities

has been held, the final distribution 0 p d d as history-is the time to put

of the immediate effort have been- :e~~: ethird degree ... with prayerful yourself and your methods throug I the lessons to be applied to the

'11 be able to untang e

solicitude that y?U WI be fully accepted.

next project." HIS counsel has yet to

PRETESTING

'11 off in de-

to be used in a project WI pay .

A careful precheck of material 1'11 help in sharpening the

ibl backlash effects. t WI S times

tecting, beforehand, POSSI e . f it intended audience. orne I

. . f h . nformation or I s I .. d f vorable

understandabilIty 0 tel ith unantrcipate , un a

. boomerang WI

an appeal or technique can

results. onse analysis. This means usin~ a

This can be avoided by making ~ resp ti n to specific communication

b . mediate reac 10 . toler-

sample audience to 0 serve im organization promotmg

Ie years ago an ry char-

content. As an examp e, som . . featuring an unsavo

. . Judice cartoons deter-

ance prepared a senes of anti-pre ted on 160 persons to

acter, Mr. Biggott. These cartoons ~ere +~eete;esponse analysis showed. that mine their understanding and reactlOnl'b early two-thirds of the audience

. understooc y n I 5

the cartoon message was mrs 33 cent of the peop e. .

ged for per do wide-

and that the message boomeran f they have a chance to . h d

. I b erangs be ore v pu blis e

Catching potentia oom A I e insurance company

n sense arg . employees

spread harm is obvious commo '.. on representative

.. loyee publicatIon. h It article on

a series of articles m Its emp t and so fort. s .

h an accountan, . thought this

+a salesman, a stenograp er, badl . The editors

"The Management Man" boomeranged h Y ere! The article brough: a

. . I . h w wrong t ey w "If hi . s the kmd

Was another routine artrc e, 0 . I comments: t IS I

. . . th these typlca . had to be an

heavy barrage of criticism, WI .. "I didn't know you .

' nt--; f th A cautious

of a man-wants, I don t wa . b:" and so or .

.. "Mrs --IS a sno ,

egomaniac to be a manager; onse uences. , What may

trY-Out can head off such unhappy c dq tandabilzty of messages. .

Also there is need to pretest the un erls port may actualIy make It more

' . f an annua re

appear to be a simplification 0

. f D viant Cases in

"The AnalySIS 0 e f Id

-- Katherine M. Wolf, edited by Paul F. Lazars e

5Cited in Patricia L. Kendall and. tions Research, ~948-491949) pp. 152-79.

Communications Research," Communtca I & Row pubhshers, '

and Frank N. Stanton (New York: Harper ,


~?mpI~x in the eyes of the reader. The symbolism chosen for a public rela. IOns ~cument m~y re~resent perfect clarity to its creator, but be both un-

mterestmg and unmtelhgible to th dO'

priate Th I e rea er. r the symbol may be inappro-

S "" e atter prov~d to be the case when the United States Information ervlce put on an exhibir in I d' Th

Christdeliverin th S n ia. e first panel featured a painting of

g e ermon on the Mount d h -

exhibit's theme "M Sh I . ,an t e caption expressed the

Hindus and M~ r a~'d a I Not LIve by Bread Alone." India's hungry and symbols mu:tl~S I not ~espond favorablv,e To get results, your appeals

A e appropnate and must be understood

tough problem in indust . h .

information to em pI S . ry IS ow to present effectively "sales-dollar"

oyees. wift & Compa . d' .

survey of its employ bli ny was tlppe off m a readership

ee pu icauon that its' .

formation was not g tti presentatIOn of sales-dollar Ill-

e mg across The d id '

ent presentations beta p bli '. company eci ed to test several differ-

re u tcaiion Swift's . I

under the direction of R W . commercia research department,

menrs of the doll' . . Coffman, prepared four different copy treat-

ar income and out Th

fectiveness among empl f go. ese were tested for comparative ef-

learned five things fro oYhe~s 0 one plant. Mr. Coffman observes that Swift m t IS study: 7

I. Each idea must add to a whole .

add up to one or one hundred. or unuy, Each part must fit logically and

2. The number of ideas which can

not exceed four on any be successfully projected pictorially will

3 Th '. one page.

. e assoCIatIOn between th id

4. Copy must be short e I ea and the symbol must be simple and clear.

5 Lb'

. a els and terms must b bri f

e rre and familiar.

A cautionary note on th I

stream of public opini e he ue of pretesting must be inserted here. The

Ion rus es alon . f I

on a pretest might poss'bl g SWI t y. An idea which worked well

h . I Y prove a fiasc .

t e mtervening time lag S 0 upon WIdespread use because of

. . easons chang d wi h

mg patterns, recreational '. e, an WIt them change people's buy-

public opinion market IPursuIts, mterests, and so forth. The context of the

I p ace can change m k dl . .

pecte( news event I . ar e y overlllght WIth an unex-

. n usmg pretest result _

gram, you ought to be' . s as a guide to communications pro-

as certam as p 'bl h

to those which existed d . OSSI e t at present conditions are akin

unng the pretest.

POSTTESTING

Posttesting is valuabl .

e not only m det "

program but in advan . . ermmmg aftereffects of a specific

cmg profeSSIOnal kId

rough-hewn principles I' nowe ge. Through such research the

now re led on b

There are a numbe f . can e proved true or false.

r 0 maxims that a k f

re ta en or granted in daily prac-

6 Arthur Goodfriend TJ T .

7 S h ' Ie wlsted Image (N y

ee t e article, "How's Your Impact?" in P b~"! ork:. St. Martin's Press, 1963), p. 208.

u IC Relations Journal, Vol. 7, February, 1951.

Evaluation-The Fourth Step' 173

tice. Research tends to cast some doubt upon their validity. One is, "What people know about a subject depends roughly upon the amount said or published about it." Several years ago an experiment designed primarily to find ways and means of extending support for the United Nations was carried out in Cincinnati, Ohio. A survey was taken to determine attitudes and level of information about the UN; then an all-out saturation information campaign was carried out over a six-month period. A postcampaign survey indicated no fundamental changes in the degree of support for the UN in Cincinnati, although the information level had been raised somewhat.s Such findings clearly indicate that increasing the flow of information does not necessarily spread information effectively.s Another PR maxim is, "If people know you better, they will like you more." Yet, studies of attitudes toward big business and toward several foreign countries have indicated the opposite.tv Still another is, "The more employees know about their company, the better they will like it." Research has thrown doubt on this premise.t ' There hasn't been enough research to make flat generalizations about these maxims one way or the other. There is equal need to measure results of specific appeals, media, and methods.

Audience research can put you straight if you are using words that don't

communicate. Rensis Likert cites this example: 12

. A particular company spent a substantial sum (1 was told it .w~s over a million dollars) advertising that its refrigerator was "dual. automatIc.. B~t afte~ a year's effort doing this, only 14 per cent of the housewives c.oul~ identify :vhlch refrigerator this was. "Dual automatic" is not a concept WhICh IS closely linked t? the life sphere of most housewives. At the same time ~n~,ther ~ompan! advertiser] that it guaranteed "Four years of trouble-free service for ItS refrigerator, Trouble-free service entered the life spheres of housewives to such an extent that 60 per cent of housewives interviewed could identify this refrigerator.

MEASURING IMPACT

A specific program's effectiveness can be evaluated by measuring in term.s of four dimensions. They are audience coverage, audience response, communi-

-

8 F . ., . k th United Nations," Report No.

rom mImeographed reports "Cincinnatr Loa s at e h C

37; and "C" . L k A .'" R t No 37A National Opinion Researc enter, U· . mcmnati 00 s gam, epor . '. ble but this classic information lllVersIty of Chicago. These reports are no longer availa ,

exp .

enment has been widely reported. d P 1 B Sheatsley "Some

R 9 For evidence of this generalization, see Herber~ H. ~y~an an alu V· I 11 Fall, 1947.

easons Why Information Campaigns Fail," Public OpinIon Quarte~ y, o. ,

(Also in Katz et al., Public Opinion and Prop~ganda, a bookh of ~ea~~f~2y Big Business As 10 For one bit of evidence see Burton R. Fisher and Step en . M' hi n 1951)

PeOPle See It (Ann Arbor: The Survey Research Center, University o~ ~c Igaa~d E~ployee M 11 Dallis Perry and Thomas A. Mahoney, "In-plant CommulllcatlOns

o~ale,,, Pers~nnel Psychology, Vol. 8,. Aut~mn, 1965, 3~-:6 ., Institute for Social Research, U .2 In Publu. Relations and the SOCIal SCiences (Ann . r or.

nlversity of Michigan, 1952), p. 13.


cations impact, and process of influence. Wright points up the importance of each of these measurements this way: 13

1. Audience Coverage: To produce results you must first reach the. audience.

How large an audience is reached? What are they like? What proportion of the desired audience do they represent?

2. Audience Response: How do members of the audience respond? Does the content of the message strike them favorably or unfavorably? Does it arouse their interest? Does it bore them? Do they understand it?

3. Communications Impact: After an appraisal of these immediate reactions, you must consider the impact which a message has on its audience. What are the lasting, discernible effects upon people exposed to a message?

4. Process of Influence: What is the process by which a communication operates to influence its target audience? Through what channels of influence and mechanisms of persuasion does the message finally affect the individual? How effective is the program in setting into motion the social processes necessary to influence the opinions and behavior of its target audience?

EVALUATION TOOLS. In addition to the fact-finding, formal and informal, described in Chapter 7, the practitioner has these evaluation tools. Each one is based on the principle of making a survey of a representative sample of the target audience in a systematic way.

1. READER-INTEREST STUDIES. What people read in newspapers, magazines, employee publications, and so forth, can be measured through reader-interest surveys. This technique Was developed in the 1930's by the Advertising Research Foundation and a few journalism schools. The ARF, supported jointly by advertising agencies, advertisers, and newspapers, has made more than 150 such studies. These provide a wealth of data.ts (The ARF's Continuing Study of Newspaper Reading did not include nonurban readers and readers under 18. The results should be viewed with these facts in mind.) This tool is more a quantitative than qualitative measuring device.

A reader-interest survey is made by taking fresh, unmarked copies of a publication to a representative sample of the total potential reading audience. After the interviewer makes the necessary introduction and qualifying statements, he goes through the publication with the respondent, page by page. The respondent shows the interviewer items he has seen or read. These are recorded on an interview form by code number. At no time does the interviewer point out items to the respondent. The key question is "Did you happen to see or read anything on this page?" Checks on this method have proved that readers are honest in saying what they have read.

Published reader-interest studies offer valuable insights into what potenI ia l readers actually consume. In using the results of such studies, it is well to keep in mind this advice of a veteran magazine editor, "A magazine cannot be edited by arithmetic alone." Reader-interest results are guides, not mandates, for the responsible communicator. This research ought to be followed

13 Wright, "Evaluation of Mass Media Effectiveness." op. cit. 14 See Charles E. Swanson. "What They Read in 130 Daily Newspapers." Journalism Quarter/y. Vol. 32. Fall. 1955.411-21.

Evaluation-The Fourth Step . 175

up. after ~ tvend i~yte:::~e~~ ~~~~m:eet~~~s c:~r;:~~~~:~l~h~e~:~~~~e~!

the matena rea . d d h'P doesn't equal comthat readership doesn't equal circulation an rea ers I

prehension and retention. . f riri ted materials

S Yardsticks for the readmg ease 0 pnn

2. READABILITY TEST • . message as easy to read

have been developed. It is possible to gradde a glvellnege senior This yardstick

. I I lb' t 7 th gra e or co .

at a given educatlOn~ eve, e ~ . sa e for the reading ability of his enables the comrnurncator to wnte hIS me~ g d "writing down" to

. Thi h uld not be mterprete as

intended audience. IS so. bili bated with his intelligence.

People nor should a person's readmg a 1.lty e equ d hi This hasL been I d fi . t I mcreases rea ers I p.

Making copy more readab e ~ ru e o should be used as guides rather than proved repeatedly. These yardsticks, to ,

. . . I fixed formula.

as commands to wnte msic e a d bilit is only one aspect of

It should be clearly understood that reata tllfYrmat organization, and

. . II' rtant are con en, 0 ,

gettmg readership. Equa y Impo . h ore fundamental understand-

writing style. These fa~tors, '?" pled. ':Jth a~de t~e reader brings to his reading, ing which the writer bnngs to his wntmg . lord If used in this per-

. d j act of the pnntec w . d

all shape the receptron an Imp f commonly used me tho s

. . . h I ful There are our

spectlve, readabiti ty tests are e p .

for measuring readability.

, method is divided into two parts; Read-

a. The Flesch Formula. Dr. Rudolf Flesch ~ I fords used. This is measured

ing Ease Score is determined by the difficu ty 0 w length. Human Interest

' I' ds and by sentence I h

by the number of syllab es 111 wor I rds per 100 words anc t e

I I r of persona wo

Score is measured by tne nurnue 15

er 100 sentences. di bv

number of personal sentences p ., f ula measures rea mg ease .

I R b t Gunnmg s orm b f e por

b. The Gunning Form u a. 0 er -: I sentences used, ver ore, _

' I I mber of sImp e f al ref-

the average sentence engt 1, nu d ercentage 0 person

' . f abstract wor s, p

tion of familiar words, portIon 0

fIg words 16 ding ease

erences and percentage 0 on, . Ohio State measures rea , '

' C I . developed at I'd t ide the

c. Dale-Chal! Formula. r lIS one, d I proportion of wor s ou s

length an t ie

by analysis of average sentence ,'Used.19 •

Dale List of 3000 Words Most Commonly b P. f Wilson Taylor of the Uni-

d. Cloze Procedu're. This test was developed y f [(:n' the first three. It measures

. " . hat different ro I an also be

versIty of Ilhnois and IS somew of the total message. ted

help provided the reader by the. context munication. This method tests ret fapplied to auditory as well as VIsual ~om biects with every nth word e t

. . . . f h material to su J b . f other parts

abIlIty by gIVlI1g samples 0 t e '. ., words on the as IS 0 . . d

b '.. filling m missmg d re" IS anne

lank. Success of subjects II1 '1' The "doze proce u ..

h· 's readabi Ity. . d bility 18

of the message measures t e Item . I s well as Its rea a .

. h 'on of materia a

at measuring reader's com pre ensi

& Row, Publishers, 1951).

-- uu. (New York: Harper G v-Hill Book

15 Rudolf Flesch How to Test Reada I I Y iti (New York: Me rav

' . t Clear Wn mg

16 Robert Gunning, The Technique 0 T "Educational

Company, 1952). F ula for Predicting Readabl. rty, s 1948

17 Edgar Dale and Jeanne Chall, ':A orm 27 January and February ISSU~r't "J~urnalR.esearch Bulletin Ohio State University, Vol. 'T I for Measuring Readabi 1 y. f 'Cloze

18' d . A New 00 in the Use a

. Wilson L. Taylor, "Cloze Proce ure. "Recent Developments 1

Ism QUarterly, Vol. 30, Fall, 1953, 415-33, and

Procedure:" Vol. 33, Winter, 1956. 42-48 If.


Readability tests, when used in conjunction with reader-interest studies, will provide practitioners with useful guides for future projects.

3. RADIO AND TV AUDIENCE RESEARCH. There are seven basic methods for obtaining measurements of a program audience's size in the broadcast media.!"

a. The Diary. This requires that some member (or members) of the household keep a written record or log of program exposure.

b. The Recorder. This method electronically or mechanically records auto. matically individual set tuning, including frequency or channel.

c. The Personal Coincidental. Personal interviews are made throughout the duration of a given program or time period. Respondents are queried regarding program exposure at moment of call.

d. The Personal Roster Recall. Respondents are shown a list of programs and stations. They are asked to indicate which they were exposed to during the measured time span.

e. Personal Unaided Recall. Personal interviews are made during which reo spondents are asked about program exposure for a preceding time span. Unlike the roster, the personal unaided recall uses no list of programs or stations. It depends entirely upon the respondent's unaided memory for exposure information.

f. The Telephone Coincidental. This method employs the same principles as the personal coincidental method except that interviews are made by telephone. g. The Telephone Recall. This method employs the same principles as the personal unaided recall except that the interviews are made by telephone.

h. Combination Telephone Coincidental and Diary. This method combines ~roadcast exposure information obtained by the coincidental telephone method III one sample of homes with information obtained by the diary method in an. other sample of homes.

i. The Combination Telephone Coincidental and Telephone Recall.

j. The Combination Telephone Coincidental and Personal Roster Recall.

Among the leading commercial research organizations which use one or more of these methods in measuring audience size for clients are the A. C. Nielsen Company, American Research Bureau, Pulse, Inc., Trendex, Inc., and Sindlinger & Company.

Public confidence in the validity and honesty of audience research in radio and television got a series of jolts in 1963. Early that year the Federal Trade Commission obtained consent decrees from The Pulse, Inc., A. C. Nielsen Co., and American Research Bureau that these firms would stop claiming that their findings are 100 per cent accurate. In a series of public hearings weeks later, the House Commerce Committee presented evidence to show that .radio and TV ratings were often based on faulty or dishonest rese~rch. EVIdence presented indicated that the largest firm in this field was llsing a sample based largely on a now outmoded 1940 United States Census. ~'his. use violated the basic premise that a sample must be truly representative If research results are to be valid. Another commercial firm could not present l"ecords to support rating surveys it had sold to clients as documented

19 Recommended. Standards for Radio and Television Program Audience Size Measuremen!s, p. 15: ~opynght 1954 by the Advertising Research Foundation, Inc. Reprinted by special permission.

Evaluation-The Fourth Step' 177

research. Still another admitted that it had f~dged on the =: the. s~:~:e needed for reliable results. One witness cynically remarked, The m y

fi ' way" Chairman Oren Harris told one firm that

doesn't want true gures, any . " 20

its rating service "appears to me to be a con game. d C .. n

After these congressional hearings, both the Federal Tra. e . ommisstod

.. pressed official Interest an

and the Federal Communications Commission ex . I h t . the

". " Th se hearings made It c ear t a , m

concern over the ratmgs mess: e . n firms had cut the corners

heat of competition for the ratings bus mess, ~a y k h ddy at best dis-

of research methods, with the result that their ~~r wat~ s t ~t is truly p~undhonest at worst. This incident should warn pract~tI~ners a h

b . d' nee or opmIOn researc .

foolish to expect a cheap uy In au ~e. hani I device for recording an

ThIS IS a mec amca

4. PROGRAM ANALYZER TESTS. . I being exposed to it. Re-

. . ram while peop e are

audience's reaction to a prog islik I difference The member

. d d . . f Like DIsh e, or n I .

actions are recor e In terms 0, " one of two buttons.

of the audience indicates his preferences by pressmg ses Time lines

d d t pe as the program progres .

