789

At a lower altitude, the shuttle will slow down due to friction with
earth's atmosphere and it will return to earth. Thus, the spacecraft
be in stable if its orbit period is more than 89 min 30 sec.

Example 3. In the above question, estimate the linear velocity of the

le along its orbit.
Solved Problems Solution: The circumference of the orbit is
--.......
2na = 2 n x 6628.14 = 41,645.83 km.
Therefore, the velocity of the shuttle in orbit will be
2na 41,645.83 .
Vs = T = 5370.3 km/sec = 7.755 km/sec.

j?'xample 1 : Calculate the di Example 4.A satellite is rotating in an elliptical orbit with a perigee
ra lusofa~ t .
. Solution: The orbit eriod eos atLOnarysatellite. int where satellite is closest to earth) of 1000 km and an apogee (point
g'lVenby p of a geostationary satell't . re satellite is farthest from earth) of 4000 km. Calculate its orbital
I e m second is
iod. Take mean earth radius = 6378.14 km.
T2 _ 4n2 a3
--,:z- or a3=T2~
Solution: The major axis of the elliptical orbit is a straight line
een the apogee and perigee, as seen in Fig. 29.1. Hence, for earth
where ~ -- K ep 1er 's constant _ '. 4n2 dius RE, perigee height hp, and apogee height b«, the major axis will
earth (ME) = 3.986 x 105 kIn3/~e~aVltabonal constant (G) x Mass of given by
2a = 2R + hp + h«
Now the time . d
hours 56' perio of earth rotations is . = 2 x 6378.14 + 1000 + 4000 = 17,756.28 km
nun 4.09 sec. or T = 86,164.09 sec. once per sIdereal dayof23
Hence a3 - (86 2
a = 8878.14 km.
- ,164.1) x 3.986 x 105 (4n2)
= 7.496 x 1013 kIn3 Orbit
Satellite
or a - 42,164 km.
~mple 2 : The space sh t I

1.-------------------2a--------------------~1
Fig. 29.1
The orbit period of a geostationary satellite in seconds is given by
2 3
'f2 = 4n a = 4n2 x (8878.07)3/3.986 x 105sec3
1.1.

= 6.93 x 107 sec2

790 SATELLITE COMMUN
1CAll
or T = 8325.1864 sec = 2 hours 18 min 45 . 19 see Q~ Example 8. In the above problem, calculate the component of
ity towards an observer at an earth station as the satellite appears
Example 5. A satellite is in . 1 . r the horizon, for an observer who is in the plane of the satellite orbit.
g~osynchronous.altitude. If the sa~l~;~cu;::; equatorial orbit;;;;;;:--
ave Solution: The component of velocity an observer in the plane of
sidereal day
. one solar day ' calculate theera d £us
~ northh a period of 0n.e
0 t e orbit.
the
orbit as the satellite appears over the horizon as will be
So Iution s Here ,or
24 hours the bit I . .
1 a penod IS one solar day that'
. ' ISexactly VTR =vs eos9
ere 9 is the angle between the satellite velocity vector and the
Therefore, T = 24 hours = 86 ,400 sec.
tion of the observer at the satellite.
r- = 41t
2 3
a
The angle 9 will be
~
s, 6378
a3 = r-~= (86,400)2 x 3.986 x 1005 cos 9 = Re + h = 7378= 0.8645
41t 41t2 Hence the component of satellite velocity toward the observer is
= 7.537 x 1013 km3 hence a 42 , 241 k m. 7.350 x 6378
VTR = Vs cos9 = 7378
Example 6. In the above q ti .
the elJ.uatorof the sub_satelliteue~:~;,. estimate the rate of drift around = 6.354 km/sec.
satellite moving towards the tP m degree per (solar) day. Is the
eas or toward the west 'l
Example 9. In the same problem, the satellite carries aKa-band
Solution: The orbit period f h . . nsmitter at 20.0 GHz. Find the Doppler shift of the received signal at
longer than a sidereal day by 3 0 .t ~~atelhte is one solar day which is
earth station. The earth radius is 6378 km. Discuss the impact of this
will lead to the drift of the sub- atelli .9 s.ecor 235.9 sec. Clearly, this
sa e ite point at a rate of ·ft on signal bandwidth.
. Draft rate = 360° x 235.9/86400 per day = 0.983° per da Solution: The Doppler shift of the received signal is given by
Since the earth moves to d y.
satellite, the drift ofthe satell7t: frs the east 8:t a faster rate than the A~- VTR
1..>1 - A.
on the earth to be towards the w tom earth WIllappear to an observer
es.
here VTR =
component of the transmitter velocity towards the
Example 7. A low-earth orb' t lli . .
4
receiver.
withanaltitudeofl000km At £. s~ e ite zs m a circular polar orbit
A. = wavelength of the transmitted frequency.
of 2. 65 GHz. Calculate the' v (a~m£rtter on the satellite has a frequency
radius = 6378 km. e ocz y 0 the satellite in orbit. Take earth For Ka-band transmitter with frequency 20.0 GHz, A. == 0.015 III
Solution : Here hei ht f h . Therefore, the Doppler shift at the receiver will be
a = s; + h. The period oft~e saOtetlliet
~ate~hte from centre of the earth
e ISgiven by 6(= Vrf).. = 635410.015 = 423.60 kHz
= --41t a = 41t2 x (63 78 + 1000)3 Doppler shift at Ka band with a LEO satellite can be very large~
,.,.t), 2 3
1- 5
~ 3.986 x 10 sec requires a fast frequency tracking receiver. Ka-band LEO satellites all
better suited to wideband signals than narrowband voice communica-
= 3.978 x 107sec2
tions.
or T = 6306.9 sec
Example 10. The continental Asia subtends an angle of ap,
The circumference of the orbit will be.2M = 46,357.3 km. proximately 6° x 2° when viewed from geostationary orbit. Calculatet~
dimension of a reflector antenna so as to cover half this area with '
Therefore, the velocity of the satellite in orbit will be
circular beam 3° in diameter at 11 GHz.
vs = Orbit c~rcumference _ 2M 46357.3 . Solution: We know that the bandwidth of an aperture antenna1ie
Orbital period - T = 63'06.94
given as
= 7.350 kmlsec.
 792
SATELLITE COMMUN
IC~lJa.. 793
75}"
93dB =D degrees 'l'he received power at earth station will be
where, }..= wav~length PR = PT + GT + GR - BTo - All losses
and D = dimension of the antenna in metres. = 18 + 80 + 59.2 - 1 - 195 - 2 - 0.2 - 0.4
Here 93dB = 6° - 2° = 4° and }..= 0.0272 m
= -96.4dBW.

