Structural Concepts and Systems For Architects

Draft
LECTURE NOTES
AREN4525
STUCTURAL CONCEPTS AND SYSTEMS
FOR ARCHITECTS
VICTOR E. SAOUMA
SPRING 1997
Dept. of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering

University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0428
April 30, 1997
Draft
0{2
In order to invent a structure and to give it ex-

act proportions, one must follow both the intu-
itive and the mathematical paths.
-Pier Luigi Nervi
Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Draft
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 1{1
1.1 Science and Technology : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{1
1.2 Structural Engineering : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{1
1.3 Structures and their Surroundings : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{1
1.4 Architecture & Engineering : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{2
1.5 Architectural Design Process : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{2
1.6 Architectural Design : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{2
1.7 Structural Analysis : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{3
1.8 Structural Design : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{3
1.9 Load Transfer Mechanisms : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{4
1.10 Structure Types : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{4
1.11 Structural Engineering Courses : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{12
1.12 References : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{13
2 LOADS 2{1
2.1 Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{1
2.2 Vertical Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{1
2.2.1 Dead Load : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{2
2.2.2 Live Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{2
E 2-1 Live Load Reduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{4
2.2.3 Snow : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{5
2.3 Lateral Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{5
2.3.1 Wind : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{5
E 2-2 Wind Load : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{9
2.3.2 Earthquakes : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{11
E 2-3 Earthquake Load on a Frame : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{14
E 2-4 Earthquake Load on a Tall Building, (Schueller 1996) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{16
2.4 Other Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{18
2.4.1 Hydrostatic and Earth : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{18
E 2-5 Hydrostatic Load : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{18
2.4.2 Thermal : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{19
E 2-6 Thermal Expansion/Stress (Schueller 1996) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{19
2.5 Other Important Considerations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{20
2.5.1 Load Combinations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{20
2.5.2 Load Placement : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{21
2.5.3 Load Transfer : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{21
2.5.4 Structural Response : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{21
2.5.5 Tributary Areas : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{25
Draft
0{2 CONTENTS
3 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS 3{1
3.1 Steel : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{1
3.1.1 Structural Steel : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{1
3.1.2 Reinforcing Steel : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{5
3.2 Aluminum : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{6
3.3 Concrete : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{6
3.4 Masonry : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{7
3.5 Timber : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{7
3.6 Steel Section Properties : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{8
3.7 Joists : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{17
4 Case Study I: EIFFEL TOWER 4{1
4.1 Materials, & Geometry : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{1
4.2 Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{3
4.3 Reactions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{4
4.4 Internal Forces : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{6
4.5 Internal Stresses : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{8
5 REVIEW of STATICS 5{1
5.1 Reactions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{1
5.1.1 Equilibrium : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{1
5.1.2 Equations of Conditions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{3
5.1.3 Static Determinacy : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{3
5.1.4 Geometric Instability : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{4
5.1.5 Examples : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{5
E 5-7 Simply Supported Beam : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{5
E 5-8 Three Span Beam : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{6
E 5-9 Three Hinged Gable Frame : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{7
5.2 Trusses : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{8
5.2.1 Assumptions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{8
5.2.2 Basic Relations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{9
5.2.3 Determinacy and Stability : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{9
5.2.4 Method of Joints : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{10
E 5-10 Truss, Method of Joints : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{12
5.3 Shear & Moment Diagrams : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{14
5.3.1 Theory : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{14
5.3.1.1 Design Sign Conventions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{14
5.3.1.2 Load, Shear, Moment Relations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{15
5.3.1.3 Moment Envelope : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{16
5.3.1.4 Examples : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{18
E 5-11 Simple Shear and Moment Diagram : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{18
E 5-12 Frame Shear and Moment Diagram : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{19
E 5-13 Frame Shear and Moment Diagram; Hydrostatic Load : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{22
E 5-14 Shear Moment Diagrams for Frame : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{24
E 5-15 Shear Moment Diagrams for Inclined Frame : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{26
5.3.2 Formulaes : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{28
5.4 Flexure : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{37
5.4.1 Basic Kinematic Assumption; Curvature : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{37
5.4.2 Stress-Strain Relations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{39
5.4.3 Internal Equilibrium; Section Properties : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{39
5.4.3.1 Fx = 0; Neutral Axis : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{39

Draft
CONTENTS 0{3
5.4.3.2 M = 0; Moment of Inertia : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{39
5.4.4 Beam Formula : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{40
E 5-16 Design Example : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{40
5.4.5 Approximate Analysis : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{42
E 5-17 Approximate Analysis of a Statically Indeterminate beam : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{45
6 Case Study II: GEORGE WASHINGTON BRIDGE 6{1
6.1 Theory : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{1
6.2 The Case Study : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{3
6.2.1 Geometry : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{3
6.2.2 Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{3
6.2.3 Cable Forces : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{5
6.2.4 Reactions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{7
7 A BRIEF HISTORY OF STRUCTURAL ARCHITECTURE 7{1
7.1 Before the Greeks : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{1
7.2 Greeks : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{1
7.3 Romans : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{3
7.4 The Medieval Period (477-1492) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{4
7.5 The Renaissance : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{5
7.5.1 Leonardo da Vinci 1452-1519 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{6
7.5.2 Brunelleschi 1377-1446 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{6
7.5.3 Alberti 1404-1472 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{7
7.5.4 Palladio 1508-1580 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{8
7.5.5 Stevin : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{8
7.5.6 Galileo 1564-1642 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{10
7.6 Pre Modern Period, Seventeenth Century : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{12
7.6.1 Hooke, 1635-1703 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{12
7.6.2 Newton, 1642-1727 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{13
7.6.3 Bernoulli Family 1654-1782 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{14
7.6.4 Euler 1707-1783 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{15
7.7 The pre-Modern Period; Coulomb and Navier : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{16
7.8 The Modern Period (1857-Present) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{17
7.8.1 Structures/Mechanics : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{17
7.8.2 Eiel Tower : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{17
7.8.3 Sullivan 1856-1924 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{17
7.8.4 Roebling, 1806-1869 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{18
7.8.5 Maillart : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{18
7.8.6 Nervi, 1891-1979 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{18
7.8.7 Khan : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{19
7.8.8 et al. : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{20
8 Case Study III: MAGAZINI GENERALI 8{1
8.1 Geometry : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 8{1
8.2 Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 8{1
8.3 Reactions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 8{3
8.4 Forces : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 8{3
8.5 Internal Stresses : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 8{6