These reactions are reeor e on a t which the member is

'd 'f' arts of the program 0

on the tape serve to 1 enu y p f di members to specific

. devi ponses 0 au renee

reacting. Through this evice, res . d 21 Thi device can be used to

b determme IS

items of program content can e .

pretest PR presentations. f mmunications program

The real test 0 a co .

5. MEASUREMENT OF IMPACT. ffi ? The sales counter? The votmg

is its results. Did it payoff at the box 0 cde . d eaction and action? Did

b . bout the esire r I

booth? Did the program flng a . . f roup's attitudes? Actua

. h d . d rnodification 0 a g di

your message result m t e esire di d nd analyzed. In ad 1-

Th deserve to be stu ie a f

results offer a sure test. ey b . d there are other ways 0

tion to observation of results apparently 0 tame ,

getting at the impact. . . . t viewing recipients of com-

a. The Focused Interview. This involves mer . parts of a

I their experience to vanous munication and getting them to re ate

program. . d termine short-term and long-

b . hi s studies to e .

. Impact Analysis. T IS mean. d t rmining the effects on In-

. It includes e e ., t

term effects of a gIven program. differences In Impact 0

di . d b roups There are I

IVlduals and on groups an su g. f . dividual and group re-

b d in terms 0 m

e stUdied in terms of time span an

actions. .' I wa to measure the impact of a pro-

c. Experimental Studies. The Idea y tly alike except for the fact

hich are exac h t

gram is by comparing two groups w hereas the other as no .

h d t a program w

t at one group has been expose 0

-- . Asks That Question, Then

. , game'? Rep. Harris 0 F details on

20 Anonymous, "Is Pulse running a. con 64 March 25, 1963, 34-5, or i n Com.

PUts Nielsen on Hot Seat," Broadcasting, VOl.c 'mittee on Interstate and F?re g DC'

h . . of the om II (Washmgton, ...

eanng, see "Hearings, Subcommittee 'Part I and Part .

merce, House of Representatives," Broadcast Rla9t61~g)s, . " Radio

Th C P . ring Office· . to the Listener,

e ommittee, Government rIO I A ' Suchman, "Listemng New York: Duell,

21 See Tore Hollonquist and Edward . f ld and Frank N. Stanton (

~esearch, 1942-1943, edited by Paul I'. Lazars e

Sloan, and Pearce, 1944).


Evaluation-The Fourth Step· 179

The critical feature is in matching two groups so that tht:y a re identical in every respect save the exposure to a specific program. In such experiments it is essential to control extraneous influences. Results arc obtained by surveys and by panel studies.22

OVER-ALL REVIEW OF PROGRAM

Robert Jones and Leslie A. Beldo, "Methodological Improvements in Readership Data Gathering," Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 30, Summer, 1953.

Darrell B. Lucas and S. H. Britt, Advertising Psychology and Research. New York:

McGraw·Hill Book Company, 1951. (See Part V, Measurement of Advertising; and Part VI, Evaluation of Media Audiences.)

Claire Selltiz et al., Research Methods in Social Relations (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1959).

Frederick F. Stephan, "Advances in Survey Methods and Measurement Techniques," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 21, Spring, 1957.

Charles E. Swanson, "Readability and Readership: Controlled Experiment," journalism Quarterly, Vol. 25, December, 1948.

Elmo C. Wilson and Frank Bonilla, "Evaluating Exchange of Persons Program," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 19, Spring, 1955.

Martin Wright, "Why Make a Communications Audit?", Public Relations journal, Vol. 18, October, 1961.

The research tools described above are helpful, but they measure only ~he ?its and. pieces, not the over-all program. The total effort must be kept

m VIew. An Important sten i . '. d

. ep IS to review, peno(iIcally, the total program an' to

measure Its results against th . d bi , d "

e assigne 0 [ectrves. Several PR "report car s

have been designed for thi 0 . . . h k

. IS purpose. ne praru uoner oilers these c ec

points as a guide in p ri d' II I' . . I'

e 10 rca y eva uatIng a gOing pu hlic re anons program: 23

I. Objectives-Are they cI I d )

A h . ear y state and understood throughout COJllpany,

re t ere areas in which ' .

2 . '. agreement on goals IS needed?

. 01ganlzatlOn_Are related b li I" . I'

unit or s a tt d h pu IC re auons fUllctlons orga II i/cd as a sing C

, Cere t roughout vari d· . ',. . I'

r t h d ' IOUS ep<lrtrnentsr Docs tile IHlbllc rcIat ious (I,

ec or ave a equate manage h .k i "

sibiliti . ment ac ITlg to see that pub lie: rel.u.io ns res pOll'

I lies are conSIdered through t h '" f

staff ade(luate t h i desi ou t e company? .. , Is sIZe and t r.umng 0

o ac leve eSIred puhli I' I"

3 C IC re atn ms 0 )leClIVCs?

. .on tent-Do your programs d. '" .. .'

all segments of th bli an actIvItIes gIve adequate (OIISHlcratJolI to

, e pu IC-Customers em I kl f' .'.1

community gover .. ' p oyees, sto« iolders, and the IlIal](I,1

, nment groups CIVIC ed .' I " .

the press and I' ',UcatIona , and commu nu-; organIZatIons,

' sUpp iers> ...

4. Afeasurement of Results_D

merit backing' to I 0 you have adequate staff bu<lget and manage-

gauge resu ts of yo k~ "

with those of oth' . ur wor. How do these activities cO!llpare

ers In your mdustry d' . ., I

ered an outside s . I' . an In other mdustrws? r lave you (0 !IS I( .

pecra 1St to revIew your I li I'

5. Control-What st h PU) IC re auons program?

. . . eps ave you taken t' . . I' S

aCtiVItIes in the light of d i fi . 0 Improve future public re at ron

. au It ndmgs;> WI .

mg years? " iat steps need to be taken during corn-

CASE PROBLEM

I. Measure the readability of an employee magazine, handbook, annual report, or university brochure-by measuring samples of content, using:

a. Flesch, Gunning, or Dale-Chall method.

b. "The Cloze Procedure" method.

2. Compare results obtained by the respective methods used.

3. How does the reading level of the material square with the probable reading level of the intended audience?

Additional Reading

John ]V1. K. Abbott "Ev I .

, a uatmg P bli R .

r .nal, V~l. 15, March, 1959. u IC elatIOns Activities," Public Relations jour-

Keith DaVIS, "A Method of St d .

sonnel Psychology Vol 6 ~ ymg Communication Patterns in Organizations," PerLeo Handel and Ma;J'or' . F'. k Ut~mn, 1953.

F'I " re IS e New T h . f

I ms, journal Of Ma k ti ' ec ruques for Studying the Effectiveness 0

Frank E. Hewens, "How tr ~ l~f?' Vol. 1 I, April, 1947.

Vol. 8, Winter, 1964 ~el uf lIt Yo.ur Public Relations." Public Relations Quarterly,

. p u guide,

22 For illustrative study s H

C '. , ee ovland L

Ol~I':'JI1l;IICatlOn, Vol. III (Princeton N J : p ~msdaine, and Sheffield, Experiments on MasS

] ~.. ,0 l\~ IT. CUnningham, "Evalu'ati~g" nn:eton University Press, 1949). ,

ournat , or, 19, January, 1962, 21.23. PUbhc Relations' Effectiveness," Public RelatIOns

Chapter Eleven

THE

TOOLS

OF

COMMUNICATION

Mechanical means f

have thi . 0 communication

etr lmportant places; but the are only adjuncts N ~y take the PI . one of them can ace of personal man-to-

man contact.-Wm G W

. . erner

I II his work (1)(' 1>1;1( tit ioner utilizes the printed wr m ], t lu- spoken word, and the image. I k IIS('S three avenues -fJI'I'.HHlIzi (IJII 1Il( I, c ont rollcd media, and [iu bl i« 1110/111.

The iIllPOlLIIl( r- of personal conlac Is and t h« pall played by the people in romnumir.uing ideas already have b(,(,11 emphasized. The news media. Ihrollgh which the prac· titioner re:« hes the general public, are beyond the direct control of the practuioner. FIJI' 1/)(111' anrl time in tlu-sr m cd ia, hi' c o m trrtc:» against all COntr'1'S on fl'TlII.1 I/'/ h)' the media, The ilia .... ., med i.i pose special probInns whi. h will 1)(' disc IIsseci in Chap· tcr 17.

In Ihis (hapl("I we shall examine, briefly, the following Hi tools. Their content can he controlled by the commllnicator at. the point of origin, Their impart depends on the cornmunicator's skill.

The Tools of Communication . 181

THE PRINTED WORD

HOUSE PUBLICATIONS. Here is a standard tool, and one of the oldest. The first known company publication was the Lowell Offering, put out by the Lowell Cotton Mills in l840-sort of a literary magazine. It was a far cry from today's carefully edited publication. The Locomotive, started in 1867 by the Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company, has never missed an issue. The Travelers Insurance Company started its Traveler in 1865, but the name has been changed and publication halted several times. Aetna Life Insurance Company started an employee magazine in 1868, and Massey Harris lauched its Triphammer in 1885. National Cash Register Company started one in 1891.

Because of its versatility, the house publication has developed into a major medium. In the view of the Wall Street Journal, these publications have be. come "workhorses instead of just management megaphones of intangible value." They meet the common need of all organizations to tell their story through at least one medium, on paper, in their own words, in their own way, and without being interrupted. In each case, however, the sponsor must get the publication read, believed.

The idea did not catch fire at once. It smoldered, but it kept a spark alive through the depression periods. The growth of company publications came in these steps.

Year

335 575 280

1.000 5,000 7,500 9,000

Number of Company Publications

House Publ« at ions Handbooks. \lalluals, Books Letters and Bulletim

Bulletin Boards. Posters. Billhoards Inforlllation R:« ks

Inserts and Enclosures Institutional Advertising

Meetings and Conferences Speakers' Bureaus

Public Address Systems

The Gra pevine

Motion Pictures and Slide Films Closed-Circuit Television Displays and Exhibits

Open Houses and Plant Tours Staged Events

1921 1928 1930 1!l41 1945 1958 1964

Exact figures on the number of employee publications are not available.

At least 7,000 can be definitely accounted for. It is the estimate of the International Council of Industrial Editors that publications sponsored by business and industry reach a total circulation of more than half a million per issue. Industry is investing well over $500,000 per year in this medium of communication to employees, customers, shareholders, dealers, and others. Of the some 7,000 company publications, 65 per cent are published for e~p.loyees. Th.ese are estimates because, as Fortune says, "the house-organ publishing operatIOn is So big and sprawling, no one has yet succeede~ in m~asur~ng it."

The growing maturity and stability of this medIUm IS reflected m the results of the ICIE's 1963 survey, which found that: 1 (1) more than half the

These tools will be discussed in terms of what they are. Later on they will be discussed in terms of how and where they are used in specific situa· ti.ons.

-

1 International Council of Industrial Editors, Operation Tapemeasure 1963. Summary of

IeIE's 1963 survey.

180

1956

1963

182 . The Tools of Communication


editors responding devote more than half their time to the publication; (2) a majority of them had been editors more than four years; (3) nearly 80 per cent worked on publications five or more years old; (4) salaries are increasing; (5) there is greater centralization of the editorial function. with three-quarters of the editors reporting to either the president, vice-president, industrial relations manager, or public relations manager; (6) the great majority reported that their management's attitude toward them and their publications ranged from favorable to enthusiastic

The company publication is so common in business circles that there is a tendency to think and talk about its usage solely in terms of business. There a~e thousands of publications put out by military units, governmental agencies, sc.hools, colleges, welfare agencies, fraternal groups, and trade associations. Lumpmg these publications with those of industry, a safe estimate would be ~ ?Tand total of some 9,000 such publications being issued on a regular basis m the United States.

. T~ere. are three types of publications: (1) internal; (2) ex ternal; (3) combmatl~n .mternal-external. Most are published for employees or members of orgallIzatlOns Some are de . d fIb' . f h

..' signe or genera pu lie consumptIOn or or sue

speCIalized publics as alumni, dealers, contributors, reservists, or community

leaders. Some serve b th"d d oursi di

o mSI e an outside publics. The broader the au renee

sought the more ge I' d h _ .

. '. nera ize t e content must be. These publications are

vanously Issued on a d '1 kl . .

. ai y, wee y, bimonthly, or monthly baSIS.

In this staggering arra f publi . . . f t

yo pu rcations, there is little uniformity III orma and approach House p bli .

. . u icauons take the format of daily newspapers, news

magazmes, and general I' k .

. I SIC magazmes. Some are published as paid-for pages

m ocal newspapers Th Ii k .

. ere are s IC -paper and newsprint publications: letter-

press, offset, and multil"th d .

f I pro uctlOns; special-cover self-cover and no-cover

papers; our-syllable talk . "h

P h· .' picture talk, comics talk, cracker-barrel philosop y,

reac mg, personal Items . S ".

-. ,gOSSIp. orne publIcatIOns stick to shop talk; some

~gnore Iht completely. Some have a mixture. A few sell advertising space. A

ew, sue as A & P's Wo ' D I

tions A . man s ay and Arizona Highways have paid circu a-

. recent mnovation is th fe' , ge

into the I' e use 0 records to carry the sponsor s messa

emp oyee s home Th lasri d

special h lid .' ese p astn- records are also used by firms to sen

o I ay greetmgs t 1

Still h '. 0 emp oyees and customers.

anoi er vanatlOn of th 1 . .. , F t ry

Whistle an hou I b e emp oyee-magazme format IS BUIck s ac 0

, r- ong road h . _

tion for Buick's 18000 cast eac workday morning of news and mforrna

the radio time F t' em~loyees over a local radio station. Buick pays for

. ac ory WhIstle gi h' dvi nd

transmits news f ives t e time, weather, and traffic a VICe a

o personnel appoint 1 yee

awards, sales and d' ments, promotions, retirements, ernp 0

, pro Uctlon succes All hi . . . h f mar

of a radio show. ses. t IS IS packaged WI thin t e or

The seven-year span bet

ml'aSllre and Op ti ween ICIE's two extensive surveys, Operation Tape-

era Ion Tapem re

broadening the pu easure 1963, indicates that many firms a

rpose of their p bI' .

u IcatIons. The study reports: 2 2 Ibid.

Publication Audience

65'70 Internal 62'70

18'70 External 12'70

14'70 Internal-External Combination 26'70

3'70 Other

The magazine remains as the most popular format; more than half of the 1,600 editors queried reported using this format. Twenty-seven per cent used the newspaper format; 11 per cent used the newsmagazine format; and 7 per cent relied on the newsletter. Comparison of the two surveys shows a marked shift from letterpress to offset printing. The composite publication, based on the 1963 survey, is a four- to eight-page magazine, 8 % by II inches in size, uses 8 point type, is reproduced through the offset process, and comes out on coated paper stock.

The content of house publications varies as much as the format. Two elementary editorial schools of thought predominate. One is that content should be what readers will enjoy, news about themselves, for example. The other is that content should be what the publisher wants readers to know; for example, news about the organization and its objectives. Some industri~l edit~~s argue strongly for presentation of management's views on controversial political issues. Others argue as vehemently that company organs should avoid the controversial. Some company publications, such as Goodyear's TFingfoot Clan, include union news; most do not.

A survey was conducted by Dun's Review and .M.oder~ Industry ~mong 256 companies to find out where editorial emphasis IS bemg placed. r~ere were 102 respondents. The replies showed t~at the. most . popl~la.r su.bJect matter was employee progress-promotions, service anmversanes, distinguished achievement awards. The two runner-up topics were announceme~t of new

developments and policy changes, and company products and services. .

Most editors strive for a workable compromise between what the or~amzation wants its publics to know and what they wan~ to read: Properly Viewed, the house publication is a direct channel to specific publics, not a ~aguely conceived "morale booster." To justify the expense and effort required, a

publication must accomplish something useful for the sponsor. . .

. . h d e: personal gossip weddings,

Chit-chat publications are on t e ecreas, . '.

. d f th are bemg subordinated to

babies pictures of big fish transfers, an so or , ..

' , . . Th s growmg

the yardstick of useful information about an orgamzatlOn. ere I .. Ii h

. h li 1 f r either reader or pub IS er.

realization that chit-chat accomplis es itt eo. . b h

A house paper has no intrinsic value. Its only value is that put mto It Ydt e

. . . I Ili t editors do not confuse rea er-

edItor, guided by definite objectives. nte Igen f p b

b . f h blication The content 0 a u-

au with the purpose and substance 0 t e pu .

lication determines its character and impact. Thi

ki h publication two-way. is means m-

There is a trend toward rna mg t e h b t gh J' ob to sell

viting questions and answering them in print. It as een a 0; .

management on the idea, and an even tougher job to get rea ers to turn 111 questions.



A lamentable waste of money and manpower on ineffective publications is still widely evident. Much of this waste stems from the fact that organizations still do not have definite objectives for their publication and do not employ competent editors. In the 1956 survey of the International Council of Industrial Editors, only 38 per cent of the nearly 2,000 editors responding said that they were guided by definite objectives set by management. The 1963 survey did not cover this question. Sound journalistic principles in presenting timely, interesting, useful information should guide the editor along the right course.

Here is an example of how the employee magazine, given specific goals and skillful editing, can contribute to the success of an enterprise. Some years ago the Milwaukee Road Magazine alerted that road's employees to the need for. an intensified sales campaign to bolster sagging freight revenues. The article started on the cover of one issue with a photograph of a determined salesman en.tering an industrial plant. The news peg for the article was the n~w sales kit prepared in the Traffic Department. In clear text and bright pictures, the article explained to each "salesman" the traffic tools used by the company; these were specifics-not a collection of bromides about "get out ~nd ge.t yo~r shoulder to the wheel." Milwaukee Road employees, after readmg ~hls brisk, hard.hitting article, would be able to give everyone they met tangible reasons for shipping via Milwaukee. Moreover, they were made aware, subtly, of the road's battle for revenues.

