Hindu calendar 1

Hindu calendar
The Hindu calendar used in ancient times has undergone many changes in the
process of regionalization, and today there are several regional Indian calendars,
as well as an Indian national calendar.
Most of these calendars are inherited from a system first enunciated in Vedanga
Jyotisha of Lagadha, a late BCE adjunct to the Vedas, standardized in the Surya
Siddhanta (3rd century CE) and subsequently reformed by astronomers such as
Aryabhata (499 CE), Varahamihira (6th c. CE), and Bhaskara (12th c. CE).
There are differences and regional variations abound in these computations, but
the following is a general overview of Hindu lunisolar calendar.

Day
In the Hindu calendar, the day starts with local sunrise. It is allotted five
"properties", called angas. They are:
1. the tithi (one of 30 divisions of a synodic month) active at sunrise
2. the vaasara or weekday
3. the nakshatra (one of 27 divisions of the celestial ecliptic) in which the moon
resides at sunrise
4. the yoga (one of 27 divisions based on the ecliptic longitude of the sun and
moon) active at sunrise
5. the karana (divisions based on tithis) active at sunrise.
Together these are called the panchāngas (Sanskrit: pancha = five). An
A page from the Hindu calendar
explanation of the terms follows.
1871-72.

Vaasara
Vaasara refers to the days of the week and bear striking similarities with the names in many cultures, especially
western (Hindi and English analogues in parentheses):

No. Sanskrit name of the English name of the weekday Celestial object
weekday

1 Ravi vāsara Sunday Ravi = Sun

रविवासरः

2 Soma vāsara Monday Soma = Moon

सोमवासरः

3 Mangala vāsara Tuesday Mangala = Mars

मंगलवासरः

4 Budha vāsara Wednesday Budha = Mercury

बुधवासरः

5 Guru vāsara Thursday Guru (Brihaspati) = Jupiter

गुरुवासरः
or
Bruhaspati vāsara
बृहस्पतिवासरः
Hindu calendar 2

6 Shukra vāsara Friday Shukra = Venus

शुक्रवासरः

7 Shani vāsara Saturday Shani = Saturn

शनिवासरः

The term -vaasara is often abbreviated as vaara or vaar in Sanskrit-derived languages. There are many variations of
the names in the regional languages, mostly using alternate names of the celestial bodies involved.

Nakshatra
The ecliptic is divided into 27 nakshatras, which are variously called lunar houses or asterisms. These reflect the
moon's cycle against the fixed stars, 27 days and 7¾ hours, the fractional part being compensated by an intercalary
28th nakshatra. Nakshatra computation appears to have been well known at the time of the Rig Veda (2nd–1st
millennium BCE).
The ecliptic is divided into the nakshatras eastwards starting from a reference point which is traditionally a point on
the ecliptic directly opposite the star Spica called Chitrā in Sanskrit. (Other slightly different definitions exist.) It is
called Meshādi or the "start of Aries"; this is when the equinox — where the ecliptic meets the equator — was in
Aries (today it is in Pisces, 28 degrees before Aries starts). The difference between Meshādi and the present equinox
is known as ayanāngsha or fraction of ecliptic. Given the 25,800 year cycle for the precession of the equinoxes, the
equinox was directly opposite Spica in 285 CE, around the date of the Surya Siddhanta[1] [2] .
The nakshatras with their corresponding regions of sky are given below, following Basham[3] . As always, there are
many versions with minor differences. The names on the right-hand column give roughly the correspondence of the
nakshatras to modern names of stars. Note that nakshatras are (in this context) not just single stars but are segments
on the ecliptic characterised by one or more stars. Hence there are more than one star mentioned for each nakshatra.

# Sanskrit name Malayalam name Tamil name Western star name

संस्कृतम् മലയാളം தமிழ்

1 Ashvinī Ashvati Aswini β and γ Arietis

अश्विनी അശ്വതി அஸ்வினி

2 Bharanī Bharaṇi Baraṇi 35, 39, and 41 Arietis

भरणी ഭരണി பரணி

3 Krittikā Kārttika Kārthikai Pleiades

कृत्तिका കാർത്തിക கார்த்திகை

4 Rohini Rōhiṇi Rōhiṇi Aldebaran

रोहिणी രോഹിണി ரோகிணி

5 Mrigashīrsha Makayiram Mirugasīridam λ, φ Orionis

म्रृगशीर्षा മകയിരം மிருகசீரிடம்

6 Ārdrā Ātira or Tiruvātira Thiruvādhirai Betelgeuse

आद्रा ആതിര (തിരുവാതിര) திருவாதிரை

7 Punarvasu Puṇartam Punarpoosam Castor and Pollux

पुनर्वसु പുണർതം புனர்பூசம்

8 Pushya Pūyam Poosam γ, δ and θ Cancri

पुष्य പൂയം பூசம்

9 Āshleshā Āyilyam Ayilyam δ, ε, η, ρ, and σ Hydrae

आश्ळेषा / आश्लेषा ആയില്യം ஆயில்யம்

10 Maghā Makam Magam Regulus

मघा മകം மகம்
Hindu calendar 3

11 Pūrva or Pūrva Phalgunī Pūram Pooram δ and θ Leonis

पूर्व फाल्गुनी പൂരം பூரம்

12 Uttara or Uttara Phalgunī Utram Uthiram Denebola

उत्तर फाल्गुनी ഉത്രം உத்திரம்

13 Hasta Attam Astham α, β, γ, δ and ε Corvi

हस्त അത്തം அஸ்தம்

14 Chitrā Chittira Chithirai Spica

चित्रा ചിത്തിര (ചിത്ര) சித்திரை

15 Svātī Chōti Swathi Arcturus

स्वाती ചോതി சுவாதி

16 Vishākhā Vishākham Visakam α, β, γ and ι Librae

विशाखा വിശാഖം விசாகம்

17 Anurādhā Anizham Anusham β, δ and π Scorpionis

अनुराधा അനിഴം அனுஷம்

18 Jyeshtha Kēṭṭa (Trikkēṭṭa) Kettai α, σ, and τ Scorpionis

ज्येष्ठा കേട്ട (തൃക്കേട്ട) கேட்டை

19 Mūla Mūlam Mūlam ε, ζ, η, θ, ι, κ, λ, μ and ν

मूल മൂലം மூலம் Scorpionis

20 Pūrva Ashādhā Pūrāṭam Pūradam δ and ε Sagittarii

पूर्वाषाढा പൂരാടം பூராடம்

21 Uttara Ashādhā Utrāṭam Uthirādam ζ and σ Sagittarii

उत्तराषाढा ഉത്രാടം உத்திராடம்

22 Shravana Tiruvōnam Tiruvōnam α, β and γ Aquilae

श्रवण ഓണം (തിരുവോണം) திருவோணம்

23 Shravishthā or Dhanishta Aviṭṭam Aviṭṭam α to δ Delphinus

श्रविष्ठा or धनिष्ठा അവിട്ടം அவிட்டம்

24 Shatabhishā or Chatayam Sadayam γ Aquarii

Shatataraka ചതയം சதயம்
शतभिषक् / शततारका

25 Pūrva Bhādrapadā Pūruruṭṭāti Pūruruṭṭādhi α and β Pegasi

पूर्वभाद्रपदा / पूर्वप्रोष्ठपदा പൂരുരുട്ടാതി பூரட்டாதி

26 Uttara Bhādrapadā Uttṛṭṭāti Uttṛṭṭādhi γ Pegasi and α Andromedae

उत्तरभाद्रपदा / उत्तरप्रोष्ठपदा ഉത്രട്ടാതി உத்திரட்டாதி

27 Revati Rēvati Rēvathi ζ Piscium

रेवती രേവതി ரேவதி

An additional 28th intercalary nakshatra, Abhijit (अभिजित्)(α, ε and ζ Lyrae - Vega - between Uttarasharha and
Sravana. Last two (third and fourth) Padas of Uttrashada and first two (first and second) Padas of Sravana are
considered to be Abhijit. Unless specifically mentioned it is not included in the list of the 27 constellations.
The nakshatra in which the moon lies at the time of sunrise of a day is the nakshatra for the day.

Yoga
First one computes the angular distance along the ecliptic of each object, taking the ecliptic to start at Mesha or Aries
(Meshādi, as defined above): this is called the longitude of that object. The longitude of the sun and the longitude of
the moon are added, and normalized to a value ranging between 0° to 360° (if greater than 360, one subtracts 360).
This sum is divided into 27 parts. Each part will now equal 800' (where ' is the symbol of the arcminute which means
1/60 of a degree). These parts are called the yogas. They are labeled:
Hindu calendar 4

1. Vishkumbha
2. Prīti
3. Āyushmān
4. Saubhāgya
5. Shobhana
6. Atiganda
7. Sukarman
8. Dhriti
9. Shūla
10. Ganda
11. Vriddhi
12. Dhruva
13. Vyāghāta
14. Harshana
15. Vajra
16. Siddhi
17. Vyatīpāta
18. Varigha
19. Parigha
20. Shiva
21. Siddha
22. Sādhya
23. Shubha
24. Shukla
25. Brāhma
26. Māhendra
27. Vaidhriti
Again, minor variations may exist. The yoga that is active during sunrise of a day is the yoga for the day.

Karana
A karana is half of a tithi. To be precise, a karana is the time required for the angular distance between the sun and
the moon to increase in steps of 6° starting from 0°. (Compare with the definition of a tithi above.)
Since the tithis are thirty in number, one would expect there to be sixty karanas. But there are only eleven. There are
four "fixed" karanas and seven "repeating" karanas. The four "fixed" karanas are:
1. Kimstughna
2. Shakuni
3. Chatushpād
4. Nāgava
The seven "repeating" karanas are:
1. Bava
2. Bālava
3. Kaulava
4. Taitula
5. Garajā
6. Vanijā
7. Vishti (Bhadrā)
Hindu calendar 5

• Now the first half of the first tithi (of the bright fortnight) is always Kimstughna karana. Hence this karana is
"fixed".
• Next, the seven repeating karanas repeat eight times to cover the next 56 half-tithis. Thus these are the
"repeating" karanas.
• The three remaining half-tithis take the remaining "fixed" karanas in order. Thus these are also "fixed".
• Thus one gets sixty karanas from eleven.
The karana active during sunrise of a day is the karana for the day.

(Rashi) Ritu Gregorian Zodiac

Saur Maas (season) months
(solar months)

Mesh Vasant March/April Aries

(spring)

Vrishabh April/May Taurus

Mithun Grishma May/June Gemini

(summer)

Karkat June/July Cancer

Simha Varsha July/Aug Leo

(monsoon)

Kanya Aug/Sept Virgo

Tula Sharad Sept/Oct Libra

(autumn)

Vrishchik Oct/Nov Scorpius

Dhanu Hemant Nov/Dec. Sagittarius

(autumn-winter)

Makar Dec/Jan Capricornus

Kumbha Shishir Jan/Feb Aquarius

(Winter-Spring)

Meen Feb/Mar Pisces

Months of the lunisolar calendar

When a new moon occurs before sunrise on a day, that day is said to be the first day of the lunar month. So it is
evident that the end of the lunar month will coincide with a new moon. A lunar month has 29 or 30 days (according
to the movement of the moon).
The tithi at sunrise of a day is the only label of the day. There is no running day number from the first day to the last
day of the month. This has some unique results, as explained below:
Sometimes two successive days have the same tithi. In such a case, the latter is called an adhika tithi where adhika
means "extra". Sometimes, one tithi may never touch a sunrise, and hence no day will be labeled by that tithi. It is
then said to be a tithi kshaya where kshaya means "loss".
Hindu calendar 6

Naming lunar months

There are twelve lunar month names:
1. Chaitra
2. Vaishākh
3. Jyaishtha
4. Āshādha
5. Shrāvana
6. Bhaadra or, Bhādrapad
7. Āshwin
8. Kārtik
9. Agrahayana or, Mārgashīrsha
10. Paush
11. Māgh
12. Phālgun
Determining which name a lunar month takes is somewhat indirect. It is based on the rāshi into which the sun
transits within a lunar month, i.e. before the new moon ending the month.
There are twelve rāshi names, there are twelve lunar month names. When the sun transits into the Mesha rāshi in a
lunar month, then the name of the lunar month is Chaitra. When the sun transits into Vrishabha, then the lunar
month is Vaishākh. So on.
The Sanskrit grammatical derivation of the lunar month names Chaitra etc., is: the (lunar) month which has its
central full moon occurring at or near the nakshatra Chitrā is called Chaitra. Similarly, for the nakshatras Vishākhā,
Jyeshthā, (Pūrva) Ashādhā, Shravan, Bhādrapad, Ashvinī (old name Ashvayuj), Krittikā, Mrigashīrsha, Pushya,
Meghā and (Pūrva/Uttara) Phalgunī the names Vaishākh etc. are derived.
The lunar months are split into two pakshas of 15 days. The waxing paksha is called shuklapaksha, light half, and the
waning paksha the krishnapaksha, dark half. There are two different systems for making the lunar calendar:
• amavasyanta or mukhya mana system - a month begins with a new moon, mostly followed in the southern states
• purnimanta or gauna mana system - a month begins with a full moon, followed more in the North.

Extra months
When the sun does not at all transit into any rāshi but simply keeps moving within a rāshi in a lunar month (i.e.
before a new moon), then that lunar month will be named according to the first upcoming transit. It will also take the
epithet of adhik or "extra". For example, if a lunar month elapsed without a solar transit and the next transit is into
Mesha, then this month without transit is labeled adhik Chaitra. The next month will be labeled according to its
transit as usual and will get the epithet nija ("original") or shuddha ("clean"). [Note that an adhik māsa (month) is the
first of two whereas an adhika tithi is the second of two.]
Extra Month, or adhik mas māsa (mas = lunar month) falls every 32.5 months. It is also known as purushottam mas,
so as to give it a devotional name. Thus 12 Hindu mas (māsa) is equal to approximate 356 days, while solar year
have 365 or 366 (in leap year) which create differece of 9 to 10 days, which is offset every 3rd year. No adhik mas
falls during Kartik to Magh.
A month long fair is celebrated in Machhegaun during adhik māsa. It is general belief that one can wash away all
one's sins by taking a bath in the Machhenarayan's pond.
Hindu calendar 7

Lost months
If the sun transits into two rāshis within a lunar month, then the month will have to be labeled by both transits and
will take the epithet kshay or "loss". There is considered to be a "loss" because in this case, there is only one month
labeled by both transits. If the sun had transited into only one raashi in a lunar month as is usual, there would have
been two separate months labeled by the two transits in question.
For example, if the sun transits into Mesh and Vrishabh in a lunar month, then it will be called Chaitra-Vaishaakh
kshaya. There will be no separate months labeled Chaitra and Vaishākh.
A kshay māsa occurs very rarely. Known gaps between occurrence of kshaya māsas are 19 and 141 years. The last
was in 1983. January 15 through February 12 were Pausha-Māgha kshay. February 13 onwards was (adhik)
Phālguna.
Special Case:
If there is no solar transit in one lunar month but there are two transits in the next lunar month,
• the first month will be labeled by the first transit of the second month and take the epithet adhik and
• the next month will be labeled by both its transits as is usual for a kshay māsa
This is a very very rare occurrence. The last was in 1315. October 8 to November 5 were adhik Kārtik. November 6
to December 5 were Kārtik-Mārgashīrsh kshaya. December 6 onwards was Paush.

Religious observances in case of extra and lost months

Among normal months, adhika months, and kshaya months, the earlier are considered "better" for religious
purposes. That means, if a festival should fall on the 10th tithi of the Āshvayuja month (this is called Vijayadashamī)
and there are two Āshvayuja months caused by the existence of an adhika Āshvayuja, the first adhika month will not
see the festival, and the festival will be observed only in the second nija month. However, if the second month is
āshvayuja kshaya then the festival will be observed in the first adhika month itself.
When two months are rolled into one in the case of a kshaya māsa, the festivals of both months will also be rolled
into this kshaya māsa. For example, the festival of Mahāshivarātri which is to be observed on the fourteenth tithi of
the Māgha krishna paksha was, in 1983, observed on the corresponding tithi of Pausha-Māgha kshaya krishna
paksha, since in that year, Pausha and Māgha were rolled into one, as mentioned above. When two months are
rolled into one in the case of a kshaya māsa, the festivals of both months will also be rolled into this kshaya māsa.

Vaishnava calendar

Month Predominating Deity-name of month

Agrahayana Kesava

Pausha Narayana

Magha Madhava

Phalguna Govinda

Caitra Vishnu

Vaisakha Madhusudana

Jyeshta Trivikrama

Ashadha Vamana

Sravana Sridhara

Bhadra Hrishikesa

Asvina Padmanabha
Hindu calendar 8

Karttika Damodara

Year of the lunisolar calendar

The new year day is the first day of the shukla paksha of Chaitra. In the case of adhika or kshaya months relating to
Chaitra, the aforementioned religious rules apply giving rise to the following results:
• If an adhika Chaitra is followed by a nija Chaitra, the new year starts with the nija Chaitra.
• If an adhika Chaitra is followed by a Chaitra-Vaishākha kshaya, the new year starts with the adhika Chaitra.
• If a Chaitra-Vaishākha kshaya occurs with no adhika Chaitra before it, then it starts the new year.
• If a Phālguna-Chaitra kshaya occurs, it starts the new year.