Draft
0{4 CONTENTS
9 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES and GUIDELINES 9{1
9.1 Safety Provisions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{1
9.2 Working Stress Method : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{2
9.3 Ultimate Strength Method : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{3
9.3.1 y Probabilistic Preliminaries : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{3
9.3.2 Discussion : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{5
9.4 Example : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{7
E 9-18 LRFD vs ASD : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{7
9.5 Design Guidelines : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{7
10 BRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS 10{1
10.1 Nominal Strength : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{2
10.2 Failure Modes and Classication of Steel Beams : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{2
10.3 Compact Sections : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{4
10.3.1 Bending Capacity of Beams : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{4
10.3.2 Design of Compact Sections : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{6
10.4 Partially Compact Section : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{6
10.5 Slender Section : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{7
10.6 Examples : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{7
E 10-19Z for Rectangular Section : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{7
E 10-20Beam Design : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{8
11 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 11{1
11.1 Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{1
11.1.1 Notation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{1
11.1.2 Modes of Failure : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{2
11.1.3 Analysis vs Design : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{2
11.1.4 Basic Relations and Assumptions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{3
11.1.5 ACI Code : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{3
11.2 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{4
11.2.1 Equivalent Stress Block : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{4
11.2.2 Balanced Steel Ratio : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{5
11.2.3 Analysis : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{6
11.2.4 Design : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{7
E 11-21Ultimate Strength Capacity : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{8
E 11-22Beam Design I : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{9
E 11-23Beam Design II : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{9
11.3 Continuous Beams : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{10
11.4 ACI Code : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{10
12 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 12{1
12.1 Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{1
12.1.1 Materials : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{1
12.1.2 Prestressing Forces : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{4
12.1.3 Assumptions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{4
12.1.4 Tendon Conguration : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{4
12.1.5 Equivalent Load : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{4
12.1.6 Load Deformation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{4
12.2 Flexural Stresses : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{5
E 12-24Prestressed Concrete I Beam : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{8
12.3 Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{10

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CONTENTS 0{5
12.3.1 Cross-Section Properties : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{10
12.3.2 Prestressing : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{12
12.3.3 Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{13
12.3.4 Flexural Stresses : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{13
13 Three-Hinges ARCHES 13{1
13.1 Theory : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{1
13.1.1 Uniform Horizontal Load : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{1
E 13-25Design of a Three Hinged Arch : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{3
13.2 Case Study: Salginatobel Bridge (Maillart) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{5
13.2.1 Geometry : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{5
13.2.2 Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{8
13.2.3 Reactions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{8
13.2.4 Internal Forces : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{11
13.2.5 Internal Stresses : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{12
13.3 Structural Behavior of Deck-Stiened Arches : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{13
14 BUILDING STRUCTURES 14{1
14.1 Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{1
14.1.1 Beam Column Connections : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{1
14.1.2 Behavior of Simple Frames : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{1
14.1.3 Eccentricity of Applied Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{2
14.2 Buildings Structures : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{5
14.2.1 Wall Subsystems : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{5
14.2.1.1 Example: Concrete Shear Wall : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{5
14.2.1.2 Example: Trussed Shear Wall : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{7
14.2.2 Shaft Systems : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{8
14.2.2.1 Example: Tube Subsystem : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{9
14.2.3 Rigid Frames : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{10
14.3 Approximate Analysis of Buildings : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{10
14.3.1 Vertical Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{11
14.3.2 Horizontal Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{13
14.3.2.1 Portal Method : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{14
E 14-26Approximate Analysis of a Frame subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads : : : 14{15
14.4 Lateral De ections : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{27
14.4.1 Short Wall : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{27
14.4.2 Tall Wall : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{28
14.4.3 Walls and Lintel : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{28
14.4.4 Frames : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{29
14.4.5 Trussed Frame : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{30
14.4.6 Example of Transverse De ection : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{32
14.4.7 Eect of Bracing Trusses : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{34