Therefore, D = 75}" = 7.5 x 0.0272 _ Example 13. In the aboue problem, find downlink noise power
93dB 4 - 0.51 metres. et in clear air if the noise bandwidth is 27 MHz.

Example 1l.A satellite located at 40,000 km from earth ~

Solution. Here, K = Boltzmann's constant =- 228.6 dBWlK/Hz
a frequency of 11 GHz and has EIRP of21 dBW Ifth . . operates at T« = System noise temperature = 75 K = 10 log 75 = 18.8 dBK
has a gain of 50.5 dB, find the receiued power. . e receWLng antenna
BN = Noise bandwidth, 27 MHz = 10 log 27 x 106 = 74.8 dBHz
Solution.
The receiver noise power will be
PR = EIRP + GR - path loss NR = kBNTs = (K + BN + Ts) dBW
Here EIRP = 21.0 dBW
= - 228.6 + 18.8 + 74.3 = - 185.5 dBW.
GR = 50.5 dB and h = 40,000 km
The path loss is given by Example 14. In the aboue problem, find C/ N ratio in receiuer in
arair.
Path loss = (41th/A)2= 20 log (4n x 4 x 107) dB-
10 (2.727 x 10- 2) - - 205.8 dB CIN ratio = ~~ = (PR - NR) dBW
Therefore, by substituting = - 96.4 - ( - 135.5) = 39.1 dBW
PR = 21.0 + 50.5 - 205.8 = 10 Antilog 89.1 W = 12.6 W.
=- 188.8 dBW.
Example 15.In a satellite link, the antenna of the earth station used
Example 12. In a C-band GEO t lli . to receive a signal at 4150 MHz, has diameter of 30 m and an ouerall
output power is 20W t nde sa e ite, satellite transponder
r/ficiency of 68%. The system noise temperature is 79 K when the antenna
antenna gain on axis'is ';::t~B ;,;utput bac'!off is -1.0 dB, satellite
POints at the satellite at an eleuation angle of 28°. Find the earth station
dB. If free space path loss 'at 4 a ~arth station. antenna gain is 59.2
G~Tratio.
satellite antenna is 20 dB 1 Gl!z lS 195.0 dB, edge of beam loss for
losses are 0.4 dB caicul
. ' ae
i
~;::r alr.atmospheric loss is 0.2 dB and other
receiued power at earth station.
Solution. For an antenna with circular aperture, the gain is given

SolutIOn. The satellite transponder output power is n D)2

PT = 20W = 10 log 20 dBW = 18.0 dBW
Ga=l1a (T
2n
BTo = Transponder output·backoff = 1.0 dB Here, l1a = 0.68, D = 30 m and)" = 6 = 0.072 m
4150 x 10
GT = Satellite antenna gain, on axis = 80 dB
GR = Earth station antenna gain = 59.2 dB Th ere fiore, G -- 0.68 X (n x 280)2 -.
- 1 16 x 106 -- 60 .6 dB
(0.072)
Lfs = Free space path loss at 4 GHz = 195.0 dB
Ts = 79 K in dB will be
La = Edge of beam loss for satellite antenna = _ 2.0 dB
Lair = Clear air atmospheric loss = 0.2 dB
Ts = 10 log 79 = 19 dBik
Therefore, G/T ratio
Lo = Other losses = 0.4 dB
= (Ga - Ts) dB/k = 60.6 - 19 = 41.6 dBIk
 795

794 SATELLITE CO
xample 16 1 MMUNICA
Tilt path loss is 207 dB.
E
temperature to i . n the above problem "f ' 1'" earth station is located on the - 2 dB contour of the satellite'S
88 K, calculate
. tn;:~~S;'~~sTultingthe
value. syste:n ':ofs;t emperature
rain cause~t . sky
o ution : 0 rzse to
. jng antenna.
S I solution: Here, output of the transponder is
Pe= 1 W:::; 10 log 1 :: 0 dBW
Here , Ts = 10 log 88 dBK = 19.4 dBK
'lberefore, the received power will be
Therefore , G
T ratio. = 60.6 - 19 .4 dB K 41.2 dBK PR :: 0 - 127 dBW:: - 127 dBW