In the average·budg t PR . bli a.

. e setup, a most effective use of the house pu IC

tion can be attained . th . . IS

. WI out strammg for special effects. Four.color cove

are not essential The pro d I . of

bi . nne nee s are for candor intelligent se ection

su ject matter which c bi h '. ' .' of

d. om mes t e objectives of sponsor With mterests

rea ers, simple format d h I as

h ,an t e constant purpose of helping readers earn

muc about matters f mutusj ] . '11

I 0 mutua mterest as they desire. Such a publicatIOn WI

a most assuredly break thr h b . h se

h d . oug arners that isolate management from t 0

thin 0 w.ant to think, to grow, and to share an understanding of the important mgsgomg on.

HANDBOOKS, MANUALS, BOOKS. There are three general types of booklets and pamphlets.

1. Indoctrination bo kl . .

ber student I' 0 ets welcome the new soldier, employee, society meW

, , supp ler . . d ct

owner Usually f II . ' hor VISItor. Literature for the customer or pro u

The beginner's ab s kIn 1 t he area served by the sales or advertising department.

00 et as the p f" h right

foot. It tells hi h urpose 0 helpmg him to get off on t e

im t e rules of th . h awe

according to the rul I e game and the benefits of playing t e g

. . es, t seeks to l'nst'll . . f l' h t he has

JOIned a winni '. I a team spuIt-the ee mg t a

2 mg c~mbmatlOn .

. Reference gUides co . ful

to the seaSoned m b mpnse a second type of handbook. These are use

em er as well a h h dbooks

concern themselves . h d' s to t e neophyte. Reference an

S WIt etalls of G . Plan,

uggestion System H . . . a roup Insurance Plan, PenSIOn

Library Content R' ospI~ahzatlOn, Profit-Sharing Housekeeping and Safety,

, ecreatlOn Pro ' C wpus

gram and Facilities, Contest Rules, a

Geography, and the like. Handbooks enable members to look up specific information easily. In content, they tend to be definitive and instructive. They save time and encourage appreciation of the values in membership. They quickly provide information actually sought by the reader.

3. Institutional booklets and brochures have subject matter devoted to the selling of an idea or a philosophy rather than a product or service. Typical are messages related to the free-enterprise system, military recruiting, educational facilities, or charitable work. In another category are reports of dedications, celebrations, awards, history, success, expansion, and developments in science or the arts. Some contain statements of position on national issues. Then there are the commemorative booklets and brochures on traditional anniversary occasions.

The format of booklets has the same wide variation as the house publication. The financial circumstances of the organization enter in, as do size of circulation, audience impression sought, and importance attached by officials to media and occasion. In most cases the circumstances are Stich that an organization wants its booklets to reflect both its success and its pride. The booklets tend to be lavish. Budgets tend to be secondary. There are, of course, exceptions. University bulletins that reveal progress in a field of research, for example, are quite restrained in make-up and content. The information, rather than the appearance, is the thing. Similarly, there is a pattern of uniformity established for military manuals.

There is no single method of distribution that has proved most effective for handbooks. Many organizations maintain libraries. Handbooks are seen in company cafeterias, reception lobbies, and club rooms and in wall racks. This distribution is often secondary, copies having been mailed or handed to prime audiences. Employees get their handbooks variously at their place of work or in the mail at home. Dealers receive theirs by hand from salesmen or in the mail. The government catalogs literature and makes it available at nominal cost from the Superintendent of Documents. Large corporations mail literature to the homes of interested people in their plant cities. Trade associations issue literature at conventions and by mail to members and thought leaders.

The important thing to remember about these tools is th~t they are .supplementary, not primary. A handbook for the new employee IS no substitute for the personal handshake, a thorough orientation, and a personally conducted tour of introduction. Many organizations use the "buddy" system for newcomers.

A related medium being utilized more and more is the full-Ie~gt? book tracing the history of an institution or industry or else .one chroll1ch~g th~ biography of a founder. These books are written for business firms, UnIVerSIties, and trade associations. They are usually subsidized by. the spons~r and Published by a commercial publisher. The sponso~ sees t~ It that .coples ~re placed in libraries and freely distributed to the influentials of his ~~bhcs. These sponsored books are high in initial cost but pay a long-term dividend



if they are accurate, well written, and widely distributed. Placed in libraries, such histories become source material for writers and historians. Examples include It Floats, the story of Procter & Gamble, Herbert H. Dow) Pioneer in Creative Chemistry, and Ford at Fifty.

Another use of the book is to sponsor publication of paperbacks that plug the firm's products. American Machine & Foundry, for example, joined with Pocket Books in publishing The A. M. F. Guide to Natural Bowling, a book that plugs A. M. F.'s bowling balls and accessories. The Dennison Manufacturing Company, maker of party games and decorations, published The Dennison Party Guide. Gaines Dog Food sponsored a popular book, Puppy and Dog Care. Arrangements for such books vary. In some cases, the sponsor and pub.lisher share publishing costs; in others, the sponsor merely agrees to buy a stipulated number of the books, thus underwriting its publication.

LETTERS AND BULLETINS. Individually written, individually addressed lett~rs ha~e long constituted the backbone of interorganizational communica· tion. Pnnted letters are being used in increasing volume to establish a direct, speedy line of communication with specific pu blics. Letters are used on a regular .o.r spot-news basis to reach employees, dealers, alumni, or workers in a ~und-ra.lsIng or legislative campaign. As the Wall Street Journal observes: "An IncreasIng number of cor' findi . . lIt an

porauons are ndi ng the old-Iashionec et er

answer to communicatl'on bl f h ris

. . s pro ems, a act that may seem somew at surp .

mg in this era of el t . hi h m

. ec rornrs, Ig -powered press-agentry, and glossy co .

pany publIcations."

In industry the em lIto p oyee etter has been developed as a supplement.

the slower less freque tl bli h ty

: n y pu IS ed house magazine. I t offers an opportum

for the chief executive to t lk h . . " nd

" . a to t e employee and his family ill a you a

I conversatIOnal new' '1

' sy approach. James M. Black writing in Factory 1¥. an-

agcment and Maintenan '. . , I t r: (1)' . ce, gives SIX advantages for use of the company et e .

(to) tn/expensIve; (2) direct; (3) important-lookin!!;' (4) intimate: (5) quirk:

o 111 ormnl, ,"

A main type of letter d f . b the

chief official of ~se. or public relations purposes is written y.

han organizatIOn or the chief of a division for circulatIOn among t e members Th· 's the g"P b t he e purpose IS to establish a direct contact that span

, e ween t e head man d II h h f him

as they would Iik an a t ose who do not see as muc 0

I e to. Letters sup h I' . . Th 'nsure

the accuracy f I' . port t e me commurucatron. ey I d

o me transmission C . ", t an

newsworthy' h ..' ontent points up what IS Iffiportan

III t e orgallizati ' ffai e to

line communicaf b . on s a airs. Letters give added importanc

IOn y provmg th t h I' .

Other letters g fat e me IS well informed.

o rom organizatio ffici I .., leaders,

to members of I n 0 Cia s to commumty opmlOn

se ected professi h ress'

men, suppliers de I ons sue as medicine or teaching, to cong .

, a ers, or the edi t f ductIOn

methods for letters include t . ors 0 n.ewspapers. Common repro. . .

More letters are m '1 d ypewrtter, multi graph, mimeograph, and pnntlllg provides wider re d alh: to the home than to business addresses. The h~Ille

a ers Ip and a d I' Th IS a

reluctance in some' d' goo c rrnate for persuasion. ere

In Ustnal qua t h . into

r ers, owever, to the sending of letters

employees' homes. This exists mainly where there is a tense labor-management relationship. The reluctance is due in part to the possibility that union officials might seek to interpret the technique as a measure to weaken their organization.

Typical content of letters for a business house would be policy statements, welfare programs, financial reports, product news, and economic education. As one example among many, the General Electric Company does an outstanding job in the use of printed letters. G.E.'s Commentator has gone to more than 258,000 employees and their families. Employee Relations News Letter goes to G.E.'s management people. Here are a few topics selected at random from issues of the Commentator:

What Is Communism?

Bigger Output-More Jobs-Higher Pay Steeper Taxes-Less Earnings

Doing Our Best (to render service)

Doing Right-Voluntarily (to curb inflation) Production- Yes, Inflation-No

We Must Be Neutral (in contest between national union and local officials) 'Ve Report an Offer (negotiation with union)

Trade associations rely heavily on the circular letter to carry news to members. Charities take to the letter in the solicitation of funds. l\Iost educational institutions at the higher level have a periodic "president'S letter" for alumni and one for parents of students. Crusaders for a particular idea or philosophy use letters in broad public mailings.

More important than these printed letters issued periodically are the larger number of letters that comprise an organization'S daily correspondence. The endless flow of letters that goes out daily from today's organizations constitutes an important, influential, but too often neglected means of communication. The importance of effective letters that evoke a pleased reaction, not irritation or confusion, is obvious. Yet too many organizations continue blindly in the rut of writing cold, stilted, hackneyed letters that do more to obfuscate than to clarify. Certainly one of the ways a person judges an organization is by the letters he receives in response to his requests for information or clarification or in response to a complaint. As American organizations get larger and automate more of their operations, the opportunities for persona~ contact grow fewer. The individually addressed letter, with a personal touch, IS one of the few ways left. It should be more effectively utilized.

THE BULLETIN BOARD-POSTERS-BILLBOARDS. The application of bulletin boards is widespread: in college buildings, on the c~mpus, .in e~er~ department of factories and offices, in military installations, III public buildings, and in the larger retail stores. The bulletin board is here to. stay. I~ there were no other reason, laws requiring the posting of an ever-illcreaslll?" number of notices would preserve it. Daily news bulletins poste~ on bulletl~ boards are one means of coping with the speed of the organizatIOnal gr~pevllle '.

The bulletin board offers a good place to corroborate information that

188 . The Tools o] Communication

The Tools o] Communication . 189

circulates through interde art 1 "

id ' k 'P menta correspondence or mstrucuons. It pro·

VI es qUIC access to the mternal p bli f ik i

desirable . f " U IC or Spl mg rumors and for making

in orrnanon stick The bull ti b d

current and int .' e m oar gets regular attention if kept

d m erestmg. It needs to be serviced often so that the news on it

oes not get stale. There's a ett . .

notice again and . f .p y annoyance to a reader m seemg the same

again a ter It has b hi

Boards should be pI d h ecome istory. Messages should be brief.

ace were traffic is h d h

They should be at pr h ' eavy an t e reading light is good,

I h oper eight for easy, eye-level reading

n somew at the same categor b II . .

and placards placed y as u etm-board messages are the posters

on walls or colu f f

theme of such paste . mns 0 actory shops and offices. The

rs IS usually safety h k .

ness, or security. ' ouse eepmg, economics, prepared-

Assuming that the mess a es ar .

ence, the poster ca d . g e personalIzed and appropriate to the audio

n a a Job In doi h .

short messages be cha d f . omg t at Job, it is important that these

keep posters from gro;?e r~quently and the phrasing be memorable, To them in various local' mg sta :' one good system is to start with a series of

IOns, rotatmg the I 1

Outdoor signs are u d f ' , m regu ar y between the several stations,

PR I se or mstItutional '... 1

too s for the retail h messages. SIgnboards are popu ar

er or at er org . .

enter a city, you are likel all1zat~on at the community level. As you

message, "Welcome to B d Y to find on Its outskirts a billboard with the

h e rock-The H f T

,as a promotional aspect b . orne 0 oddler Toys." The message

Somewhere in the vicin't' uft, more. Important, it has an institutional aspect. wh h 1 Y 0 that SIgn th d

. en t e local Rotary and K" ere may be signs telling where an

tions, national parks d hIwanis .Clubs meet. Banks, colleges, state institu,

f ,an t e servr '.

oremost tool. Billboards d fee. organIzatIOns use outdoor signs as a

natu I use or publi I'

ra antagonism of h ,c re ations purposes tend to escape the

scen t e motonng bli

ery. pu IC toward the corruption of the

INFORMATION RAC T .

and KS. he mfor' .

, employee education . h manon rack IS used primarily for morale

m 1948 b ' WIt emphasis' d

, , y General Mot on economjr education. It was starte

SplfItual' ors as "an ide f . d

. nounshment to I a ca etena for offering mental an

estIm d emp oyees" Th .

F' ate ~5 years later that 1500 fi' e Idea caught on rapidly, and it was

urns speCIal"· -vvv nrms were usi . f s f ,Izmg m this servi . smg m ormation-rack program,

fa magazme articles in whol Ice I prOVIde companies with booklets and reprints

rom these k esa e lots whi h .

, rac s on a "tak h IC are dIstributed free to employeeS

In receptio e w at you wa t" b . d

n rooms and near I n aSIS. The racks are usually place

up a few on th . P ant and offi . ' . k

b kl elf way home Th ce exits so that employees may pIC

00 ets to co 5 . e usual pr d . h

Over 0 to 80 p oce ure IS to put out only enoug

ne supp}' er cent of the t 1

. di rer for these . f . ota number of employees.

lea mg rack' 3 (1) T m OrmatIOn r k th

em I . he broad ran ac s suggests these values for e

p oyees tends to broaden th ge of reading materials thus put in hands of

e range of th . d h .

err rea ing and, consequently, t elf

3 Moris T H

J . oVersten "I

ournal, Vol. 17 A . ' nformation R k .

• pril, 19tH. ac s In Business and Industry," Public Relations

range of knowledge; (21 T,he voluntary pick-up has value to the employee, who has much com~umcatlOn forced upon him; (3) Home readership of these pamphlets and repnnts gets the message to the wives and children of the employee; (4) It enables the firm to disseminate information on subjects the company would hesitate to take up in ordinary communication channels: (5) These booklets serve to reiterate and reinforce messages directed to employees through other channels; (6) It is a handy distribution medium that enables employers to get materials to employees quickly if need be. Granted these advantages, this supplier admits that most companies continue this reading:ack ,program pretty much on Faith. The typical employer attitude is found 111 this quote: "If they are taking the material home and not leaving it around the plant, they must be reading it."

T~e booklets and reprints cover a wide range of subject matter-sports, hobbles, health, safety, how-to-do-it, economics, Americanism, and uplift material. Public relations and personnel practitioners hotly debate the worth of the considerable expenditure involved, The tool is too new to be evaluated as to its worth, In the words of one personnel director, "Reading racks are the ultimate in immeasurables." In a survey to determine extent and effective?ess of the reading rack, Industrial Newsletter found that, of 700 firms respondlI1g to its questionnaire, 60 per cent had made no evaluation of the rack's effectiveness. Another example of lack of evaluation!

INSERTS AND ENCLOSURES-STICKERS. There are no available statistics on the number of enterprises that use inserts with pay checks, dividends, and invoices.

, With pay checks, printed inserts explain changes in method of payment or 111 the amount. They also deal with new deductions required by law, the firm's ?Ians for the future, budget plans, food recipes, or the economic system. The msert may be used as a place to provide a breakdown of the pay check itself, shOWing the various deductions. A great many organizations have check blanks with added sections to show a breakdown between gross and take-home pay,

Along with invoices go explanations of new terms, datings, delivery schedules, allocation notices, materials problems, new product announcements, advertising plans, introduction of a new salesman in the territory, and so on. Quite often the enclosure with an invoice is in the form of a gummed sticker affixed to the invoice.

INSTITUTIONAL ADVERTISING. The one certain way to get publicity printed or broadcast is to buy space or time-to use advertising. The 12-billion-dollar advertising business was developed initially to sell goods and services. Increasingly, paid advertising has proved useful as a public relations tool. Such advertiSing is variously termed "institutional advertising," "public service ~dvertising," and "public relations advertising." Advertising to disseminate mformation or promote opinion change was first used in the early 1900's and ?n a small, spasmodic basis until World War II. Ivy Lee bought full-page ads in the Colorado newspapers in 1914 to tell the Rockefeller side of the st.ory in the historic Colorado Fuel and Iron strike. In World War II and 111 the

190 . The Tools 01 Communication

*If you should desire to visit Caterpillar ... regular plant ~rips are available Monday through Friday at 10:00 a.m. and 2.00 p.m.

behind the scenes .1

CATERPILLAR

decades since, advertising has been widely used on an increasing scale as a PR tool.

The large plus of advertising is that it enables the sponsor to tell his story in his own words when he chooses and to the audience he selects. The headline and story are written exactly the way the advertiser wants them to appear, either in print or on the air. On the minus side, the citizen instantly recognizes this as paid pleading. Audience resistance may thereby be raised to some

degree. News does not carry this handicap. .

Advertising as a tool of public relations is largely confined to industn~1 and business concerns because of the large expense it entails. Nonprofit public causes can, of course, hitch-hike by getting firms to finance advertising for a worthy cause. In such cases the advertisement does double duty. This kind of advertising has been found rewarding by many sponsors. The Sinclair .Oil Company's advertising to promote and preserve the national parks and shnn~s brought that company much favorable public reaction and increased its bUSIness, too. The advertising industry's contribution to promotion of worthwhile causes through the Advertising Council has been especially noteworthy. Campaigns have promoted Religion in American Life; Better Schools; Forest Fire P:evention; Civil Defense and Safety; Higher Education.

This tool is a versatile one. Some occasions have been cataloged by George Ham~ond, president of the Carl Byoir firm: (I) community relations-plant openmgs, plant expansions, plant open houses, company anniversaries, annual statemen~s, promotion of community activities, such as clean-up weeks, safety, ~::mun~ty .che~t campai~ns, and so forth; (2) labor relations, including ~he

pany s Side III labor disputes; (3) recruitment of employees; (4) promotIOn of art contesrs, essay contests, scholarship awards, and so forth; (5) statemen~s ~i~ pohc~;. (6~ proxy fights for company control; (7) consolidation of compe~lm': pOSItIOn, .(8) records of accomplishment; (9) product difficulty or publIC

I un.d~rstandmg ~hich must be cleared up immediately; (10) promotion or oppos.ItlOn to .pendmg legislation; (II) consolidation of editorial opinion; (12) suppher relatIOns' (13) lebrari dur-

. . ,ce e ration of local institutions such as the press

mg NatIOnal News W 'f . nal

. . . paper eek, (14) presentation of industry or pro essiO

activIties and points I vi A . nly

, 0 VIew. s Hammond says "These 14 suggestiOnS 0

scratch the surface of possible uses." '

Is It Effective' This' th bi . . r in

sp ifi . .' IS e Ig questIOn. Concrete examples of Its powe

en c SItUatIOns are mull' I - b f f 'lures

Th '. Ip Ylllg, ut there are also examples 0 ar .