Draft
List of Figures
1.1 Types of Forces in Structural Elements (1D) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{4
1.2 Basic Aspects of Cable Systems : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{5
1.3 Basic Aspects of Arches : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{6
1.4 Types of Trusses : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{7
1.5 Variations in Post and Beams Congurations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{8
1.6 Dierent Beam Types : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{9
1.7 Basic Forms of Frames : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{10
1.8 Examples of Air Supported Structures : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{11
1.9 Basic Forms of Shells : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{12
2.1 Approximation of a Series of Closely Spaced Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{2
2.2 Snow Map of the United States, ubc : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{5
2.3 Loads on Projected Dimensions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{6
2.4 Wind Map of the United States, (UBC 1995) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{7
2.5 Eect of Wind Load on Structures(Schueller 1996) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{8
2.6 Approximate Design Wind Pressure p for Ordinary Wind Force Resisting Building Struc-
tures : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{10
2.7 Vibrations of a Building : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{12
2.8 Seismic Zones of the United States, (UBC 1995) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{13
2.9 Earth and Hydrostatic Loads on Structures : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{18
2.10 Load Placement to Maximize Moments : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{21
2.11 Load Transfer in R/C Buildings : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{22
2.12 Two Way Actions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{23
2.13 Load Life of a Structure, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{24
2.14 Concept of Tributary Areas for Structual Member Loading : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{25
3.1 Stress Strain Curves of Concrete and Steel : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{2
3.2 Standard Rolled Sections : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{2
3.3 Residual Stresses in Rolled Sections : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{4
3.4 Residual Stresses in Welded Sections : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{4
3.5 In uence of Residual Stress on Average Stress-Strain Curve of a Rolled Section : : : : : : 3{5
3.6 Concrete microcracking : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{7
3.7 W and C sections : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{8
3.8 prefabricated Steel Joists : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{17
4.1 Eiel Tower (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{1
4.2 Eiel Tower Idealization, (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{3
4.3 Eiel Tower, Dead Load Idealization; (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{4
4.4 Eiel Tower, Wind Load Idealization; (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{5
4.5 Eiel Tower, Wind Loads, (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{5
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0{2 LIST OF FIGURES
4.6 Eiel Tower, Reactions; (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{5
4.7 Eiel Tower, Internal Gravity Forces; (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{6
4.8 Eiel Tower, Horizontal Reactions; (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{7
4.9 Eiel Tower, Internal Wind Forces; (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4{8
5.1 Types of Supports : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{2
5.2 Inclined Roller Support : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{3
5.3 Examples of Static Determinate and Indeterminate Structures : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{4
5.4 Geometric Instability Caused by Concurrent Reactions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{4
5.5 Bridge Truss : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{9
5.6 A Statically Indeterminate Truss : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{10
5.7 X and Y Components of Truss Forces : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{11
5.8 Sign Convention for Truss Element Forces : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{11
5.9 Shear and Moment Sign Conventions for Design : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{14
5.10 Sign Conventions for 3D Frame Elements : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{15
5.11 Free Body Diagram of an Innitesimal Beam Segment : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{15
5.12 Shear and Moment Forces at Dierent Sections of a Loaded Beam : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{17
5.13 Slope Relations Between Load Intensity and Shear, or Between Shear and Moment : : : : 5{17
5.14 Deformation of a Beam un Pure Bending : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{38
5.15 Elastic Curve from the Moment Diagram : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{43
5.16 Approximate Analysis of Beams : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{44
6.1 Cable Structure Subjected to p(x) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{1
6.2 Longitudinal and Plan Elevation of the George Washington Bridge : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{4
6.3 Truck Load : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{5
6.4 Dead and Live Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{6
6.5 Location of Cable Reactions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{7
6.6 Vertical Reactions in Columns Due to Central Span Load : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{7
6.7 Cable Reactions in Side Span : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{8
6.8 Cable Stresses : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{9
6.9 Deck Idealization, Shear and Moment Diagrams : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6{9
7.1 Hamurrabi's Code : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{2
7.2 Archimed : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{3
7.3 Pantheon : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{3
7.4 From Vitruvius Ten Books on Architecture, (Vitruvius 1960) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{4
7.5 Hagia Sophia : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{5
7.6 Florence's Cathedral Dome : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{7
7.7 Palladio's Villa Rotunda : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{9
7.8 Stevin : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{9
7.9 Galileo : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{10
7.10 Discourses Concerning Two New Sciences, Cover Page : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{11
7.11 \Galileo's Beam" : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{11
7.12 Experimental Set Up Used by Hooke : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{12
7.13 Isaac Newton : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{13
7.14 Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Cover Page : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{14
7.15 Leonhard Euler : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{15
7.16 Coulomb : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{16
7.17 Nervi's Palazetto Dello Sport : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7{19
8.1 Magazzini Generali; Overall Dimensions, (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : 8{2
8.2 Magazzini Generali; Support System, (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 8{2
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LIST OF FIGURES 0{3
8.3 Magazzini Generali; Loads (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 8{3
8.4 Magazzini Generali; Beam Reactions, (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 8{3
8.5 Magazzini Generali; Shear and Moment Diagrams (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : 8{4
8.6 Magazzini Generali; Internal Moment, (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : 8{4
8.7 Magazzini Generali; Similarities Between The Frame Shape and its Moment Diagram,
(Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 8{5
8.8 Magazzini Generali; Equilibrium of Forces at the Beam Support, (Billington and Mark
1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 8{5
8.9 Magazzini Generali; Eect of Lateral Supports, (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : 8{6
9.1 Load Life of a Structure : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{2
9.2 Frequency Distributions of Load Q and Resistance R : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{4
9.3 Denition of Reliability Index : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{4
10.1 Lateral Bracing for Steel Beams : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{1
10.2 Failure of Steel beam; Plastic Hinges : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{3
10.3 Failure of Steel beam; Local Buckling : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{3
10.4 Failure of Steel beam; Lateral Torsional Buckling : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{4
10.5 Stress distribution at dierent stages of loading : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{4
10.6 Stress-strain diagram for most structural steels : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{5
10.7 Nominal Moments for Compact and Partially Compact Sections : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 10{7
11.1 Failure Modes for R/C Beams : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{2
11.2 Internal Equilibrium in a R/C Beam : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{3
11.3 Cracked Section, Limit State : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{4
11.4 Whitney Stress Block : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{5
11.5 Reinforcement in Continuous R/C Beams : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11{11
12.1 Pretensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{2
12.2 Posttensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{2
12.3 7 Wire Prestressing Tendon : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{3
12.4 Alternative Schemes for Prestressing a Rectangular Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978) : : : : 12{5
12.5 Determination of Equivalent Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{6
12.6 Load-De ection Curve and Corresponding Internal Flexural Stresses for a Typical Pre-
stressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{6
12.7 Flexural Stress Distribution for a Beam with Variable Eccentricity; Maximum Moment
Section and Support Section, (Nilson 1978) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{7
12.8 Walnut Lane Bridge, Plan View : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{11
12.9 Walnut Lane Bridge, Cross Section : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 12{12
13.1 Moment Resisting Forces in an Arch or Suspension System as Compared to a Beam, (Lin
and Stotesbury 1981) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{2
13.2 Statics of a Three-Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{2
13.3 Two Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{3
13.4 Arch Rib Stiened with Girder or Truss, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{3
13.5 Salginatobel Bridge; Dimensions, (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{5
13.6 Salginatobel Bridge; Idealization, (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{6
13.7 Salginatobel Bridge; Hinges, (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{6
13.8 Salginatobel Bridge; Sections, (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{7
13.9 Salginatobel Bridge; Dead Load, (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{8
13.10Salginatobel Bridge; Truck Load, (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{9
13.11Salginatobel Bridge; Total Vertical Load, (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{10
Draft
0{4 LIST OF FIGURES
13.12Salginatobel Bridge; Reactions, (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{10
13.13Salganitobel Bridge; Shear Diagrams, (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{11
13.14Salginatobel Bridge; Live Load Moment Diagram, (Billington and Mark 1983) : : : : : : : 13{12
13.15Structural Behavior of Stiened Arches, (Billington 1979) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13{14
14.1 Flexible, Rigid, and Semi-Flexible Joints : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{1
14.2 Deformation of Flexible and Rigid Frames Subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads,
(Lin and Stotesbury 1981) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{2
14.3 Deformation, Shear, Moment, and Axial Diagrams for Various Types of Portal Frames
Subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{3
14.4 Axial and Flexural Stresses : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{4
14.5 Design of a Shear Wall Subsystem, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{6
14.6 Trussed Shear Wall : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{8
14.7 Design Example of a Tubular Structure, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{9
14.8 A Basic Portal Frame, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{10
14.9 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Girder Moments : : : : : : 14{12
14.10Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Axial Forces : : : : 14{12
14.11Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Moments : : : : : 14{13
14.12Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Shear : : : : : : : : 14{14
14.13***Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Girder Moment : : : : : 14{15
14.14Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Axial Force : : : : 14{15
14.15Example; Approximate Analysis of a Building : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{16
14.16Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Vertical Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{17
14.17Approximate Analysis of a Building; Shears Due to Vertical Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{18
14.18Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Spread-Sheet Format : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{20
14.19Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Equations in Spread-Sheet : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{21
14.20Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Lateral Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{23
14.21Portal Method; Spread-Sheet Format : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{24
14.22Portal Method; Equations in Spread-Sheet : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{25
14.23Shear Deformation in a Short Building, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{28
14.24Flexural Deformation in a Tall Building, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{28
14.25De ection in a Building Structure Composed of Two Slender Walls and Lintels, (Lin and
Stotesbury 1981) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{29
14.26Portal Method to Estimate Lateral Deformation in Frames, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) : : 14{30
14.27Shear and Flexural De ection of a Rigid Frame Subsystem, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) : : 14{31
14.28Side-Sway De ection from Unsymmetrical Vertical Load, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) : : : 14{31
14.29Axial Elongation and Shortening of a Truss Frame, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) : : : : : : 14{31
14.30Transverse De ection, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{32
14.31Frame Rigidly Connected to Shaft, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{34
14.32Eect of Exterior Column Bracing in Buildings, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) : : : : : : : : 14{35