Example 17. In NoWuplink power budget is written as

t:.,,:pomkr is 36 MHz. ;f:::::~ite link, the bandwidth - PR :: PT + Gr + Gt - Losses dBW
~~. r of 0.4, Calculate the rth. stations use RRC filt of satellit.
zs transponder with BPs;Faxzmum bit rate that ca ;rs uiith. roll'off PT :::;PR - Gr - Gt + Losses
Solution : The . . n e sentthrough :: _ 127 _ 50 _ 26 + 207 + 1.5 + 0.5 + 2.0 dBW
maximum symbol rate for an RF li k i
rSYM =~ _ 36m 10 IS given by :: 7.2 dBIW:: 5.2 W.
1 + a - 1.4 = 25.7m Mbits/sec _pIe 21. In the above qu.stion, if the rain attenuation is 7 dB
For BPSK , m = 1. Therefi ore, the bit rates will b ~Ol% of the year, find output power rating required for the transmit·
to ,nsu t/wt a lW output can be obtained from the sarellite
rSYM - 25.7 M bits/sec. e refor 99.99% of the year if uplink power control.
ponder
that Example In the above
can be sent18.through thi pro blem, calculate the' .
Solutio . F zstransponder with QPSKmaxzmum bit rate Solution.
With rain attenuation of 7dB, the transmitted power will be
n. or QPSK, m -- 2 . Therefore th bi .
rSYM =2x rSYM 514 .' e It rates will be PT (rain) :: 7.2 + 7 :: 14.2 dBW.
. Mbits/sec
_pIe 22.A sateUire TV distribution system employs a Ku·band
Example 19 In a satelli
results in a ratio ~f n a satellite link, thermal
:
. .
-"<,,"nary satellite with bent pipe transponders for distribution of
a carrier-to-nois 2~.0 dB. A signal is receiu nolse m an earth station figital TV signals from an earth station to many receiving stations. The
earth station . e rat", of20.0 dB. Find the vae1uefrom a transponder
of overall (C/N)o atwith
tM o/aign requires t/wt an overall CIN ratio 0(9.5 dB be available in the
7V receiver to ensure that the video signal on the TV screen is held to an
_table leoel: The satellite is located at 73· W. The gain o( the uplink
The overall C-N ratio' .
IS given by aatenna is 56.2 dB. The required C IN in Ku·band transponder is 30dB,
(C/N)o = 1 the required overall C I N at earth station is 17 dB and satellite antenna
1 1
(C/N)up + (C/N)DN IUin is 25 dB.
Calculate the uplink transmitter power required to achieve
= 1125 +1 1120 = 45 = 10 log 45 14.5
1 (C/N)up:: 30 dB in clear air aiinospheric conditions. Assume free space
~. = 207 dB and other losses = 3 dB. The signOl bandwidth is 43.2
gain Example
gainofofl27
h dB and
20• In a Ku-band satellit
a nominal out
I a lin'"'
,e, t he transponder has ---
ut 5 • Hz.Solution, We first estimate the noise power in the transponder for
v!' ro:
the o~e' satellite's 14.GHz reeei.ft pouier at saturation of W. IfUlt'"
1 t",;.tput yf an uplink trans"!.~;::;;;'"' 26 dB on axis, calcu " .•3.2 MHz bandwidth, Here, z
sate lite transponder at Ii at guies an output power of k:: Boltzmann's constant:: _228.6 dBW/KIH
,!he earth station ant ha a requency of 14.45 GHz. Given:
ass m the waveguide run enna the ~ln 0f 5~ dB and there is a l.5·diJ
betweensag' Ts = 500 K = 10 log 500:: 27 dB
l B = 43.2 MHz = 10 log 43.2 x 10
6
:: 76.4 dBHz
The atmosphere loss is 0.5 dB u ransmitter and antenna.
nder clear sky conditions.
 797
796 SATELLITE COMMUNICA
110••
The transponder noise power is given by (14.125 - 0.01) to (14.125 + 0.01)
NTR = kTs B = k + Ts + B dBW 14.115 MHz to 14.135 GHz.
= - 228.6 + 27 + 76.4 = - 125.2 dBW
The received power level at the transponder input must be 30 dB
greater than the noise power. Therefore,
::/::::itIe 25 In a satellite system, the downlink transmissw.n r~te
sec. if the required 7nergy p~r bit t? noise power density zs 8
Calculate the required carrter-to-notse ratio.
PR = NTR + 30 dBW = - 95.2 dBW Solution: Here, rb = 60 Mbits/see
Therefore, the required transmitted power for the transponder is = 10 log 60 X 106 dB bits/see
PT = PR + GSt + GESt - Losses = 77.8 dB Hz
where GSt = Satellite antenna gain EblNo=8dB
GESt = Earth station antenna gain The C/N ratio is given by
Substituting, the values
PT = 95.2 + 56.2 + 25 - 207 - 3
(~o) = (!) + rb = (8 + 77.8) = 85.8.
=-73.6dBW.
I 26 A 14-GHz uplink operates with transmission lo~seds
Example 23. The bandwidth of an RF channel in a satellite link is Examp e.. .d telliteG/T=8dB/K. The require
1.0 MHz. The transmitter and receiver have RRC filter with roll-off of margins totaling 2As10 dB ~n Fa~~A operation and an earth station
0.5. Calculate symbol rate for this link. . k Eb/NO is 9 dB suming itt
&n . . f 42 dB calculate the earth station transmi er
link antenna gaui 0 . . 'f baseband signal which has bit rate
Solution: The signal bandwidth expressed in terms of symbol rate wer needed for transmtsswn 0 a
is given by 1.544 Mbits / sec.
B, = rSYM(1+ a) Hz Solution: Here the bit rate is rb = 1.544 Mbitslsec
s, 106 = 10 log 1.544 x 106 dB bits/see
or rSYM= 1+ a = 1+ 0.5
= 666.7 Kbits/see.
= 62 dBbits/sec.
Example 24. In a Ku-band satellite uplink, the carrier frequency is Eb Energy per bit = 9 dB
14.125 MHz and carries a symbol stream at rate of 16 Msps. If the No = noise power density
transmitter and receiver have RRC filter with roll-off of 0.25. Estimate
the bandwidth occupied by the RF signal and the frequency range of
transmitted signal. Now (~o)=(:)+rb
Solution: Here the signal bandwidth is Substituting above values
B. = rSYM(1 + a) Hz C = 9 + 62 = 671 dB
6 N
= 16 X 10 (1 + 0.25) = 20 MHz
Now EIRP is given by
The frequency range occupied by the RF signal is given by

~ - rS;M (1 + a)] to [fc + rs~ (1 + a)] EIRP = (~o) + (~) + Losses - k

= 71 - 8 + 210 - 228.6 = 44.4 dBW
Here, fc = 14.125 MHz. Therefore, the required power of the transmitter will be
Pi = EIRp·- GUPa = 44.4 - 42 = 2.4 dBW
.. [ 14.125 - ;6 (1 + 0.25)] to [ 14.125 + ;6 (1 + 0.25)]
= AntiloglO 2.4 = 251.2 dW.
798 SATELLITE COMMUNICA 799
~lION

Example 27. In the above problem, if the downlink tra;;;;;;--:--

rate is rued at 71 dBbits I see, calculate the uplink power i~88l01l
required for TDMA operation. reQse

Solution: Here, bit rate == 62 dBbits/sec. When TDMA is empl

the uplink bit rate increase will be oYed,
llrbUP = 71 - 62 = 9 dB
The EIRP must be increased by 9 dB. Therefore, the earth stat" Cable (Lc) Receiver
transmitted power will be IOn F
PUP = (2.4 + 9) dBW = 11.4 dBW.
Fig. 29.2
Example 28. Calculate the EIRP of a satellite downlink whic~
Now, the overall noise temperature of this system is given by
12 GHz operates with a transmit power of 6 Wand an antenna gain of
50.2 dB. (Lc-1)xTo Lc(F-1)To
T 8 = Toa + T LNA + G + G
Solution: The EIRP is given by LNA LNA