E id use IS stIlI relatively new. There has been little research on its efficacy. VI( ence to date indi t h ' b' t'ves by reputabl p ca es t at specific campaigns aimed at specific 0 Jee I d

using stronge ~ onsor~ are the most effective. Ads with a "news" approach ~n

uman Interest pictur d h . hi M asunng

the effectivene f id es raw t e biggest readers Ip. e

ss Olea or op" d " .

Many ar' lllion a VertIslllg IS not easy

e USlllg this mea t lk' . k rs by

placing ads in th . ns 0 ta dIrectly to the media gate eepe

e trade Journals f . . M ny have

used this medium t I 0 press, magazme, and radio. a. I .

tions policies for th 0 ~ ace on record in convincing fashion their publIC re a e enefit of the men and women in journalism.

ED NALLEY DESCRIBES his work on this eat.rnal grinde.. to his wife while first S.hift .mploye •. Waite' lint operate, the machine.

FOREMAN stu, ROWE {left} is Oft han~ to m~et and welcome Lloyd HOUle (right) and hIS fam,l~, Phyllis, Jimmy, and Charles. Lloyd is an automatic turret lathe operator in Building HH

PREPARING FOR a new family group are. Bill Alberti, plant tour coordinator, and June ElhoH, shown typing guest badges. Invitations .come ~rom the supervisors of each section and w.ll continue "ntil all employees have been invited.

This is No. 1 b in a u,ie, w~;ch

tells abaut Caterpillar folks what

they do Qnd ~ow they do it.

IT'SA~~

Id lik 'u to meet my family,"

"Bill, . , I WOU, Ie) 0 th i b twe~n famil\" and fellow employees. Introductions similar to hIS. e ds of times over the past sixteen

. t d literallv t ousan

haw been 1 epea e illar;s Farnilv Visit program, To be exact, ' , months dur-ing CaterPh '. f 'lies 'who haw been guests of the Com-

Caterpillar folks and t e~'e t~~Iled more than 24.000, ,

pany dur-ing this time ha -d Houze family, the VIsit program gives Dad

For folks like the Lloy f 'I' tour 'nd especially. It gives him

d t h own amI \ ' .... . ,

a chance to con uc IS is f 'I: 'hat his job is and how he does It. the opportunity to show hIS amI.t\ ~t like ail jobs at Caterpillar. he Because L1oyd'sJob IS Im~~!\"~r~und. The story Dad tells ',' ' the

takes pride in show mg hIS fa hev t all help the f arn ily get

~ . the folks t e) mee , ..

movies the, see. ' : 'II

better acquainted WIth CaterPII atr." it "Now I understand what my

if id after a p an \IS • ' hi iob."

As one WI e sal d it' 'nteresting to talk about IS)O:

husband does at work Ca t 1 illar are truly . ' . a family affaIr.

Employee \"lSItS ata erp

. CATERPILLAR TRACTOR CO.

b, f welcoming indud., IN THE THEATER, a .Ie and a moyie. R ...

e short slide p'.':dt~ti:li" 0" also inyit.d.

ti,ed employ ... a a

GOOD FOOD is the arder ~f.the day for Ron S laski and his parents. Vlslton are gu-_sts of the Company for dinne, in the c:a-fetena.

191


Rules for Effective PR Advertising. The public relations firm of Hill & Knowlton has formulated these guides for preparing effective copy:

1. Be frank, fair, and honest.

2. Tell your story directly to an individual in his own language.

3. Don't talk up or down to anyone. .

4. Use simple, unvarnished words and facts so that every housewife in the community will both understand and believe what you have to say.

5. Tell one story at a time-don't overload your copy.

6. Use figures sparingly-and only when illustrated hy simple, everyday examples.

The use of paid advertising in public relations has been somewhat cir cumscribed by the ruling of the United States Internal Revenue Service that costs of advertising designed to promote or defeat legislation or to influence public opinion on pending legislation are not a tax-deductible business ex pense. This is true even though the proposed legislation may directly affect ~he advertiser's business, industry, or occupation. The I. R. S. ruling, adopted m December, 1959, does not permit deduction from gross income for tax p~r. poses the cost of advertising designed to (I) influence members of a legislative body directly or indirectly, by urging or encouraging the public to con~act s~ch memb~rs for the purpose of proposing, supporting, or opposing leglsla· ~I~~, o~ (2) mfluence the public to approve or reject a measure in a referendum, initiative, vote on a. constitutional amendment, or similar procedure. Ad.

,!~e I. R. S. rulmg was upheld by the United States Supreme Cou~t. vertlsmg media, advertiSing associations and the Public Relations SOCIety of A . , he

menca strongly protested the ruling, but to no avail.' In another ruling, t.

Federal Power C .. d· . . . I advertls·

. ommlSSlOn isallowed expenditures for IDstltutlOna

mg by priv~te utilities as a factor in fixing the rates of that company. Neither

of these rulmgs disall d d . . .

ows e ucttons for goodwill advertising.

THE SPOKEN WORD

MEEnNCS. Here· hi f e This

m d· IS a ve Ide that brings people together face to ace. d.

e rum not only pr ·d I ted au I·

ence btl OVI es an opportunity to communicate to a se ec . g

u a so provides th . pp d llleetIlI

results in teo ortunity to listen. The carefully stage I has

WO-way com .. d hi toO

come to the f M mUntcatlon. As more has been learne , t IS. . em.

ployee commuor~. . any firms, for example, are shifting the emphaSIS In alld

llICatlOn from th . d . . rk-grouP

plant-group meet" . e pnnte and VIsual medIa to wo each

educators I·S to . I~gs. Industries have found, too, that the surest way to r fof

InVIte the . f I d ys or

as long as thr m m or conferences of one day, severa a: call

ee weeks Su h f . f ffecuve

prove economical· tho c con erences are expensive, but 1 e. pose,

careful.planning a~ e l?ng run. Meetings, to be effective, requzre pur stagmg, and skillful direction.

4 .. Political Action Ad uar)' 2,

1960. 10. S RUled Non-Deductible," Editor <If Publisher, Vol. 93, Jan

The Tools of Commrmication . 193

The most impressive form of get-together is the mass meeting where corporate officials explain the annual report to employees, where the commanding officer explains to all troops why they are shipping out, where the college president tells the student body the decision to drop football, where the office manager announces plans for the move to another city.

In these meetings, exchange of viewpoints is very carefully handled. The question-and-answer portion, if there is one, is controlled so that the meeting doesn't drag, and so that any discussion sticks to the important features. Otherwise the discussion roams into other pastures, or it explodes in personalities. The mass meeting has been most effectively used in middle-sized groups of employees or members and in cases where the one-big-boss really runs the organization. Effectiveness depends, too, on the top man being a pretty good speaker.

Other meetings take the form of discussion groups with a round table or panel of from 10 to 35 persons. Among supervisory personnel, charity volunteers, and civic committees, these meetings are well attended even though held out of normal working hours. For the hourly employee, the buck private, or the student-the man on the bottom rung of the ladder of success-such meetings are usually scheduled as a part of the work program. To avoid any inference of "captive audience," attendance should be voluntary.

The staging of such meetings is often the task of the PR staff. There are

several check points:

I. Comfortable facilities.

2. "Breaks" in the middle of long sessions.

3. Exhibits, displays, charts, graphs, and films wherever suitable to the subjectmatter.

4. Refreshments if participants give up their spare time.

5. An opportunity for everyone to get into the act even if it's only through a note pad and a pen.

6. Press notice for the occasion with credit to the departmental people who were responsible for it.

There are many excellent case studies. The following are busine~s examples, but the adaptation to other types of undertakings should be a Simple one.

Standard Oil Company (N.].) sponsors annually the Jersey Roundtable, a threeday conference of some 25 universitv teachers from all parts of the country and a like number of top-level Standard' Oil officials on problems and philosophy of

the industry. .

Motorola, Inc. has a l5·man Advisory Council of elected, middle-management people. They meet alternate Monday evenings, study corporate problems, and

submit reports to the senior Board of Directors. . .

Sergeant and Company, New Haven, Connecticut, stages group dISCUSSIons to detennine workers' attitudes toward the personnel program.

Elgin National Watch Company, Elgin, Illinois, conducts field tours for em-

ployees. .

Carrier Corporation, New York, has an institute of business lecture serres followed by small-group discussions.


The Tools of Communication· 195

Pitney-Bowes Stamford C .

employees.' , onnecnr-ur, holds joh-holders' meetings for all its

Sharp & Dohme Phil d I hi

officials to discuss i~dust~a~ ~c~~~!~~s.an annual mceting for all employees with

Thompson Products Com an Cl 'I

General Electric provide Pf y, feve and, has a foreman training program.

I k f s ace-to- ace rep ts .

out 00 or the future. or s to supervisors on the business

THE GRAPEVINE. The grapevine is not a formal tool of communication. It is informal, but, like Orphan Annie, it really gets around. Keith Davis, Indiana University, reported in the Harvard Business Review the example of an industry official's wife who had a baby at II P.M. By 2 P.M. the next day, 46 per cent of the plant management group knew it. It is a potent line of transmission. The grapevine is the channel that carries information much more exciting than the truth. Sometimes it is actually harmful or threatens to be. Rumors of layoff, of friction among officials, of product and service trouble, or of bad blood ?etween factions can be harmful. The-word travels far beyond the local group; It becomes more and more distorted. The hints of trouble tend to breed trouble wherever there happens to be a chip on anybody's shoulder.

. The grapevine cannot and will not be eliminated without drastic change m ~uman nature, People are going to talk out loud, and they're going to whisper. It's normal. Gossip is normal. Participation in it is a prized vanity; it's an escape valve for pent-up emotion; it's a facet of "belonging." The PR staff usually stays tuned in on the grapevine. 'When the gossiping and rumoring are harmless, nothing is done about them. When real trouble brews, the gossip is squelched by the release of full facts on the topic. Once in a while, a counterrumor or an expose of the facts among the natural leaders of an organization is sponsored to offset a harmful rumor.

SPEAKERS' BUREAU. The speakers' bu -

speakers at service club I h ~eau IS a planned means for providing

d. unc eons, evenmg It I .

an special events such cu ura group meetmgs, schools,

. as annual Charnb f C

tion exercises, dedicati . . er 0 ommerce meetings, gradua-

I b . . IOns, anmversanes lebrati

ce e nnes. The request f . ' ce e rations, and fetes for visiting

I . d s or vanous area f b i

atitu e. Common among th S 0 su jeer matter provide great

t 1 em are current busi

rave, and the arts Th even ts, usmess condi tions foreign

. e speakers' 001' . '

the manufacturer in . '1 . P IS also valuable m trade relations for

I . ,ClVI relatIOns for h ..

re auons for the governm d t e militarv, and in general public

. I ent epartment th I .

SOcIa agency. ' e et ucational insti tu tion, and the

There are fe '.

o . w orgamzatlOns of an siz .

n their feet and talk i . Y e WIthout some officials who can get

som nterestmgly for f .

. e commonly practiced alt . a ew rru nutes, There are, however,

mg . I' ernatlves 0 .

specia IStS and pay th' f . ne IS to engage outside public speak-

beh If A ell' ees to fill

.a. nother alternative' f engagements on the organization's

soc I t IS or the or '. -

a es, such as PR couns I galllzatlOn to call on its friendly as-

tor or d -. e , management I I

, a Vertlsmg agent to fill or ega counsel, nonresident diree-

of talent available deter:n. . engagements in its behalf. In all cases the kind

resea h mes Its use P "

I rc speech material or t . ractltloners are frequently called on to

n other 0 prepare an li

cases, the public reI . out me or a complete manuscript.

and fun ti atlOns depart

c IOns as a speakers' lih ment collects appropriate material

Here are four point I rary in the organization.

s worth rememb .

enng:

I. Select and coach h .

2 S I . t e hne-up f

. e ect tOpICS of broad int 0 sp:akers with some care.

and carry th . erest whIch ser h

3. Provid e orgamzation's story ve t e needs of the potential audience

e speakers with h .

etc. elpful visual aids Hi

4. Promot d - Ip charts, flannel boards, slide films,

e an p bli .

u icrze the avail b'l-

a I Ity of the' k .

PUBLIC A spea ers to get maximum mIleage.

DDRESS SYST

boss in the fr EMS. The industri I

'. ont office with th a use of public address to link the

mg areas has e man at the b h

l)erime t . a strong appeal Th bli enc and to pipe music into work-

n anon i PR . e pu hc add

immen ff . n communicat' ress system deserves more ex-

se e ectlve' IOn among ki .

will b k' ness In prOmot' I wor mg groups because of Its

e ta mg rona work

There . a second and a third I k among crowds. Many practitioners

IS a grow' 00 at thi I . d

PA syst mg awareness of ir d IS too In the generation ahea .

em can b I S a Vanta

examinat' e made mobile' the ges as well as its limitations. The

Ion and ,messages b

of tape and . more conSideration of . can e relayed. Along with closer

WIre recorders the t this tool goes a working knowledge

, urn table d

,an telephone relays.

THE IMAGE

MOTION PICTURES AND SLIDE FILMS. Since its inception before the turn of the century, the motion-picture film has been used in efforts to inform and persuade. In 1897 Dewar's Whiskey and Columbia Bicycles showed films on outdoor screens in New York City. In 1911 General Electric started using films, and U. S. Steel followed suit the next year. Other firms pioneering in the use of PR films include Ford Motor Company, Caterpillar Tractor Company, International Harvester, and A. T. & T. Recent years have seen an amazing growth in the use of films for public relations purposes. Indications are that the future will see an acceleration in this trend. The basic factors w.hich gave television its great potential have long been used in the motion picture as a tool to transmit ideas, stimulate imagination, and produce action. The conviction, "I saw it with my own eyes," is hard to refute. This is the age of TV, pictorial journalism, and the 16mm motion picture. A tremendous audience awaits the timely, skillful film presentation of a sponsor's story. The motion picture provides an effective, economical means of reaching selected g.roups with real impact. Although the initial costs of produeti~n and distribunon may appear high, the cost-per-viewer is the proper vardstick to use. The film's use in PR is steadily accelerating. United States Steel figured out that of the films in their library, one, on the average, was shown every seven minUtes of every working day to an audience of about sixty people.


The Tools oj Communication . 197

The strengths of the m ti .

'. 0 IOn picture are commonlv accepted 5 (I) It .

bines the Impact of . ht d d " com

h. signt, soun, rama and movement, color and music with

group ent usiasm, (2) It t .' . '

f r th I h f ~ tracts sustained, exclusive attention to a message

o e engt 0 the showing (3) I .

motion (4) It I if . . t can present certain meanings involving

. c an es the time fa t . .

(5) It pr id c or 10 any operatum or series of events.

OVI es a reproduced re d f

cannot ordinarily b b cor 0 events. (0) It presents processes that

e seen y the huma ' (~) TI

past and the dist t he vi n eye. I ie camera can bring the

an to t e viewer (8) It· I .

can use cartoons t d . . can en arge or reduce objects and

. . 0 ramanze abstractions.

It IS estimated that there ar

owned by organized . e more than ooo,oon lfimm film projectors

groups meetmg regt I 11 I '

fraternal organizati d lIar y-scllOo s, colleges, cnurches, clubs,

ons, an abor veter f

outlets, coupled with ibl ' . an, arm, and women's groups. These

. POSSI e showings I s 'I '.

10 commercial the t . . 0 sponsorer films on TV stations and

a ers, provide unli . d .

come showings of informa-: unite potential. All these outlets wel-

ormauve and e t ."

colleges are emphasl'z' h n ertammg sponsored films. Schools and

Ing t e use of' I . .

school. Churches and cl b visua aids from kindergarten to graduate

can provide One d' ~b s are equally eager for good I)rograms which films

. istrr utor of snons '

users now totals more th ponsored movies says that its list of film

Th . an 181,000 groups

e potential inherent in ood fi . . . '

creased opportunif f ? Ims IS steadily expanding because of m-

. , les 0 reachmg larl' , .. .

nation s theaters and' h gel' auc iences through television. III the

I. 'lt1 sc ools and II ' "

ec ucation steadily , . co eges, where the emphasis on VIsual

h' mcreases. This P . I . .

t IS decade 5400 otenua IS being utilized The first year of

. " sponsored films ,.'

made in one year five . were made, 1,700 more than had been

f ,years earher. M' f h ' .

or corporate firms b t ost 0 t ese sponsored movies are made

. . ' u many are pr I I

assoCJatlOns, and non rofi . .oc ucec for govern men tal agencies, trade

One I p t orgamzatlOns

arge reason for thi .

cornm . II IS growth is th '11'

. ercia Y sponsored fil e WI mgness of TV stations to use

tio h ms at no F

ns ave shown a fil cost. or example, hundreds of TV sta-

sh . m produced b G

owmg a series of speed't y oodyear Tire & Rubber Company

no m . ests of cust .

entton of the Good om cars on the Utah salt flats. There IS

the G d year name b h

00 year name on the t' ' ut t e camera is frequently focusing on

exampl f Ires and on th hi

es 0 films designed f e s rrts of the service crews. Other

would be G or school a d I b TV

R ' eneral Mills' "A V· . n c u use and also shown on

f omance of Cheese" and K' ~It With Betty Crocker" Kraft Foods' "The eatmes its Kleenex' The I im edy Clark's "How to Catch a Cold" which

by 'I . atter fil '

near y 170,000,000 pers m, produced by Walt Disney has been seen

operate 0 l' . ons, accord" '.