Another kind of lunisolar calendar

There is another kind of lunisolar calendar which differs from the former in the way the months are named. When a
full moon (instead of new moon) occurs before sunrise on a day, that day is said to be the first day of the lunar
month. In this case, the end of the lunar month will coincide with a full moon. This is called the pūrnimānta māna or
"full-moon-ending reckoning", as against the amānta māna or "new-moon-ending reckoning" used before.
This definition leads to a lot of complications:
• The first paksha of the month will be krishna and the second will be shukla.
• The new year is still on the first day of the Chaitra shukla paksha. The next paksha-s will be the Vaishākha
krishna, Vaishākha shukla, Jyaishtha krishna and so on, till Phālguna krishna, Phālguna shukla and Chaitra
krishna, which is now the last paksha of the year.
• The shukla paksha of a given month, say Chaitra, comprises the same actual days in both systems, as can be
deduces from a careful analysis of the rules. However, the Chaitra krishna paksha-s defined by the two systems
will be on different days, since the Chaitra krishna paksha precedes the Chaitra shukla paksha is the pūrnimānta
system but follows it in the amānta system.
• Though the regular months are defined by the full moon, the adhika and kshaya lunar months are still defined by
the new moon. That is, even if the pūrnimānta system is followed, adhika or kshaya months will start with the
first sunrise after the new moon, and end with the new moon.
• The adhika month will therefore get sandwiched between the two paksha-s of the nija months. For example, a
Shrāvana adhika māsa will be inserted as follows:
1.nija Shrāvana krishna paksha
2.adhika Shrāvana shukla paksha
3.adhika Shrāvana krishna paksha and
4.nija Shrāvana shukla paksha
after which Bhādrapada krishna paksha will come as usual.
• If there is an adhika Chaitra, then it will follow the (nija) Chaitra krishna paksha at the end of the year. Only
with the nija Chaitra shukla paksha will the new year start. The only exception is when it is followed by a
kshaya, and that will be mentioned later.
• The kshaya month is more complicated. If in the amānta system there is a Pausha-Māgha kshaya, then in the
pūrnimānta system there will be the following paksha-s:
1. Pausha krishna paksha
2. Pausha-Maagha kshaya shukla paksha
3. Maagha-Phaalguna kshaya krishna paksha and a
4. Phālguna shukla paksha.
• The special kshaya case where an adhika māsa precedes a kshaya māsa gets even more convoluted. First, we
should remember that the Āshvayuja shukla paksha is the same in both the systems. After this come the following
Hindu calendar 9

paksha-s:
1.nija Kārtika krishna paksha
2.adhika Kārtika shukla paksha
3.adhika Kārtika krishna paksha
4.Kārtika-Māgashīrsha kshaya shukla paksha
5.Māgashīrsha-Pausha kshaya krishna paksha
6.Pausha shukla paksha
followed by the Māgha krishna paksha etc., as usual.
• The considerations for the new year are:
1. If there is a Chaitra-Vaishākha kshaya shukla paksha:
1. if an adhika Chaitra precedes it, then the adhika Chaitra shukla paksha starts the new year
2. if not, the kshaya shukla paksha starts the new year
2. If there is a Phālguna-Chaitra kshaya shukla paksha then it starts the new year
It must be noted, however, that none of these above complications cause a change in the day of religious
observances. Since only the name of the krishna paksha-s of the months will change in the two systems, festivals
which fall on the krishna paksha will be defined by the appropriate changed name. That is, the Mahāshivarātri,
defined in the amānta māna to be observed on the fourteenth of the Māgha krishna paksha will now (in the
pūrnimānta māna) be defined by the Phālguna krishna paksha.

Correspondence of the lunisolar calendar to the solar calendar

A lunisolar calendar is always a calendar based on the moon's celestial motion, which in a way keeps itself close to a
solar calendar based on the sun's (apparent) celestial motion. That is, the lunisolar calendar's new year is to kept
always close (within certain limits) to a solar calendar's new year.
Since the Hindu lunar month names are based on solar transits, and the month of Chaitra will, as defined above,
always be close to the solar month of Mesha, the Hindu lunisolar calendar will always keep in track with the Hindu
solar calendar.
The Hindu solar calendar by contrast starts on April 14–15 each year. This signifies the sun's "entry" into Mesha
rashi and is celebrated as the New Year in Assam, Bengal, Orissa, Manipur, Kerala, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and
Tripura. The first month of the year is called "Chitterai (சித்திரை" in Tamil, "Medam" in Malayalam and Bohag
in Assamese, Baisakh in Bengali/Punjabi and Nepali. This solar new year is celebrated on the same day in Myanmar,
Cambodia, Laos, Nepal and Thailand due to Hindu influence on those countries.

Year numbering
The epoch (starting point or first day of the zeroth year) of the current era of Hindu calendar (both solar and
lunisolar) is February 18, 3102 BCE in the proleptic Julian calendar or January 23, 3102 BCE in the proleptic
Gregorian calendar. Both the solar and lunisolar calendars started on this date. After that, each year is labeled by the
number of years elapsed since the epoch.
This is a unique feature of the Hindu calendar. All other systems use the current ordinal number of the year as the
year label. But just as a person's true age is measured by the number of years that have elapsed starting from the date
of the person's birth, the Hindu calendar measures the number of years elapsed. As of May 18, 2010, 5111 years had
elapsed in the Hindu calendar. However, the lunisolar calendar year usually starts earlier than the solar calendar year,
so the exact year will not begin on the same day every year.
Hindu calendar 10

Year names
Apart from the numbering system outlined above, there is also a cycle of 60 calendar year names, called
Samvatsaras, which started at the first year (at elapsed years zero) and runs continuously:

1. Prabhava 21. Sarvajeeth (2007-08) 41. Plavanga

2. Vibhava 22. Sarvadhāri 42. Kīlaka
3. Shukla (2008-09) 43. Saumya
4. Pramoda 23. Virodhi (2009-10) 44. Sādhārana
5. Prajāpati 24. Vikrita (2010-11) 45. Virodhikruthi
6. Āngirasa 25. Khara (2011-12) 46. Paridhāvi
7. Shrīmukha 26. Nandana (2012-13) 47. Pramādicha
8. Bhāva 27. Vijaya 48. Ānanda
9. Yuva 28. Jaya 49. Rākshasa
10. Dhātri 29. Manmadha 50. Anala
11. Īshvara 30. Durmukhi 51. Pingala
12. Bahudhānya 31. Hevilambi 52. Kālayukthi
13. Pramādhi 32. Vilambi 53. Siddhārthi
14. Vikrama (2000-2001) 33. Vikāri 54. Raudra
15. Vrisha (2001-02) 34. Shārvari 55. Durmathi
16. Chitrabhānu 35. Plava 56. Dundubhi
(2002-03) 36. Shubhakruti 57. Rudhirodgāri
17. Svabhānu (2003-04) 37. Sobhakruthi 58. Raktākshi
18. Tārana (2004-05) 38. Krodhi 59. Krodhana
19. Pārthiva (2005-06) 39. Vishvāvasu 60. Akshaya
20. Vyaya (2006-2007) 40. Parābhava

Eras
Hinduism has of four eras or ages, of which we are currently in the last. The four are:
1. Krita Yuga or Satya Yuga
2. Treta Yuga
3. Dvāpara Yuga
4. Kali Yuga
They are often translated into English as the golden, silver, bronze and Iron Ages. (Yuga means era or age.) The ages
see a gradual decline of dharma, wisdom, knowledge, intellectual capability, life span and emotional and physical
strength. The epoch provided above is the start of the Kali Yuga. The Kali Yuga is 432,000 years long. The Dvāpara,
Tretā and Krita (Satya) Yuga-s are two, three and four times the length of the Kali Yuga respectively. Thus they
together constitute 4,320,000 years. This is called a Chaturyuga.
A thousand and a thousand (i.e. two thousand) chaturyuga-s are said to be one day and night of the creator Brahmā.
He (the creator) lives for 100 years of 360 such days and at the end, he is said to dissolve, along with his entire
Creation, into the Eternal Soul or Paramātman.
A samkhya view of the timespan of a yuga is given by Swami Sri Yukteswar Giri, the guru of Paramahansa
Yogananda. This is detailed in his book, The Holy Science. According to this view, one complete yuga cycle is equal
to one complete "precession of the equinox", a period of approximately 24,000 years. The ascending phase consists
of a 1200 year Kali, 2400 year Dwapara, 3600 year Treta and 4800 year Krita (Satya) yuga. The descending phase
reverses this order, thus both ascending and descending phases equal 24,000 years. According to calculations given
in the book, the most recent yuga change was in 1699, when the Earth passed from Kali Yuga (the lowest material
Hindu calendar 11

age) to Dvāpara Yuga (the second age associated with electrical, atomic and finer forces). We are in an ascending
spiral right now, and will pass into the Tretā Yuga in 4100 CE. According to the book, the motion of the stars
moving across the sky (a.k.a.precession) is the observable of the Sun's motion around another star. The quality of
human intellect depends on the distance of the Sun and Earth from a certain point in space known as the Grand
Center, Magnetic Center or Vishṇunābhi Vishnu. The closer the Sun is to it, the more subtle energy the Solar System
receives, and the greater is the level of human spiritual and overall development. As the Sun moves around its
companion star, it brings us closer to or drives us farther away from Vishnunabi, resulting in the rising and falling
ages here on Earth.
Yukteswar tells us that the calendars of the higher ages were based on the Yugas, with each era named after its Yuga.
Hence, the year 3000 BCE was known as descending Dwapara 102 (because the last descending Dwapara yuga
began 102 years earlier in 3102 BCE). He stated that this method was used up until the recent Dark Ages, when
knowledge of the connection with the yugas and the precession cycle was lost; "The mistake crept into the almanacs
for the first time during the reign of Raja Parikshit, just after the completion of the last descending Dwapara Yuga.
At that time Maharaja Yudhisthira, noticing the appearance of the dark Kali Yuga, made over his throne to his
grandson, the said Raja Parikshit. Maharaja Yudhisthira, together with all the wise men of his court, retired to the
Himalaya Mountains... thus there was no one who could understand the principle of correctly calculating the ages of
the several Yugas". Thus, Yukeswar assumed that Raja Parikshit was not trained in any vedic principles even though
he alone ruled the world many years. Thus, he interpreted that Yugas are not calculated correctly. Consequently, he
gave the theory that when the Dwapara was over and the Kali era began no one knew enough to restart the calendar
count. They knew they were in a Kali Yuga (which is why the old Hindu calendar now begins with K.Y.) but the
beginning of this calendar (which in 2006 stands at 5108) can still be traced to 3102 BCE, (3102+2006=5108) the
start of the last descending Dwapara Yuga. To this day there is still much confusion why the Kali starts at this date or
what the correct length of the Yugas should be. Yukteswar suggests that a return to basing the Yuga calendar on the
motion of the equinox would be a positive step.

History
The Hindu Calendar descends from the Vedic times. There are many references to calendrics in the Vedas. The
Vedānga (adjunct to Veda) called Jyautisha (literally, "celestial body study") prescribed all the aspects of the Hindu
calendars. After the Vedic period, there were many scholars such as Āryabhata (5th century CE), Varāhamihira (6th
century) and Bhāskara (12th century) who were experts in Jyautisha and contributed to the development of the Hindu
Calendar.
The most widely used authoritative text for the Hindu Calendars is the Sūrya Siddhānta, a text of uncertain age,
though some place it at 10th century.
The traditional Vedic calendar used to start with the month of agrahayan (agra=first + ayan = travel of the sun,
equinox) or Mārgashirsha. This is the month where the Sun crosses the equator, i.e. the vernal equinox. This month
was called mārgashirsha after the fifth nakshatra (around lambda orionis). Due to the precession of the Earth's axis,
the vernal equinox is now in Pisces, and corresponds to the month of chaitra. This shift over the years is what has led
to various calendar reforms in different regions to assert different months as the start month for the year. Thus, some
calendars (e.g. Vikram) start with Chaitra, which is the present-day month of the vernal equinox, as the first month.
Others may start with Vaisakha (e.g. Bangabda). The shift in the vernal equinox by nearly four months from
agrahaayana to chaitra in sidereal terms seems to indicate that the original naming conventions may date to the
fourth or fifth millennium BCE, since the period of precession in the Earth's axis is about 25,800 years.
Hindu calendar 12

Regional variants
The Indian Calendar Reform Committee, appointed in 1952 (shortly after Indian independence), identified more than
thirty well-developed calendars, all variants of the Surya Siddhanta calendar outlined here, in systematic use across
different parts of India. These include the widespread Vikrama and Shalivahana calendars and regional variations
thereof. The Tamil calendar, a solar calendar, is used in Tamil Nadu and Kollavarsham Calendar is used in Kerala.

Vikrama and Shalivahana calendars

The two calendars most widely used in India today are the Vikrama calendar followed in Western and Northern India
and Nepal, and the Shalivahana or Saka calendar which is followed in South India, Maharashtra and Goa.
Both the Vikrama and the Shalivahana eras are lunisolar calendars, and feature annual cycles of twelve lunar
months, each month divided into two phases: the 'bright half' (shukla) and the 'dark half' (krishna); these correspond
respectively to the periods of the 'waxing' and the 'waning' of the moon. Thus, the period beginning from the first day
after the new moon and ending on the full moon day constitutes the shukla paksha or 'bright half' of the month; the
period beginning from the day after the full moon until and including the next new moon day constitutes the krishna
paksha or 'dark half' of the month.
The names of the 12 months, as also their sequence, are the same in both calendars; however, the new year is
celebrated at separate points during the year and the "year zero" for the two calendars is different. In the Vikrama
calendar, the zero year corresponds to 58 BCE, while in the Shalivahana calendar, it corresponds to 78 CE. The
Vikrama calendar begins with the month of Baishakh (April), or Kartak (October/November) in Gujarat. The
Shalivahana calendar begins with the month of Chaitra (March) and the Ugadi/Gudi Padwa festivals mark the new
year.
Another little-known difference between the two calendars exists: while each month in the Shalivahana calendar
begins with the 'bright half' and is followed by the 'dark half', the opposite obtains in the Vikrama calendar. Thus,
each month of the Shalivahana calendar ends with the no-moon day and the new month begins on the day after that,
while the full-moon day brings each month of the Vikrama calendar to a close (This is an exception in Gujarati
Calendar, its month (and hence new year) starts on a sunrise of the day after new moon, and ends on the new moon,
though it follows Vikram Samvat).
In Gujarat, Diwali is held on the final day of the Vikram Calendar and the next day marks the beginning of the New
Year and is also referred as ‘Annakut’ or Nutan Varsh or Bestu Varash. In the Hindu calendar popularly used in
North India the year begins with Chaitra Shukala Pratipadha (March – April).

National calendars in South and South East Asia

A variant of the Shalivahana Calendar was reformed and standardized as the Indian National calendar in 1957. This
official calendar follows the Shalivahan Shak calendar in beginning from the month of Chaitra and counting years
with 78 CE being year zero. It features a constant number of days in every month (with leap years).
The Bengali Calendar, or Bangla calendar (introduced 1584), is widely used in eastern India in the state of West
Bengal, Tripura and Assam. A reformation of this calendar was introduced in present-day Bangladesh in 1966, with
constant days in each month and a leap year system; this serves as the national calendar for Bangladesh. Nepal
follows the Bikram Sambat. Parallel months and roughly the same periods apply to the Buddhist calendars used in
Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka and Thailand.
Hindu calendar 13

Correspondence between calendars

As an indicator of this variation, Whitaker's Almanac reports that the Gregorian year 2000 CE corresponds,
respectively with:
1. Year 5101 in the Kaliyuga calendar;
2. Year 2544 in the Buddha Nirvana calendar;
3. Year 2543 in the Buddhist Era (BE) of the Thai solar calendar
4. Year 2057 in the Bikram Samvat calendar;
5. Year 1922 in the Saka calendar;
6. Year 1921 (shown in terms of 5-yearly cycles) of the Vedanga Jyotisa calendar;
7. Year 1407 in the Bengali calendar;
8. Year 514 in the Gaurabda Gaudiya calendar;
9. Year 1176 in the Kolla Varsham calendar.