Draft
List of Tables
1.1 Structural Engineering Coverage for Architects and Engineers : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{12
1.2 tab:secae : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1{12
2.1 Unit Weight of Materials : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{2
2.2 Weights of Building Materials : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{3
2.3 Average Gross Dead Load in Buildings : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{3
2.4 Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads, (UBC 1995) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{4
2.5 Wind Velocity Variation above Ground : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{7
2.6 Ce Coecients for Wind Load, (UBC 1995) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{8
2.7 Wind Pressure Coecients Cq , (UBC 1995) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{8
2.8 Importance Factors for Wind and Earthquake Load, (UBC 1995) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{9
2.9 Approximate Design Wind Pressure p for Ordinary Wind Force Resisting Building Struc-
tures : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{10
2.10 Z Factors for Dierent Seismic Zones, ubc : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{12
2.11 S Site Coecients for Earthquake Loading, (UBC 1995) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{13
2.12 Partial List of RW for Various Structure Systems, (UBC 1995) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{15
2.13 Coecients of Thermal Expansion : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2{19
3.1 Properties of Major Structural Steels : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{3
3.2 Properties of Reinforcing Bars : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{5
3.3 Joist Series Characteristics : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{17
3.4 Joist Properties : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3{19
5.1 Equations of Equilibrium : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{3
5.2 Static Determinacy and Stability of Trusses : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{10
5.3 Section Properties : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5{41
9.1 Allowable Stresses for Steel and Concrete : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{3
9.2 Selected values for Steel and Concrete Structures : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{5
9.3 Strength Reduction Factors, : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{6
9.4 Approximate Structural Span-Depth Ratios for Horizontal Subsystems and Components
(Lin and Stotesbury 1981) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9{8
14.1 Columns Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{26
14.2 Girders Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14{27
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0{2 LIST OF TABLES

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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Science and Technology
1 \There is a fundamental dierence between science and and technology. Engineering or technology is
the making of things that did not previously exist, whereas science is the discovering of things that have
long existed. Technological results are forms that exist only because people want to make them, whereas
scientic results are informations of what exists independently of human intentions. Technology deals
with the articial, science with the natural." (Billington 1985)
1.2 Structural Engineering

2Structural engineers are responsible for the detailed analysis and design of:
Architectural structures: Buildings, houses, factories. They must work in close cooperation with an
architect who will ultimately be responsible for the design.
Civil Infrastructures: Bridges, dams, pipelines, oshore structures. They work with transportation,
hydraulic, nuclear and other engineers. For those structures they play the leading role.
Aerospace, Mechanical, Naval structures: aeroplanes, spacecrafts, cars, ships, submarines to en-
sure the structural safety of those important structures.
1.3 Structures and their Surroundings

3 Structural design is aected by various environmental constraints:
1. Major movements: For example, elevator shafts are usually shear walls good at resisting lateral
load (wind, earthquake).
2. Sound and structure interact:
A dome roof will concentrate the sound
A dish roof will diuse the sound
3. Natural light:
A at roof in a building may not provide adequate light.
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1{2 INTRODUCTION
A Folded plate will provide adequate lighting (analysis more complex).
A bearing and shear wall building may not have enough openings for daylight.
A Frame design will allow more light in (analysis more complex).
4. Conduits for cables (electric, telephone, computer), HVAC ducts, may dictate type of oor system.
5. Net clearance between columns (unobstructed surface) will dictate type of framing.
1.4 Architecture & Engineering

4 Architecture must be the product of a creative collaboration of architects and engineers.
5 Architect stress the overall, rather than elemental approach to design. In the design process, they
conceptualize a space-form scheme as a total system. They are generalists.
6 The engineer, partly due to his/her education think in reverse, starting with details and without
sucient regards for the overall picture. (S)he is a pragmatist who \knows everything about nothing".
7 Thus there is a conceptual gap between architects and engineers at all levels of design.
8 Engineer's education is more specialized and in depth than the architect's. However, engineer must
be kept aware of overall architectural objective.
9 In the last resort, it is the architect who is the leader of the construction team, and the engineers are
his/her servant.
10 A possible compromise might be an Architectural Engineer.
1.5 Architectural Design Process

11Architectural design is hierarchical:
Schematic: conceptual overall space-form feasibility of basic schematic options. Collaboration is mostly
between the owner and the architect.
Preliminary: Establish basic physical properties of major subsystems and key components to prove
design feasibility. Some collaboration with engineers is necessary.
Final design: nal in-depth design renements of all subsystems and components and preparation of
working documents (\blue-prints"). Engineers play a leading role.
1.6 Architectural Design

12Architectural design must respect various constraints:
Functionality: In uence of the adopted structure on the purposes for which the structure was erected.
Aesthetics: The architect often imposes his aesthetic concerns on the engineer. This in turn can place
severe limitations on the structural system.
Economy: It should be kept in mind that the two largest components of a structure are labors and
materials. Design cost is comparatively negligible.

Draft
1.7 Structural Analysis 1{3
13Buildings may have dierent functions:
Residential: housing, which includes low-rise (up tp 2-3 oors), mid-rise (up to 6-8 oors) and high
rise buildings.
Commercial: Oces, retail stores, shopping centers, hotels, restaurants.
Industrial: warehouses, manufacturing.
Institutional: Schools, hospitals, prisons, chruch, government buildings.
Special: Towers, stadium, parking, airport, etc.
1.7 Structural Analysis

14 Given an existing structure subjected to a certain load determine internal forces (axial, shear, ex-
ural, torsional; or stresses), de ections, and verify that no unstable failure can occur.
15 Thus the basic structural requirements are:
Strength: stresses should not exceed critical values: < f

Stiness: de ections should be controlled: < max
Stability: buckling or cracking should also be prevented
1.8 Structural Design

16Given a set of forces, dimension the structural element.
Steel/wood Structures Select appropriate section.
Reinforced Concrete: Determine dimensions of the element and internal reinforcement (number and
sizes of reinforcing bars).
17 For new structures, iterative process between analysis and design. A preliminary design is made
using rules of thumbs (best known to Engineers with design experience) and analyzed. Following
design, we check for
Serviceability: de ections, crack widths under the applied load. Compare with acceptable values
specied in the design code.
Failure (limit state): and compare the failure load with the applied load times the appropriate factors
of safety.
If the design is found not to be acceptable, then it must be modied and reanalyzed.
18 For existing structures rehabilitation, or verication of an old infrastructure, analysis is the most
important component.
19 In summary, analysis is always required.