EIRP'= log Ps + Ga dBW = log 6 + 50.2 = 35 + 150 + (3.16 - 1) x 290

. 105
= 7.8 + 50.2 = 58.0 dBW.
+ 3.16 (15.85 -1)'x'290 185 K
Example 29. Calculate the gain of a 3-m paraboloidal antenna with
105
an aperture efficiency of 0.55 operating at a frequency of 12 GHz.
Solution: For a paraboloidal antenna, the isotropic gain is given Example 31. In the link budget of a satellite, the free-space loss at
by GHz is 210 dB, the antenna pointing loss is 2 dB, and the atmospheric
rption is 2 dB. If the receiver G I T ratio is 19 dB IK, receiver feeder
Gi = T](10.472 f D)
BeS are 1 dB and the EIRP is 50 dBW, calculate the carrier-to-noise
where, = aperture efficiency
T] ctral density ratio.
f = frequency Solution:
D = diameter of the antenna in metres.
Here k = - 228.6 dB
Therefore, G; = 0.55 x (10.472 x 12 x 3)2 = 78,168
EIRP= 50 dBW
Hence G; = 10 log 78,168 = 48.9 dB. GIT = 19.5 dBlK
------------------------------------------------------
Example 30. For the system shown in Fig. 29.2. below, if the receiv.r Losses = Free-space
less + atmospheric absorption loss + antenna
no~sefigure is 12 dB, the cable loss is 5 dB, the LNA gain is 5~ dB,
nozse temperature 150 K and the antenna noise temperature ts 35 .
i. pointing loss + receiver feedback losses
= 210 + 2 + 2 + 1 = 215 dB
Calculate the overall noise temperature of the system. Now the elN spectral density ratio is given by
Solution: Here, the antenna noise temperature (Ta) = 35 K. The G
receiver noise figure is (CINo) = EIRP + T - Losses - k
F= 12 dB = 50 + 19 - 215 - ( - 286) = 140 dBW.
or 10 10glO F = 12
10glO F = 1.2 dB Example 32. An uplink of a satellite system operates at 14 GHz, and
or , F = 101.2= 15.85. nux density required to saturate the transponder is - 100 dB Wlm2.
gaill free-space loss is 200 dB, and the other propagation losses amount
Similarly. the cable loss (Lc) = 10°·5 = 3.16 and LNA
5
(GLNA) = 10
800 SATELLITE COMMUNICATIOIi 801

to 3dB. Calculate the earth-station EIRP required for saturation, assu Example 36. Determine the clear-sky carrier-to-noise ratio for a
ing clear-s ky co nditi
itions. nt. ellite TV system having worst case EIRP of 51 dBWat the receiver
Solution: The effective area of an isotropic antenna (Ao) is given . . The free space loss is 205.34 dB, the nominal usable figure of merit
by 13.12 dB, and the gaseous attenuation due to atmospheric absorption
0.17 dB. The highest video frequency is 5MHz and peak-to-peak video
Ao = - (21.45 + 20 log f) • nal frequency deviation is 16 MHz.
= - (21.45 + 20 log 14) Solution:
== -44.4 dB Here EIRP = 51 dBW, Lfs = 205.34 dB
The (EIRP)sat = '¥STR + Ao + Losses GIT=13.12dB, Latm=0.17dB
where '¥STR is the flux density required to saturate the transponder. B = 6f + 2 fv = 16 + 10 = 26 MHz
Therefore, (EIRP)sat = - 100 - 44.4 + 200 = 55.6 dBW. k = 1.38 x 10- 23