See also
• Hindu astrology
• Hindu chronology
• List of Hindu festivals
• Panchangam
• Panjika
• Hindu units of measurement

Further reading
• Reingold and Dershowitz, Calendrical Calculations, Millennium Edition, Cambridge University Press, latest 2nd
edition 3rd printing released November 2004. ISBN 0-521-77752-6
• S. Balachandra Rao, Indian Astronomy: An Introduction, Universities Press, Hyderabad, 2000.
• "Hindu Chronology [4]", Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911)

External links
• Introduction to the Hindu Calendar (pdf) [5]
• Comparing the Surya Siddhanta and the Astronomical Ephemeris by Daphne Chia [6] (pdf, 404KB)
• ISKCON view on Hindu calendar [7]
• Hindu Calendar / Panchang for the world. [8]
• Panchangam for 1900-2006 107 years. [9]
• Hindu Festival Calendar of Vrindavan. [10]
• Calculator for Swami Sri Yukteswar's intrepration of Yugas [11]
• Nepali Calendar is much similar to Hindi Calendar [12]
Satya Yuga 1

Satya Yuga
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The Satya Yuga (Devanagari: सत्य युग), also called Sat Yuga, Krta Yuga and Krita Yuga in Hinduism, is the "Yuga
(Age or Era) of Truth", when mankind is governed by gods, and every manifestation or work is close to the purest
ideal and mankind will allow intrinsic goodness to rule supreme. It is sometimes referred to as the "Golden Age."
The average lifespan in the satya yuga is 100,000 years. The Dharma bull, which symbolises morality, stood on all
four legs during this period. Later in the Treta Yuga it would become three, and two in the later Dvapara Yuga.
Currently, in the immoral age of Kali, it stands on one leg.[1]

The cycle
The yugas are said to succeed each other almost endlessly. After the perfect Satya Yuga, a decline marks the Treta
Yuga. Further decline brings about the Dwapara Yuga, and after it comes the final and dark Kali Yuga, a time of
wickedness, when man kills another man. At the end of the cycle a Divine Being is said to take birth and reestablish
righteousness, thus beginning a new Satya Yuga.

The Satya Yuga according to some holy texts

Amongst the four eras, the Satya Yuga is the first and the most significant one. Knowledge, meditation, and penance
hold special importance in this era. All the pillars of religion are present in totality. The average life expectancy of a
human being in Satya Yuga is believed to be over 400 years. During Satya Yuga, all people engage only in good,
sublime deeds. Ashrams become devoid of wickedness and deceit. Natyam (such as Bharatanatyam), according to
Natya Shastra, did not exist in the Satya Yuga "because it was the time when all people were happy".
...as described in the Mahabharata, a Hindu epic:
[...] there were no poor and no rich; there was no need to labour, because all that men required was obtained by
the power of will; the chief virtue was the abandonment of all worldly desires. The Krita Yuga was without
disease; there was no lessening with the years; there was no hatred or vanity, or evil thought; no sorrow, no
fear. All mankind could attain to supreme blessedness. [...]
Amongst the four era’s, the Satya yuga is the first and the most significant one. This era began on Sunday, Vaishakh
Shukla Tritiya day which is also known as Akshaya Tritiya. This extends up to 10,00,000 years. God incarnated in
four forms i.e. Matsya, Kurma, Varaha and Narsimha in this era. Knowledge, meditation and penance would hold
Satya Yuga 2

special importance in this era. The average height of people was more than what it is today. Every king would attain
the pre-determined attainments and would experience bliss. All the four pillars of religion i.e. truth, penance, yagya
(religious sacrifice) and charity were present in totality. The only text which was considered credible and was
followed was Manu’s Dharma Shastra. Satya yuga shall be established by Kalki again after the Kali yuga. The
average life expectancy of a human being in Satya yuga was approximately 4000 years.
At the end of this era when the Sun, Moon, Jupiter together enter Pushya Nakshatra that is the Cancer Zodiac then
the Satya yuga shall begin. During this time the stars/constellations shall become auspicious and radiant. As a result
it shall accrue in the well being of all creatures and the health will ameliorate. It is during this auspicious time that
Vishnu’s Incarnation Kalki shall take birth in a Brahmin family. This incarnation shall be mighty, intelligent and
valiant. He shall engage in good of all benefactors. At the spun of the moment, no sooner he thinks he shall be armed
with all the weapons, armours and an army, he shall be coronated king who shall know no enemy. He shall be
benevolent and a radiant Brahmin and shall be the one who shall emancipate the ones in misery.
He shall be the one and only one to destroy the Kaliyuga and initiate the holy and divine Satya yuga. Bhagwan Kalki
in the Satya yuga shall destroy all the dacoits and robbers. He shall perform the Ashwamedha Yagya and shall
donate this entire world to the Brahmins. His success and deeds will be divine and sublime. He shall establish the
auspicious ideals and principles propounded by Lord Brahma after which he shall go to the forest to practice
penance.
After this all the generations to come shall follow the ideals established by Bhagwan Kalki and shall engage in
religious activities. Accordingly on the advent of the Satya yuga all people shall engage assiduously in good, sublime
deeds.
One shall witness the emergence of beautiful gardens, Dharmashalas (Resting Inns) and majestic temples. One shall
see the execution of many a huge yagyas. Brahmins, sages, ascetics according to their nature shall be absorbed in
penance. Ashrams shall be devoid of the wicked and the deceits. This era shall usher better agriculture and one shall
be able to grow all foodgrains in all seasons. People shall generously donate and will follow all the rules and
regulations mentioned. The kings shall protect their subjects and earth very sincerely.
The Vaishya (traders) of this era shall engage in trade and business very justly and honestly. Brahmins shall be
engaged continually in religious sacrifices, study, teaching, charity etc. The Kshatriya (warriors) shall be inclined
towards exhibition of valiance and might. The Shudras shall sincerely serve the Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas.
This form of religion shall remain intact and absolute in the Satya yuga.
One shall witness the total establishment of Sanatan Dharma (eternal religion). During the Satya yuga, the child was
not ruined when the father or mother expired. All the gods, demons, Gandharvas, Yaksha would give up their hatred
and differences. The Rik, Sama and Yajurveda were not separate and demarcated. This era was devoid of agricultural
activities or rather any other type of activity. Just by mere contemplation one would beget desired results. The only
religion that was relevant was- the renunciation of vested interests. People in this era would never fall ill. No one
would try to point out faults or demerits in anyone’s personality. The personality was not plagued by demerits alike
ego, sorrow, violent thought (aggression), jealousy, hatred, backbiting, fear, anger and lethargy.
At that time, the colour of the Supreme cosmic soul that was situated in the heart of one and all and the saviour of all
the sages was white.
All the people that are Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras were embellished with all the good qualities. At
that time, the only saviour of all the people was God. People would practice austerities and penance to attain God.
All would be inclined towards the supreme knowledge and all actions performed would be in the intention of
attaining celestial bliss.
In this way all these divine people would be bestowed with sublime faith and piousness. Albeit, people were
segregated on the basis of Varnashram method, they would all response their faith in the Vedas and the Sanatan
Dharma.Because these people were devoid of selfishness, they would effortlessly attain sublimity or union with God,
Treta Yuga 1

Treta Yuga
The Treta Yuga (Devanagari: त्रेता युग)is the second out of four yugas, or ages of mankind, in the religion of
Hinduism, following the Satya Yuga of perfect morality and preceding the Dvapara Yuga. The most famous events
in this yuga were Lord Vishnu's fifth, sixth and seventh incarnations as Vamana[1] , Parashurama and Ramachandra
respectively. The Dharma bull, which symbolises morality, stood on three legs during this period. It had all four in
the Satya Yuga and two in the later Dvapara Yuga. Currently, in the immoral age of Kali, it stands on one leg[2] .

Avatars of Vishnu during Treta Yuga

Vamana
Vishnu incarnated as the dwarf son of Aditi to stop King Mahabali of the Asura race, the grandson of Prahlada, from
completing a sacrifice which would allow him to overshadow Devendra in power and splendor. The jealous and
worried Devas persuaded Vishnu to send Bali, a bhakta of his, to Patala, the underworld. Vishnu did so by taking
advantage of the King's kindness and refusal to go back on his word, but allowed him a luxurious dwelling and
sovereignty in one of the lower worlds. He also gave him the boon of being able to visit his subjects once every year
which is celebrated in onam festival.

Parashurama
Vishnu incarnated as the Brahmana Parashurama in this era because there were too many warlike kshatriyas
plaguing the Earth, and he therefore had to wipe out most of the world's warriors. However, some of the Kshatriyas
survived or more were created, and their population grew again. Eventually, the avatara of Vishnu in Parashurama
ended, though it is said that he continued to live on as a mighty warrior-hermit. He confronted Ramachandra angrily
years later, before acknowledging the latter's supremacy and retiring. He lived on in the Dvapara Yuga, having a
great duel with Bhishma for Amba's sake (and losing), and he taught Karna how to use the Brahmastra and cursed
him when he found out that he was not a Brahmin but a kshatriya. He had vowed not to teach or be a Guru of
Kshatriyas. He is said to be still alive today, meditating in the mountains or deep in a forest.

Ramachandra
The hallmark of this era was the rise of evil in the form of the demon king of Lanka, Ravana. He conquered the three
worlds namely, earth, heavens and the netherworlds (patala) and terrorized everyone. Even the Devas were
subordinate to him - his son Meghanada had earned the name of Indrajit by defeating Indra, the King of heaven, in
battle; and even the Sun had to obey the rakshasa king. In this scenario, Lord Vishnu incarnated himself as the son of
King Dasaratha of the Sun Dynasty or Ikshvaku dynasty and was named Lord Rama. Due to a stepmother's jealousy,
Lord Rama was sent away to the forest in exile for 14 years, during which time he confronted and killed Ravana for
having kidnapped his wife, and thus restored peace on earth. He is said to have afterwards ruled the Kingdom of
Kosala from Ayodhya for an eleven-thousand year golden age known as the Rama-rajya or Rama's Kingdom, before
eventually returning to his Mahavishnu form with his three half-brothers- Lakshmana, Bharata and Shatrughna- who
were "minor" incarnations of Vishnu or the great serpent-gods Shesha.
Dvapara Yuga 1

Dvapara Yuga
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Dvapara Yuga or Dwapara Yuga[1] (Devanagari: द्वापर युग) is the third out of four yugas, or ages, described in the
scriptures of Hinduism. This yuga comes after Treta Yuga and is followed by Kali Yuga. According to the Puranas
this yuga ended at the moment when Krishna returned to his eternal abode of Vaikuntha.[2]
There are only two pillars left of religion in the Dvapara Yuga: Kama and Artha. Bhagavan Vishnu assumes the
yellow color and the Vedas are categorized into four parts that is Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva. During these times
the Brahmins are knowledgeable of two, sometimes three Vedas, but rarely have studied all the four Vedas
thoroughly. Accordingly, because of this categorization, different actions and activities come into existence.

The roles of the castes

All people in the Dvapara Yuga are zealous, valiant, courageous and competitive by nature and are engaged only in
penance and charity. They are kingly and pleasure-seeking. In this era, the divine intellect ceases to exist, and it is
therefore seldom that anyone is wholly truthful. As a result of this life of deceit, people are plagued by ailments,
diseases and various types of desires. After suffering from these ailments, people realize their misdeeds and perform
penance. Some also organize Yagya for material benefits as well as for divinity.

Brahmana
In this Yuga, the Brahmanas are involved in Yagya, self-study, donation and teaching activities. They attain celestial
bliss by engaging in penance, religion, control of senses and restraint.

Kshatriya
The duties of Kshatriyas are the protection of their subjects. In this era, they are humble and perform their duties by
controlling their senses. The Kshatriyas honestly execute all policies of law and order without being angry or cruel.
They are devoid of greed and consequently attain bliss.
The king avails the advice of the learned scholars and accordingly maintains law and order in his empire. The king
who is addicted to vices will definitely end up defeated. One or two or all from Sāma, Dāna, Danda, Bheda and
Upeksha is/are brought into use and help attain the desired. Kings are diligent in maintaining public decorum and
order.
Dvapara Yuga 2

A few of the kings, however, surreptitiously plan a conspiracy along with the scholars. Strong people execute work
where execution of policies is involved. The king appoints priests, etc. to perform religious activities, economists
and ministers to perform monetary activities, impotents to take care of women and cruel men to execute heinous
activities.
There are two kshatriya dynasties, namely 'Surya Vansha' and 'Chandra Vansha'.

Vaishya
Vaishyas are mostly landowners and merchants. The duties of Vaishyas are trade and agriculture. Vaishyas attain
higher planes through charity and hospitality.

Sudra
The duty of Sudras is to perform tasks that demand highly physical work. Although their form of labour is different
from the other three castes, the Sudras are not discriminated against. In fact Vidura, the famous Prime Minister of
Hastinapura was born in the Sudra community and attained the status of a Brahmin due to his wisdom, righteousness
and learning. All other three sections namely Brahmana, Kshatriya and Vaishya protected Sudras and contributed for
their safety and happiness. Krishna, eighth avatar of Vishnu was brought up in a Vaishya family though he was a
born Kshatriya.

Dvapara Yuga in fiction

In Namco's Soul series, Kilik, the wielder of the Kali Yuga staff, also possess the mirror sash by the same name. In
the end of the battle against Inferno, he uses the mirror to extinguish the flames. In Soulcalibur II, Soulcalibur III,
and Soulcalibur IV he wears a necklace that includes a piece of the Dvapara Yuga used as a pendant for rituals.

Interpretations of Swami Sri Yukteswar

Swami Sri Yukteswar Giri of Seramphore in his 1894 book The Holy Science corrected the traditional calculations
of the Yugas, explaining that from 1699 A.D. the world entered Dwapara Yuga, pointing to the Renaissance, growth
of democracies, scientific and industrial revolutions as clear evidence for the change. His themes were reiterated in
books by Sister Tara Mata, Paramhansa Yogananda and Walter Cruttenden, to growing public interest over the last
century.

Notes
The following are notes/references about the term Dwapara Yuga: [1]
[1] There are many various spellings naming the time period, using either letter v/w or dropping the ending "a" (also as "Yug"):
• Dvapara Yuga, Dvapara yuga, Dvapara-Yuga, Dvapara-yuga
• Dwapara Yuga, Dwapara yuga, Dwapara-Yuga, Dwapara-yuga
• Dvapar Yuga, Dvapar yuga, Dvapar-Yuga, Dvapar-yuga
• Dwapar Yuga, Dwapar yuga, Dwapar-Yuga, Dwapar-yuga
• Dvapar Yug,  Dvapar yug,  Dvapar-Yug,  Dvapar-yug
• Dwapar Yug, Dwapar yug, Dwapar-Yug, Dwapar-yug.

There might be other variations as well.

[2] Bhāgavata Purāṇa 12.2.29-33
Kali Yuga 1

Kali Yuga
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Kali Yuga (Devanāgarī: कलियुग [kəli juɡə], lit. "age of (the male demon) Kali", or "age of vice") is the last of the four
stages that the world goes through as part of the cycle of yugas described in the Indian scriptures. The other ages are
Satya Yuga, Treta Yuga and Dvapara Yuga. According to the Surya Siddhanta, an astronomical treatise that forms
the basis of all Hindu and Buddhist calendars, Kali Yuga began at midnight (00:00) on 18 February 3102 BCE [1] in
the proleptic Julian calendar, or 23 January 3102 BC in the proleptic Gregorian calendar. This date is also considered
by many Hindus to be the day that Krishna left earth to return to his abode. Most interpreters of Hindu scriptures
believe that earth is currently in Kali Yuga. Some, such as Swami Sri Yukteswar,[2] David Frawley,[3] and
Paramhansa Yogananda[4] believe that it is now near the beginning of Dvapara Yuga. The Kali Yuga is traditionally
thought to last 432,000 years.
Hindus believe that human civilization degenerates spiritually during the Kali Yuga,[5] which is referred to as the
Dark Age because in it people are as far removed as possible from God. Hinduism often symbolically represents
morality (dharma) as a bull. In Satya Yuga, the first stage of development, the bull has four legs, but in each age
morality is reduced by one quarter. By the age of Kali, morality is reduced to only a quarter of that of the golden age,
so that the bull of Dharma has only one leg.[6] [7]
Kali Yuga is associated with the apocalyptic demon Kali, not to be confused with the goddess Kālī (read as Kaalee)
(these are unrelated words in the Sanskrit language). The "Kali" of Kali Yuga means "strife, discord, quarrel, or
contention."
Kali Yuga 2

Attributes of Kali Yuga

A discourse by Markandeya in the Mahabharata identifies some of the attributes of Kali Yuga:

In relation to rulers
• Rulers will become unreasonable: they will levy taxes unfairly.
• Rulers will no longer see it as their duty to promote spirituality, or to protect their subjects: they will become a
danger to the world.
• People will start migrating, seeking countries where wheat and barley form the staple food source. But then, they
will also love their subjects so much that they will sacrifice their lives for them. This is what kaliyuga says.

In human relationships
• Avarice and wrath will be common. Humans will openly display animosity towards each other.
• Ignorance of dharma will occur.
• People will have thoughts of murder for no justification and they will see nothing wrong with that mind-set.
• Lust will be viewed as socially acceptable, and sexual intercourse will be seen as the central requirement of life.
• Sin will increase exponentially, whilst virtue will fade and cease to flourish.
• People will take vows only to break them soon after.
• People will become addicted to intoxicating drinks and drugs.
• Men will find their jobs stressful and will go to retreats to escape their work.
• Gurus will no longer be respected and their students will attempt to injure them. Their teachings will be insulted
and followers of Kama will wrest control of the mind from all human beings. Brahmins will not be learned and
honoured, Kshatriyas will not be brave, Vaishyas will not be just in dealings and shudras will not be honest and
humble to their duties and to the other castes.
Kali Yuga 3

A special 10,000 year period within Kali Yuga

The Brahma Vaivarta Purana mentions a ten thousand year period during which bhakti yogis will be present.[8]
Starting from the traditional dating of the Kali yuga epoch of February 18, 3102 BC/BCE.