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1{4 INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.1: Types of Forces in Structural Elements (1D)
1.9 Load Transfer Mechanisms

20From Strength of Materials, loads can be transferred through various mechanisms, Fig. 1.1
Axial: cables, truss elements, arches, membrane, shells
Flexural: Beams, frames, grids, plates
Torsional: Grids, 3D frames
Shear: Frames, grids, shear walls.
1.10 Structure Types

21 Structures can be classied as follows:
Tension & Compression Structures: only, no shear, exure, or torsion. Those are the most e-
cient types of structures.
Cable (tension only): The high strength of steel cables, combined with the eciency of simple
tension, makes cables ideal structural elements to span large distances such as bridges, and
dish roofs, Fig. 1.2. A cable structure develops its load carrying capacity by adjusting its
shape so as to provide maximum resistance (form follows function). Care should be exercised
in minimizing large de ections and vibrations.
Arches (mostly compression) is a \reversed cable structure". In an arch, exure/shear is mini-
mized and most of the load is transfered through axial forces only. Arches are used for large
span roofs and bridges, Fig. 1.3

Draft
1.10 Structure Types 1{5
Figure 1.2: Basic Aspects of Cable Systems

Draft
1{6 INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.3: Basic Aspects of Arches

Draft
Trusses have pin connected elements which can transmit axial forces only (tension and com-
pression). Elements are connected by either slotted, screwed, or gusset plate connectors.
However, due to construction details, there may be secondary stresses caused by relatively
rigid connections. Trusses are used for joists, roofs, bridges, electric tower, Fig. 1.4
Figure 1.4: Types of Trusses
Post and Beams: Essentially a support column on which a \beam" rests, Fig. 1.5, and 1.6.
Beams: Shear, exure and sometimes axial forces. Recall that = McI is applicable only for shallow
beams, i.e. span/depth at least equal to ve.
Whereas r/c beams are mostly rectangular or T shaped, steel beams are usually I shaped (if the
top anges are not properly stiened, they may buckle, thus we must have stieners).
Frames: Load is co-planar with the structure. Axial, shear, exure (with respect to one axis in 2D
structures and with respect to two axis in 3D structures), torsion (only in 3D). The frame is
composed of at least one horizontal member (beam) rigidly connected to vertical ones1. The vertical
1
The precursor of the frame structures were the Post and Lintel where the post is vertical member on which the lintel
is simply posed.

Draft
1{8 INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.5: Variations in Post and Beams Congurations

Draft
VIERENDEEL TRUSS TREE-SUPPORTED TRUSS
BRACED BEAM
OVERLAPPING SINGLE-STRUT
CABLE-SUPPORTED BEAM
CABLE-STAYED BEAM SUSPENDED CABLE

SUPPORTED BEAM
CABLE-SUPPORTED
BOWSTRING TRUSS STRUTED ARCH OR
CABLE BEAM/TRUSS
CABLE-SUPPORTED GABLED TRUSS

MULTI-STRUT
BEAM OR TRUSS
CABLE-SUPPORTED ARCHED FRAME CABLE-SUPPORTED PORTAL FRAME
Figure 1.6: Dierent Beam Types

Draft
1{10 INTRODUCTION
members can have dierent boundary conditions (which are usually governed by soil conditions).
Frames are extensively used for houses and buildings, Fig. 1.7.
Figure 1.7: Basic Forms of Frames
Grids and Plates: Load is orthogonal to the plane of the structure. Flexure, shear, torsion.
In a grid, beams are at right angles resulting in a two-way dispersal of loads. Because of the rigid
connections between the beams, additional stiness is introduced by the torsional resistance of
members.
Grids can also be skewed to achieve greater eciency if the aspect ratio is not close to one.
Plates are at, rigid, two dimensional structures which transmit vertical load to their supports.
Used mostly for oor slabs.
Folded plates is a combination of transverse and longitudinal beam action. Used for long span
roofs. Note that the plate may be folded circularly rather than longitudinally. Folded plates are
used mostly as long span roofs. However, they can also be used as vertical walls to support both
vertical and horizontal loads.
Membranes: 3D structures composed of a exible 2D surface resisting tension only. They are usually
cable-supported and are used for tents and long span roofs Fig. 1.8.

Draft
Figure 1.8: Examples of Air Supported Structures

Draft
1{12 INTRODUCTION
Shells: 3D structures composed of a curved 2D surface, they are usually shaped to transmit compressive
axial stresses only, Fig. 1.9.
Figure 1.9: Basic Forms of Shells
Shells are classied in terms of their curvature.
1.11 Structural Engineering Courses

22Structural engineering education can be approached from either one of two points of views, depending
on the audience, ??.
Architects Engineers
Approach Global Elemental
Emphasis Structure Component
Analysis Approximate, \rules of thumbs" Exact, detailled
preliminary Final
Structures Most Trusses, Frames
Design Approximate Per code
Table 1.1: Structural Engineering Coverage for Architects and Engineers

Table 1.2: tab:secae

Draft
1.12 References 1{13
Architects: Start from overall design, and move toward detailed analysis. Emphasis on good under-
standing of overall structural behavior. Develop a good understanding of load transfer mechanism
for most types of structures, cables, arches, beams, frames, shells, plates. Approximate analysis
for most of them.
Engineers: Emphasis is on the individual structural elements and not always on the total system.
Focus on beams, frames (mostly 2D) and trusses. Very seldom are arches covered. Plates and
shells are not even mentioned.
1.12 References
23Following are some useful references for structural engineering, those marked by y were consulted,
and \borrowed from" in preparing the Lecture Notes or are particularly recommended.
Structures for Architect
1. Ambrose, J., Building Structures, second Ed. Wiley, 1993.
2. Billington, D.P. Rober Maillart's Bridges; The Art of Engineering, Princeton University Pres,
1979.
3. yBillington, D.P., The Tower and the Bridge; The new art of structural engineering, Princeton
University Pres,, 1983.
4. yBillington, D.P., Structures and the Urban Environment, Lectures Notes CE 262, Department
of Civil Engineering, Princeton University, 1978
5. French, S., Determinate Structures; Statics, Strength, Analysis, Design, Delmar, 1996.
6. Gordon, J.E., Structures, or Why Things Do'nt Fall Down, Da Capo paperback, New York,
1978.
7. Gordon, J.E., The Science of Structures and Materials, Scientic American Library, 1988.
8. Hawkes, N., Structures, the way things are built, MacMillan, 1990.
9. Levy, M. and Salvadori, M., Why Buildings Fall Down, W.W.Norton, 1992.
10. yLin, T.Y. and Stotesbury, S.D., Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects and Engi-
neers, John Wiley, 1981.
11. yMainstone, R., Developments in Structural Form, Allen Lane Publishers, 1975.
12. Petroski, H., To Enginer is Human, Vintage Books, 1992.
13. ySalvadori, M. and Heller, R., Structure in Architecture; The Building of Buildings, Prentice
Hall, Third Edition, 1986.
14. Salvadori, M. and Levy, M., Structural Design in Architecture, Prentice hall, Second Edition,
1981.
15. Salvadori, M., Why Buildings Stand Up; The Strength of Architecture, Norton Paperack, 1990.
16. ySandaker, B.N. and Eggen, A.P., The Structural Basis of Architecture, Whitney Library of
Design, 1992.
17. ySchueller, W., The design of Building Structures, Prentice Hall, 1996.
Structures for Engineers
1. y Arbadi, F. Structural Analysis and Behavior, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991.
2. Biggs, J.M., Introduction to Structural Engineering; Analysis and Design, Prentice Hall, 1986.
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1{14 INTRODUCTION
3. Hsieh, Y.Y., Elementary Theory of Structures, Third Edition, Prentice Hall, 1988.
4. Ghali, A., and Neville, A.M., Structural Analysis, Third Edition, Chapman and Hall, 1989
5. White, R. Gergely, P. and Sexmith, R., Structural Engineering; Combined Edition, John
Wiley, 1976.
6. y Nilson, A., and Winter, G. Design of Concrete Structures, Eleventh Edition, McGraw Hill,
1991.
7. Galambos, T., Lin, F.J., and Johnston, B.G., Basic Steel Design with LRFD, Prentice Hall,
1996.
8. y Salmon C. and Johnson, J. Steel Structures, Third Edition, Harper Collins Publisher, 1990.
9. y Gaylord, E.H., Gaylord, C.N. and Stallmeyer, J.E., Design of Steel Structures, Third Edi-
tion, McGraw Hill, 1992.
10. Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture, Dover Publications, 1960.
11. Palladio, A., The Four Books of Architecture, Dover Publication.
Codes
1. ACI-318-89, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, American Concrete Insti-
tute
2. Load & Resistance Factor Design, Manual of Steel Construction, American Institute of Steel
Construction.
3. Uniform Building Code, International Conference of Building Ocials, 5360 South Workman
Road; Whittier, CA 90601
4. Minimum Design Loads in Buildings and Other Structures, ANSI A58.1, American National
Standards Institute, Inc., New York, 1972.