C n Imlted bUdgets d mg to Its sponsor. Most TV statIOnS

onsequentl T an cannot ff d I

. y, V program a or to produce documentary fi ms.

timely that fi managers I d

'. t the program t' we come films that are interesting an

commerCJal pi Ime slot a d h h

ugs. ' n t at are not too blatant with t e

The growing use of PR films in the motion-picture theaters parallels the drop in Hollywood's output of cartoons and other short-length movies. Hard pressed by TV competition, movie houses are much more receptive to free program material than they once were. Theater managers insist that such films be entertaining, however. "Rhapsody in Steel," a powerful documentary tracing the development of steel, has been exhibited in most of the nation's movie houses. This 23-minute film was produced by United States Steel at a cost of $400,000. An even more ambitious film was that made by Coca-Cola at a cost of half a million dollars. This film, "Wonderful World," had a cast of 1,057 persons and was filmed in 31 different countries. To shoot the movie, three camera crews for nine months ranged over most of the world. More than 1,000 prints were made, and the sound track was recorded in eight languages.

These are the spectaculars. but the vast majority of PR films are produced by smaller organizations on more modest budgets. The typical PR film runs from 23 to 25 minutes in length and ranges in cost from 525,000 to $75,000 to produce. One university made film on mental retardation at a cost of $1,000 that won wide understanding of this problem and also won several film-festival awards. Nonprofit agencies with limited budgets do find ways and means of using films. The St. Johns, Michigan, schools PR director produced a 25- minute film telling the schools' story at a cost of $700. The film, shown before local civic, service, and P.T.A. groups, brought much favorable comment. The director said that all you need are "a rented 16mm camera, a good supply of color film, a little imagination, and lots of spare time." The Dad's Club of a Des Plaines, Illinois, township high school took on the production of a school film as a project and came up with a 30-minute film with musical background

and narra tion.

Given the potential viewing audiences assembled in front of their TV sets, in movie houses, and in schoolrooms, these costs can be nominal indeed. Successful films that get wide showings are dramatic and entertaining and keep

the commercialism subdued.

Keeping pace with its expanded use, the number of firms producing

sponsored films has mushroomed in the past 20 years. It is estimated that there are 50 such firms. The breadth and quality of service that these firms offer vary greatly. Sponsors should use care in selecting a film producer. Costs of production likewise vary greatly. The A.N.A. survey of business films found that costs of 157 films studied ranged from $1,732 to $426,000. The median cost was $25,800. Translated into costs-per-viewer, A.N.A. found that nearly 87 million viewers saw 46 films for an average of 26 minutes at an average cost for production and distribution of each film of $87,264. This communication Was achieved at a cost of 4.6 cents per person. Showing nine of these films on TV brought the cost per viewer down to 1.6 cents for those films."

Films are distributed through film producers which provide this service, through educational film libraries, through firms specializing in this service,

6 Ibid., pp. 32-33. Such costs are higher today.

5 ASSOciation of Nat"

York: ANA, 1954) Con~onal Advertisers Inc Th

. ensed from pp. '38-5i' A e Dollars and Sense of Business Films (Nell'

. useful, documented study.


b~ the sponsor, or through a combination of two or more of these channels. Firms and libraries charge a small fee for this service; sometimes this is paid by the sponsor, sometimes by the requesting group. There are more than 2000

16mm film libraries in the U it d S hi '

• • • 111 e tates w ich provide ready channels for

dlstnbutIng sponsored films."

Because of the expense and ff . I I' ..

. e ort mvo vee In a good film, the practItIOner

should weigh carefully the f h fi . ., .

bl purpose 0 t e 1m, channels of distribution avail-

a :' and the potential audience. After he has decided that the film is worth. while, he should mull over these questions.

I. What is the most import hi hi

2 Wh . ant t mg t IS film is expected to do?

· at secondary pomts a t b I' .

3 Wh re 0 e mar e- \Vdl they crowd film?

· at sources for research d i f .

4 H I an In ormation are available?

· ow ong must the film be t d . . h

5. Treatment? C .? D 0 0 its JO ? Color or black-and-white?

6. Music? Neede~~~ha oc~mentary? Enter~ain~e.llt? Serious?

7. Is there ad' t km~? Recorded? Special- Cost?

8 C :adIIne? ShootIng time? Weather>

· an we do It? Should we hire a professional' firm?

Similarly, there is a r '. .

by agencies u bl g OWIng use of shde films and strip films, espeCially

na e to afford m ti . , . h

slide film of v I . hei 0 lOn-pIcture films. Nonprofit agencies find t e

a ue in t err fund-raising efforts

CLOSED-CIRCUIT TELEVISIO Thi .

mercial TV ff N. IS tool, developed as a by-product of com-

, 0 ers great potent' li . d

through AT&T" ra ItIes. By means of a closed circuit, lease

'. ., live pictures and d ., .

point to one . . soun can be pi ped from an ongmatlDg

or more receIVmg I . . . b

selected audience Thi OcatlOns across the country for vlewmg Y

casting to home s'. IS type of TV is not transmitted to stations for broad·

. VIewers. It is simpl d I' TV

It combmes the er an ess expensive than broadcast .

invited audienc pOIw~r of T~ with carefully designed programs for specific,

es. t IS as pnvate I

The cost of stag' as a te ephone conversation.

mg a progra V .

relatively high. It h m or conference through closed-circuit T IS

can, owever b . .

or convention in . ,e more economIcal than stagmg a conference

. one CIty. This to I b Y

exeCutIves. Robert G DO, too, can be a great time saver for us

firm saved $125000 b' u.nlop of the Sun Oil Company reported that "Our dealers, distrib~t y Usmg closed-circuit TV to introduce a new gasoline to

, ors, and empl . . .

compared with sep oyees m 30 cities throughout the country as

. h arate dealer m ti b d

elg t meetings simulr ee mgs efore." Another oil company stage

?f this medium permi~:~o~:~tfor the same purpose at a cost of $10,000. Use

In the field at the . antaneous break of a new product to all people

. same time."

DentIstry and medi . .

. IClne ar bei

It to make annual repo teeIng taught through this medium. Firms use

Political parties use it fr s fto shareholders and staffs or to hold sales meetings.

. or und ".' .

nons lise it for teachi M -ralsmg dinners and rallies. Educational insutu·

ng. ore and m '. . d by

- ore UlliverSltles and colleges, presse

7 For a list, see U S

BUlletin No II : . Department of H . n

1951). " A Directory Of 2002 16 ealt?, Education and Welfare, Office of EducaUo ,

mm Film Libraries (U.S. Government Printing Office,

The Tools oj Communication' 199

mounting enrollments, are using closed-circuit large-screen TV to reach students across campus and across the state. The United Fund and Community Chest campaign has used this medium to kick off its annual fund drive by assembling the volunteers in groups across the nation. lVhere no TV outlets were available, kinescopes of the program were shown to the workers.

The Ford Motor Company utilized this medium to stage an electronic press conference when it introduced its Falcon. Some 2,000 newsmen were assembled in hotels in 21 cities to participate in a two-way closed-circuit TV press conference. This event took months of preparation and the mechanics were handled by Theater Network Television, one of the firms providing such service.

Canadian National Railways held a coast-to-coast press conference by dosedcircuit TV to announce sweeping changes in its passenger-train services. Reporters were linked by two-way broadcast lines and TV monitors from Newfoundland to British Columbia. The high costs and the difficulties caused by differences in time are the major obstacles to the use of this tool on a nationwide and frequent basis.

DISPLAYS AND EXHIBITS. In almost every factory, there is a reception room, a showroom, a museum, or an employees' lunch area. In every college there is the equivalent of an "Old Main," a Students' Union, a museum, or a visitors' room. Every branch of military service has its sites to perpetuate its memories, receive its guests, and show its progress. These places are natural areas for displays and exhibits. For anyone who has ever taken a plant tour or visited a World's Fair, it is redundant to detail the content of such exhibits. The point to be made is that preparation and servicing of such displays usually fall in the province of the PR staff.

In addition to the stationary or permanent displays, such as the Ford Rotunda, there are temporary exhibits in the community, li~e Gl\I's Powerama, There are national industrial shows, state and county fail'S, and traveling displays. Some business houses have exhibits of material~, processes, ?r products which they lend to their customers and their supplI~rs for use. in special showrooms of their own. The National Guard has equrprnent which it can put on display or wheel out for parades and local events. O~casionally a university takes a dramatic show to other cities. The welfare ~genCles usually are anxious to take part in exhibits where the nature of their work can be dramatized.

Users of exhibits should remember that the objective is "to inveigle the footsore visitor (I) to stop in front of the displa~; (2) t~ remain long enough to look at the material; (3) to be stimulated to immediate .01: future actio~." Lynn Poole of Johns Hopkins University says that an exhibit to accomplish this must be something: (I) different that (2) ~reates an action .and (3) prom,o~es good humor while (4) stimulating participatIOn. The eye-gettmg, commu.mcat-

I· h ihi f h jd ith a sense of showmanship.

ng ex ibitor provides unusual, res 1 eas WI. .

EVENTS. The handling of visitors is anot~er dIrect-contact vehlc~e. Its mOst prevalent use is in open house events and III the day-by-day handling of


The Tools of Communication' 201

plant tours. The idea behind the careful handling of visi tors is to merchandise an orga~ization's facilities and its practices. Open house events attract the communnv, Plant tours catch outside friends and relatives, vacationers, youngsters in school, foreigners here to absorb industrial know-how, customers, and people who are just plain curious and haven't much else to do with their time.

Sponsor~ of these events have been quick to seize on them as opportunities to make fnends at home. Most people are good hosts in their own houses. They work at it. A large proportion of these events come off well. The use of these tools is rapidly in . d h . f

. I creasmg, an t ere have been a growmg number 0

CIrcumstances urging th . N " d

err usage. ew plants and installations have opene .

Old ones have been r d N .

. enovate. ew products have been abundant. Orgamza·

nons have reached . '1

Important mi estones. In short, there has been much to show off and much to talk about.

Techniques have becom . lb' .. .

. e quite e a orate. Clever mVI rations, special trans

portatIOn, celebrities so . hibi

fi ' uvernrs, ex I Its, motion pictures and refreshments

gure among the enti T '

I II . lCements. hen, too, the events regularly make news

oca y and nationaljv I th' f

" . . . n e communIty, an open house is a good story 0

CIVIC spmr that the I .

h press we comes. When visitors drop in from afar, then

own orne town papers are I d . . f

g a to get word. If they are prominent CItIZenS 0 some town, a photograph is in order.

for the parade, judges for the floats, the precise moment at which the band strikes up with God Bless America, and who are to take turns making speeches. There are committees to select committees, and then subcommittees. A great many people in town have some little function to perform in order for the whole show to come off.

When the event finally happens, it is remarkable if several little things don't go wrong. PR men usually hope that they will. Ideally, somebody snitches the prize-winning pie; the mayor sleeps through the speeches; some kid hits the parade marshal's horse with a B-B gun; a store window gets pushed in; the visiting celebrity turns out to be a boyhood chum of the new hotel manager. If all these things happen, the occasion is a success. For days after, there will be much to talk about. Communication will continue to bring together people who have had nothing to say to each other for years. Everyone will have felt a community kinship in the event, in the elbowing that took place, and in the delightfully human foul-ups.

Additional Reading

STAGED EVENTS

Russell N. Baird and Arthur T. Turnbull, I n dustrial and Business journalism, Phila-

delphia, Pa.: Chilton, 1961. See the section on "Company Publications." ..

Walter]. DeLong, "Weyerhaeuser: A Nine-Year Record of Corporate Advert ising

That Pays Off," Public Relations journal, Vol. IS, ~[ay, 1.962. .

Robert O. Dunn, "Ford Motor Company Captures Animal Film Audience of M,OOO,ODD," Public Relations journal, Vol. IS. December, 1961.

E. W. Earl, Bulletin Boards. National Industrial Conference Board, 1953. (Studies in Personnel Policy No. 138.)

Ronald Goodman, "New Look at a Vital Medium: The Company Booklet," Public

Relations journal, Vol. 18, July, 1961. . . •

William C. Halley, Employee Publications. Philadelphia,. Pa.: Chilton, 19:)9. .

Kenneth B. Haas, Preparation and Use of Audio-Visual AIds, 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.].: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1955.

Rudolf Modley and D. Lowenstein, Pictographs and Graphs: How to Make and Use

Them. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 19.52. . r

R. Newcomb and M. Sammons, Developing EffectIVe Supervisor), .\ eiosletters. New

York: American Management Association, 1956. .

C. T. Smith, "Measuring Effectiveness of Your Business Films," Public Relations

journal, Vol. 18, December, 1962. ".

Arthur L. Gaskell and David Englander, Holt! to .Shoot a MOllie Story. New York.

Morgan and Morgan, 1959.

Harold P. Zelko, Successful Conference and Discussion Techniques. New York: Me-

GraW-Hill Book Company, 1958.

Almost every city has s ki

body in tow . h . orne ind of annual occasion all its own when every'

n pitc es in to k h s

it's the open' f ma e a staged event a whopping success. Per ap

mg 0 the Ch . . .. . kl

Harvest Festival D II nstmas shoppmg season, Milkman's Day, PIC e

Neighbor Day J' .0 ar Day, Fashion Parade, Founder's Day, Help Your

, un ror Gove D . .'

or All-Sports Parad Of rnme~t ay, Vets Hoiidav, Community AuctIOn,

niversaries and ·Ie. all occaSIOns, the most universally observed are an-

mr estone devel . . ns

and personal tributes. opments, such as inaugurations, dedlcatIO ,

These events are wond 'r

routines and Some f h . . erfu!. They ar. e crowd days. People shed thel

o t elf mh'b' . t

jUdge, aUXiliary cop h I ttrons to turn clown, auctioneer, beauty contes

bearer for a few h ' og caller, past champion pie eater, trombonist, or Bag

. ours. Peopl d'. . ot

everythmg in Iif 0 e re iscover the Idea that the grindstone IS n

e. n these . f

the money the othe 364 OccaSIOns the people in town who make most 0

dog vendors who don' days of the year spend some of it freely. And the hot·

on t make m h . d Y

Local planning d . oney t e other 364 days get a break on thIS av. . an stagmg bri . pre-

Sentatlves of the rna mg together, as a central committee- re

the Junior Chambeyor'f the town's leading industrialist the high school band,

h .' r 0 Com ' d

t e Willner of last Y' merce, the owner of the local pony ranch, an

ear s cake b k' Ie

or others just like th - a mg Contest at the county fair. These peop ,

em, do the d idi hal

en mg on committees to select the mars

CASE PROBLEM

Y .' for the Apex Manufacturing Co.

. ou are in charge of written commun.lcauons kes hi h- ualit indus-

ThIS firm employs 5000 employees in a city of 35,000. It rna. . g q . tY f. (I)

. I ' .., itten commUnICatIOns consis or:

tna pumps with a good .reputauon. EXlstmg .wn to em 10 ees' homes; (2) bulletin

monthly two-color magazme of 32 pages, mailed p Y

boards. You have an assistant, a photographer, and a secretary.


Six months ago Apex experienced a drastic shake-up in management. The company has slipped and is losing its competitive position. Salesmen are finding it dif. ficult to meet quotas. Wage negotiations will get under way in three months, and the union expects to ask for a 15 per cent wage hike. A pex's wages are higher than those of competing firms, yet it has been the policy not to discuss these matters with em. ployees. To cut production costs, Apex is installing new machinery which will cut down on manpower requirements. Rumors of layoffs arc beginning, The accident rate h~s been climbing in the past year. There is unrest in the plant and in the community ", Ape~'s situation is really not critical, but this is not generally known because the situation has not been explained to employees and the community.

The new president wants to change this. He wants to lay the company's cards on the table, but he cannot increase the communications budget at this time. He puts the problem to you, and asks for a two-page memorandum on your recommendat!o~s, Yo~r recommendatIons must (I) be within the present budget; (2) be effective within a s~x-mo.nth. period; (3) be detailed sufficiently to give the president a clear idea. of t~elr objectives and your method of attack; (4) list the priority of actions. Your Job with Apex may depend on the worth of the program you recommend.

THE

Chapter Twelve

INTEGRATING

FUNCTION

He who wishes to travel far spares his mount_-Racine

The public relations function must be fully integrated into the organization. In the words of H. A. Batten:

"Unless the business is so organized and administered that it can meet at every point the test of good citizenship and usefulness to the community, no amount of public relations will avail." Public relations cannot be compartmentalized. Public relations specialists cannot work in a vacuum. Their work and counsel must be integrated into the operations of the organization as it deals with people day in, day out.

The task of effectively integrating public relations in the daily work of an organization is a vital one. The first task of the practi tioner is to earn and hold broad, enthusiastic support for the public relations concept within his organization. As one PR man put it: "I find that I can afford to spend up to 75 per cent of my time, if necessary, to persuade my associates as to what I do in the remaining 25 per cent." Unless this is done, there will be conflict, not coordination and cooperation. Conflict begets friction and frustra tion. Friction slows motion, frustration breeds ulcers.

'Where the function is new, it is a matter of getting off on the right foot. 'Where the function is established, the need is for helpful collaboration with other departments. Integration applies whether the .PR setup consists of outside counseling, an inside staff, or a combination of the two. Successful integration of the PR function depends far more on the personalities ~n:olve~ than on principles of admmlstrat~on ..

Effective integration IS not easy.

It must be pursued through patient

203

11'1 I' ,

1

316 . Press Relat.ions

(check one) YES NO

1. Does the company have a sense of what is newsworthy and what is not?

2. Is the company generally willing to give out information?

3. Can we rely on the company's word-are they honest in their dealings with us?

4. Is there someone in the company we can go to when we need information?

5. Is the company aware of our problems-deadlines, reader interest, how a release is written, etc.?

6. Are we well acquainted with the company-do we know their people and do they know us?

7. Does the company ever take the initiative-not always make us dig out the news ourselves?

Chapter Nineteen

PUBLIC

RELATIONS

Additional Reading

John Brooks, "Business Parties ... and the Free Loader," Harper's Magazine, Vol.

208, April, 1954. 25

"Business Papers Use Only 20 Per Cent of Press Releases," Advertising Age, Vol. , August 23, 1954.