The end of Kali Yuga

"When flowers will be begot within flowers, and fruits within fruits, then will the Yuga come to an end. And the
clouds will pour rain unseasonably when the end of the Yuga approaches."

Personification
Kali (Devanāgari: कलि) is the reigning lord of Kali Yuga and the
nemesis of Sri Kalki, who is the tenth and final avatar of Lord Vishnu.
According to the Vishnu Purana, Kali is a negative manifestation of
Vishnu who perpetually operates in this world as a cause of
destruction, along with his evil extended family.[9] Kali also serves as
an antagonistic force in the Kalki Purana. It is said that towards the end
of this yuga, Kalki will return riding on a white horse to do battle with
Kali and his dark forces. The world will suffer a fiery end which will
destroy all evil, and a new age, Satya Yuga, will begin.

Other interpretations of Kali Yuga and the

Yuga cycle
Other interpreters of the Hindu scriptures take a different view of the
Yuga cycle.
In David Frawley's opinion, the cycle of Yugas is much like the four
seasons. The planet gradually moves from one yuga to the next and
from one cycle to the next, without any sudden jump from Kali into
Satya Yuga. According to Frawley, historical evidence shows that Kali
Yuga ended around 1700 CE, changing at that time to Dwapara Yuga.
He also questions the traditional 432,000 year cycle.[3]
Kali (right) wielding a sword.
Like Frawley, Sri Yukteswar Giri maintains that we are currently in
Dwapara Yuga. According to him, the astronomers and astrologers who calculated the almanacs were guided by the
false annotations of certain Sanskrit scholars such as Kullu Bhatta. As a result, [they] falsely maintained that the
length of Kali Yuga is 432,000 years, of which 4994 would have elapsed as of 1894, leaving 427,006 years
remaining. Yukteswar Giri declares this "A dark prospect! And fortunately one not true." He himself offers an
astronomical explanation for a shorter cycle in which Kali Yuga lasts only 2,400 years (1,200 x 2 = one descending
Kali Yuga cycle + one ascending cycle). He argues that Dwapara Yuga is represented by the introduction of atomic
energy and electricity.[2]
Puranas 1

Puranas
For other meanings, see Purana
(disambiguation).
The Puranas (Sanskrit: पुराण purāṇa, "of
ancient times") are a genre of important
Hindu (or Jain and Buddhist) religious texts,
notably consisting of narratives of the
history of the universe from creation to
destruction, genealogies of kings, heroes,
sages, and demigods, and descriptions of
Hindu cosmology, philosophy, and
[1]
geography.
The Goddess Ambika or Durga Leading the Eight Matrikas in Battle Against the
Puranas usually give prominence to a Demon Raktabija, Folio from Devi Mahatmya, Markandeya Purana.
particular deity, employing an abundance of
religious and philosophical concepts. They are usually written in the form of stories related by one person to another.
The Puranas are available in vernacular translations and are disseminated by Brahmin scholars, who read from them
and tell their stories, usually in Katha sessions (in which a traveling brahmin settles for a few weeks in a temple and
narrates parts of a Purana, usually with a Bhakti perspective).

Origins
Vyasa, the narrator of the Mahabharata, is
traditionally considered the compiler of the
Puranas.[2] However, the earliest written
versions date from the time of the Gupta
Empire (third-fifth century CE) and much
material may be dated, through historical
references and other means, to this period
and the succeeding centuries. The texts were
probably written all over India.

The date of the production of the written

texts does not define the date of origin of the
An illustration of Varaha avatar based on the Bhagavata Purana
Puranas.[3] On one hand, they existed in
some oral form before being written[3] while
at the same time, they have been incrementally modified well into the 16th century[3] [4] and perhaps down to the
present day.

An early reference is found in the Chandogya Upanishad (7.1.2). (circa 500BCE.) The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad
refers to purana as the "fifth Veda"[5] , itihāsapurāṇaṃ pañcamaṃ vedānāṃ, reflecting the early religious
importance of these myths, presumably then in purely oral form. The term also appears in the Atharvaveda
11.7.24.[6] [7]
According to Pargiter,[6] the "original Purana" may date to the time of the final redaction of the Vedas. Gavin Flood
connects the rise of the written Purana historically with the rise of devotional cults centring upon a particular deity in
the Gupta era: the Puranic corpus is a complex body of materials that advance the views of various competing
cults.[8]
Puranas 2

Although these texts are related to each other, and material in one is found in another, they nevertheless
each present a view of ordering of the world from a particular perspective. They must not be seen as
random collections of old tales, but as highly selective and crafted expositions and presentations of
worldviews and soteriologies, compiled by particular groups of Brahmins to propagate a particular
vision, whether it be focused on Viṣṇu, Śiva, or Devī, or, indeed, any number of deities.
Common ideas are found throughout the corpus but it is not possible to trace the lines of influence of one Purana
upon another so the corpus is best viewed as a synchronous whole.[8]
The All India Kashiraj Trust, formed under Vibhuti Narayan Singh, the Maharaja of Kashi, dedicated itself to
publishing editions of the Puranas.[9]

Content
According to Matysa Purana,[10] they are said to narrate five subjects, called Pancha Lakshana pañcalakṣaṇa ("five
distinguishing marks", though some scholars have suggested that these are shared by other traditional religious
scriptures):[11] [12]
1. Sarga: the creation of the universe.
2. Pratisarga: secondary creations, mostly recreations after dissolution.
3. Vamśa: genealogy of the gods and sages.
4. Manvañtara: the creation of the human race and the first human beings. The epoch of the Manus' rule, 71 celestial
Yugas or 308,448,000 years.
5. Vamśānucaritam: the histories of the patriarchs of the lunar and solar dynasties.
The Puranas also lay emphasis on keeping a record of genealogies, as the Vayu Purana says, "to preserve the
genealogies of gods, sages and glorious kings and the traditions of great men."[13] The Puranic genealogies indicate,
for example, that Sraddhadeva Manu lived 95 generations before the Bharata war.[14] In Arrian's Indica,
Megasthenes is quoted as stating that the Indians counted from "Dionysos" (Shiva) to "Sandracottus" (Chandragupta
Maurya) "a hundred and fifty-three kings over six thousand and forty-three years."[15] The list of kings in Kalhana's
Rajatarangini goes back to the 19th century BCE.[16]
Pargiter has argued that the Puranic Krta Yuga—in the Vayu Purana the four Yugas are divided into 4800, 3600,
2400, and 1200 years—"ended with the destruction of the Haihayas [by Rama Jamadagnya]; the Treta began
approximately with Sagara and ended with Rama Dasarathi's destruction of the Raksasas; and the Dvapara began
with his reinstatement at Ayodhya and ended with the Bharata battle".[17] [18]

Texts

The Mahapuranas
Of the many texts designated 'Puranas' the most important are the Mahāpurāṇas. These are always said to be
eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six, though in fact they are not always counted in the same way.
Combining the various lists Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van Buitenen have collated twenty names:[19]
1. Agni (15,400 verses)
2. Bhagavata (18,000 verses). The most celebrated and popular of the Puranas,[20] telling of Vishnu's ten Avatars.
Its tenth and longest canto narrates the deeds of Krishna, introducing his childhood exploits, a theme later
elaborated by many Bhakti movements.[21]
3. Bhavishya (14,500 verses)
4. Brahma (24,000 verses)
5. Brahmanda (12,000 verses; includes Lalita Sahasranamam, a text some Hindus recite as prayer)
6. Brahmavaivarta (18,000 verses)
Puranas 3

7. Garuda (19,000 verses)

8. Harivamsa (16,000 verses; more often considered itihāsa)
9. Kurma (17,000 verses)
10. Linga (11,000 verses)
11. Markandeya (9,000 verses; includes Devi Mahatmyam, an important text for Shaktas)
12. Matsya (14,000 verses)
13. Narada (25,000 verses)
14. Padma (55,000 verses)
15. Shiva (24,000 verses)
16. Skanda (81,100 verses), the longest Purana, it is an extraordinarily meticulous pilgrimage guide, containing
geographical locations of pilgrimage centers in India, with related legends, parables, hymns and stories. Many
untraced quotes are attributed to this text.[22]
17. Vamana (10,000 verses)
18. Varaha (10,000 verses)
19. Vayu (24,000 verses)
20. Vishnu (23,000 verses)
The Mahapuranas are frequently classified according the three aspects of the divine Trimurti,
• Brahma Puranas: Brahma Purana, Brahmānda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Mārkandeya Purana, Bhavishya
Purana,
• Vishnu Puranas: Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Nāradeya Purana, Garuda Purana, Padma Purana, Varaha
Purana, Vāmana Purana, Kūrma Purana, Matsya Purana, Kalki Purana
• Shiva Puranas: Shiva Purana, Linga Purana, Skanda Purana, Agni Purana, Vāyu Purana
[23]

According to the Padma Purana,[24] the texts may be classified in accordance with the three gunas or qualities;
truth, passion, and ignorance:
• Sattva ("truth; purity"): Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Naradeya Purana, Garuda Purana, Padma Purana,
Varaha Purana
• Rajas ("dimness; passion"): Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Markandeya Purana, Bhavishya
Purana, Vamana Purana, Brahma Purana
• Tamas ("darkness; ignorance"): Matsya Purana, Kurma purana, Linga Purana, Shiva Purana, Skanda Purana, Agni
Purana

The Upapuranas
The Upapurāṇas are lesser or ancillary texts: these are sometimes also said to be eighteen in number, with still less
agreement as to the canonical titles. Few have been critically edited. They include: Sanat-kumara, Narasimha,
Brihan-naradiya, Siva-rahasya, Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya,
Parasara, Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, Ganesha, Mudgala, and Hamsa.[25]
The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are devoted to Ganesha.[26] [27] The Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which extols the
goddess Durga, has become (along with the Devi Mahatmya of the Mārkandeya Purana) a basic text for Devi
worshipers.[28]
There are many others all over the Indian subcontinent.[29]
Puranas 4

Sthala Puranas
This corpus of texts tells of the origins and traditions of particular Tamil Shiva temples or shrines. There are
numerous Sthala Puranas, most written in vernaculars, some with Sanskrit versions as well. The 275 Shiva Sthalams
of the continent have puranas for each, famously glorified in the Tamil literature Tevaram. Some appear in Sanskrit
versions in the Mahapuranas or Upapuranas. Some Tamil Sthala Puranas have been researched by David Dean
Shulman.[30]

Kula Puranas
These Puranas deal with a caste's origin myth, stories, and legends (the word kula means "family" or "tribe" in
Sanskrit). They are important sources for caste identity though usually contested by rival castes. This subgenre is
usually in the vernacular and may at times remain oral.[31] These have been little researched, though they are
documented in the caste section of the British Census of India Report and the various Gazetteers.[32]

Jain and Buddhist Puranas

Jain Puranas deal with Jain myths, history and legends and form a major part of early Kannada literature.[33] [34] The
best known is the Mahapurana of Acharya Jinasena. Among Buddhist Puranas, Swayambhu Purana narrates the
mythological history of Nepal and describes Buddhist pilgrimage sites inside the Kathmandu Valley.

References
• Bhargava, P.L. 1971. India in the Vedic Age. Lucknow: Upper India Publishing.
• Dimmitt, Cornelia; van Buitenen (1978). Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskirt Puranas.
Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 8170305969.
• Doniger, Wendy (editor) (1993). Purāṇa Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts.
Albany, New York: State University of New York. ISBN 0-7914-1382-9.
• Handoo, Jawaharlal (editor) (1998). Folklore in Modern India. ISBN 81-7342-055-6.
• Hardy, Friedhelm (2001). Viraha-Bhakti - The Early History of Krsna Devotion in South India.
ISBN 0-19-564916-8.</ref>
• Flood, Gavin (1996) (Book). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521433045.
• Johnson, W.J. (2009). A Dictionary of Hinduism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-861025-0.
• Kaushal, Molly (editor) (2001). Chanted Narratives - The Katha Vachana Tradition. ISBN 81-246-0182-8.
• Majumdar, R. C.; Pusalker, A. D. (1951). The history and culture of the Indian people. 1: The Vedic age.
Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
• Mackenzie, Brwon (1990). The Triumph of the Goddess - The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the
DevI-BhAgavata PuraNa. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-0363-7.</ref>
• Mittal, Sushil (2004). The Hindu World. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415215275.
• Moghe, S. G. (editor) (1997). Professor Kane's contribution to Dharmasastra literature. New Delhi: D.K.
Printworld (P) Ltd.. ISBN 81-246-0075-9.
• Monier-Williams, Monier (1899). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Oxford University Press.
• Pargiter, F.E. (1922). Ancient Indian Historical Tradition. London: Oxford University Press.
• Pargiter, F. E. (1962) (Book). Ancient Indian historical tradition. Original publisher Oxford University Press,
London. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass. OCLC 1068416.
• Rao, Velcheru Narayana (1993). "Purana as Brahminic Ideology". in Doniger Wendy (Book). Purana Perennis:
Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts. Albany: State University of New York Press.
ISBN 0-7914-1381-0.
• Shulman, David Dean (1980). Tamil Temple Myths: Sacrifice and Divine Marriage in the South Indian Saiva
Tradition. ISBN 0-691-06415-6.
Mahabharata 1

Mahabharata
The Mahabharata (Sanskrit
Mahābhārata महाभारत) is one of the two
major Sanskrit epics of ancient India,
the other being the Rāmāyaṇa. The
epic is part of the Hindu itihāsa (or
"history").

Besides its epic narrative of the

Kurukshetra War and the fates of the
Kauravas and the Pandavas, the
Mahabharata contains much
philosophical and devotional material,
such as a discussion of the four "goals
of life" or purusharthas (12.161). The
latter are enumerated as dharma (right
Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra
action), artha (purpose), kama
(pleasure), and moksha (liberation).
Among the principal works and stories
that are a part of the Mahabharata are
the Bhagavad Gita, the story of
Damayanti, an abbreviated version of
the Ramayana, and the Rishyasringa,
often considered as works in their own
right.

Traditionally, the authorship of the

Mahabharata is attributed to Vyasa.
There have been many attempts to
unravel its historical growth and
compositional layers. The earliest parts
of the text are not appreciably older
than around 400 BCE.[1] The text Krishna, Arjuna at Kurukshetra, 18-19th century painting.
probably reached its final form by the
early Gupta period (ca. 4th c. CE).[2] The title may be translated as "the great tale of the Bhārata dynasty". According
to the Mahabharata itself, the tale is extended from a shorter version of 24,000 verses called simply Bhārata.[3] .

With about one hundred thousand verses, long prose passages, or about 1.8 million words in total, the Mahabharata
is roughly ten times the length of the Iliad and Odyssey combined, or about four times the length of the Rāmāyaṇa.[4]
[5]
Mahabharata 2

Textual history and structure

The epic is traditionally ascribed to Vyasa, who is also a major
character in the epic. The first section of the Mahabharata states that it
was Ganesha who, at the request of Vyasa, wrote down the text to
Vyasa's dictation. Ganesha is said to have agreed to write it only on
condition that Vyasa never pause in his recitation. Vyasa agreed,
provided Ganesha took the time to understand what was said before
writing it down.

The epic employs the story within a story structure, otherwise known
as frametales, popular in many Indian religious and secular works. It is
recited to the King Janamejaya who is the great-grandson of Arjuna, by
Vaisampayana, a disciple of Vyasa. The recitation of Vaisampayana to
Janamejaya is then recited again by a professional storyteller named
Ugrasrava Sauti, many years later, to an assemblage of sages
Vyasa narrating the Mahabharata to Ganesha, his
performing the 12 year long sacrifice for King Saunaka Kulapati in the
scribe, Angkor Wat.
Naimisha forest.

Accretion and redaction

Research on the Mahabharata has put an enormous effort into recognizing and dating various layers within the text.
The background to the Mahabharata suggests a time "after the very early Vedic period" and before "the first Indian
'empire' was to rise in the third century B.C.," so "a date not too far removed from the eighth or ninth century
B.C."[6] It is generally agreed, however, that "Unlike the Vedas, which have to be preserved letter-perfect, the epic
was a popular work whose reciters would inevitably conform to changes in language and style."[6] The earliest
surviving components of this dynamic text are believed to be no older than the earliest external references we have to
the epic, which may include an allusion in Panini's fourth century grammar (Ashtādhyāyī 4:2:56).[1] [6] It is estimated
that the Sanskrit text probably reached something of a "final form" by the early Gupta period (about the 4th century
CE).[6] Vishnu Sukthankar, editor of the first great critical edition of the Mahabharata, commented: "It is useless to
think of reconstructing a fluid text in a literally original shape, on the basis of an archetype and a stemma codicum.
What then is possible? Our objective can only be to reconstruct the oldest form of the text which it is possible to
reach on the basis of the manuscript material available."[7] That manuscript evidence is somewhat late, given its
material composition and the climate of India, but it is very extensive.