Example 33. The EIRP of the Astra 1A satellite is 52 dBW in the CIN = EIRP - Lfs + GIT - Latm - 10 log (kB)
main central service area, and that the transponder power is 45 W,
calculate the effective isotropic radiated power in watts as seen by the = 51- 205.34 + 13.12 - 10 log (1.38 x 10-23 x.26 x 106) - 0.17
antenna. = 51 - 205.34 + 13.12 - ( - 154.45) - 0.17 = 13.16.
EIRP = 10 log Ps
Example 37. A satellite link is carrying data at rates of24 Kbits Isee
or Ps = 1O(EffiP/10) = 10(52110) hen a block length of 127 bits is used and the one-way path delay is 240
c. A double error detecting code (127, 120) ARQ scheme is used. If 1
= 158.5 kW. every 79 received blocks has an error, calculate the transmission bit
Example 34. An antenna has a noise temperature of 40 K and is
for Stop and Wait system.
matched into a receiver which has a noise temperature of 100 K. Calculate Solution: The data rate is 24 Kbits/sec. Therefore, time taken for
the noise power for a bandwidth of 36 MHz. smitting one bit is tbit = 1 3 see = 0005 sec.
Solution: Here Ta = 40 K and TR = 100 K. 24x 10
Therefore, total noise of thus explain (antenna + receiver) In Stop-and- Wait method, we transmit the block of 127 bits and wait
acknowledgement. Since the one-way path delay is 240 msec or 0.240
= TN = 40 + 100 = 140 K • the two way path delay will be 2 x 0.240 = 0.480 sec.
Now the noise power for a bandwidth of BN is
Therefore, sending 127 bits and waiting for acknowledgement takes
PN=kTNBN .480 + 0.005) sec or 0.485 sec.
where k = 1.38 x 10- 23 J/K. "91I}~oW after 79 blocks one error is detected, that is, after
:::39.5 sec.
Therefore, for BN = 36 MHz
6 Therefore, bit transmission rate will be
PN = 1.38 x 10- 23 x140 x 36 x 10 = 0.069~
. . rfre~
Example 35.A satellite link operating at 14 GHz has r~cew~orptiOfl •.&. of blocks transmitted without error and ACK x No. of bits/b1ock
losses 'of2 dB and a free-space loss of202 dB. r,he atmospheric ab he tottP Time taken for transmission
loss is 0.5 dB, and the antenna pointing loss is 1dB. Calculate t
= 7939.5
x 127 biIt s/ see = 2 5 4 biIt s/ sec.
link 'loss. efot'
'Solution: The tota11ink loss is the sum of all the losses ..Tb:~c ,tr
Losses = (free-space loss + receiver feeder loss + atmospb !example 38. Repeat the above calculation for Go-back N ARQ
sorption loss + antenna pointing loss) . What should be the capacity of the transmit buffer?
= 202 + 2 + 0.5 + 1 dB = 205.5 dB.
 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
802 Calculate the noise power in tran . 803
Solution: The time required to transmit 79 blocks each of 127 bi FDMA channels. sponder-L or Lnthe inbound SCPC-
at 24 kbits/sec will be Its
Solution: The inbound VSAT l' k
1have a message data rate of64 ~~s/s that pass through transponder-
= 79 x 1273 = 0 .418 sec. erefore, with BPSK modulation (~ :~~ WIth halfra~e FEC. encoding.
24x 10 64 x 2 or 128 Khits/sec The . b ' t~e transmitted bit rate will
Now in Go-back-N method, when error is detected in the 79th block ut rate in BPSK is one bit noise andwidth will be 128 KHz ' simce
1 per symbol.
the NAK system is sent to request retransmission ofblock 79. Howev r'
sending of NAK and retransmission takes two-path delay time , 7 The noise power, N», is given by
2 x 24 msec or 0.48 sec. During this period, the number of blocks whi'~
N = kTsBN Watts
arrive at the receiver will be c
0.48 sec 0.48 Now k = - 228.6 dBWlKIHz ,
= Transmission time per block = 0.418/79 = 91.
BN = 10 log 128 x 106 dBHz
These 91 blocks are discarded when the retransmission of79 blocks = 51.1 dBHz
starts. The transmission time decreases by 0.48/0.898 = 0.54. Therefore
the bit rate falls by 54% of the original value of 24 Kbits/sec, that is: d Ts = 500 K = 10 log 500 dBK = 27 dBK.
11.2 Kbits/sec. NTRI =k + Ts +BN-- - 228 .6 + 27 + 51.1 = - 150.5 dBW.
The required capacity oftransmit buffer should be to hold 91 blocks
or 91 x 127 bits or 11,557 == 11,600 bits.
Exa~ple 41. In the above question I
Example 39. Repeat the same calculation for Selective Repeat ARQ station receiver or in inbound SCPC'ca culate the noise power in the
. -FDMACh I
The inbound VSAT si 1 anne.
system. an.smitted through t~~: reach the hub station after they are
Solution: In this system, time is lost only in the retransmission of
79 blocks which show an error. Clearly, 78 blocks are without error. dwidth again will be 128 kH p~nder by the satellite. The noise
Therefore, the rate efficiency of the system will be 78/79 = 0.987. As a el is received by a separatZe'IeFcause.at the hub station, each VSAT
receiver
result, the bit transmission rate will be Here, Ts = 150 K = 21 .8 dBl{, BN= 128 kHz .
rb = 24 x 0.987 Kbits/sec
= 23.70 Kbits/sec. NH = - 228.6 + 21.8 + 51.1 = - 155.7 dBW.
----------------------------------------~
Example 40. In a typical VSAT system, each VSAT station ~e~
and receives a 64-Kbits / sec data stream to and from the h~b. ~~g~ne Example 42. In the same question I
ponder-2 i.e. in outbound TDM ' ca culate the Noise Power in
data are sent to the hub from the VSATs by the inbound l.mk a v~ahast e bandwidth of 1MHz in the ;;~Tnnels,. assume a starting value
transponder at a message bit rate of 64 Kbits / see using bm 7J' Pd'T18 I . recewer.
L1

shift keying (BPSK) and half rate forward error correction (FEC) CO ~ ' utionpasses
: Thethrough
outboundtrans
TDM biIt streaI? from the hub station to
SATs
giving a transmitted bit rate of 128 Kbits / hr. I' 160 ~.z,
.,tJ transmitting and receivin po~de~-2. Since not all of the VSATs
ne
The occupied RF bandwidth of each VSAT chan rsce (i r tilt stream on an average has st!r~~~U t~neou~lY, we assume that the
corresponding to ideal RRC filters with a = 0.25. Multiple ac kB ~p(Jrt VSAT receiver Thi g va ue noise bandwidth ofl MH
inbound link is by SCPC-FDMA with RF channels spaced 200 z d . IS correspond t 0 B z
data rate of 500 kbits/sec and hsa If-rate
a FEC
PSKencodin
signal with a
to allow a 40-KHz guard band between channels. setJI
Data from the hub station to the VSATs (the outbound link) c;!e~
(J,.6 erefore BN = 1 MHz = 10 log 106 dBHz -- 60 dBH z
_~ g.
as a continuous TDM stream of packets using a second transport ansponder-2, Ts = 500 K = 27 dBK
BPSK with half rate FEe. . d
ra
t d otLt1'- • .J
ecel ..0; erefore , N TR2 = - 228.6 + 27 + 60
.
The VSAT antenna has a d~ameter of Lm an satu e {r "'"
of2 W. The transponder noise temperature is 500 K and that a =- 141.6 dBW.
at hub station is 150 K.
 804 SATELLITECOMMUNI 805
C"lIO~

Example 43. In the same question, calculate the nOise~
VSAT receivers, i.e. in outbound TDM Channel.
Solution: As already seen, each VSAT in the network receiv
outbound TOM stream from the hub station in a noise bandwidthS the
MHz. Here Ts = 150 K = 21.8 dBK and BN = 1 MHz = 60 MHz. of 1
NVR = - 228.6 + 21.8 + 60 = - 146.8 dBW.
Example 46. In a VSAT link, the saturated output powe: of t~
er In. the
llite transponder is 20 W. The VSAT channels are accessing this
T/.Sponderby SCPC-FDMA method. If the amplifier in the transponder
a backoff of2 dB, calculate the maximum number ofVSAT channels
can be handled by the system. Assume each VSAT channel uses IW
power on the downlink. F2

Example 44. In the same question, calculate the power received --

the satellite transmitted from the VSAT uplink. Assume as the worst caat
that the VSAT is located at the satellite beam's edge-o{-coverage, the~;
dB contour of the satellite's uplink (receiving) antenna pattern. The gain
of the VSAT transmit antenna is 42 dB and that of satellite receive
antenna 30 dB. Assume free path loss of207 dB.
Solution: The power received at the satellite from a single VSAT
in dB, is given by I