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Chapter 2
LOADS
2.1 Introduction
1 The main purpose of a structure is to transfer load from one point to another: bridge deck to pier;
slab to beam; beam to girder; girder to column; column to foundation; foundation to soil.
2 There can also be secondary loads such as thermal (in restrained structures), dierential settlement
of foundations, P-Delta eects (additional moment caused by the product of the vertical force and the
lateral displacement caused by lateral load in a high rise building).
3 Loads are generally subdivided into two categories
Vertical Loads or gravity load

1. dead load (DL)
2. live load (LL)
also included are snow loads.
Lateral Loads which act horizontally on the structure
1. Wind load (WL)
2. Earthquake load (EL)
this also includes hydrostatic and earth loads.
4 This distinction is helpful not only to compute a structure's load, but also to assign dierent factor of
safety to each one.
5 For a detailed coverage of loads, refer to the Universal Building Code (UBC), (UBC 1995).
2.2 Vertical Loads

6 For closely spaced identical loads (such as joist loads), it is customary to treat them as a uniformly
distributed load rather than as discrete loads, Fig. 2.1
Draft
2{2 LOADS
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7
REPETITIVE JOIST LOADS
ACTUAL DISCRETE LOADS ON SUPPORT BEAM
w LB/FT = TOTAL LOAD / SPAN
SUPPORT BEAM
SPAN
ASSUMED EQUIVALENT UNIFORM LOAD

TYPICAL SYSTEM OF JOISTS
Figure 2.1: Approximation of a Series of Closely Spaced Loads
2.2.1 Dead Load

7 Dead loads (DL) consist of the weight of the structure itself, and other permanent xtures (such as
walls, slabs, machinery).
8 For analysis purposes, dead loads can easily be determined from the structure's dimensions and density,
Table 2.1
Material lb=ft3 kN=m3
Aluminum 173 27.2
Brick 120 18.9
Concrete 145 33.8
Steel 490 77.0
Wood (pine) 40 6.3
Table 2.1: Unit Weight of Materials
9 For steel structures, the weight per unit length of rolled sections is given in the AISC Manual of Steel
Construction.
10 For design purposes, dead loads must be estimated and veried at the end of the design cycle. This
makes the design process iterative.
11 Weights for building materials is given in Table 2.2
12 For preliminary design purposes the average dead loads of Table 2.3 can be used:
2.2.2 Live Loads

13 Contrarily to dead loads which are xed and vertical, live loads (LL) are movable or moving and may
be horizontal.
14 Occupancy load may be due to people, furniture, equipment. The loads are essentially variable point
loads which can be placed anywhere.

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2.2 Vertical Loads 2{3
Material lb=ft2
Ceilings
Channel suspended system 1
Acoustical ber tile 1
Floors
Steel deck 2-10
Concrete-plain 1 in. 12
Linoleum 1/4 in. 1
Hardwood 4
Roofs
Copper or tin 1-5
5 ply felt and gravel 6
Shingles asphalt 3
Clay tiles 9-14
Sheathing wood 3
Insulation 1 in. poured in place 2
Partitions
Clay tile 3 in. 17
Clay tile 10 in. 40
Gypsum Block 5 in. 14
Wood studs 2x4 (12-16 in. o.c.) 2
Plaster 1 in. cement 10
Plaster 1 in. gypsum 5
Walls
Bricks 4 in. 40
Bricks 12 in. 120
Hollow concrete block (heavy aggregate)
4 in. 30
8 in. 55
12 in. 80
Hollow concrete block (light aggregate)
4 in. 21
8 in. 38
12 in. 55
Table 2.2: Weights of Building Materials
Material lb=ft2
Timber 40-50
Steel 50-80
Reinforced concrete 100-150
Table 2.3: Average Gross Dead Load in Buildings

Draft
2{4 LOADS
15 In analysis load placement should be such that their eect (shear/moment) are maximized.
16 A statistical approach is used to determine a uniformly distributed static load which is equivalent to
the weight of the maximum concentration of occupants. These loads are dened in codes such as the
Uniform Building Code or the ANSI Code, Table 2.4.
Use or Occupancy lb=ft2
Assembly areas 50
Cornices, marquees, residential balconies 60
Corridors, stairs 100
Garage 50
Oce buildings 50
Residential 40
Storage 125-250
Table 2.4: Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads, (UBC 1995)
17 For small areas (30 to 50 sq ft) the eect of concentrated load should be considered separately.
18 Since there is a small probability that the whole oor in a building be fully loaded, the UBC code
species that the occupancy load for members supporting an area A larger than 150 ft2 (i.e. a column
with a total tributary area, including oors above it, larger than 150 ft2 ) may be reduced by R where

R = r(A ; 150) 23:1 1 + DL
LL
(2.1)
where r = :08 for oors, A is the supported area ( 2 ) DL and LL are the dead and live loads per unit
ft
area supported by the member. R can not exceed 40% for horizontal members and 60% for vertical ones.
Example 2-1: Live Load Reduction

In a 10 story oce building with a column spacing of 16 ft in both directions, the total dead load
is 60 psf, snow load 20 psf and live load 80 psf. what is the total live load and total load for which a
column must be designed on the ground oor
Solution:
1. The tributary area is 16 16 = 256ft2 > 150
p
2. The reduction R for the roof is is R = :08(16 16 ; 150) = 8:48%
3.
;
Maximum allowable reduction Rmax = 23:1 1 + 80 60 = 40:4% which is less than 60% p
4. The reduced cumulative load for the column of each oor is