The Mahabharata itself (1.1.61) distinguishes a core portion of 24,000 verses, the Bharata proper, as opposed to
additional secondary material, while the Ashvalayana Grhyasutra (3.4.4) makes a similar distinction. At least three
redactions of the text are commonly recognized: Jaya (Victory) with 8,800 verses attributed to Vyasa, Bharata with
24,000 verses as recited by Vaisampayana, and finally the Mahabharata as recited by Ugrasrava Sauti with over
100,000 verses.[8] [9] However, some scholars such as John Brockington, argue that Jaya and Bharata refer to the
same text, and ascribe the theory of Jaya with 8,800 verses to a misreading of a verse in Adiparvan (1.1.81).[10] The
redaction of this large body of text was carried out after formal principles, emphasizing the numbers 18[11] and 12.
The addition of the latest parts may be dated by the absence of the Anushasana-parva and "Virat-parva" from MS
Spitzer, the oldest surviving Sanskrit philosophical manuscript dated to Kushan Period (200 CE)[12] , that contains
among other things a list of the books in the Mahabharata. From this evidence, it is likely that the redaction into 18
books took place in the first century. An alternative division into 20 parvas appears to have co-existed for some time.
The division into 100 sub-parvas (mentioned in Mbh. 1.2.70) is older, and most parvas are named after one of their
constituent sub-parvas. The Harivamsa consists of the final two of the 100 sub-parvas, and was considered an
appendix (khila) to the Mahabharata proper by the redactors of the 18 parvas.
Mahabharata 3

According to what one character says at Mbh. 1.1.50, there were three versions of the epic, beginning with Manu
(1.1.27), Astika (1.3, sub-parva 5) or Vasu (1.57), respectively. These versions would correspond to the addition of
one and then another 'frame' settings of dialogues. The Vasu version would omit the frame settings and begin with
the account of the birth of Vyasa. The astika version would add the sarpasattra and ashvamedha material from
Brahmanical literature, introduce the name Mahabharata, and identify Vyasa as the work's author. The redactors of
these additions were probably Pancharatrin scholars who according to Oberlies (1998) likely retained control over
the text until its final redaction. Mention of the Huna in the Bhishma-parva however appears to imply that this parva
may have been edited around the 4th century.
The Adi-parva includes the snake sacrifice (sarpasattra) of
Janamejaya, explaining its motivation, detailing why all snakes in
existence were intended to be destroyed, and why in spite of this, there
are still snakes in existence. This sarpasattra material was often
considered an independent tale added to a version of the Mahabharata
by "thematic attraction" (Minkowski 1991), and considered to have a
particularly close connection to Vedic (Brahmana) literature. The
Panchavimsha Brahmana (at 25.15.3) enumerates the officiant priests
of a sarpasattra among whom the names Dhrtarashtra and Janamejaya,
two main characters of the Mahabharata's sarpasattra, as well as
Takshaka, the name of a snake in the Mahabharata, occur.[13]

The state of the text has been described by some early 20th century
Indologists as unstructured and chaotic. Hermann Oldenberg supposed
that the original poem must once have carried an immense "tragic
force", but dismissed the full text as a "horrible chaos."[14] The
judgement of other early 20th century Indologists was even less The snake sacrifice of Janamejaya
favourable. Moritz Winternitz (Geschichte der indischen Literatur
1909) considered that "only unpoetical theologists and clumsy scribes" could have lumped the various parts of
disparate origin into an unordered whole.

Historical references
The earliest known references to the Mahabharata and its core Bharata date back to the Ashtadhyayi (sutra 6.2.38)
of Pāṇini (fl. 4th century BCE), and in the Ashvalayana Grhyasutra (3.4.4). This may suggest that the core 24,000
verses, known as the Bharata, as well as an early version of the extended Mahabharata, were composed by the 4th
century BCE.
A report by the Greek writer Dio Chrysostom (ca. 40-ca. 120 CE) about Homer's poetry being sung even in India[15]
seems to imply that the Iliad had been translated into Sanskrit. However, scholars have, in general, taken this as
evidence for the existence of a Mahabharata at this date, whose episodes Dio or his sources syncretistically identify
with the story of the Iliad.[16]
Mahabharata has enjoyed references on a continuous basis both in literary and popular culture of India, since ancient
times. Several stories within the Mahabharata have been debated so intensely that they have taken separate identities
of their own. For instance, Abhijñānashākuntala by the renowned Sanskrit poet Kālidāsa (ca. 400 CE), believed to
have lived in the era of the Gupta dynasty, is based on a story that is the precursor to the Mahabharata. Urubhanga, a
Sanskrit play written by Bhāsa who is believed to have lived before Kālidāsa, is based on the slaying of Duryodhana
by the splitting of his thighs by Bhima.
Later, the copper-plate inscription of the Maharaja Sharvanatha (533-534 CE) from Khoh (Satna District, Madhya
Pradesh) describes the Mahabharata as a "collection of 100,000 verses" (shatasahasri samhita).
Mahabharata 4

The 18 parvas
The division into 18 parvas is as follows:

Parva title sub-parvas contents

1 Adi Parva (The Book of the 1-19 How the Mahabharata came to be narrated by Sauti to the assembled rishis at Naimisharanya.
Beginning) The recital of the Mahabharata at the sarpasattra of Janamejaya by Vaishampayana at
Takṣaśilā. The history of the Bharata race is told in detail and the parva also traces history of
the Bhrigu race. The birth and early life of the Kuru princes. (adi means first)

2 Sabha Parva (The Book of the 20-28 Maya Danava erects the palace and court (sabha), at Indraprastha. Life at the court,
Assembly Hall) Yudhishthira's Rajasuya Yajna, the game of dice, and the eventual exile of the Pandavas.

3 Vana Parva also 29-44 The twelve years of exile in the forest (aranya).
Aranyaka-parva,
Aranya-parva (The Book of
the Forest)

4 Virata Parva (The Book of 45-48 The year in incognito spent at the court of Virata.
Virata)

5 Udyoga Parva (The Book of 49-59 Preparations for war and efforts to bring about peace between the Kurus and the Pandavas
the Effort) which eventually fail (udyoga means effort or work).

6 Bhishma Parva (The Book of 60-64 The first part of the great battle, with Bhishma as commander for the Kauravas and his fall on
Bhishma) the bed of arrows.

7 Drona Parva (The Book of 65-72 The battle continues, with Drona as commander. This is the major book of the war. Most of the
Drona) great warriors on both sides are dead by the end of this book.

8 Karna Parva (The Book of 73 The battle again, with Karna as commander.
Karna)

9 Shalya Parva (The Book of 74-77 The last day of the battle, with Shalya as commander. Also told in detail is the pilgrimage of
Shalya) Balarama to the fords of the river Saraswati and the mace fight between Bhima and
Duryodhana which ends the war, since Bhima kills Duryodhana by smashing him on the thighs
with a mace.

10 Sauptika Parva (The Book of 78-80 Ashvattama, Kripa and Kritavarma kill the remaining Pandava army in their sleep. Only 7
the Sleeping Warriors) warriors remain on the Pandava side and 3 on the Kaurava side.

11 Stri Parva (The Book of the 81-85 Gandhari, Kunti and the women (stri) of the Kurus and Pandavas lament the dead.
Women)

12 Shanti Parva (The Book of 86-88 The crowning of Yudhisthira as king of Hastinapura, and instructions from Bhishma for the
Peace) newly anointed king on society, economics and politics. This is the longest book of the
Mahabharata (shanti means peace).

13 Anushasana Parva (The Book 89-90 The final instructions (anushasana) from Bhishma.
of the Instructions)

14 91-92 The royal ceremony of the Ashvamedha (Horse sacrifice) conducted by Yudhisthira. The world
Ashvamedhika Parva (The
conquest by Arjuna. The Anugita is told by Krishna to Arjuna.
Book of the Horse
[17]
Sacrifice)

15 Ashramavasika Parva (The 93-95 The eventual deaths of Dhritarashtra, Gandhari and Kunti in a forest fire when they are living
Book of the Hermitage) in a hermitage in the Himalayas. Vidura predeceases them and Sanjaya on Dhritarashtra's
bidding goes to live in the higher Himalayas.

16 Mausala Parva (The Book of 96 The infighting between the Yadavas with maces (mausala) and the eventual destruction of the
the Clubs) Yadavas.

17 Mahaprasthanika Parva (The 97 The great journey of Yudhisthira and his brothers across the whole country and finally their
Book of the Great Journey) ascent of the great Himalayas where each Pandava falls except for Yudhisthira.
Mahabharata 5

18 Svargarohana Parva (The 98 Yudhisthira's final test and the return of the Pandavas to the spiritual world (svarga).
Book of the Ascent to
Heaven)

khila Harivamsa Parva (The Book 99-100 Life of Krishna which is not covered in the 18 parvas of the Mahabharata.
of the Genealogy of Hari)

Historical context
The historicity of the Kurukshetra War is
unclear. Some historians like A L Basham
estimate the date of the Kurukshetra war to
Iron Age India of the 10th century BCE.[18]
Other historians like M Witzel have
corroborated that the general setting of the
epic has a historical precedent in Iron Age
(Vedic) India, where the Kuru kingdom was
the center of political power during roughly
1200 to 800 BCE.[19] A dynastic conflict of
the period could have been the inspiration
for the Jaya, the foundation on which the
Mahabharata corpus was built, with a
climactic battle eventually coming to be
viewed as an epochal event.

Puranic literature presents genealogical lists

associated with the Mahabharata narrative.
The evidence of the Puranas is of two kinds.
Of the first kind, there is the direct statement
that there were 1015 (or 1050) years
between the birth of Parikshit (Arjuna's
grandson) and the accession of Mahapadma English language map of "Bharatvarsha" (Kingdom of India) during the era of the
Mahabharata and Ramayana.
Nanda, commonly dated to 382 BCE, which
would yield an estimate of about 1400 BCE
for the Bharata battle.[20] However, this would imply improbably long reigns on average for the kings listed in the
genealogies.[21] Of the second kind are analyses of parallel genealogies in the Puranas between the times of
Adhisimakrishna (Parikshit's great-grandson) and Mahapadma Nanda. Pargiter accordingly estimated 26 generations
by averaging 10 different dynastic lists and, assuming 18 years for the average duration of a reign, arrived at an
estimate of 850 BCE for Adhisimakrishna, and thus approximately 950 BCE for the Bharata battle.[22]

B. B. Lal used the same approach with a more conservative assumption of the average reign to estimate a date of 836
BCE, and correlated this with archaeological evidence from Painted Grey Ware sites, the association being strong
between PGW artifacts and places mentioned in the epic.[23]
Attempts to date the events using methods of archaeoastronomy have produced, depending on which passages are
chosen and how they are interpreted, estimates ranging from the late 4th to the mid 2nd millennium BCE.[24] The
late 4th millennium date has a precedent in the calculation of the Kaliyuga epoch, based on planetary conjunctions,
by Aryabhata (6th century). His date of February 18 3102 BCE has become widespread in Indian tradition (for
example, the Aihole inscription of Pulikeshi II, dated to Saka 556 = 634 CE, claims that 3735 years have elapsed
since the Bharata battle.[25] ) Another traditional school of astronomers and historians, represented by
Mahabharata 6

Vriddha-Garga, Varahamihira (author of the Brhatsamhita) and Kalhana (author of the Rajatarangini), place the
Bharata war 653 years after the Kaliyuga epoch, corresponding to 2449 BCE.[26]

Synopsis
The core story of the work is that of a dynastic struggle for the throne of Hastinapura, the kingdom ruled by the Kuru
clan. The two collateral branches of the family that participate in the struggle are the Kaurava and the Pandava.
Although the Kaurava is the senior branch of the family, Duryodhana, the eldest Kaurava, is younger than
Yudhisthira, the eldest Pandava. Both Duryodhana and Yudhisthira claim to be first in line to inherit the throne.
The struggle culminates in the great battle of Kurukshetra, in which the Pandavas are ultimately victorious. The
battle produces complex conflicts of kinship and friendship, instances of family loyalty and duty taking precedence
over what is right, as well as the converse.
The Mahabharata itself ends with the death of Krishna, and the subsequent end of his dynasty and ascent of the
Pandava brothers to heaven. It also marks the beginning of the Hindu age of Kali (Kali Yuga), the fourth and final
age of mankind, in which great values and noble ideas have crumbled, and man is heading toward the complete
dissolution of right action, morality and virtue.
Arshia Sattar states that the central theme of the Mahabharata, as well as the Ramayana, is respectively Krishna's and
Rama's hidden divinity and its progressive revelation.[27]

The older generations

Janamejaya's ancestor Shantanu, the king of Hastinapura, has a
short-lived marriage with the goddess Ganga and has a son,
Devavrata (later to be called Bhishma), who becomes the heir
apparent. Many years later, when King Shantanu goes hunting, he
sees Satyavati, the daughter of a fisherman, and asks her father for
her hand. Her father refuses to consent to the marriage unless
Shantanu promises to make any future son of Satyavati the king
upon his death. To resolve his father's dilemma, Devavrata agrees
to relinquish his right to the throne. As the fisherman is not sure
about the prince's children honouring the promise, Devavrata also
takes a vow of lifelong celibacy to guarantee his father's promise.

Shantanu has two sons by Satyavati, Chitrangada and

Vichitravirya. Upon Shantanu's death, Chitrangada becomes king.
He lives a very short uneventful life and dies. Vichitravirya, the
younger son, rules Hastinapura. Meanwhile, the King of Kāśī
arranges a swayamvara for his three daughters, neglecting to invite
the royal family of Hastinapur. In order to arrange the marriage of
young Vichitravirya, Bhishma attends the swayamvara of the three
Shantanu woos Satyavati, the fisherwoman. Painting
princesses Amba, Ambika and Ambalika, uninvited, and proceeds
by Raja Ravi Varma.
to abduct them. Ambika and Ambalika consent to be married to
Vichtravirya.

The oldest princess Amba, however, informs Bhishma that she wishes to marry Shalvaraj (king of Shalva) whom
Bhishma defeated at their swayamvar. Bhishma lets her leave to marry
Mahabharata 7

Shalvaraj, but Shalvaraj refuses to marry her, still smarting at his

humiliation at the hands of Bhishma. Amba then returns to marry
Bhishma but he refuses due to his vow of celibacy. Amba becomes
enraged and becomes Bhishma's bitter enemy, holding him
responsible for her plight. Later she is reborn to King Drupada as
Shikhandi (or Shikhandini) and causes Bhishma's fall, with the
help of Arjuna, in the battle of Kurukshetra.

The Pandava and Kaurava princes

When Vichitravirya dies young without any heirs, Satyavati asks
her first son Vyasa to father children with the widows. The eldest,
Ambika, shuts her eyes when she sees him, and so her son
Dhritarashtra is born blind. Ambalika turns pale and bloodless
upon seeing him, and thus her son Pandu is born pale and
unhealthy (the term Pandu may also mean 'jaundiced'[28] ). Due to
the physical challenges of the first two children, Satyavati asks
Vyasa to try once again. However, Ambika and Ambalika send Bhishma's Oath, a painting
their maid instead, to Vyasa's room. Vyasa fathers a third son, by Raja Ravi Varma
Vidura, by the maid. He is born healthy and grows up to be one of
the wisest characters in the Mahabharata. He serves as Prime Minister (Mahamantri or Mahatma) to King Pandu and
King Dhritarashtra.

When the princes grow up, Dhritarashtra is about to be crowned king by Bhishma when Vidura intervenes and uses
his knowledge of politics to assert that a blind person cannot be king. This is because a blind man cannot control and
protect his subjects. The throne is then given to Pandu because of Dhritarashtra's blindness. Pandu marries twice, to
Kunti and Madri. Dhritarashtra marries Gandhari, a princess from Gandhara, who blindfolds herself so that she may
feel the pain that her husband feels. Her brother Shakuni is enraged by this and vows to take revenge on the Kuru
family. One day, when Pandu is relaxing in the forest, he hears the sound of a wild animal. He shoots an arrow in the
direction of the sound. However the arrow hits the sage Kindama, who curses him that if he engages in a sexual act,
he will die. Pandu then retires to the forest along with his two wives, and his brother Dhritarashtra rules thereafter,
despite his blindness.
Pandu's older queen Kunti, however, had been given a
boon by Sage Durvasa that she could invoke any god
using a special mantra. Kunti uses this boon to ask
Dharma the god of justice, Vayu the god of the wind,
and Indra the lord of the heavens for sons. She gives
birth to three sons, Yudhisthira, Bhima, and Arjuna,
through these gods. Kunti shares her mantra with the
younger queen Madri, who bears the twins Nakula and
The central figure is Yudhishthira; the two to his left are Bhima and
Sahadeva through the Ashwini twins. However, Pandu
Arjuna. Nakula and Sahadeva, the twins, are to his right. Their wife,
and Madri indulge in sex, and Pandu dies. Madri dies at far right, is Draupadi. Deogarh, Dasavatar temple.
on his funeral pyre out of remorse. Kunti raises the five
brothers, who are from then on usually referred to as the Pandava brothers.