PR = PT + GT + GR - Lp - other losses
Here PT = transmit power = 2W = 10 log 2 = 3 dBW
GT = gain of the VSAT transmit antenna = 42 dB
GR = gain of the satellite receive antenna = 30 dB
Lp = free space path loss at 14 HGz = 207 dB
other losses = satellite antenna edge of beam loss (2 dB) + clear air Fig. 29.3
uplink atmospheric loss due to gases (0.5 dB) + miscel-
laneous losses of 0.5 dB to account for antenna mispoint- Solution: The saturated transponder output power
ing feed loss. = 20 W = 10 log 20 = 13 dBW.
Therefore, power received by the transponder is =
With 2 dB backoff, this power becomes (13-2) 11 dBW 10 log 11 =
PR = 3 + 42 + 30 - 207 - 2 - 0.5 - 0.5 12.6 W. Since the power for VSAT channel is lW, the number of
=-135 dB. nels that can be handled is 12.611 == 12 channels.
----------------------------------------------------- Example 47. Refer to Fig. 29.3. The basis of ~ satel.lite. orbitting
Example 45. In the same question, calculate the uplink inbound und earth is the centripetal force (FI) due to earth sgraoitation acting
C I N ratio is transponder-L, 'towards the center of the earth balancing the centrifugal force (F2) awng
Ot.uayfrom the center. Calculate the centrifugal force for a satellite of
Solution: Each VSAT has a separate receiver in the hub station 0; rt&a88 IOO kg orbitting with a velocity of 8 km Is at a height of 200 km
noise bandwidth of28 kHz. Since the received power at the transponder Gbove the surface of earth. Assume mean radius of earth to be 6370 km.
input as calculated in preceding example is - 135 dB, and noise po~~o
in transponder-1 (in Example 40) is -150.5 dBW, the required CIN ra I Solution:
will be mV2
Centripetal force = (R + H)
PTRI
(C/N)TRI = --
NTRI here m = mass of satellite
= - 135 - (- 150.5) dB = 15.5 dB. V = orbital velocity
R = mean radius of earth
806 807
SATELLITE COMMUNICA
••TIO~
H = height of satellite above surface of earth
The centripetal force balances the centrifugal force. . . . Apogee + Perigee
SemI-maJor axis = 2
. m y2 100 x (8000)2
Therefore, Centnfugal force = H) = IT) -
+ (6370 + 200) x 103 = 30000 + 1000 = 15500 km
2
64 x 108
= 3 = 974 Newtons Fig. 29.4 illustrates the point further.
6570 x 10

Example 48. Determine the orbital velocity of a satellite mo~ Example 50. A satellite moving in an elliptical eccentric orbit has
a circular orbit at a height of 150 km above the surface of earth giv;~ semi-major axis of the orbit equal to 16000 km (Fig. 29.5). If the
that gravitation constant, G = 6.67 x 10-11 N-m2Ik!l, mass of earth '6 rence between the apogee and the perigee is 30000 km, determine the
e
M = 5.98 x 1024 kg, radius of earth, Re = 6370 km. • it eccentricity. ../
Solution: Solution:
The orbital velocity (V) is given by Apogee = a (1 + e)
V = "I!I(R + H) Perigee = a (1 - e)
where ~ = GM = 6.67 x 10- 11 x 5.98 x 1024 ere a = semi-major axis of the ellipse

= 39.8 x 1013 Nm2/kg

e = orbit eccentricity
R=6370km I

:@
I
I

H= 150km I
I

V = "39.8 x 1013/(6370 + 150) x 103 = 7.813 kmIs.

Example 49.A satellite in an elliptical orbit has an apogee of30,000

tI
________ I:_ -----e-----
b
__
km and a perigee of 1000 km. Determine the semi-major axis of the : Earth
elliptical orbit. I
I

Fig. 29.5
Apogee - Perigee = a (1 + e) - a (1- e) = 2ae
erEc tricit Apogee - Perigee
cen nCI y, e= 2a
30000
- 2 x 16000
30000
= 3200 = 0.93 .

. Example 51 : The farthest and the closest points in a satellite's

:ptical eccentric orbit from earth's surface are 30,000 km and 200 km
lpectively. Determine the apogee, the perigee and the orbit eccentricity.
Fig. 29.4 ume radius of earth to be 6370 km.
 809
808 SATELLITE COMMUNI
CA1'Iott
Solution: E"ample 53 : Satellite-1 in an elliptical orbit has the orbit semi-
Apogee = 30000 + 6370 = 36370 Jon . r axis equal to 18000 km and Satellite-2 in an elliptical orbit has
._major axis equal to 24000 km (Fig. 29.7). Determine the relation-
Perigee = 200 + 6370 = 6570 Jon between their orbital periods.
Eccentricity = Apogee - Perigee
2a
where a = semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit
Also, a = Apogee + Perigee
2
or 2a = Apogee + Perigee
Therefore, orbit eccentricity = Apogee - Perigee
Apogee + Perigee
_ 36370 - 6570 29800
- 36370 + 6570 = 42940 = 0.693.
. ~xample 52 : Refer to Fig. 29.6 showing a satellite m . .
elllptlc~l, eccentric orbit. Determine the apogee and peri, a o;.l~g In a?
the orbit eccentricity is 0.5. tgee ts ances if
_ 24000km
-' ,
Fig. 29.7

Solution: Solution:
The orbital time period (T) is given by
T = 21t ~a3/1!

here I! = GM
G = Earth's gravitational constant
M = mass of earth
a = semimajor axis of ellipse
If (a 1) and (a2) are the values of the semi-major axis of the elliptical
its of the satellites-1 and 2, (Tl) and (T2) are the corresponding orbital
,
riods, then
-:14000
, km:.- ,
Fig. 29.6
Tl=21t~ and T2=21t~
312
. The distance from center of ellipse (0) to the centre of earth (c) is
gIven. ~y (a x e) where (a) is the semi-major axis and (e) is the eC-
T2ITI = (a2lal) 312 = (24000)
18000 = (4/3)312 = 1.54.
centricity. Thus orbital period of satellite-2 is 1.54 times the orbital period of
Therefore, axe = 14000 tellite-1.
14000 Example 54 : Determine the escape velocity for an object to be
a = OT = 28000 Jon
nehed from surface of earth from a point where earth's radius is 6360
4
Now apogee = a(l + e) = 28000(1 + 0.5) = 42000 Ian (G = 6.67 x io:" Nm2/kg'Z and M = 5.98 x 102 kg).
Perigee = a(1 - e) = 28000(1 - 0.5) Solution:
= 28000 x 0.5 = 14000 Jon. Escape velocity = -J2}J1r
 811
SATELLITE COMMUNICA1l0ti