Marion Cracraft, "If I Were a Public Relations Man Trying to Get Along with News-

papers," Public Relations Journal, Vol. II, May, 1955. p

Davis Douthit, "Nationwide Insurance: Problem in Sponsoring a Television roo

gram," ibid., Vol. 19, August, 1963. 16

Stephen E. Fitzgerald, "Public Relations from the Inside," Nieman Reports, Vol. ,

January, 1962. u

Son'dra K. Gorney, "All-Out Service Provides for Large-scale Press Coverage," Pub ic Relations Journal, Vol. 16, November, 1960.

"How to Handle Press Contacts During an Emergency," ibid., Vol. 18, September, 1962.

Carroll A. Lake, "Planning Makes a Press Tour Click," ibid., Vol. 14, January, 119~:. Don Ross, "Do You Hear. Gripes with PR Applause," Editor & Publisher, Vol, , January 6, 1962.

FOR

BUSINESS

Modern manaeement recognizes that

b .

respect, goodwill, and faith in its bUSI-

ness must be earned.

CASE PROBLEM

A . II k . . 1 f South-

natlOna y nown chemIcal manufacturer opened a plant in the hil s 0 a . 1

eastern state. The location was chosen on the basis of labor supply, raw matena~: tax rates, and humidity conditions. Shortly thereafter in an interview with local e.dl t d' . 'f major ors an WIre service reporters a top company executive said' "One 0 our

f I·' "'t _was

reasons or ocatmg here-and thus one of our contributions to this communi y

to help raise the standard of living of these hillbillies."

The story was widely reported. A storm broke. Nationally known natives of the state wrote burning letters to the newspapers A syndicated columnist wrote a colum;, half in anger, half in fun. The governor se~ators and other politicians got into t e

. h d I . d' " . esent-

act WIt u y 111 Ignant protests. People in the community expressed bitter r

ment.

. A~ public relations director, What do you recommend be done to remedy or repair this SItuatIOn?

Rlblic relations is most commonly associated with business. It is in business that it has had its most extensive and intensive development. Widespread adoption of the practice testifies to the importance that indus. trialists attach to good relationships and public notice of them. The basic concept is that the public interest is served in the successful operation of business. The foremost effort in industrial practice is to interpret, and thus help "sell," the corporatiOl~s or industries to the various public groups from which they draw their success.

The interpreting involves exposure which identifies the company with nonprofit causes on occasion. It means exp05ure which inAue~ces. decisions on public issues or legislation, It means personalizing and popularizing management as manager.s and spokesmen. It mea.ns enhanCIng. ~ favorable corporate Image, or a fa\.olable industry montage, by ex~osll1g acts of industrial statesmanship. It involves exposure that promotes the

sale of products or services. .

Of the near 4,000,000 businesses in the United States, more than 95 per cent have fewer than 5? em-

1 Generally those businesses

p oyees. , .. d 1

. h less than a quarter-million 0-

wIt .. 11"

1 Sin assets are classed as srna .

ar .

The number of small firms IS con-

I . flux New ones are started

stant y 111 l •

d . almost an equal number

every ay, .'

are liquidated daily. Public relations-

mindedness, or its lack, often r: vides the crucial difference. Public relations, not just a luxury for la~ge

. is a practical necessrty

corporatIons, '11 .

h 11 business. GOOdWI IS a

for t e sma .

uisite for any business .

req Big Business provides the muscle

317

318 . Public Relations for Business

Public Relations for Business . 319

for the free enterprise system. Small Business supplies its nervous system. N. N. Foote says: "The power of the consumer to express his wants in his own way will increasingly become a means of restoring communication between himself and the producer. This implies that all who play a part in the function of distribution must see themselves not merely as merchants but as channels of communication. . . ." 1

PUBLIC RELATIONS FOR INDUSTRY

David Finn records: "Consolidated Edison was a pioneer amo~g c.ompan~cs

. hei I 1957 Lippincott and Margulies, indusnial

tr mg to change t elr Image. n , L • ••

y. d h C Ed had changed from a 'finn which had ,I PCI-

designers, reporte t at on .. . .. ,,' . > '

. . t d' to 'a friendly informal, plOglcSSI\e,

sonali ty problem If one ever eXIS e , ,. '.. . L • • ,

1" h d hi through a new Jolly n adern.u k, new

company. It accomp IS e tIS, 'h' . f r sign and 'a really new kind of

'bri ht' company colors, a new c eel' u ... c • . ff

g . st be built of more substantial stu .

ad .... " 2 The corporate Image mu .

More fundamentally Finn, a counselor, thmks:

.. d blic figures in images-besides COIll-

The recent interest of orgam:auol~s,. an pu eeni'ng ambition'-is thus also all

. f If d ltd raUona Izmg overw L' .

pensatmg or se - OU) an ., f ed period of history. 1 he fact

. f h h f r meanlllg III a con us f

expreSSIOn 0 t e seare 0 b . t another fictitious wardrobe or

· h . turned out to e JUs , ' .

that corporate Image? av e k d' I streets is not important. The Image

the Emperor who still walk~ na e III t .h a nization but because it answers

. . 1, eltdressesuptleorg". .

IS so tenacious, not recaus .. for the corporate cnterpnse.

a basic need for finding a convlIlcmg purpose , .

. Nossiter, thinks the Corporate Conscience

A newspaper reportel, Bernard th t all is well although the

. busi n to assure us a, L

has been invented by uSI.nessme S ith has 10nO", since disappeared.

.. th '!Zed by Adam orm t'l

perfect competitIOn eoi b . are greed)! hypocritical, or

. ,,' t rgue that uSInessmen, , '

Nossiter's POll1t IS not 0 a . t xecutives by' training and

. . st that corpOla e e , L

irresponsible. Rathe.r It IS to sugge . ult iud ments in the swampy area of

outlook, are il l-equipped to make diffic J g

social responsibility." 3 h rt of business to sell "free

· l massi -e efforts on tepa

After analyzing severa massiv ., n the role of profits in our

1 'eater appreClatlOn 0 .

enterprise" and to deve op a gl 7h me up with the conclusion

, \V'lram H \\ yte ca

economic system, Fortune s I I . 1 r participation between each

I· d ended on c ose

that better understanc mg ep . . f mutual interest. Common

. " .' 1 . ublics 111 matters 0 d

corporanon and Its pal ticu ar P db' f r understanding. 'Whyte ha

· b h nly soun asis 0

experience was Just a out teo .

b has more to It.

part of the answer, ut t ere w

At the close of World War II, the vast industrial production machine reverted to peacetime pursuits. Industry found its hands full of labor-management problems, legislative problems, civic problems, and competitive problems. Big Business decided in 1946 that its publics felt unduly adverse toward it. Some of this assumption was no doubt an expression of conscience. But there was little conscience in such major evidences of disfavor as bitter work stoppages, restrictive legislation, and opinion-survey results.

To counter the apparent ground swell, industry in 1946-1947 embarked on a promotional-educational campaign to make itself "popular." The prototype campaign on behalf of "free enterprise" was spearheaded by the National Association of Manufacturers. The techniques used were to advertise and otherwise publicize the idea that there was a cause-and-effect relationship between the free enterprise system and the high standard of living attained in America.

The multi-million-dollar campaign was not effective in any measurable way, although it did teach many in industry, including PR people, that an abstract idea could not be sold in the same way as a bar of soap. The notion persists with some businessmen that industry still is not telling its story. For example, the head of the articulate and powerful American Petroleum Institute lamented some years ago that business was "tongue-tied." Almost ten years later, a Kennecott Copper Corporation official echoed: "American business has failed rather spectacularly to tell and sell the advantages and merits of the economic system we call free enterprise." There's little evidence to support such contentions.

For a decade or so, there has been much concern voiced by businessmen about the "corporate image." Some of this is legitimate concern for building a climate more favorable to business' growth and profit making. Some of this worrying represents an attempt to rationalize self-doubts and uneasy consciences. Probably the first use of the term was in an article, "The Mass Image of Big Business," which appeared in Harvard Business Review in 1955.

INDUSTRY WAS IN THE DARK

. . bending their ears, came to

. h f sional practItIOners . It

Industrialists, WIt pro es h f public relations plannmg.

another conclusion, which altered the s ape II 0 f I information about what

· , ,much rea y use u . II r

was that they did not possess \eq or stockholders actua )

loyees hometowners, d I

special groupings such as emp '. r the corporate lea ers anc

. f . dustry ItS powe , . .

thought about the bigness 0 III , hei iews on politics, eclucation,

. h wisdom of t ell' VI . b I

their personal integrity, .or tell There was need for more In ounc

health, and welfare, nationally or lo~a y.

.. . d stry's publtcs.

commumcaiion from in II 1962.

, Magazine Vol. 225, June,

" Harpers , . V I 22~

2 In "Stop Worrying Ab- ut Your Image,. Business'" Harper's Magazme, o. I,

. of American ,

3 In "The Troubled C(HISClence '

September, 1963.

1 From the essay, "The Autonomy of the Consumer," in Consumer Behavior, Lincoln

H. Clark, ed., Vol. 1 (New York: New York University Press, 1954). One in a useful threevolume series.

nesses as a means of fulfilling personal satisfactions. The concept is getting more implementation and less lip service. As an Wall Street Journal has observed: "The fastest growing element in U.S. public service today is the personal participation of businessmen." This trend is being encouraged by industry and cheered by the organizations benefited.

One of the most useful aspects of public service work is that it serves to keep the executive in touch with his community. One of the difficult problems for the corporate decision maker today is to avoid being entrapped in "the ivory towers of business" and thus lose sensitive touch with public opinion. The businessman becomes so enmeshed in the problems of personnel, production, promotion of goods and services, and profits that he gets precious little time to read to mix with others outside his narrow circle-in short, "to keep in touch." This, increasingly, is the responsibility of his public relations counselor. One who did "keep in touch" was Clarence Randall, long. time head of Inland Steel. He saw the problem clearly: 11

Responsibility breeds isolation. As a man:s authority increases. ~o do I he ha~. riers that cut him off from direct contact WIth the world ahout him ..... \fter he reaches the top. he is seldom seen in public. and seldom heard. He h:'(()III(,s a myth .... The consequence is that when the g:eat .storm COI.lIl'S. as It docs sooner or later to every large corporation, and he IS driven out mto the turbulence of public opinion, he may not be ready to go on deck.

A perfect illustration of this is to be seen in the shock and dismay.which officials of U.S. Steel suffered when confronted by an angry and articulate President of the United States after that corporation raised its prices in April, 1962. This showdown in the public arena b.etween. the lar~e stee~makers and the President stands as a classic in public relations. U.S. Steel s move to boost prices after concluding a wage agreement with its steel unions

was widely publicized as a public relations. blunder. , .

The merits of the issue aside, it is quite clear that U.S. Steel s ma~age-

t Iid .. t th fierce public battle that ensued and caused It to

men (I not antrcrpa e e .

b k d ..' se This may have been the fault of manage-

ac own on Its pnce increa .

. . h 1 of its PR staff' it may have been the fault of the

ment In not usmg t e counse ' .'

PR staff in either not anticipating President Kennedy's explosive r~~c~lOn

. f '1' d . ement that it would be opposed and criticized

or 111 al mg to a VIse manag . . .

in the price move. The consequences are easier to discern. _Roy Hoopes, m a

. bli b I thinks the mistake came from

book-length account of this pu IC att e, . I .

. tive thmkmg 12

management's insulation and mrrospec 1\. '.. ..

T d ' b . is expected to keep m touch With his community and

o ay s usmessman 1 • . .

to serve it, both as a businessman and as a CItIZen.

" New York Times Magazine, July 2, 1962. 11 In "Business, Too, Has Its Ivory Towers, h 1 D Company Inc., 1963). For articles

12 In The Steel Crisis (New York: .The JORI_I h ax Austin S~ith "Behind U. S. Steel's

viewing the battle from the PR viewpoint, see IC ar "Big Steel's' Blunder: How Big?",

BI d " 66 ~ t 1962' Anonymous, I . ..

un er, Fortune, Vol. " ugus , 'b . f mt of this dramatic publ ic-opiruon

P . t ' 79 A '1 20 1962 For a rre aCCOl

rm er s Ink, Vol. 2 ,pn " D " New York Times, April 23,

struggle, see Wallace Carroll, "Steel: A 72·Hour rama .. ·,

1962, pp. 1 and 25.



tion of power in great corporations; but then there has also been considerable public apprehension of undue centralized power in the government.

Industry has traditionally thought that its own destiny must rest finally on what it does or fails to do in the interests of the consumer, for the consumer public includes all other groups. There is growing awareness that this is an incomplete answer.iv Satisfying the interest of the individual solely as a consumer does not suffice. The individual is a many-sided person. He is complex. He wears several hats alternately. One is labeled either employer or employee, another Republican or Democrat, and still others tenant, taxpayer, parent or soldier, as the case may be. With a multiplicity of roles, he has a multiplicity of contrasting convictions and anxieties. He is an economic being, a social and political being. Approached while in the role of a consumer, ?e is very much in the driver's seat. Industry is dependent on him. Approached m the role of tenant or employee, he is dependent on industry.

Thus, there is the paradox of the same person in several roles, reacting differently in each one. At work, he shows the anxieties explained above, uneasy and insecure about the power of the employer over him. At the close of work, however, he goes grocery shopping and, as free choices, he buys a Swift ham, a can of Heinz beans, a box of Wheaties, a bar of Lifebuoy, a package of Wrigley's gum, a carton of Camels, and scores of other products made by large businesses whose very size and potential power frighten him during the working day.

~ean,,:,hile, industry is taking steps to better prepare its managers for deahn?, WIth people in a complex society. Nothing illustrates this better than the sluft of emphasis in Executive Development Programs. Business' demand for. executive training courses for its people from universities is nearly insatiable. These pr?grams are moving from techniques to broader topics.

The emphasis IS no longer purely on refining and perfecting the economic reflexes. 0: the man destined for increasing managerial responsibility. The emphaSIS IS ~n rounding out the man's personality and broadening his scope of mformed mterests. There is positive effort to inspire his interest in human and. cultural values so that he will seek reasonable opportunities for public service.

The concept is that industry's managerial need in the future will not be for the technician. It will be for the well-balanced human being able to decide what should be done and what should be said. It will be for the man sensitive t~ trends, capable of research and forethought, of adjustment to change. Finally, he must be a good listener as well as a good communicator and persuader.

Social responsibility in management is an expanding concept. Fewer businessmen year by year look upon it as a nuisance obligation. More businessmen welcome a measure of public responsibilities inside and outside their busi-

10 F .. I .

. . or a crrtica view, see John Kenneth Galbraith, The Affluent Society (Boston: Houghton MIfHm Company, 1958).

324 . Public Relations lor Business

Public Relations lor Business . 325

TH.E ROLE OF TH.E PRACTITIONER

J. Rathbone, president of Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey, speaks for modern management when he says, "We never do anything of importance without first considering in great detail the public relations aspects." 'Vise managers will do no less.

It would be misleading to attribute the improvements solely to the greater emphasis on positive PR programs of action coupled with the willingness of the industrialist to listen and be guided by public opinion. There has been a climate, both economically and socially, which has worked in industry's favor. Foremost, the nation has enjoyed unparalleled prosperity. This has reflected itself in family comforts and luxuries. People are not prone to complain or demand change when they have full stomachs and savings in the bank. Additionally, there have been no exceptional stresses of national proportion in the relationships between employers and employees, management and stockholders, corporation and townspeople, manufacturers and suppliers or customers. A sharp and severe economic recession could substantially alter this favorable image.

Time alone, and public opinion, will condone or condemn the character of industry's motivations. At this point, however, public relations has become highly competitive. Several large corporations of t~e magnitude of ~ DuPont or an American Telephone and Telegraph have discovered a practical ,,~alue in the act of PR leadership itself. Ingenuity in devising new programs, proJects, or techniques, and the pioneering tryout o~ them, have news .value .. A p~ journal will hail a new communications project such as a televised directors meeting or a new public benefit such as a pai~ holida~ for each em.ployee on his birthday as loudly as a medical journal WIll proclaim a ~ew vaccine.

Competitors within an industry vie with each other's PR projects as heatedly as they do with advertising themes or mechanized ~roduc~ion methods. The fact that industrialists have come to regard public service as a necessary ingredient of the competitive formula for success should not be censured summarily. The net results are beneficial. That is, they are in. the public's best interests. In the contemporary history of industry, no. public ,group h.as ha~ to relinquish any major benefit acquired. 'Vhether industry s part m. th~s

h b . . db' nce or a growing desire to serve-the servrce IS

as een msplre y a conscie .

no passing fad. The habit pattern is becommg reflex.

Thi " d' t Ahead for industry are complex problems,

IS IS In goo time, 00. . .' d

. . . f di ifi ti n decentrahzatlOn an automa-

SOCIologIcal and otherwise, 0 iversi ca 10 , .'

. . bli d mand that industry expand fast

tron , Beyond these are the growmg pu IC e . .

. . b f young people pounng mto the

enough to employ the mcreasmg num er 0 . .

job market and that it do its hiring without regard to race or religion, ~here

.' . . . f organizational and occupationa l

WIll be alterations involving the revision 0 .

setups which have been in effect for generations. No d~ubt creative talent

. . . devices Meantime, here are sum-

will devise appropriate commumcatIons . . d f

maries of some current activities which demonstrate the vanety an scope 0

industrial PRo

In recent .years there has been an actual increase of programs to publicly demo~strate industry's public-spirited side. These programs have not taken place m a vacuum of silence. Variously, the creation of them, the public notice a.bout them, the interpretations of reactions to them, and often their execunon have been in the province of the practitioners. Little wonder that the !1'all Street Journal in 1962 termed public relations "one of the fastest-growmg phases of corporate activity." 13

. Interestingly, at the same time that the industrialist has been addressing hIS personal attention more to his public responsibilities, he has focused his P~ man's efforts more and more on the economic responsibilities of the enterpnse. Thus we have the image of the managerial executive heading a drive to get out the voters, and his public relations executive or counsel in a marketing huddle concerning the introduction of a new product.t+

T~e opportunities of the practitioners in product promotion have been plentIful: As a result, much of the contemporary growth of the function personnel-w~se has been due to added staffing for efforts related to marketing. Meanw~l~e: .the:e has been no lessening of the practitioner'S communications responsibilities 111 the longer-established areas.

HOW IS IT GOING?