Floor Roof 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
A 256 512 768 1024 1280 1536 1792 2048 2304 2560
A ; 150 106 362 618 874 1130 1386 1642 1898 2154 2410
R0 8.48 28.96 49.44 69.92 90.40 110.88 131.36 151.84 172.32 192.8
R% 8.48 28.96 40.4 40.4 40.4 40.4 40.4 40.4 40.4 40.4
LL 20 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80
(100 ; R) LL=100 18.3 56.83 47.68 47.68 47.68 47.68 47.68 47.68 47.68 47.68
Draft
2.3 Lateral Loads 2{5
The resulting design live load for the bottom column has been reduced from
LLBefore = (20)
|
psf (256) }2 + |(9)(80) {z(256) }2 = 189,440
{z
ft psf ft lbs (2.2)
Roof 9 oors
to
LLReduced = (18
|
:3) {z(256) }2 + |(9)(47:68){z (256) }2 = 114,540
psf ft psf ft lbs (2.3)
Roof 9 oors
5. The total dead load is DL = (10)(60) (256) 2 (1;000) = 153:6 Kips, thus the total reduction
psf ft
k
lbs
in load is from 153:6+189:4 = 343 to 153:6+114:5 = 268:1 a reduction of 343343

k k
;268 100= 22% .
2.2.3 Snow
19 Roof snow load vary greatly depending on geographic location and elevation. They range from
20 to 45 psf, Fig. 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Snow Map of the United States, ubc
20 Snow loads are always given on the projected length or area on a slope, Fig. 2.3.
21 The steeper the roof, the lower the snow retention. For snow loads greater than 20 psf and roof pitches
more than 20 the snow load p may be reduced by
p
R = ( ; 20) 40 ; 0:5 (psf) (2.4)
2.3 Lateral Loads

2.3.1 Wind
22Wind load depend on: velocity of the wind, shape of the building, height, geographical
location, texture of the building surface and stiness of the structure.
Draft
2{6 LOADS
LIVE LOAD
DEAD LOAD
WIND
LOAD
RISE
TH
G
N
LE
RUN
Figure 2.3: Loads on Projected Dimensions
23 Wind loads are particularly signicant on tall buildings1.

24 When a steady streamline air ow of velocity V is completely stopped by a rigid body, the stagnation
pressure (or velocity pressure) qs was derived by Bernouilli (1700-1782)
qs = 21 V 2 (2.5)
where the air mass density is the air weight divided by the accleration of gravity g = 32:2 ft/sec2 . At
sea level and a temperature of 15oC (59oF), the ai weighs 0.0765 lb/ft3 this would yield a pressure of
3 (5280)ft/mile 2
qs = 21 (0:0765)lb/ft2 (3600)sec/hr V (2.6)
(32:2)ft/sec
or
qs = 0:00256V 2 (2.7)
where V is the maximum wind velocity (in miles per hour) and qs is in psf. V can be obtained from
wind maps (in the United States 70 V 110), Fig. 2.4.
25 During storms, wind velocities may reach values up to or greater than 150 miles per hour, which
corresponds to a dynamic pressure qs of about 60 psf (as high as the average vertical occupancy load in
buildings).
The primary design consideration for very high rise buildings is the excessive drift caused by lateral load (wind and
1
possibly earthquakes).

Draft
Figure 2.4: Wind Map of the United States, (UBC 1995)
26 Wind pressure increases with height, Table 2.5.

Height Zone Wind-Velocity Map Area
(in feet) 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
<30 15 20 25 25 30 35 40
30 to 49 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
50 to 99 25 30 40 45 50 55 60
100 to 499 30 40 45 55 60 70 75
500 to 1199 35 45 55 60 70 80 90
>1,200 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Table 2.5: Wind Velocity Variation above Ground
27 Wind load will cause suction on the leeward sides, Fig. 2.6
28 This magnitude must be modied to account for the shape and surroundings of the building. Thus,
the design base pressure (at 33.3 ft from the ground) p (psf) is given by
p = Ce Cq Iqs (2.8)
The pressure is assumed to be normal to all walls and roofs and

Ce Velocity Pressure Coecient accounts for height, exposure and gust factor. It accounts for the
fact that wind velocity increases with height and that dynamic character of the air ow (i.e the
wind pressure is not steady), Table 2.6. l
Cq Pressure Coecient is a shape factor which is given in Table 2.7 for gabled frames.
I Importance Factor as given by Table 2.8. where

Draft
2{8 LOADS
Figure 2.5: Eect of Wind Load on Structures(Schueller 1996)
Ce Exposure
1.39-2.34 D Open, at terrain facing large bodies of water
1.06-2.19 C Flat open terrain, extending one-half mile or open from the site in
any full quadrant
0.62-1.80 B Terrain with buildings, forest, or surface irregularities 20 ft or more
in height
Table 2.6: Ce Coecients for Wind Load, (UBC 1995)
Windward Side Leeward Side

Gabled Frames (V:H)
Roof Slope <9:12 ;0:7 ;0:7
9:12 to 12:12 0:4 ;0:7
>12:12 0:7 ;0:7
Walls 0:8 ;0:5
Buildings (height < 200 ft)
Vertical Projections height < 40 ft 1:3 ;1:3
height > 40 ft 1:4 ;1:4
Horizontal Projections ;0:7 ;0:7
Table 2.7: Wind Pressure Coecients Cq , (UBC 1995)

Draft
Imprtance Factor I
Occupancy Category Earthquake Wind
I Essential facilities 1.25 1.15
II Hazardous facilities 1.25 1.15
III Special occupancy structures 1.00 1.00
IV Standard occupancy structures 1.00 1.00
Table 2.8: Importance Factors for Wind and Earthquake Load, (UBC 1995)
I Essential Facilities: Hospitals; Fire and police stations; Tanks; Emergency vehicle shelters,
standby power-generating equipment; Structures and equipment in government. communica-
tion centers.
II Hazardous Facilities: Structures housing, supporting or containing sucient quantities of
toxic or explosive substances to be dangerous to the safety of the general public if released.
III Special occupancy structure: Covered structures whose primary occupancy is public as-
sembly, capacity > 300 persons.
Buildings for schools through secondary or day-care centers, capacity > 250 persons.
Buildings for colleges or adult education schools, capacity > 500 persons.
Medical facilities with 50 or more resident incapacitated patients, but not included above
Jails and detention facilities
All structures with occupancy >5,000 persons.
Structures and equipment in power generating stations and other public utilitiy facilities not
included above, and required for continued operation.
IV Standard occupancy structure: All structures having occupancies or functions not listed
above.
29 For the preliminary design of ordinary buildings Ce = 1:0 and Cq = 1:3 may be assumed, yielding
p = (1:3):020256V 2 = :00333V 2 (2.9)
which corresponds to a pressure of 21 psf for a wind speed of 80 mph, Fig. 2.6, Table 2.9.
Example 2-2: Wind Load

Determine the wind forces on the building shown on below which is built in St Louis and is surrouded
by trees.
Solution:
1. From Fig. 2.4 the maximum wind velocity is St. Louis is 70 mph, since the building is protected
we can take Ce = 0:7, I = 1:. The base wind pressure is qs = 0:00256 (70)2 = 12:54 psf.