Here r = 6360 km = 6360 x 103m solution.

t\pogee distance = 35000 + 6360 = 41360 km
I! = OM = 6.67 x 10 - 11 x 5.98 X 1024
perigee distance = 500 + 6360 = 6860 km
= 39.8 x 1013 Nm2/kg
Semi-major axis of elliptical orbit,
,-------
Therefore, Escape Velocity = -V 2 x 39.8 x 1~13
6360 x 10
=~
6360
a = 41360 + 6860 = 24110 km
2
= 11.2 km/s. Orbital time period, T = 21t -Va3/1!
= 6.28~,..--(2-4-1-10-X-1-03)3
/Example 55.Calculate the orbital period of a satellite in an~
elliptical orbit shown in Fig. 29.8. 6.67 x 10- 11 x 5.98 X 1024
= 10 hrs 20 minutes
I
I
Velocity at any point on the orbit is given by:
V = -J1.l [(21r) - (l/a»)
24
---------------------1------~----- V = OM = 6.67 x 10 - 11 x 5.98 X 10
= 39.8 X 1013 Nm /kg
2

L:=:=: 50000k~

Fig. 29.8
•
At apogee point, r = 41360 km. Therefore,
V="-~-9.-8X--10-13-[---2---------1----]
41360 x 103 24110 X 10
3

Solution. Semi major axis, a = 50~00 = 25000 km

= ,,39.8 X 1013 [ 48220 - 41360 ]
3
Orbital time period, T = 21t -Va3/1! 41360 x 24110 x 10

and (rp) are the apogee and perigee distances, then 523 mls
= - ,r--3-9-.8-x-1-0-1'::"3-X6-86-0-=
3
I! = OM = 6.67 x 10 - 11 x 5.98 x 1024 " 41360 x 24110 x 10

= 39.8 x 1013 Nm2/kg

At perigee point, r = 6860 km. Ther~fore,
V=,/~3-9.-8-X-10-1-3[----2---------1---]-
T = 2 x 3.14 ..J 3
(25000 x 10 )3 3
6860 x 103 24110 x 10
39.8 x 1013

= 6.28 ..y 15625 x 1018

= ,,39.8 x 1013 [ 48220 - 6860 3 ]
6860 x 24110 x 10
39.8 x 1013
13
= 6.28 x 6.25 x 103 = 39250 seconds = ~I 39.8 x 10 x 41360 = 9.976 kmls.
3
6860 x 24110 x 10
= 10 hours 54 minutes.
------------------------------------------------- Example 57 : The sum of apogee and perigee distance ora certain
Example 56 :A satellite moving in a highly eccentric Mo~i~g;1~ iptical satellite orbit is 50000 km and the difference of apogee and
having the farthest and the closest points as 35000 km an . 1 time ~rigeedistance is 30000 kms. Determine the target eccentricity (e).
respectively from the surface of the earth. Determine the orbzt~arth'S
period and the velocity at the apogee and perigee point. (Assume Solution:
radius = 6360 km.) If (ra) and (rp) are the apogee and perigee distances, then
/ flxample
e = (r'rol -+ rp
58 : The semi-major
rp) = 30000 = 0 6
50000
SATELLITE

..

axis and the semi-minor ;-:---

COMMUNIC
A"O~
_ 21t(R + H) _ 6.28 x 7000
- V - 7.54
= 5830 sec = 1 hour 37 minutes.
813

ell.iptical satellite orbit are 20,000 km and 16000 km respectivel an LS;r Example 60 : A satellite moving in an eccentric elliptical orbit has
i-major axis and semi-minor axis of (a) and (b) respectively and an
mine the apogee and perigee distances. y. eter.
ntricity of 0.6. The satellite takes 3 hrs 10 minutes in moving from B
Solution: A in the direction shown. What will be the time taken by the satellite
If (ra) and v» are apogee and perigee distances respectively, then move from A to B in the direction shown in Fig. 29.9.
. . . ra + rp y
semi-major axis = 2
Semi-minor axis = "ra rp
ra + rp = 20000 km
2 L
x
Therefore, ra + rp = 40000 km +-------a--------~
"ra x rp = 16000
Therefore, To rp = 256000000
Now ro + rp = 40000 (1)
ra x rp = 256000000 (2) Fig. 29.9
Substituting the value of (rp) from (2) in (1) Selution r
ra (40000 - ra) = 256000000 According to Kepler's law for elliptical satellite orbits, the line
. the satellite and the center ofthe earth spans equal ellipse area
or r~ - 40000 ra + 256000000 = 0 equal time.
40000 ± ..J16 x 108 - 10.24 x 108 As a first step, we shall determine the area spanned while moving
r« = 2 m B to A. It is given by shaded region and is given by
40000 ± ..J5.76 x 108 40000 + 2.4 X 104 Area of half of ellipse - Area of MOB
2 2 1tab 1tab
= --2- -b x OC =-2- - bae = ab (rr/2- e)
= 3.2 X 104, 1.6 X 104 = 32000 km, 16000 krn
ro = 32000 km as it cannot be 16000 km if the semi-major axis is
20,000km.
= ab (3'i4 - 0.6J = 0.97 ab == ab

rp = 40000 - 32000 = 8000 km.

.Example 59 : A satellite is moving in a near earth circular orbi~~

a distance of 640 km. Determine its orbital period.
,

(Assume
---
R ::;6
The area spanned in moving from A to B.
1tab
= -2- + 0.6 ab = ab (rr/2 + 0.6) = 2.2 ab.

km.) The r a t'100 f t h etwoareasls~=2.2.