The yardsticks used to measure industry's PR troubles a decade ago were

work stoppage tri I . I .

. . ' res rictrve egIS atron, and any apparent ill will in the plant

communIty fi . I . I .

. or nancia crrc es. ApplY1l1g those yardsticks now, there has

obviously been an improvement. There are fewer labor strikes, more labormanagement cooperation on problems in the work place and in the world market. The fear of Bigness, as such, has occasioned no great wave of public

censure or demand for . I' I . . h

" . new antitrust egIS anon, Generally speaking, t e

precinct syste ". h' h h '. .

. m, In. w IC eac enterpnse wornes particularly about in-

dustnal spok.e~manshIp and citizenship in its plant community, is improving the acceptability of industry nationally.

. As the newer generations take over the management of industrial enterpnses, demonstrably more public relations-mindedness is manifested. Monroe

13 For the changi I d .

D . ng TO e an reqUIrements of the practitioner see Earl Newsom "Business

o~~ ~;t FunCh?n by Divine Right':' Public Relations Journal: Vol. 19, January: 1963.

Social r a de~a~l~d look at the SOCIal responsibilities of business, see Howard R. Bowen,

!l-esp~nslbility Of the Businessman (New York: Harper & Row Publishers 1953); and

Marquis Childs and Dougla C t Ethi . . ' ,

P b li h . ss a er, ICS In a Business SOCIety (New York: Harper & RoW,

u IS ers, 1954). (Also In a Mentor Book.)

IDENTIFYING WITH NONPROFIT CAUSES

A number of corporations are lending support to the fine arts as a means of identifying themselves with the public welfare. Such programs earn goodwill among thoughtful, culturally minded persons. Corporate interest in art takes many forms-provision of exhibit space in corporate lobbies or department store windows; purchasing art for corporate offices or for donation to museums and universities; support of costly programs on television; and sponsorship of community art shows. One of the pioneers, Container Corporation of America, began its fine arts, program in 1937. Its advertising campaign, "Great Ideas of Western Man," featuring the work of outstanding artists has become widely known. Container also has a traveling exhibit.

S. C. Johnson & Son, the wax maker, assembled the works of 102 American artists to be shown around the world in a cooperative venture with the United States Information Agency. This great collection cost Johnson $750,000 and is entitled, "Art: USA: Now." F. H. Johnson describes his interest "as sort of an act of faith in American art and, at the same time, an experiment by a business firm in international relations on a people-to-people. level." Hallmark, the card maker, sponsors art competitions and annually gives the Hallmark Art Award to encourage "painters of promise."

Standard Oil Company of New Jersey has won wide acclaim in cultural circles for its sponsorship on television of the "Play of the Week"-an I8.-week series of serious two-hour dramas; its "Age of Kings," a IS-week senes of Shakespearean dramas; and, more recently, its "Festival of Per~orming Arts." L. L. L. Golden observes that these "programs filled a great VOId, made deep . . d b ght results which have set the course for future television

impressions, an rou

advertising by the country's leading oil company.:' ~5. .

Bamberger's Department Store in New Jersey irritiated a program to .bnng

. ., b N York City to New Jersev audiences

the great artists appeanng 111 near y ew I / ."

that has "won the respect and applause of audiences and performers alike. It first sponsored performances of the Ballet Russe in Newark, where the response was so enthusiastic that the department store has ~ept the program

. B b' II promotional expenses and pnnts most of the

gomg. am erger s pays a . ,

. ibuti the community s cultural program.

programs as Its contn unon to . 16

I busi en have found art provides a useful promotIOn.

n sum, usmessm



The obvious identifications are donations of money, equipment, time, and effort to charitable agencies. This is particularly a phase ef plant-city relations. The changing aspect is that "giving" has become less a tax consideration and more a public-responsibility consideration.

Less obvious is the relationship of industry and higher education) as the student population grows, generation by generation. The Council for Financial Aid to Education cites five motives for corporate support of higher education.

1. The need and desire to insure the continued flow of educated personnel into business and industry and the nation at large.

2. Maintenance of the dual system of American higher education-gift-supported and tax-supported.

3. The determination to maintain and strengthen the socioeconomic environment in which free enterprise can function most effectively.

4. '_fhe practic~l value .to a company. in terms of public relations values of goodwill and _prestige, of gifts made in its role of corporate citizen.

S. Promotion of the general welfare of State and Nation.

The corporation is increasingly identified as a substantial giver to higher educ~tion, both to its capital fund drives and in response to its students need f~r ~ld. In I96~, for example, of the some 700 million dollars given in student a.ld m the United States, 40 million dollars came from private and corporanon programs. Annual corporate giving to education has passed the $200,O?O,.OOO mark. All told, United States corporations give more than a halfbillion dollars a year to charitable causes.

I~ anoth.er area of the relationship between industry and education with public relations overtones, there has been industry's attack on the engineer shortage.

I. Und.er~riting ~mployees in science and engineering courses

2. EqUIppmg engmeering school labs

3. Exhi~iting in schools to attract the likely candidates

4. Lendmg teachers to vocational and other schools S. Arra?g.ing plant tours for likely candidates

6. Prov~d~ng summer jobs for engineering faculty

7. ProvId.m!? work-and-study programs for students

8. Estabhs~mg fellowships and scholarships

9. Sponsormg cross-pollination meetings with science teachers

In the realm of public service identification) there is growing variety. AllisChalm~rs, on the occasion of Thomas Edison's birthday, presented "a biography III sound" honoring the inventor on a national television network. Industry has long supported Keep America Beautiful, Inc., whose mission is to preserve the natio?'s scenic beauty. Programs seek to create public efforts for ~leaner surroundmgs. One of the slogans is "Don't Be A Litterbug-Put Me.l.n a Trash Container." The Carling Brewery Co. also used an intensive antIlIt~erb~g campaign in "Vermont to win itself goodwill and to help stave off legIslatIOn outlawing the throwaway bottle or can.

PERSONALIZING MANAGEMENT AS SPOKESMEN

. . . t' desire to bridge the communications gap

N othmg indicates managemen s . h h

h h nner in whic managers ave come

brought on by Bigness better t an t e ma . h I

. bl The industnal manager as ong

to grips with human relations pro ems. . d .

. . ployee relations an community

participated in making policy concermng em

. "S d Review Vol. 46, March 9, 1963.

15 In "Art and Public Relations, atur ay ti Report (Englewood Cliffs, N.].: Pren- 16 See "Business and Art," Prentice-Hall Execu me

tice-Hall, Inc., 1962).



relations. In recent years, however, he has increasingly taken the policies into the shop personally, and he has defended them articulately. Seldom in recent years has the businessman dodged the facts that mechanization displaces people, that safety must be sold, that taxes must be paid, that people must be allowed to participate, and that retirement and unemployment are everybody's problem.

Candor, and face-to-face communication, have become commonplace.

When Motorola, Inc. took a major step to realign its topside structure into clear-cut divisions, and on another occasion when it reassigned a large area of military electronics activity from one locality to another, the several hundred key personnel involved were assembled in group meetings. The president, Robert Galvin, explained what was to happen and why, and answered all questions unrehearsed.

Rubbing elbows with employees is back in favor, despite all the difficulties posed by decentralization. Murray F. Gill, board chairman of Kansas Gas and Electric, gave it a novel touch when he visited a generating station to compliment 65 employees on their spotless safety record of 10 years. He put on a chef's hat and apron and broiled steaks for the entire group. The president of State Mutual Life Assurance Company couldn't chat with each policyholder about his company. But, to give a personal touch, he sent each one a paperback phonograph record on which he discussed operations.

Recognition, training, and promotion are prime vehicles in developing productive employee loyalty. Service pins and plaques, banquets and outings, and publicity in the house publication are standbys. The trend is to trainingfor-advancement programs. General Electric, for example, in one year conducted over a thousand courses in factory skills. Within this framework, 1,990 high school graduates took part in the Apprentice Training Program, 1,800 college graduates enlisted in the 10 programs available to them, and 6,551 employees availed themselves of courses in the professional work of managing.

The employee's natural desire for direct participation with management and owners has found a mutually satisfactory solution in profit-sharing. More than 10,000 companies have profit-sharing plans. One of the best-known programs is that of Eastman Kodak. In this plan Eastman employees receive wage dividends in addition to regular pay. The amounts are based on an employee'S earnings over a five-year period, and are related to the amount of dividend declared for owners of common stock, In 1962 the Kodak wage dividend totaled $53,600,000 spread among some 47,500 persons.

Another participation vehicle is stock ownership. Many corporations have plans which invite and encourage stock purchases. Chrysler Corporation adopted such a plan in 1956. It is called a "Thrift-Stock Ownership Program" and provides for salaried employees to contribute up to 10 per cent of base salary for stock purchases. The company contributes a share, from 40 to 60 per cent of the employees' savings, depending on the company's ratio of earnings to net sales.

The Suggestion System is not new. Its success tends to depend on how

effectively it is "sold." The selling, of course, rests partly with the PR function. Ford Motor Company has had a plan in effect for more than 15 years. Its success is attested by the fact that more than 165,000 suggestions have been put into effect, and more than $11,000,000 has been paid to employees for them.

Safety is a never-ending project area-where employees must be persuaded against a natural inclination to take chances. Among the more imaginati~'e projects undertaken recently was that of the Gates Rubber Company in Denver. It was called "Wives' Weekly Jackpot." Each week a wheel was spun, an employee's name was drawn, and his wife was te!eph~n~d. She was asked this question, "How many days since the last lost-time Injury on your husband's team?" She could know the answer only if her husband had checked the bulletin board on the way home. For the right answer, she got $l. A second question concerned the most recent weekly safety ~ewsletter. For the right answer, she got $10 worth of groceries. In a very ruce way, Gates suc-

ceeded in getting wives to prod husbands on safety. . .

The American Car and Foundry Company has used its house publication, Rolling Stock, to promote safety in a way that contrasts sharply with ~he usual reports of safety contests and records. In .Roll!ng Stock a headline boldly says, "Suppose You Were Blind." Th~ artl~le IS about an employee who offered to be a guinea pig by blindfolding hlII~self for an ho~r or so. Then he tried futilely to do some of the everyday ~hmgs, such ~s tym? shoelaces, combing hair, eating breakfast, lighting a Cigarette, playmg With the

baby, and walking out the front door. .

There j . th fact that mechanization and automatic processes

ere IS no escapmg e

. . ., II P . tation here seems the best ap-

generally displace people miua y. reonen

h Th P ifi M t 1 Life Insurance Company started three years

proac. e aCI c u ua d

ahead of delivery date to tell its people about what a computer would . 0

. . Al ith education went the opportumty

In electronic data processmg. ong WI .

f " f . b di The staff also became sidewalk supenntendents

o trammg or JO upgra mg. d d

at the installation of the computer, and their fa~ilies atte~ e. an open

. . id Ii . t some Jobs but It did not cost

house. All in all, the rransruon di e irnma e ,

Pacific any valuable transferable people. f

The matter of r;tirement is an increasingly important aspect 0 m~bn~l?e-

Th . the now accepted responsl I Ity

merit's relations with its employees. ere IS , .

. . . for veteran employees retirement.

of making adequate financial proVISIOns . I bl f d

h loyees the emouona pro ems 0 a -

~ey~nd this, there remains for t. e em~ f drasticall scaling down a

jusung to the idea of not workmg dally and 0 . Y h h

. . . h bl ms Will not come t roug any

hvmg standard. The solutIOn of t e pro ell" h' h holds any degree

" . . k H r any pa iatrve w IC

commumcatIOns gimmlC. owever. f 11" ay prove sufficient

f· d Alar e number 0 pa iauves m

o promise should be use . g bli I tions can assist person-

h . ivid II . . adequate Pu IC re a I

Were each one indivi ua y IS in . . h . ed Retired Em-

M mpames ave orgamz

nel functionally in this ~rea. any co brin to ether those who have

ployees clubs. The functions have been to I g d ~n the initial shock of retired from their jobs, and to help them to s ow 0



retirement. At club meetings films and talks are provided on company activities, plant tours are engaged in, and participation in civic activities is arranged.

PROMOTING SALES

comic books, special magazine features, and an annual contest for the best use of a musical theme by an advertiser, On behalf of Sylvania, a committee of prominent citizens confers Television Awards on individuals and organizations who have made outstanding contributions to advancing the quality

of TV programming, _

One corporate practitioner, Robert Fegley, suggests these ways m which the public relations function can help promote sales: 17

I. Increase brand preference by building understan?ing of the. manufacturer as a maker of quality products. Surveys show a definite correlation between a consumer's view of a company and his purchases.

2. Convert PR audiences into customers: e.g., see stockholders as customers as well as stockholders. Promote products in stockholder literature.

3. Establish a favorable identity in a new market to pave the way for accept-

ance of a new line of goods or services. ... .

4. Build understanding of the firm's role and service to society hy usmt; Its

products or services as examples in literature, speeches, and so fortl,~' . '

5. Build public demand for your products; .e.g" the ~l~ker of sewage filtr'I~Ion equipment promotes a "clean waters" campaign to el im ina te stream pollution,

which requires installation of new sewage plants. .)

6. To overcome public opposition to ne~ produ,cts, new methods, e.g», the ~ R campaign on the part of utilities and electrical equipment m:lI1Ufacturers to 0\ er-

, . f . I nts heine located III urban areas,

come public ears about atorruc power p a ,,'

The most important contribution the prac.titioner can make to sales is to help the company appraise the needs of Its customers and make that appraisal known to the management.

Advertising and sales promotion take a direct approach to the customer, offering him product or service advantages, at a price. Public relations efforts sometimes take the same direct approach to the consumer, extolling the virtues of a product or service insofar as its newsworthiness will permit. This is seen in product announcements and customer testimonials.

More prevalent, however, is the indirect publicity approach, in which are demonstrated and extolled the virtues of the corporate or industry entity behind the product or service. This is seen in news about sales and earnings, customer warranty and service, expansion plans, awards, and personnel appointments and promotions. The area is as vast as the imagination. A classic example was the Carl Byoir firm's work for Libby-Owens-Ford. They induced the use of more glass in home architecture, popularized better lighting, got auto men to stress the safety feature of more visibility, and obtained publication of a book which glamorized glass_

The Bicycle Institute of America coined a slogan, "The New Golden Age of Bicycling." They plumped for bike paths for safety, then for more use of the paths for health and recreation. Publicity stressed slim waistlines, muscle tone, good circulation and fresh air, picnics, and riding clubs. Finally, there were Junior Training Clubs, local bike ordinances, Safety Clinics, and "The Bicycle Song." Bicycle use has been increasing.

U.S. Steel sponsored "Operation Snowflake" to stimulate sales of major appliances for Christmas. There was advertising, but there was also a "Kitchen Planning Book" by an architect-designer. Newspapers received a four-page folder of editorial material and suitable halftones to feed the homemaker's interest in the latest conveniences. Brand Names Foundation, Inc. is sponsored by manufacturers of products whose brand names have earned a following. A slogan, "You're always satisfied most with a Brand that's made a Name for itself," appeals to consumers to pick known brand names, and to dealers to promote them rather than unknown brands.

Chesapeake & Ohio and Nickel Plate Road took the initiative several years ago to militate for "through sleeping car service coast to coast." Obviously, this was a great convenience to travelers, who formerly had to change trains in the middle of the night. The campaign used advertisements, letters, and news statements.

The musical instrument industry revived itself by forming the American Music Conference. This body comprised a promotional office from which material was beamed at school children and school music programs. A clipsheet went monthly to the press. There were also slide film presentations,

INFLUENCING DECISIONS ON PUBLIC ISSUES

ind ' . dely publicized testimony and

The obvious in this area are III ustry s WI .,

, d I' I tion hearings and mdustry s

lobbying in antitrust, tanff, an tax egis a I'd '

h t by government upon III ustry s

steady drumfire against further encroac men " I

freedom. Efforts in this area can be as simple as batth~g With the Inte~a Revenue Service over what constitutes legitimate busI~ess. expe~sffe wd en

omplex as wmnmg tan re uc-

entertaining a prospective customer, or as c , C M rket Or

di t t Europe s ommon a .

tions to enable the United States to a JUs 0 d . f

' uest or a bon Issue or a new

the efforts can be as local as a rezorung reg

school 18 . h

. . the business commumty that t e

Increasingly the idea has taken root III . I I up As a matter

b . . 1" f m the precmct eve on .

USmessman belongs III po ItICS- ro .' the Civil War

f b olitically active since .

o history, businessmen have een p

17 In a speech given in Chicago, October l~, 19h63'B siness Community," Public Opinion

.. d Opinion m t e u B

18 See Robert E. Lane, Law an business' political goals, see Marver H. ern-

Quarterly, VoL 17, Summer, 1953; for a .clue to. Journals," ibid.

stein, "Political Ideas of Selected American Busmess



Nonetheless, the conviction has been growing in some sectors that the businessman has too long held aloof from politics, with the result he has been outpointed by other interests in the community. Not all businessmen buy the notion that the corporate executive, Main Street merchant, or the business itself should be identified in partisan political struggles. Thomas Reid, of the Ford Motor Co., is among those who argue: "It is rather for them (businessmen) to be active and articulate in working for the kind of government under which our free enterprise system can grow and prosper." 19

At the least, business firms can well afford to encourage their employees to participate in community affairs, including politics, and to encourage financial support of the party of the employee's free choice. The Internal Revenue Service has ruled that firms may deduct certain expenses incurred in promoting public interest in elections so long as such efforts are impartial.

some of the country's drastically scarce land. A wrong area choice could haw produced strong resentment. After consultation with government ministries, a site partially covered with water was selected. The manufacturer not only built a plant, but contributed to the continuous Dutch task of reclaiming land. Tactful public relations helped promote this example of good citizenship and good community relations." 20

According to Printer's Ink, most international public relations experts agree on these rules for conducting successful overseas businesses: 21

1. You are guests of the country. Act as a guest should. , ..."

2. The profits of your enterprise are not solely yours. \ our local national

employees and the economy of the country should also benefit... .. . "

3. Don't try to win over your 'new customers by completely Americanizing

them.

4. Although English is an accepted language o:erseas,. a fluency in the lan-

guage of your international customer goes further 111 makl~lg sales.. .