Dhritarashtra has a hundred sons through Gandhari, all born after the birth of Yudhishtira. These are the Kaurava
brothers, the eldest being Duryodhana, and the second Dushasana. Other Kaurava brothers were Vikarna and
Sukarna. The rivalry and enmity between them and the Pandava brothers, from their youth and into manhood, leads
Mahabharata 8

to the Kurukshetra war.

Lākṣagṛha (The House of Lac)

After the deaths of their mother (Madri) and father (Pandu), the Pandavas and their mother Kunti return to the palace
of Hastinapur. Yudhisthira is made Crown Prince by Dhritarashtra, under considerable pressure from his kingdom.
Dhritarashtra wanted his own son Duryodhana to become king and lets his ambition get in the way of preserving
justice.
Shakuni, Duryodhana and Dusasana plot to get rid of the Pandavas. Shakuni calls the architect Purvanchan to build a
palace out of flammable materials like lac and ghee. He then arranges for the Pandavas and the Queen Mother Kunti
to stay there, with the intention of setting it alight. However, the Pandavas are warned by their wise uncle, Vidura,
who sends them a miner to dig a tunnel. They are able to escape to safety and go into hiding. Back at Hastinapur, the
Pandavas and Kunti are presumed dead.[29]

Marriage to Draupadi
During the course of their hiding the Pandavas learn of a swayamvara
which is taking place for the hand of the Pāñcāla princess Draupadī.
The Pandavas enter the competition in disguise as Brahmins. The task
is to string a mighty steel bow and shoot a target on the ceiling, which
is the eye of a moving artificial fish, while looking at its reflection in
oil below. Most of the princes fail, many being unable to lift the bow.
Arjuna succeeds however. The Pandavas return home and inform their
mother that Arjuna has won a competition and to look at what they
have brought back. Without looking, Kunti asks them to share
whatever it is Arjuna has won among themselves. Thus Draupadi ends
up being the wife of all five brothers.

Indraprastha
After the wedding, the Pandava brothers are invited back to
Hastinapura. The Kuru family elders and relatives negotiate and broker
a split of the kingdom, with the Pandavas obtaining a new territory.
Yudhishtira has a new capital built for this territory at Indraprastha. Arjuna piercing the eye of the fish

Neither the Pandava nor Kaurava sides are happy with the arrangement
however.

Shortly after this, Arjuna elopes with and then marries Krishna's sister, Subhadra. Yudhishtira wishes to establish his
position as king; he seeks Krishna's advice. Krishna advises him, and after due preparation and the elimination of
some opposition, Yudhishthira carries out the rājasūya yagna ceremony; he is thus recognised as pre-eminent among
kings.
The Pandavas have a new palace built for them, by Maya the Danava.[30] They invite their Kaurava cousins to
Indraprastha. Duryodhana walks round the palace, and mistakes a glossy floor for water, and will not step in. After
being told of his error, he then sees a pond, and assumes it is not water and falls in. Draupadi laughs at him and
ridicules him by saying that this is because of his blind father Dhritrashtra. He then decides to avenge his
humiliation.
Mahabharata 9

The dice game

Shakuni, Duryodhana's uncle, now arranges
a dice game, playing against Yudhishtira
with loaded dice. Yudhishtira loses all his
wealth, then his kingdom. He then even
gambles his brothers, himself, and finally
his wife into servitude. The jubilant
Kauravas insult the Pandavas in their
helpless state and even try to disrobe
Draupadi in front of the entire court, but her
honour is saved by Krishna who
miraculously creates lengths of cloth to
replace the ones being removed.
Dhritarashtra, Bhishma, and the other elders
Draupadi humiliated. Painting by Raja Ravi Varma.
are aghast at the situation, but Duryodhana
is adamant that there is no place for two
crown princes in Hastinapura. Against his wishes Dhritarashtra orders for another dice game. The Pandavas are
required to go into exile for 12 years, and in the 13th year must remain hidden. If discovered by the Kauravas, they
will be forced into exile for another 12 years.

Exile and return

The Pandavas spend thirteen years in exile; many adventures occur during this time. They also prepare alliances for a
possible future conflict. They spend their final year in disguise in the court of Virata, and are discovered just after the
end of the year.
At the end of their exile, they try to negotiate a return to Indraprastha. However, this fails, as Duryodhana objects
that they were discovered while in hiding, and that no return of their kingdom was agreed. War becomes inevitable.
Mahabharata 10

The battle at Kurukshetra

The two sides summon vast armies to their help, and line
up at Kurukshetra for a war. The Kingdoms of Panchala,
Dwaraka, Kasi, Kekaya, Magadha, Matsya, Chedi, Pandya,
Telinga, and the Yadus of Mathura and some other clans
like the Parama Kambojas were allied with the Pandavas.
The allies of the Kauravas included the kings of
Pragjyotisha, Anga, Kekaya, Sindhudesa (including
Sindhus, Sauviras and Sivis), Mahishmati, Avanti in
Madhyadesa, Madra, Gandhara, Bahlikas, Kambojas and
many others. Prior to war being declared, Balarama, had
expressed his unhappiness at the developing conflict, and
left to go on pilgrimage, thus he does not take part in the
battle itself. Krishna takes part in a non-combatant role, as
charioteer for Arjuna.

Before the battle, Arjuna, seeing himself facing his great

grandfather Bhishma and his teacher Drona on the other
side, has doubts about the battle and he fails to lift his
Gāndeeva bow. Krishna wakes him up to his call of duty in
the famous Bhagavad Gita section of the epic.
Though initially sticking to chivalrous notions of warfare,
both sides soon adopt dishonourable tactics. At the end of
the 18-day battle, only the Pandavas, Satyaki, Kripa,
Bhishma on his death-bed of arrows with the Pandavas and
Ashwathama, Kritavarma, Yuyutsu and Krishna survive.
Krishna. Folio from the Razmnama (1761 - 1763), Persian
translation of the Mahabharata, commissioned by Mughal
The end of the Pandavas emperor Akbar. The Pandavas are dressed in Persian armour and
[31]
robes.
After "seeing" the carnage, Gandhari who had lost all her
sons, curses Krishna to be a witness to a similar annihilation of his family, for though divine and capable of stopping
the war, he had not done so. Krishna accepts the curse, which bears fruit 36 years later.
The Pandavas who had ruled their kingdom meanwhile, decide to renounce everything. Clad in skins and rags they
retire to the Himalaya and climb towards heaven in their bodily form. A stray dog travels with them. One by one the
brothers and Draupadi fall on their way. As each one stumbles, Yudhishitra gives the rest the reason for their fall
(Draupadi was partial to Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva were vain and proud of their looks, Bhima and Arjuna were
proud of their strength and archery skills, respectively). Only the virtuous Yudhisthira, who had tried everything to
prevent the carnage, and the dog remain. The dog reveals himself to be the god Yama (also known as Yama
Dharmaraja), and then takes him to the underworld where he sees his siblings and wife. After explaining the nature
of the test, Yama takes Yudhishthira back to heaven and explains that it was necessary to expose him to the
underworld because (Rajyante narakam dhruvam) any ruler has to visit the underworld at least once. Yama then
assures him that his siblings and wife would join him in heaven after they had been exposed to the underworld for
measures of time according to their vices.

Arjuna's grandson Parikshit rules after them and dies bitten by a snake. His furious son, Janamejaya, decides to
perform a snake sacrifice (sarpasattra) in order to destroy the snakes. It is at this sacrifice that the tale of his
ancestors is narrated to him.
Mahabharata 11

Versions, translations, and derivative works

Many regional versions of the work developed over time, mostly differing only in minor details, or with verses or
subsidiary stories being added. These include some versions from outside the Indian subcontinent, such as the
Kakawin Bharatayuddha from Java. The plays of the Tamil street theatre, terukkuttu, use themes from the Tamil
language versions of Mahabharata, focusing on Draupadi.[32]

Critical Edition
Between 1919 and 1966, scholars at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune, compared the various
manuscripts of the epic from India and abroad and produced the Critical Edition of the Mahabharata, on 13,000
pages in 19 volumes, followed by the Harivamsha in another two volumes and six index volumes. This is the text
that is usually used in current Mahabharata studies for reference.[33] This work is sometimes called the 'Pune' or
'Poona' edition of the Mahabharata.

Modern interpretations
The Tamil writer S. Ramakrishnan has written a critically
acclaimed book based on the Mahabharata called "Uba
Paandavam". It discusses the story in a non-linear manner from a
traveller's point of view.
The Kannada novelist S.L. Bhyrappa wrote a novel in Kannada
(now translated into most Indian languages and English) titled
Parva, giving a new interpretation to the story of Mahabharata. He
tried to understand the social and ethical practices in these regions
and correlate them with the story of Mahabharata.
Malayalam writer M. T. Vasudevan Nair's novel Randamoozham
(English: Second Turn) tells the Mahabharata from Bhima's point
of view. Mrityunjay (English: Triumph Over Death) written by
Shivaji Sawant is a novel with Karna as the central character of
Mahabharata.
In Indian cinema, several film versions of the epic exist, dating
back to 1920.[34] The internationally acclaimed parallel Bengali
film director Satyajit Ray also intended to direct a theatrical
adaptation of the epic, but the project was never realized.[35]
In the late 1980s, the Mahabharat TV series, directed by Ravi Krishna as depicted in Yakshagana from Karnataka
[36] which is based largely on stories of Mahabharata
Chopra, was televised and shown on India's national television
(Doordarshan). In the Western world, a well-known presentation
of the epic is Peter Brook's nine-hour play, which premiered in Avignon in 1985, and its five-hour movie version The
Mahabharata (1989).[37]
Among literary reinterpretations of the Mahabharata the most famous is arguably Sashi Tharoor's major work
entitled The Great Indian Novel, an involved literary, philosophical, and political novel which superimposes the
major moments of post-independence India in the 20th century onto the driving events of the Mahabharata epic.
Mahabharata was also reinterpreted by Shyam Benegal in Kalyug. Kalyug is a modern-day replaying of the
Mahabharata.[38]
Western interpretations of the Mahabharata include William Buck's Mahabharata and Elizabeth Seeger's Five Sons
of King Pandu.
Mahabharata 12

English translations
The first complete English translation was the Victorian prose version by Kisari Mohan Ganguli,[39] published
between 1883 and 1896 (Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers) and by M. N. Dutt (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers).
Most critics consider the translation by Ganguli to be faithful to the original text. The complete text of Ganguli's
translation is in the public domain and is available online.[40]
Another English prose translation of the full epic, based on the Critical Edition, is also in progress, published by
University Of Chicago Press, initiated by Chicago Indologist J. A. B. van Buitenen (books 1-5) and, following a
20-year hiatus caused by the death of van Buitenen, is being continued by D. Gitomer of DePaul University (book
6), J. L. Fitzgerald of Brown University (books 11-13) and Wendy Doniger of the University of Chicago (books
14-18).
A poetic "transcreation" (author's own description) of the full epic into English, done by the poet P. Lal is complete,
and in 2005 began being published by Writers Workshop, Calcutta. The P. Lal translation is a non-rhyming
verse-by-verse rendering, and is the only edition in any language to include all slokas in all recensions of the work
(not just those in the Critical Edition). The completion of the publishing project is scheduled for 2010. Sixteen of the
eighteen volumes are now available.
A project to translate the full epic into English prose, translated by various hands, began to appear in 2005 from the
Clay Sanskrit Library, published by New York University Press. The translation is based not on the Critical Edition
but on the version known to the commentator Nīlakaṇṭha. Currently available are 15 volumes of the projected
32-volume edition.
Indian economist Bibek Debroy has also begun an unabridged English translation in ten volumes. Volume 1: Adi
Parva [41] was published in March 2010.

Abridged versions
Many condensed versions, abridgements and novelistic prose retellings of the complete epic have been published in
English, including work by William Buck, R.K. Narayan, C. Rajagopalachari, Krishna Dharma, Romesh C. Dutt,
and Bharadvaja Sarma.
A Kawi version is found on the Indonesian island of Bali and was translated by Dr. I. Gusti Putu Phalgunadi. Of the
eighteen parvas, only eight Kawi manuscripts remain.

Jain version
Jain version of Mahabharata can be
found in the various Jain texts like
Harivamsapurana (the story of
Harivamsa) Trisastisalakapurusa
Caritra (Hagiography of 63 Illustrious
persons), Pandavacaritra (lives of
Pandavas) and Pandavapurana (stories
of Pandavas).[42] From the earlier
canonical literature, Antakrddaaśāh
(8th cannon) and Vrisnidasa
(upangagama or secondary canon)
contain the stories of Neminatha (22nd Depiction of wedding procession of Lord Neminatha. The enclosure shows the animals
Tirthankara), Krishna and that are to be slaughtered for food for weddings. Overcome with Compassion for animals,
Neminatha refused to marry and renounced his kingdom to become a Shramana
Mahabharata 13

Balarama.[43] Prof. Padmanabh Jaini notes that, unlike in the Hindu Puranas, the names Baladeva and Vasudeva are
not restricted to Balarama and Krishna in Jain puranas. Instead they serve as names of two distinct class of mighty
brothers, who appear nine times in each half of time cycles of the Jain cosmology and rule the half the earth as
half-chakravartins. Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to the Jinacharitra by Bhadrabahu swami (3-4
century BCE).[44] According to Jain cosmology Balarama, Krishna and Jarasandha are the ninth and the last set of
Baladeva, Vasudeva, and Partivasudeva.[45] The main battle is not the Mahabharata, but the fight between Krishna
and Jarasandha who is killed by Krishna. Ultimately, the Pandavas and Balarama take renunciation as Jain monks
and are reborn in heavens, while on the other hand Krishna and Jarasandha are reborn in hell.[46] In keeping with the
law of karma, Krishna is reborn in hell for his exploits (sexual and violent) while Jarasandha for his evil ways. Jaini
admits a possibility that perhaps because of his popularity, the Jain authors were keen to rehabilitate Krishna. The
Jain texts predict that after his karmic term in hell is over sometime during the next half time-cycle, Krishna will be
reborn as a Jain Tirthankara and attain liberation.[47] Krishna and Balrama are shown as contemporaries and cousins
of 22nd Tirthankara, Neminatha.[48] According to this story, Krishna arranged young Neminath’s marriage with
Rajamati, the daughter of Ugrasena, but Neminatha, empathizing with the animals which were to be slaughtered for
the marriage feast, left the procession suddenly and renounced the world.[49]

Kuru family tree

Kurua

Gangā Satyavati Pārāshara

Shāntanua

Bhishma Vyāsa

Ambikā Vichitravirya Ambālikā Chitrāngada

Gāndhāri Shakuni Kunti Mādri

Dhritarāshtrab Pāndub

Subhadrā
Karnac Yudhishthirad Bhimad Arjunad Nakulad Sahadevad

Dussalā Dushāsana (98 sons)

Duryodhanae
Abhimanyu Uttarā

Parikshit

Janamejaya

Key to Symbols
• Male: blue border
• Female: red border
• Pandavas: green box
• Kauravas: yellow box
Notes
• a: Santanu was a king of the Kuru dynasty or kingdom, and was some generations removed from any ancestor
called Kuru. His marriage to Ganga preceded his marriage to Satyavati.
• b: Pandu and Dhritarashtra were fathered by Vyasa after Vichitravirya's death. Dhritarashtra, Pandu and Vidura
were the sons of Vyasa with Ambika, Ambalika and a maid servant respectively.
• c: Karna was born to Kunti through her invocation of Surya, before her marriage to Pandu.
Mahabharata 14

• d: The Pandavas were acknowledged sons of Pandu but were begotten by Kunti's invocation of various deities.
They all married Draupadi (not shown in tree). In particular:
• Yama or Dharma (Dharmadeva), for Yudhishtira
• Vayu, for Bhima
• Indra for Arjuna
• The twins, Nakula and Sahadeva were born to Madri through her invocation of The Ashvins
• e: Duryodhana and his siblings were born at the same time, and they were of the same generation as their Pandava
cousins.
The birth order of siblings is correctly shown in the family tree (from left to right), except for Vyasa and Bhishma
whose birth order is not described, and Vichitravirya who was born after them. The fact that Ambika and Ambalika
are sisters is not shown in the family tree. The birth of Duryodhana took place after the birth of Karna, Yudhishtira
and Bhima, but before the birth of the remaining Pandava brothers.
Some siblings of the characters shown here have been left out for clarity; these include Chitrangada, the eldest
brother of Vichitravirya. Vidura, half-brother to Dhritarashtra and Pandu.