. 2.2 ab
Solution: 24
6.67 x 10 - 11 x 5.98 x !.!!.- l~~refore, the time taken by satellite to move from A to B should
Orbital velocity = ~ (RO:H) =
7000 x 103 .tunes the time taken by the satellite to move from B to A in the
IOnshown. Therefore,
= ••.139.8 X 1013 'll
'V 7 X 106 = 7.54 kmIs. Ille taken = 2.2 x 3 hrs 10 min = 7 hrs.
 815
V£D PROBLEMS
SATELLITE COMMUNICl\ll
O~
T2) _ 2 n .JaW _ (
( Tl - 2n ~a~/Il - a2J
312
. Example ~1 : Fo: an eccentric elliptical satellite o~ al
apogee .and perigee points at a distance of 50,000 km an t Wzth Qil
respectively from the centre. of earth. Determine the semi-! 8.000 kill 312 312
semi-minor axis and the orbit eccentricity. aJor Cl:cia T = T (a2) = 10 (24000)
2 1 al 16000
Solution: '
= 10(1.!?)312= 18.37 hours.
Apogee distance, Ta = 50000 km

Perigee distance, rp = 8000 km Example 63 : A geosynchronous satellite moving in an equatorial

ular orbit at a height of 35800 km above the surface of earth gets
Semi-major axis, a = ra + rp lined at an angle of 2° due to some reasons. Calculate the maximum
2 viation in latitude, if the maximum deviation in longitude (with
50000 + 8000 erenceto longitude of ascending node) is 0.0175°, determine maximum
2 -29000 km . :placements in kms caused by latitude and longitude displacements.
sume earth's radius = 6364 hm).
Semi-minor axis, b = "ra x rp
Solution:
= "=50=-=0-=-00"'-x-80-0-0
= 20000 km
Height of orbit = 35800 km
Orbit eccentricity, e = (ra - rp) = (50000- 8000 '\ Earth's radius = 6364 km
ra + rp 50000 + 8000)
42000
Therefore, Orbit radius, r = 35800 + 6364 = 42164 km
= 58000 = 0.724. Angle of inclination = 2°
Maximu~ latitude deviation from equator due to inclination (i) is
tu E.xalmp!~62.. Satellite-1 and Satellite-2 are orbitting in different • en by:
e h LPtlC~ 0':
its uiitli same perigee but different apogee distances as

z:
sown m FLg.29.10. The semi-major axes of the two orbits are 16000 km
24~00 km: If the orbital period of satellite-1 is 10 hours determine
t e orbital period of satellite-2. '
Maximum displacement

D", (max) = ai
(in krn) due to

( 1~0 J
Amax

where (i) is in deg

is given by:

= 42164 x 2 x n = 1471 km
180 .
Maximum longitude deviation from ascending node,
i2 22 4
\jImax = 228 = 228 = 228 = 0.0175°

Maximum displacement (DljI)due to (\jImax) is given by:

Fig. 29.10
Solution: DljI= D",(~:: ) = 1471 x 0.0;75 = 12.9 km.

Orbital period (T) is given by, T = 2n -.Ja3/1l ------------------------------------------------------

Example 64 : Determine the magnitude of velocity impulse needed
where a = semi-major axis
to correct the inclination of 2° in the satellite orbit of example 63.
Il =GM .
Solution: The magnitude of velocity impulse is given by:
If•.~Tl)land
respec ive y, then
(T2) are the orbital periods of satellite-l and sateIIite-2
13
- r;;-tan i =~ 39.8 x 10 tan 2° = 107 mls.
-" ~ ; 42164 x 103
816 SATELLITECOMMUNICA 817
••lIO~

Example 65 :Ageosynchronous satellite orbitting at 4216;;;;--

earth's center has a circular and equatorial orbit. The orbit gets inc{:OTn
due to some reason and it is observed that the maximum displace::::d
due to latitude deviation in 500 km. Determine angle of inclinatio ~t
between the new orbital plane and the equatorial plane. n Ii)
Solution:
Maximum displacement D').. (max) due to latitude deviation is mv
~ ~~
DJ...(max) = r A.max
where A.max= maximum latitude deviation = i (angle of inclination)
or DJ...(max) = r x i

Therefore, i = DJ...(max)/r = 4~~~4 = 0.012 rad = 0.68 deg.

Fig. 29.11

Example 66 : A geostationary satellite moving in an equatorial Solution:

circular orbit is at a height of35786 km from earth's surface. Ifthe earth's The maximum coverage angle, (2<Xma.x)
is given by
radius is taken as 6378 km, determine the theoretical maximum coverage
angle. Also determine the maximum slant range. 2amax = 2 sin - 1 [( Re~ H) cos Emin]
Solution:
For theoretical maximum coverage angle, elevation angle, E = o. re Emin = Minimum elevation angle

Maximum coverage angle, 2amax = 2 sin -1Re~ H cos Emin) 2 amax

. -il(
= 2 sin
6378
~ 6378 + 35786
} cos 50]
where Re = earth's radius
= 2 sin - 1[0.1512 x 0.996]
H = height of satellite above earth's surface
= 2 sin -10.1506 = 2 x 8.66 = 17.32°.
2 amax = 2 Si{ 3578663~~378 cos 00) = 17.4°
Example 68 : Refer to Fig. 29.12 showing a geostationary satellite
or amax = 8.7° itting earth. Calculate the angle (6) subtended by the arc of the
If D is the maximum slant range, then
llite's footprint at the center of earth.
D2 =R; + (Re +H)2 - 2Re (Re +H) .
6 = 61 + 62
(E1 = 5°)
x sin [E + sin - 1(&~ H CDS Ell 61 = 90° - a1 - E1
62 = 90° - a2 - E2 (E2 = 0°)
= (6378)2 + (42164)2 - 2 x 6378 x 42164 x sin 8.70 Therefore 6 = (90 - a1 - E1) + (90 - a2 - E2)

= 40678884 + 1777802896 - 537843984 x 0.1512 = 180 - (a1 + a2) - (E1 + E2)

= 1737139041 = 175° - (a1 + a2)
or D =41679
----------------------ngleand
km. .------: ci = sm
. - 1 6378
6378 + 35786
cos 5°

Example 67. What would be the new maximum coverage a t zero

. _ 1 6378 cos 5° _ 8 660
the slant range if the minimum possible elevation angle is 5° and no =sm 42164 -.
as in Example-66 (Refer to Fig. 29.11).