5. Contribute to the country's economy and culture WIth worthwhile public

relations projects. _ .

6. Train the executives you choose to act properly overseas. I'h is goes for

their wives, too. .

7. Don't conduct your business from the United. States. Staff r.OUT offices WIth nationals who know what they're doing and superl'lse the operatIon from home.

The rapid growth of international trade in a. world s~runk by supers~nic airplanes and satellite communication makes It essential for corporatIOns operating in foreign lands to get public relations counselin.g from na~ionals in those countries. This is true for the Japanese firm selling goods in the United States and for the United States firm selling goods in Japan. It takes one who knows the nation's culture, political structure, religious. c?m~osition, and So forth, to effectively translate your program and poll.Cles into terms that will be understood and applauded in other la?ds. Th~ increased importance of PR abroad has led to expansion of counseling services operat-

ing on an international basis.F' . .

A . fi ding their holdings abroad m order to compete m

mencan rms expan . .

the growing battle for international trade face a tough, twm-slde? p~oble.~. Th bl . . . b th ends At home overseas expanSIOn IS crrn-

e pro em IS sensitrve on 0 ., . .

cized for contributing to the adverse gold flow and for the loss of Jobs 111 .a

. . . I d kers Abroad the host country IS

nation with millions of unemp oye wor '. '. .

apt to take the position that its resources are bemg expl~Ited by fore~gners

. 1 Li destiny ThIS problem WIll re-

and the country is losmg contro 0 Its own .

quire mature public relations counseling for years to come.

INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS

As the world shrinks in size, communications-wise, and its commerce expa~ds, an increasing number of business firms are expanding their programs to mclude relationships around the globe. International PR, a relative newcomer, is getting increased emphasis. As Arthur Reef points out, "there will soon be no place on earth which is not reached by modern transport and no people on earth who are not reached by some form of modern communications media." Corporations operating abroad have the obligation to further ~ot only their own interests but also those of the United States and its aspiranons for a ~ree, peaceful world. To serve in this field, practitioners must broaden their backgrounds and their horizons. The fundamental that each prog.ram ~ust be tailored to its specific public applies with special force in ?ealmg with peoples in other lands. Every country is different. Each one has ItS own customs, taboos, pride, prejudices, and unique way of doing things.

Fo~ exa~ple, a ground-breaking for a new American plant in Turkey goes like this: The Moslem religious leader cradles a sheep in his left arm. He chants a prayer. The crowd draws closer. Then he slaughters the animal an.d lets the blood run down into the excavation. Finally, he tosses in a gold com. The ground-breaking ceremonies are over, Now the American firm can proceed with its construction.

A~ericans .have long been blessed with plenty of land, and some may tend to fall to realize the scarcity of land in crowded Western Europe or Japan, for example. Here's one firm that did not. "A well-known office-machine company planned to create a new plant in the Netherlands. The firm needed

and Customers in Foreign Lands," Printer's Ink, Vol. 274, June 3, 20 "Making Friends

1960.

21 Ibid. ., PR's New Golden Age," PR, Vol. 2, October, 22 David L. Lewis, "Intemauonal Networks. . Companies Abroad," ibid., Vol. 5, .1957. Also, Arthur Reef, "International PR for Amencan

January, 1960.

~9. F~~ a contrary view, see Michael D. Reagan, "The Seven Fallacies of Business in Politics, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 38, March-April 1960.


Additional Reading

Stephen Baker, "The Art of Building a Corporate Identity," Public Relations Journal, Vol. 18, 1962.

John Brooks, "Annals of Business: The Edsel," The New Yorker, Vol. 36, issues of November 26 and December 3, 1960.

Allen H. Center, Public Relations Ideas In Action. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1957. (Case Studies.)

Walter J. DeLong, "Weyerhaeuser: A Nine-Year Record of Corporate Advertising That Pays Off," Public Relations Journal, Vol. 18, May, 1962.

Theodore V. Houser, Big Business and Human Values. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1958.

Theodore Levitt, "The Dangers of Social Responsibility," Harvard Business Review, Vol. 36, September-October, 1958.

Tom Mahoney and Rita Hession, Public Relations for Retailers. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1949.

Bernard D. Nossiter, The Mythmakers: An Essay on Power and Wealth. Boston:

Houghton Mifflin Co., 1964.

Chapter Twenty

UTILITIES,

CARRIERS,

BANKS

CASE PROBLEM

You are director of public relations for a publicly owned company of 1,000 employees, headquartered in a small town of 15,000 people, manufacturing a variety of speci~lty lighting devices ranging from street stop lights to airport beacons and simp~e flashlIghts. The total sales volume is $25,000,000 annually. The budget for public relations is $50,000, exclusive of $50,000 which the company allocates among various health, welfare, and educational organizations, and the minor expenses of the house publication.

Your company is the dominant industrial factor in this community. No other firm employs more than 300 people. Your company is among the top three in your field of products. Outline a comprehensive year's program for the gross $100,000 which will provide favorable exposure of your management among employees, community, and industry; which will favorably identify your company with nonprofit causes, demonstrate industrial statesmanship broadly, and aid in the promotion of your products.

A clue-keep in mind that your products all contribute to safety.

Planned public relations is usually a stepchild of conflict. Nine chances out of ten somebody on the other side is working at the problem as hard, if not harder, than we are.-Kinsey M.

Robinson.

Rlblic relations problems of business enterprises that sell sen-ires should be viewed separately. These enterprises include utilities which provide light, heat, water, power, and telephone sen-ice, public transportation, and banking servi~es. These privately owned firms provide vital public services and thus are invested with great public responsibilities.

Utilities enjoy freedom from competition in their assigned areas of service. This protection, in turn, necessitates governmental regulation of rates and sen-ices. Because of their public nature, such businesses are constantly confronted with the threat of govel:nment ownership. Electric companies, particularly, face competition by goycrnment-operated and cooperatively owned utilities which get governmental support.

Federal, state, and local governments have been in the power business for decades. Municipally owned water and transportation systems are common. There is constant pressure for expansion of government operation of public utilities, particularly when these involve natural resources. The public power issue has long been one of the explosive issues in American politics. This battle is being fought again as America puts the atom to work.

'-Vithin this combination of circumstances, the approach to good public relationships ~iffers so~e"':hat from the approach III orgarnzations in which competition, first and last, tends to determine rates or prices, territorial boundaries, and earnings. Somewhat apart from public utilities are transportation and banking. The nature and extent of governmental

335

372 . Welfare Agencies, Hospitals, and Churches

teer publicity chairmen in each of the 26 agencies. Because last year's fund appeal felI slightly short of the announced quota, fund officers have done considerable probing to determine the possible reasons. Among other things, they found a lack of public understanding of the needs of the individual agencies and of the relationship of the United Fund to such institutions as the local Y.M.C.A. The new chairman appointed a year-roun.] public relations committee.

The purpose of the committee is "to evaluate public opinion and develop a program of activities which wiII create better understanding, goodwiII, and accept. ance by both the general public and special pUblics-agency boards, agency sta~s, clergy, clients, givers, governmental leaders, labor leaders, business leaders, media personnel, etc." You have been called in as the public relations consultant to this committee of laymen. After the necessary fact.finding, including a study of the Com. munity Chest, draft a year-round public relations program for the fund and its constituent agencies which wiII utilize available manpower and be most economical. The fund employs one woman to handle its publicity at present.

374 . Governments and Citizens

Governments and Citizens . 375

be more a private fight between the real estate interests and the low-income groups than a significant public issue. Citizen apathy, well termed the "loss of citizenship," is sharply etched in each election by the millions of Americans who do not vote. There are other evidences of a default in citizenship, and other reasons for it.!

The maze of government needs to be explained, interpreted) and clarified.

Each person has only a small amount of time and attention to give .to his government. Today's citizen needs a system of communications that will give him the same voice and understanding that his forefathers acquired in the town meeting. By the same token, today's administrator needs the face-toface relationships that his predecessor of years ago had. He dare not lose the common touch. The bureaucrat must guard himself against isolation and insulation from the people of Punxsutawney and Prairie du Sac whose lives he so profoundly affects. This is an age-old problem, but one greatly magnified by the accelerating changes of today's Space Age. In the view of a political scientist: "As governmental functions increase in number and complexity, the need for sympathetic interpretation of government action becomes more and more pressing ... government now needs the cooperation of the interests affected to accomplish its purposes, and the general public needs to know what the government is trying to do." ~ This obligation of government is being recognized-by administrative action and by legislation.

Effective administration must grow out of the lives and problems of the people rather than be imposed from above. Skilled, conscientious practitioners can contribute much to solving these urgent problems. Zechariah Chafee, Jr. said: "Government information can playa vital part in the cause of good administration by exploring the impact of new social forces, discovering strains and tensions before they become acute, and encouraging a positive sense of unity and national direction." 3

Reasonable people, in government and out, agree that there is real need and ample justification for a more effective transmission belt. In the words of one practitioner: "Democracy will live where there is free communication of dependable information." This problem raises anew a question posed by Aristotle centuries ago: "The environment is complex and man's political capacity is simple. Can a bridge be built between them?"

This is an old question but one possessing a new urgency today. In a real sense, as one observer points out, "while we Americans are many times as numerous as we once were and necessarily confront vastly more complex problems, our source of information and means for popular participation in

the democratic dialogue are being ever more limited." This writer. John Cogley, of the Center for Study of Democratic Institutions. goes .on to ask:

"Do our growing bureaucracies, our galloping technology. our bigness. and the headlong advance of science make government of the people. by the

people, and for the people irrelevant?" ..

The answer must be a resounding No. Much of the meaningful dialogue required to make democracy work today is shaped .and phr,~sed by the public relations practitioner. This imposes ~ civic obligation on h1l11 as. he b~romes, increasingly, the intermediary between the candidate or the l~ublIc official and the citizens. As political campaign costs mount and the s~I.Ils of per~uaslH' communication become more specialized, we find the praClltiOner plaYIIl.g. an ever more important role in our campaigns and in our government. Political publicity is one of the oldest phases of the practic:, bl.1t it never h:ld th~: S(()pc: shape, and reach that it has today. The public dialogue begins \\ ith the political campaign. Kelley observes: 4

P I·· I . the principal institution in which this interaction he· o mea campaigns are. . . . f I' I Ii .

tween politician and electorate occurs. and the ~Iost str.lklllg role 0 . t ]( . pu ). It

I ti . that of a rampaig ner The particular kind of (.llllp.llgn ,I( tl\ It\

re a Ions ma n IS "'".

with which he is most often concerned has. in terms of the theory . : . of dClll(!-

. . tan e all its own For the public relations man IS

cratrc government, an Impor c ..... I I' 'J'

occupied with directing the course of public dISCUSSIon as It ,~e a~es to tnc sc (~:

. f ffi . I nd the settlement of controversial Issues of public

tron 0 government 0 CIa s a

policy.

PR'S ROLE IN GOVERNMENT

. f dati t nes of Aristotle's bridge must be informative,

Certainly the oun ation so,

.: '" t and more accessible channels to

candid, continuous reportmg b) gO\ernmen . "." Th _., f tile serv-

. . iusr f.l se With an 111 e lIse a '

government for all citizens. not Just 10 ' . 'h !

. I" Some of these were sketc ec

ice state has had many profound Imp IcatlOns.

in Chapter 4. Two are of special concern here. . .

I dily ebbed from the commumtv to the

First governmental power las stea I . . ki h'· like

, I ortant deCISIOn rna 1I1g as I e-

statehouse to the federal government. mp. . I .. xessibl

'. Ie islative bodies to ess au essi e

wise shifted from the more responsl\e g. ,_ , .

.' . The result IS to make go\el nment m-

regulatory and administrauve agenCIes.. . ieee of information.

. f h voter's reach. Trying to get a pi

creasmgly remote rom ted k the frustrated ci tizen

I 1 r to make a nee nown,

to have a problem so vee, 0 . "red t e." Or else he turns

. . . H f I 'nates agamst re ap,

often gives up m despair. e u 011 . I' or a political fixer.

bvi I' lator pubhc re auons man,

to a lawyer, lob YISt, egIs.' Thi . d monstrated by widespread

This new relationship is not satisfactory. kiS IS be ucrats (the word itself t attac s on urea .

suspicion and distrust of governmen ,

1 ~or so~~ of the reasons, see Morris Rosenberg, "Some Determinants of Political Apathy," Public O'pinion Quarterly, Vol. 18, Winter, 1954-55.

2 J. A. Corry, Elements of Democratic Government (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958), pp. 291-93.

3 In Government and Mass Communications, Vol. II (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947), p. 736. These two volumes, by-products of the Commission on Freedom of the Press, provide helpful background reading.

I ti and Political Power (Baltimore, 'Id.:

4 Stanley Kelley, Jr., Professiollal Public Re a ~e';; reading

The John Hopkins Press, 1956), P: 3. Recommen '

376 . Governments and Citizens

Governments and Citizens . 377

THE OBJECTIVES

3. To keep the crnzen informed of the services and the functions provided so that he may participate and gain full benefit from them.

4. To give the citizen usable devices for relaying his views and opinions to the administrator without employing intermediaries.

5. To interpret public opinion to the law enforcement agencies in order that regulations will be realistic and acceptable.

6. To crystallize public sentiment and pave the way for noncocrr ivc compliance.

This requires convincing the citizen of the need for the adm inistr.uivc rules and assisting him in understanding them.

7. To build a reservoir of support for an agency which it mav tap when the going gets rough; to have friends in time of need when a conflict develops with other agencies, with the legislature, or with the public.

The most fully developed aspect is that of government information or "propaganda," as it is called by its opponents . .James L. :\fcCamy has classified government publicity according to the following objectives."

l. To distribute publicity among or fa)' clients of the ogene». The need of the Veterans Administration. for example, to reach all the holders of "G.I." insurance policies; or the need of state department of a.i4ricu~turc to inform all seed growers of a change in seed testing standards: or of a citv garbage d(,part·

ment to explain a change in collection procedures. ,_ ' .

2. To catch and hold the attention of the large publie, I he need of a public welfare department, for example. to explain and justify to. the publicT at large a drastic revision in its mental health program, or the necessrtv of ~he L ,S. !kPdrtment of Agriculture to explain to the public the reasons behind a soil hank

program or to try to win a wheat referendum. .

3. To influence legislation. This is the most suspect and ,controv:rslal use to which government publicity can be put. In a sense, as ~rc(:alllv pOllltS out. all government information has an indirect influence on legisla tion ', T.here are OCG~sions when direct influence on legislation is the aim, whet~ler It IS a state urnversity campaigning for its budget or a technical agency urgll1g a law to conform

with newly discovered scientific facts. ., "

4. To reply to attacks lIPOIl all agenry of govemme~t: ThIS usc IS f~aught ,~Jth the danger that the reply will only propel the publICIty. of the attack. It. IS a use whi~h should be employed sparingly. Yet there are times when there IS no

alternative. . .

5. To avoid publicit», This takes the course of either passive.ly keeping qUIet

O d Iib I . ! I I I'· ews Instances of ]Jroper use of this purpose could

r ueu era te y wit 1 10 C mg n . . . ", I'

b - . I' I FBI . I a <>O\'ernment board med iat ing a labor ( Ispute.

e envrsioncr 111 t Ie . . ., or]] ,., . , .

S D f lation of a delicate diplomatic bargain WIth other

or a tate epartment orrnur: '.. .

countries. There is great danger of abuse III this, .

6. To report without a p~rticular objective, the 1'01It1l1: news of govemmen:,

Thi . h '! II hicl -ers a conscientious reportmg of the news as It

IS IS t e caten-a Wllel cO\ .'. '. .

develops within a department without any. planned or p~econ:elvcd pu~p()')e. In mind. The bulk of governmental information work falls III this category, \\ hich COvers changes in department personnel. procedures, etc.

Th bi - . I debatable practices when viewed within the

ese 0 jectrves 1I1VO ve ."

fr k f t f checks and balances. McCamy pOInts out:

amewor 0 a governmen 0 .

"Administrative publicity in the past and now has been useful 111 the process

. '. U' ity of Chicago Press, 1939). Although out

5 In Government Publicitv (ChIcago. rnversuy « ful w k

f d ' f ori t this remams a use u wor .

o ate as to specific data and out 0 prm,

has become an epithet), protests against the ever-mounting tax bill, and finally default of citizenship by millions. It also breeds, inevitably, influence peddlers who gnaw at the vitals of government.

Second, the mass media are grappling with the task of reporting under the heavy hand of news values fashioned in frontier days and with too few reporters. In days gone by, news of government was a relatively simple matter of personalities, oratorical political campaigns, trust-busting, and the like. It was an entirely different problem from that of reporting world affairs, atomic energy, mental health, space travel, controversies over matters affecting physical health, conservation, and other complex subject matter. Interpreting the complexities of government requires trained specialists and takes more time than deadlines often permit. Much progress has been made by the media in government reporting over the past decade.

But there is still need for government to strengthen and supplement today's reporting by the press. Time has observed: "The shortcomings in coverage (of Washington) are not always the fault of the reporters; they are due to the size of the job. In three decades the Federal Government has swollen like an explosion. And there just aren't enough reporters around to do a thorough job." Many editors dispute this. An editor of the Milwaukee Journal once naively asserted: "If reporters had free run of departments in Washington and could keep in contact with the fountainheads of information, a much better job of covering 'big government' could be done with perhaps even fewer men than are now there."

Governmental activities embraced by the term "public relations" have developed naturally. They are part of the administrative system evolving in an effort to bridge the gap between popular and bureaucratic government. The objectives are active cooperation in action programs (for example, soil conservation); compliance in regulatory programs (for example, public health laws); and voter support for the incumbent administration's policies (for example, foreign aid). The justification for government public relations rests on two premises: (I) A democratic government is obliged to report to its citizens; (2) Effective administration requires citizen participation and voter support.

These .are the generally agreed upon objectives for a planned, continuing program III government.

1. To win c~nsent for new laws and new reforms dictated by the needs of ~n ~verchanglllg, technological society. This involves a deep, fundamental shift III our theory of government and has dangerous implications. f

2. To overcome apathy and bewilderment toward new and complex functions 0 government; also, to provide reliable information for the voter seeking to make an intelligent decision at the polls.

Cutlip, Effective Public Relations

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