Cultural influence
In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and prince and elaborates on different
Yogic[50] and Vedantic philosophies, with examples and analogies. This has led to the Gita often being described as
a concise guide to Hindu philosophy and a practical, self-contained guide to life.[51] In modern times, Swami
Vivekananda, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi and many others used the text to help inspire the Indian
independence movement.[52] [53]

See also
• Ahilawati
• Kingdoms of Ancient India
• Kakawin Bhāratayuddha
• Kodungallur Kunjikkuttan Thampuran
• Ramayana
• Mahabharat (TV series)
• Mahabharat (1965 film)

References
• Chaturvedi Badrinath, The Mahabharata : An Inquiry in the Human Condition, New Delhi, Orient Longman
(2006)
• Bandyopadhyaya, Jayantanuja (2008). Class and Religion in Ancient India [54]. Anthem Press.
• Basham, A. L. (1954). The Wonder That Was India: A Survey of the Culture of the Indian Sub-Continent Before
The Coming of the Muslims. New York: Grove Press.
• J. Brockington, The Sanskrit Epics, Leiden (1998).
• Buitenen, Johannes Adrianus Bernardus (1978). The Mahābhārata [55]. 3 volumes. University of Chicago Press.
• Hiltebeitel, Alf. The Ritual of Battle, Krishna in the Mahabharata, SUNY Press, New York 1990.
• E. W. Hopkins, The Great Epic of India, New York (1901).
• Keay, John (2000). India: A History. Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0.
• H. Oldenberg, Zur Geschichte der Altindischen Prosa, Berlin (1917)
• Jyotirmayananda Swami, Mysticism of the Mahabharata, Yoga Research Foundation, Miami 1993.
• Pāṇini. Ashtādhyāyī. Book 4 [56]. Translated by Chandra Vasu. Benares, 1896. (Sanskrit)(English)
Ramayana 1

Ramayana
The Ramayana (Devanāgarī: रामायण, Rāmāyaṇa) is an
ancient Sanskrit epic. It is attributed to the Hindu sage
Valmiki and forms an important part of the Hindu
canon (smṛti). The Ramayana is one of the two great
epics of India, the other being the Mahabharata.[1] It
depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal
characters like the ideal servant, the ideal brother, the
ideal wife and the ideal king.

The name Ramayana is a tatpurusha compound of

Rāma and ayana ("going, advancing"), translating to
"Rama's Journey". The Ramayana consists of 24,000
verses in seven books (kāṇḍas) and 500 cantos
(sargas),[2] and tells the story of Rama (an incarnation
of the Hindu preserver-God Vishnu), whose wife Sita is
abducted by the demon king of Lanka, Ravana.
Thematically, the epic explores the tenets of human
existence and the concept of dharma.[3]

Verses in the Ramayana are written in a 32-syllable

meter called anustubh. The epic was an important
influence on later Sanskrit poetry and Indian life and
culture, particularly through its establishment of the
Rama (right) seated on the shoulders of Hanuman, battles the
shloka meter. Like its epic cousin the Mahābhārata, the demon-king Ravana.
Ramayana is not just an ordinary story: it contains the
teachings of ancient Hindu sages and presents them in narrative allegory with philosophical and the devotional
elements interspersed. The characters Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata, Hanuman and Ravana are all fundamental to
the cultural consciousness of India.

There are other versions of the Ramayana, notably Buddhist (Dasaratha Jataka No. 461) and Jain in India, and also
Indonesian, Thai, Lao, Burmese and Malay versions of the tale.

Textuality
Traditionally, the Ramayana is ascribed to Valmiki, regarded as India's first poet.[4] The Indian tradition is
unanimous in its agreement that the poem is the work of a single poet, the sage Valmiki, a contemporary of Rama
and a peripheral actor in the epic drama.[5] The story's original version in Sanskrit is known as Valmiki Ramayana,
dating to approximately the 4th century B.C.[6] [7] While it is often viewed as a primarily devotional text, the
Vaishnava elements appear to be later accretions possibly dating to between the second and fourth centuries CE. The
main body of the narrative lacks statements of Rama's divinity, and identifications of Rama with Vishnu are rare and
subdued even in the later parts of the text.[8]
According to Hindu tradition, the Ramayana takes place during a period of time known as Treta Yuga.[9]
In its extant form, Valmiki's Ramayana is an epic poem of some 50,000 lines. The text survives in several thousand
partial and complete manuscripts, the oldest of which appears to date from the 11th century A.D.[10] The text has
several regional renderings,[6] recensions and subrecensions. Textual scholar Robert P. Goldman differentiates two
major regional recensions: the northern (N) and the southern (S).[10] Scholar Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that "the
Ramayana 2

Ramayana, like the Mahabharata, is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one
mind."[11]
There has been speculation as to whether the first and the last chapters of Valmiki's Ramayana were written by the
original author. Raghunathan writes that many experts believe they are integral parts of the book in spite of some
style differences and narrative contradictions between these two chapters and the rest of the book.[12] [13]
Famous retellings include the Ramayanam of Kamban in Tamil (ca. 11th-12th century), Shri Rama Panchali or
Krittivasi Ramayan by Krittibas Ojha in Bengali (ca. 15th Century), and Ramacharitamanas by Tulasidas in Awadhi
which is a dialect of Hindi (c. 16th century).[6]

Period
Some cultural evidence (the presence of sati in the Mahabharata but not in the main body of the Ramayana) suggests
that the Ramayana predates the Mahabharata.[14] However, the general cultural background of the Ramayana is one
of the post-urbanization period of the eastern part of North India (c. 450 BCE), while the Mahabharata reflects the
Kuru areas west of this, from the Rigvedic to the late Vedic period.[15]
By tradition, the epic belongs to the Treta Yuga, one of the four eons (yuga) of Hindu chronology. Rama is said to
have been born in the Treta Yuga to King Daśaratha in the Ikshvaku vamsa (clan).[16]
The names of the characters (Rama, Sita, Dasharatha, Janaka, Vasishta, Vishwamitra) are all known in Vedic
literature such as the Brahmanas which are older than the Valmiki Ramayana.[17] However, nowhere in the surviving
Vedic poetry is a story similar to the Ramayana of Valmiki.[18] According to the modern academic view, Brahma,
one of the main characters of Ramayana, and Vishnu, who according to Bala Kanda was incarnated as Rama, are not
Vedic deities, and come first into prominence with the epics themselves and further during the 'Puranic' period of the
later 1st millennium CE. There is also a version of Ramayana, known as Ramopakhyana, found in the epic
Mahabharata. This version, depicted as a narration to Yudhishtira, does not accord divine characteristics to
Rama.[19]
There is general consensus that books two to six form the oldest portion of the epic while the first book Bala Kanda
and the last the Uttara Kanda are later additions.[20] The author or authors of Bala Kanda and Ayodhya Kanda
appear to be familiar with the eastern Gangetic basin region of northern India and the Kosala and Magadha region
during the period of the sixteen janapadas as the geographical and geopolitical data is in keeping with what is known
about the region. However, when the story moves to the Aranya Kanda and beyond, it seems to turn abruptly into
fantasy with its demon-slaying hero and fantastic creatures. The geography of central and South India is increasingly
vaguely described. The knowledge of the location of the island of Sri Lanka also lacks detail.[21] Basing his
assumption on these features, the historian H.D. Sankalia has proposed a date of the 4th century BC for the
composition of the text.[22] A. L. Basham, however, is of the opinion that Rama may have been a minor chief who
lived in the 8th or the 7th century BC.[23]
Ramayana 3

Characters
• Rama is the hero of the tale. Portrayed as
the seventh incarnation of the God
Vishnu, he is the eldest and favorite son
of the King of Ayodhya, Dasharatha, and
his wife Kousalya. He is portrayed as the
epitome of virtue. Dasharatha is forced
by Kaikeyi, one of his wives, to
command Rama to relinquish his right to
the throne for fourteen years and go into
exile.
• Sita is the beloved wife of Rama and the
daughter of king Janaka. She is the
incarnation of Goddess Lakshmi, the
Rama seated with Sita, fanned by Lakshmana, while Hanuman pays his respects.
consort of Vishnu. Sita is portrayed as
the epitome of female purity and virtue. She follows her husband into exile and is abducted by Ravana. She is
imprisoned on the island of Lanka until Rama rescues her by defeating the demon king Ravana. Later, she gives
birth to Lava and Kusha, the heirs of Rama.
• Hanuman is a vanara belonging to the kingdom of Kishkindha. He is portrayed as an incarnation of the God Shiva
(the Eleventh Rudra) and an ideal bhakta of Rama. He is born as the son of Kesari, a vanara king, and the
Goddess Anjana. He plays an important part in locating Sita and in the ensuing battle.
• Lakshmana, the younger brother of Rama, who chose to go into exile with him. He is portrayed as an incarnation
of the Shesha, the nāga associated with the God Vishnu. He spends his time protecting Sita and Rama. He is
forced to leave Sita, who was deceived by the demon Maricha into believing that Rama was in trouble. Sita is
abducted by Ravana upon him leaving her.
• Ravana, a rakshasa, is the king of Lanka. After performing severe penance for ten thousand years he received a
boon from the creator-God Brahma that he could not be killed by Gods, demons or spirits. He is portrayed as a
powerful demon king, who disturbs the penances of Rishis. Vishnu incarnates as the human Rama to defeat him,
thus circumventing the boon given by Brahma.
• Dasharatha is the king of Ayodhya and the father of Rama. He has three queens, Kousalya, Sumitra and Kaikeyi,
and three other sons: Bharata, Lakshmana and Shatrughna. Kaikeyi, Dasharatha's favourite queen, forces him to
make his son Bharata crown prince and send Rama into exile. Dasharatha dies heartbroken after Rama goes into
exile.
• Bharata is the son of Dasharatha. When he learns that his mother Kaikeyi had forced Rama into exile and caused
Dasharatha to die brokenhearted, he storms out of the palace and goes in search of Rama in the forest. When
Rama refuses to return from his exile to assume the throne, Bharata obtains Rama's sandals and places them on
the throne as a gesture that Rama is the true king. Bharata then rules Ayodhya as the regent of Rama for the next
fourteen years.
• Shatrughna is the son of Dasharatha and his third wife Queen Sumitra. He is the youngest brother of Rama and
also the twin brother of Lakshmana.
Ramayana 4

Synopsis
The poem is traditionally divided into several major kandas or books, that deal chronologically with the major events
in the life of Rama—Bala kanda, Ayodhya Kanda, Aranya Kanda, Kishkinda Kanda, Sundara Kanda, Yuddha
Kanda, and Uttara Kanda.[6] The Bala Kanda describes the birth of Rama, his childhood and marriage to Sita.[24]
The Ayodhya Kanda describes the preparations for Rama's coronation and his exile into the forest.[24] The third part,
Aranya Kanda, describes the forest life of Rama and the kidnapping of Sita by the demon king Ravana.[24] The
fourth book, Kishkinda Kanda, describes the meeting of Hanuman with Rama, the destruction of the vanara king
Vali and the coronation of his younger brother Sugriva to the throne of the kingdom of Kishkindha.[24] The fifth
book is Sundara Kanda, which narrates the heroism of Hanuman, his flight to Lanka and meeting with Sita.[24] The
sixth book, Yuddha Kanda, describes the battle between Rama's and Ravana's armies.[24] The last book, Uttara
Kanda, describes the birth of Lava and Kusha to Sita, their coronation to the throne of Ayodhya, and Rama's final
departure from the world.[24]

Bala Kanda
Dasharatha was the king of Kosala, the capital of which was
the city of Ayodhya. He had three queens: Kausalya,
Kaikeyi and Sumithra. He was childless for a long time and,
anxious to produce an heir, he performs a fire sacrifice
known as Putra-Kameshti Yagna.[25] As a consequence,
Rama is first born to Kausalya, Bharata is born to Kaikeyi,
and Sumitra gives birth to twins named Lakshmana and
Shatrughna.[26] [27] These sons are endowed, to various
degrees, with the essence of the God Vishnu; Vishnu had
The birth of the four sons of Dasharatha
opted to be born into mortality in order to combat the
demon Ravana, who was oppressing the Gods, and who
could only be destroyed by a mortal.[28] The boys are reared as the princes of the realm, receiving instructions from
the scriptures and in warfare. When Rama is 16 years old, the sage Vishwamitra comes to the court of Dasharatha in
search of help against demons, who were disturbing sacrificial rites. He chooses Rama, who is followed by
Lakshmana, his constant companion throughout the story. Rama and Lakshmana receive instructions and
supernatural weapons from Vishwamitra, and proceed to destroy the demons.[29]

Janaka was the king of Mithila. One day, a female child was found in the field by the king in the deep furrow dug by
this plough. Overwhelmed with joy, the king regarded the child as a "miraculous gift of God". The child was named
Sita, the Sanskrit word for furrow.[30] Sita grew up to be a girl of unparalleled beauty and charm. When Sita was of
marriageable age, the king decided to have a swayamvara which included a contest. The king was in possession of
an immensely heavy bow, presented to him by the God Shiva: whoever could wield the bow could marry Sita. The
sage Vishwamitra attends the swayamvara with Rama and Lakshmana. Only Rama wields the bow and breaks it.
Marriages are arranged between the sons of Dasharatha and daughters, nieces of Janaka. The weddings are
celebrated with great festivity at Mithila and the marriage party returns to Ayodhya.[29]
Ramayana 5

Ayodhya Kanda
After Rama and Sita have been married for twelve years, Dasharatha
who had grown old expresses his desire to crown Rama, to which the
Kosala assembly and his subjects express their support.[31] [32] On the
eve of the great event, Kaikeyi—her jealousy aroused by Manthara, a
wicked maidservant—claims two boons that Dasharatha had long ago
granted her. Kaikeyi demands Rama to be exile into wilderness for
fourteen years, while the succession passes to her son Bharata. The
heartbroken king, constrained by his rigid devotion to his given word,
accedes to Kaikeyi's demands.[33] Rama accepts his father's reluctant
decree with absolute submission and calm self-control which
characterizes him throughout the story.[34] He is joined by Sita and
Lakshmana. When he asks Sita not to follow him, she says, "the forest
where you dwell is Ayodhya for me and Ayodhya without you is a
veritable hell for me."[35] After Rama's departure, king Dasharatha,
unable to bear the grief, passes away.[36] Meanwhile, Bharata who was Bharata Asks for Rama's paduka-footwear
on a visit to his maternal uncle, learns about the events in Ayodhya.
Bharata refuses to profit from his mother's wicked scheming and visits Rama in the forest. He requests Rama to
return and rule. But Rama, determined to carry out his father's orders to the letter, refuses to return before the period
of exile. However, Bharata carries Rama's sandals, and keeps them on the throne, while he rules as Rama's regent.[33]
[36]

Aranya Kanda
Rama, Sita and Lakshmana journeyed southward along the banks of river Godavari, where they built cottages and
lived off the land. At the Panchavati forest they are visited by a rakshasa woman, Surpanakha, the sister of Ravana.
She attempts to seduce the brothers and, failing in this, attempts to kill Sita. Lakshmana stops her by cutting off her
nose and ears. Hearing of this, her demon brother, Khara, organizes an attack against the princes. Rama annihilates
Khara and his demons.[37]
When news of these events reaches Ravana, he resolves to destroy Rama by capturing Sita with the aid of the
rakshasa Maricha. Maricha, assuming the form of a golden deer, captivates Sita's attention. Entranced by the beauty
of the deer, Sita pleads with Rama to capture it. Rama, aware that this is the play of the demons, is unable to
dissuade Sita from her desire and chases the deer into the forest, leaving Sita under Lakshmana's guard. After some
time Sita hears Rama calling out to her; afraid for his life she insists that Lakshmana rush to his aid. Lakshmana tries
to assure her that Rama is invincible, and that it is best if he continues to follow Rama's orders to protect her. On the
verge of hysterics Sita insists that it is not she but Rama who needs Lakshmana's help. He obeys her wish but
stipulates that she is not to leave the cottage or entertain any strangers. Finally with the coast clear, Ravana appears
in the guise of an ascetic requesting Sita's hospitality. Unaware of the devious plan of her guest, Sita is then forcibly
carried away by the evil Ravana.[37] [38]
Jatayu, a vulture, tries to rescue Sita, but is mortally wounded. At Lanka, Sita is kept under the heavy guard of
rakshasis. Ravana demands Sita marry him, but Sita, eternally devoted to Rama, refuses.[36] Rama and Lakshmana
learn about Sita's abduction from Jatayu, and immediately set out to save her.[39] During their search, they meet the
demon Kabandha and the ascetic Shabari, who direct them towards Sugriva and Hanuman.[40] [41]
Ramayana 6

Kishkindha Kanda
The Kishkindha Kanda is set in the monkey citadel Kishkindha. Rama and Lakshmana meet Hanuman, the greatest
of monkey heroes and an adherent of Sugriva, the banished pretender to the throne of Kishkindha.[42] Rama
befriends Sugriva and helps him by killing his elder brother Vali thus regaining the kingdom of Kiskindha, in
exchange for helping Rama to recover Sita.[43] However Sugriva soon forgets his promise and spends his time in
debauchery. The clever monkey Queen, Tara, calmly intervenes to prevent an enraged Lakshmana from destroying
the monkey citadel. She then eloquently convinces Sugriva to honor his pledge. Sugriva then sends search parties to
the four corners of the earth, only to return without success from north, east and west.[44] The southern search party
under the leadership of Angad and Hanuman learns from a vulture named Sampati that Sita was taken to Lanka.[44]
[45]

Sundara Kanda
The Sundara Kanda forms the heart of Valmiki's
Ramayana[46] and consists of a detailed, vivid account of
Hanuman's adventures.[42] After learning about Sita,
Hanuman assumes a gargantuan form and makes a colossal
leap across the ocean to Lanka. Here, Hanuman explores the
demon's city and spies on Ravana. He locates Sita in
Ashoka grove, who is wooed and threatened by Ravana and
his rakshasis to marry Ravana. He reassures her, giving
Rama's signet ring as a sign of good faith. He offers to carry
Sita back to Rama, however she refuses, reluctant to allow Ravana is meeting Sita at Ashokavana. Hanuman is seen on the
herself to be touched by a male other than her husband. She tree.

says that Rama himself must come and avenge the insult of
her abduction.[42]

Hanuman then wreaks havoc in Lanka by destroying trees and buildings, and killing Ravana's warriors. He allows
himself to be captured and produced before Ravana. He gives a bold lecture to Ravana to release Sita. He is
condemned and his tail is set on fire, but he escapes his bonds and, leaping from roof to roof, sets fire to Ravana's
citadel and makes the giant leap back from the island. The joyous search party returns to Kishkindha with the
news.[42] [47]
Ramayana 7

Yuddha Kanda
This book describes the battle between
the forces of Rama and Ravana.
Having received Hanuman's report on
Sita, Rama and Lakshmana proceed
with their allies towards the shore of
the southern sea. There they are joined
by Ravana's renegade brother
Vibhishana. The monkeys named
"Naal" and "Neel" construct a floating
bridge (known as Rama Setu) across
the ocean, and the princes and their
army cross over to Lanka. A lengthy
battle ensues and Rama kills Ravana. The War of Lanka by Sahibdin.It depicts monkey army of the protagonist Rama (top left,
blue figure) fighting the demon-king of the king of Lanka, Ravana in order to save
Rama then installs Vibhishana on the
Rama's kidnapped wife Sita. The painting depicts multiple events in the battle against the
throne of Lanka.[48] three-headed demon general Trisiras, in bottom left - Trisiras is beheaded by the
monkey-companion of Rama - Hanuman.
On meeting Sita, Rama asks her to
undergo agni Pariksha (test of fire) to
prove her purity, since she had stayed at the demon's palace. When Sita plunges into the sacrificial fire, Agni the lord
of fire raises Sita, unharmed, to the throne, attesting to her purity.[49] The episode of agni pariksha varies in the
versions of Ramayana by Valmiki and Tulsidas.[50] The above version is from Valmiki Ramayana . The version
,normally accepted , is from Tulsidas's Ramacharitamanas states that Seeta was under the protection of Agni so it
was neccesary to bring her out before reuniting with Rama. At the expiration of his term of exile, Rama returns to
Ayodhya with Sita and Lakshmana, where the coronation is performed.[48]

Uttara Kanda
The Uttara Kanda concerns the final years of Rama, Sita, and Rama's
brothers. After being crowned king, many years passed pleasantly with
Sita. However, despite the agni pariksha (fire ordeal) of Sita, rumors
about her purity are spreading among the populace of Ayodhya.[51]
Rama yields to public opinion and banishes Sita to the forest, where
the sage Valmiki provides shelter in his ashrama (hermitage). Here she
gives birth to twin boys, Lava and Kusha, who became pupils of
Valmiki and are brought up in ignorance of their identity.

Valmiki composes the Ramayana and teaches Lava and Kusha to sing
Sita in the Hermitage of Valmiki
it. Later, Rama holds a ceremony during Ashwamedha yagna, which
the sage Valmiki, with Lava and Kusha, attends. Lava and Kusha sing
the Ramayana in the presence of Rama and his vast audience. When Lava and Kusha recite about Sita's exile, Rama
becomes grievous, and Valmiki produces Sita. Sita calls upon the Earth, her mother, to receive her and as the ground
opens, she vanishes into it.[51] [52] Rama then learns that Lava and Kusha are his children. Later a messenger from
the Gods appears and informs Rama that the mission of his incarnation was over. Rama returns to his celestial
abode.[49] The Uttara Kanda is regarded to be a later addition to the original story by Valmiki.[6]
Ramayana 8

Influence on culture and art

One of the most important literary works of ancient India, the
Ramayana has had a profound impact on art and culture in the Indian
subcontinent and Southeast Asia. The story ushered in the tradition of
the next thousand years of massive-scale works in the rich diction of
regal courts and Brahminical temples. It has also inspired much
secondary literature in various languages, notably the
Kambaramayanam by the Tamil poet Kambar of the 13th century, the
Telugu-language Molla Ramayana, 14th century Kannada poet
Narahari's Torave Ramayan, and 15th century Bengali poet Krittibas A Ramlila actor wears the traditional attire of
Ojha's Krittivasi Ramayan, as well as the 16th century Awadhi version, Ravana

Ramacharitamanas, written by Tulsidas.

The Ramayana became popular in Southeast Asia during the 8th century and was represented in literature, temple
architecture, dance and theatre. Today, dramatic enactments of the story of Ramayana, known as Ramlila, take place
all across India and in many places across the globe within the Indian diaspora. The Ramayana has inspired works of
film as well, most prominently the North American Sita Sings the Blues, which tells the story supporting Sita
through song.

Variant versions
As in many oral epics, multiple versions of
the Ramayana survive. In particular, the
Ramayana related in North India differs in
important respects from that preserved in
South India and the rest of South-East Asia.
There is an extensive tradition of oral
storytelling based on the Ramayana in
Indonesia, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia,
Laos, Vietnam, and Maldives. Father Kamil
Bulke, author of Ramakatha, has identified
over 300 variants of Ramayana.[53]

Within India The epic story of Ramayana was adopted by several cultures across Asia. Shown
here is a Thai historic artwork depicting the battle which took place between Rama
The seventh century CE "Bhatti's Poem"
and Ravana.
Bhaṭṭikāvya of Bhaṭṭi is a Sanskrit retelling
of the epic that simultaneously illustrates the
grammatical examples for Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī as well as the major figures of speech and the Prakrit language.[54]
There are diverse regional versions of the Ramayana written by various authors in India. Some of them differ
significantly from each other. During the 12th century AD, Kamban wrote Ramavatharam, known popularly as
Kambaramayanam in Tamil. Valmiki's Ramayana inspired the Sri Ramacharit Manas by Tulasidas in 1576, an epic
Awadhi (a dialect of Hindi) version with a slant more grounded in a different realm of Hindu literature, that of
bhakti. It is an acknowledged masterpiece of India, popularly known as Tulsi-krita Ramayana. Gujarati poet
Premanand wrote a version of Ramayana in the 17th century. Other versions include a Bengali version by Krittivas
in the 14th century, in Oriya by Balarama Das in the 16th century, in Marathi by Sridhara in the 18th century, a
Telugu version by Ranganatha in the 15th century, a Torave Ramayana in Kannada by the 16th century poet
Ramayana 9

Narahari and in 20th century Rashtrakavi Kuvempu's Sri Ramayana Darshnam, Kotha Ramayana in Assamese by the
14th century poet Madhava Kandali and Adhyathma Ramayanam Kilippattu, a Malayalam version by Thunchaththu
Ezhuthachan in the 16th century.
There is a sub-plot to Ramayana, prevalent in some parts of India, relating the adventures of Ahi Ravana and Mahi
Ravana, the evil brother of Ravana, which enhances the role of Hanuman in the story. Hanuman rescues Rama and
Lakshmana after they are kidnapped by the Ahi-mahi Ravana at the behest of Ravana and held prisoner in a
subterranean cave, to be sacrificed to the Goddess Kali.
Mappillapattu—a genre of song popular among the Muslims belonging to Kerala and Lakshadweep—has
incorporated some episodes from the Ramayana into its songs. These songs, known as Mappila Ramayana, have
been handed down from one generation to the next orally.[53] In Mappila Ramayana, the story of the Ramayana has
been changed into that of a sultan, and there are no major changes in the names of characters except for that of Rama
which is `Laman' in many places. The language and the imagery projected in the Mappilapattu are in accordance
with the social fabric of the earlier Muslim community.[53]

Jain version
Jain version of Ramayana can be found in the various Jain texts like Padmapurana (story of Padma or Rama),
Hemacandra’s Trisastisalakapurusa Caritra (hagiography of 63 illustrious persons), Sanghadasa’s Vasudevahindi
and Uttarapurana by Gunabhadara.[55] According to Jain cosmology, every half time cycle has nine sets of Baladeva
(balabhadra), Vasudeva (narayana) and Partivasudeva (anti vasudeva or anti hero). Rama, Lakshmana and Ravana
are the eighth Baladeva, Vasudeva, and Partivasudeva respectively. Padmanabh Jaini notes that, unlike in the Hindu
Puranas, the names Baladeva and Vasudeva are not restricted to Balarama and Krishna in Jain puranas. Instead they
serve as names of two distinct class of mighty brothers, who appear nine times in each half of time cycles of the Jain
cosmology and rule the half the earth as half-chakravartins. Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to the
Jinacharitra (lives of the Jinas) by Bhadrabahu swami (3-4 century BCE).[56]
In the Jain epic of Ramayana, it is Lakshmana who ultimately kills Ravana and not Rama as told in the Hindu
version.[57] In the end, Rama who lead an upright life renounces his kingdom, becomes a Jain monk and attains
moksha. On the other hand, Lakshmana and Ravana go to hell.[58] However, it is predicted that ultimately they both
will be reborn as upright persons and attain liberation in their future births. According to Jain texts, Ravana will be
the future Tirthankara (omniscient teacher) of Jainism.[59]
The Jain versions has some variations from Valmiki's Ramayana. Dasharatha, the king of Saketa had four queens:
Aparajita, Sumitra, Suprabha ad Kaikeyi. These four queens had four sons. Aparajita's son was Padma, and he
became known by the name of Rama. Sumitra's son was Narayana: he became to be known by another name,
Lakshmana. Kaikeyi's son was Bharata and Suprabha's son was Shatrughna.[60] Furthermore, not much was thought
of Rama's fidelity to Sita. According to Jain version, Rama had four chief-queens: Maithili, Prabhavati, Ratinibha,
and Sridama. Furthermore, Sita takes renunciation as a Jain ascetic after Rama abandons her and is reborn in
Heaven. Rama, after Lakshmana's death, also renounces his kingdom and becomes a Jain monk. Ultimately, he
attains Kevala Jnana omniscience and finally liberation. Rama predicts that Ravana and Lakshmana, who were in
fourth hell, will attain liberation in their future births. Accordingly, Ravana is the future Tirthankara of next half
ascending time cycle and Sita will be his Gandhara (chief disciple).[61]
Ramayana 10

In Nepal
Two versions of Ramayana are present in Nepal. One is written by Mahakabhi Siddhidas Mahaju in Nepal Bhasa.
The other one is written by Aadikavi Bhanubhakta Acharya. The Nepal Bhasa version by Siddhidas Mahaju marks a
great point in the renaissance of Nepal Bhasa whereas the one of Bhanubhakta Acharya is the first epic of Nepali.

Southeast Asian versions

Many other Asian cultures have adapted the Ramayana, resulting in other national epics. In Indonesia, Kakawin
Ramayana is an old Javanese rendering; Yogesvara Ramayana is attributed to the scribe Yogesvara circa 9th century
CE, who was employed in the court of the Medang in Central Java. It has 2774 stanzas in manipravala style, a
mixture of Sanskrit and Archaic prose Javanese language. The most influential version of the Ramayana is the
Ravanavadham of Bhatti, popularly known as Bhattikavya. The Javanese Ramayana differs markedly from the
original Hindu prototype. The 9th century Javanese Kakawin Ramayana has become the reference of Ramayana in
the neighboring island of Bali. In Indonesia, Ramayana has been integrated into local culture especialy those of
Javanese, Balinese and Sundanese, and has become the source of moral and spiritual guidance as well as aesthetic
expression and also entertainment. Cultural performances such as Wayang shadow puppet and traditional dances
often took their story from Ramayana. In Bali as well as in Java, The dances based on the episode of Ramayana often
performed in temples such as Prambanan in Java and many Pura in Bali.
Phra Lak Phra Lam is a Lao language version, whose title comes from Lakshmana and Rama. The story of
Lakshmana and Rama is told as the previous life of the Buddha. In Hikayat Seri Rama of Malaysia, Dasharatha is the
great-grandson of the Prophet Adam. Ravana receives boons from Allah instead of Brahma.[62] In many Malay
language versions, Lakshmana is given greater importance than Rama, whose character is considered somewhat
weak.
The Cambodian version of Ramayana, the Reamker, is the
most famous story of Khmer Literature since the Funan era. It
adapts the Hindu concepts to Buddhist themes and shows the
balance of good and evil in the world. The Reamker has
several differences from the original Ramayana, including
scenes not included in the original and emphasis on Hanuman
and Sovanna Maccha, a retelling which influences the Thai
and Lao versions. Reamker in Cambodia is not confined to the
realm of literature but extends to all Cambodian art forms,
such as sculpture, Khmer classical dance, theatre known as
The Khmer retelling of the tale, the Reamker, is popularly
Lakhorn Luang (the foundation of the royal ballet), poetry and
expressed in traditional regional dance theatre.
the mural and bas reliefs seen at the Silver Pagoda and
Angkor wat.

Thailand's popular national epic Ramakien ("Glory of Rama") is derived from the Hindu epic. In Ramakien, Sita is
the daughter of Ravana and Mandodari (T'os'akanth (=Dasakanth) and Mont'o). Vibhisana (P'ip'ek), the astrologer
brother of Ravana, predicts calamity from the horoscope of Sita. So Ravana has her thrown into the waters, who,
later, is picked by Janaka (Janok). While the main story is identical to that of the Ramayana, many other aspects
were transposed into a Thai context, such as the clothes, weapons, topography, and elements of nature, which are
described as being Thai in style. It has an expanded role for Hanuman and he is portrayed as a lascivious character.
Ramakien can be seen in an elaborate illustration at the Wat Phra Kaew temple in Bangkok.

Other Southeast Asian adaptations include Ramakavaca of Bali (Indonesia), Maharadya Lawana and Darangen of
Mindanao (Philippines), and the Yama Zatdaw of Myanmar. Aspects of the Chinese novel Journey to the West were
also inspired by the Ramayana, particularly the character Sun Wukong, who is believed to have been based on
Ramayana 11

Hanuman.

Theological significance
Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, is a popular deity worshipped in the
Hindu religion. Each year, many devout pilgrims trace his journey
through India, halting at each of the holy sites along the way. The
poem is not seen as just a literary monument, but serves as an integral
part of Hinduism, and is held in such reverence that the mere reading
or hearing of it, or certain passages of it, is believed by Hindus to free
them from sin and bless the reader or listener.

According to Hindu tradition, Rama is an incarnation (Avatar) of the

God Vishnu. The main purpose of this incarnation is to demonstrate Deities Sita (far right), Rama (center),
the righteous path (dharma) for all living creatures on earth. Lakshmana (far left) and Hanuman (below
seated) at Bhaktivedanta Manor, Watford,
Arshia Sattar states that the central theme of the Ramayana, as well as
England.
the Mahabharata, is respectively Ram's and Krishna's hidden divinity
and its progressive revelation.[63]

See also
• Ramavataram
• Versions of Ramayana
• Janani Janmabhoomischa Swargadapi Gariyasi
• Sita Sings the Blues
• Mahabharata
• Ramayan (TV series)
• Ramayana (film)

References
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according to M. N. Dutt, introduction by Dr. Ramashraya Sharma, 4-volume set) Parimal Publications: Delhi,
1998 ISBN 81-7110-156-9
• Bhattacharji, Sukumari (1998). Legends of Devi [64]. Orient Blackswan. pp. 111. ISBN 9788125014386.
• Brockington, John (2003). "The Sanskrit Epics" [65]. in Flood, Gavin. Blackwell companion to Hinduism.
Blackwell Publishing. pp. 116–128. ISBN 0-631-21535-2
• Buck, William; B.A. van Nooten (2000). Ramayana [66]. University of California Press. pp. 432.
ISBN 9780520227033.
• Dutt, Romesh C. (2004). Ramayana [67]. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 208. ISBN 9781419143878.
• Dutt, Romesh Chunder (2002). The Ramayana and Mahabharata condensed into English verse [68]. Courier
Dover Publications. pp. 352. ISBN 9780486425061.
• Fallon, Oliver (2009). Bhatti’s Poem: The Death of Rávana (Bhaṭṭikāvya) [69]. New York: New York University
Press, Clay Sanskrit Library. ISBN 978-0-8147-2778-2.
• Keshavadas, Sadguru Sant (1988). Ramayana at a Glance [70]. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.,. pp. 211.
ISBN 9788120805453.
• Goldman, Robert P. (1990). The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India: Balakanda [71]. Princeton
University Press. pp. 456. ISBN 9780691014852.