Draft
2{10 LOADS
Exposure
Height B C
Above Basic Wind Speed (mph)
Grade (ft) 70 80 70 80
0-15 10 13 17 23
20 11 14 18 24
25 12 15 19 25
30 12 16 20 26
40 14 18 21 28
60 17 22 25 33
80 18 24 27 35
100 20 26 28 37
120 21 28 29 38
160 23 30 31 41
200 25 33 33 43
300 29 37 36 47
400 32 41 38 50
Table 2.9: Approximate Design Wind Pressure p for Ordinary Wind Force Resisting Building Structures
400
Exposure B, 70 mph
350 Exposure B, 80 mph
Exposure C, 70 mph
Exposure C, 80 mph
300
Height Above Grade (ft)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Approximate Design Wind Pressure (psf)
Figure 2.6: Approximate Design Wind Pressure p for Ordinary Wind Force Resisting Building Structures

Draft
2. The slope of the roof is 8:15=6.4:12 which gives Cq = ;0:7 for both the windward and leeward
sides. The vertical walls have Cq = 0:8 for the winward side and Cq = ;0:5 for the leeward one.
3. Thus the applied pressure on the roof is p = 0:7 (;0:7) 12:54 = -6.14 psf that is the roof is
subjected to uplift.
4. The winward wall, the pressure is 0:7 0:8 12:54 = 7.02 psf , and for the leeward wall 0:7
(;0:5) 12:54 = -4.39 psf (suction) ,
5. The direction of the wind can change and hence each structural component must be designed to
resist all possible load combinations.
6. For large structures which may be subjected to large wind loads, testing in a wind tunnel of the
structure itself and its surroundings is often accomplished.
2.3.2 Earthquakes
30 Buildings should be able to resist
Minor earthquakes without damage
Moderate earthquakes without structural damage but possibly with some nonstructural damages
Major earthquakes without collapse but possibly with some structural damage as well as nonstruc-
tural damage
This is achieved through an appropriate dynamic analysis.
31 For preliminary designs or for small structures an equivalent horizontal static load can be deter-
mined.
32 Actual loads depend on the following
1. Intensity of the ground acceleration (including soil/rock properties).

2. Dynamic properties of the building, such as its mode shapes and periods of vibration and its
damping characteristics.
3. Mass of the building.
Draft
2{12 LOADS
33 A critical factor in the dynamic response of a structure is the fundamental period of the structure's
vibration (or rst mode of vibration). This is the time required for one full cycle of motion, Fig. 2.7. If
the earthquake excitation has a frequency close to the one of the building, then resonance may occur.
This should be avoided.
Figure 2.7: Vibrations of a Building
34 Earthquake load manifests itself as a horizontal force due to the (primarily) horizontal inertia force
(F = ma).
35 The horizontal force at each level is calculated as a portion of the base shear force V
V = ZIC
RW W
(2.10)
where:
Z : Zone Factor: to be determined from Fig. 2.8 and Table 2.10.
Seismic Zone 0 1 2A 2B 3 4
Z 0 0.075 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4
Table 2.10: Z Factors for Dierent Seismic Zones, ubc
I : Importance Factor: which was given by Table 2.8.

C : Design Response Spectrum given by
C = 1T:25S
2=3 2:75 (2.11)
Draft
Figure 2.8: Seismic Zones of the United States, (UBC 1995)
T is the fundamental period of vibration of the building in seconds. This can be determined from
either the free vibration analysis of the building, or estimated from the following empirical formula
T = Ct (hn )3=4 (2.12)
where:
hn is the building height above base in ft.
and
Ct 0.035 steel moment resisting frames
Ct 0.030 reinforced concrete moment resisting frames and eccentrically braced frames
Ct 0.020 all other buildings
S : Site Coecient given by Table 2.11 Note that most of the damages in the 1990? earthquake
Type Description S Factor
S1 A soil prole with either rock-like material or sti/dense soil less 1.0
than 200 ft.
S2 Dense or sti soil exceeding 200 ft 1.2
S3 70 ft or more soil containing more than 20 ft of soft to medium sti 1.5
clay but not more than 40 ft. of soft clay.
S4 Soil containing more than 40 ft of soft clay 2.0
Table 2.11: S Site Coecients for Earthquake Loading, (UBC 1995)

in San Francisco occurred in the marina where many houses were built on soft soil.
and
C
RW 0:075
(2.13)

Draft
2{14 LOADS
RW is given by Table 2.12.
W Load total structure load.
36The horizontal force V is distributed over the height of the building in two parts. The rst (applied
only if T 0:7 sec.) is a concentrated force F1 equal to
Ft = 0:07TV 0:25V (2.14)
is applied at the top of the building due to whiplash. The balance of the force V ; Ft is distributed as
a triangular load diminishing to zero at the base.
37 Assuming a oor weight constant for every oor level, then the force acting on each one is given by
Fx = h +(Vh ;+Ft)h +x h = (V;n Fht )hx (2.15)

1 2 n i=1 i
where hi and hx are the height in ft above the base to level i, or x respectively. Note that it is assumed
that all oors have also same width.
Example 2-3: Earthquake Load on a Frame

Determine the approximate earthquake forces for the ductile hospital frame structure shown below.
The DL for each oor is 200 lb/ft and the LL is 400 lb/ft. The structure is built on soft soil. Use DL
plus 50%LL as the weight of each oor. The building is in zone 3.
Solution:
1. The fundamental period of vibration is
T = Ct (hn )3=4 = (0:030)(24)3=4 = 0:32 sec. (2.16)
2. The C coecient is
C = 1T:25S (1:25)(2:0)
2=3 = (0:32)2=3 = 5:344 > 2:75 (2.17)
use C = 2:75.
3. The other coecients are: Z =0.3; I =1.25; RW =12
Draft
Structural System RW H (ft)

Bearing wall system
Light-framed walls with shear panels
Plywood walls for structures three stories or less 8 65
All other light-framed walls 6 65
Shear walls
Concrete 8 240
Masonry 8 160
Building frame system using trussing or shear walls)
Steel eccentrically braced ductile frame 10 240
Light-framed walls with shear panels
Plywood walls for structures three stories or less 9 65
All other light-framed walls 7 65
Shear walls
Concrete 8 240
Masonry 8 160
Concentrically braced frames
Steel 8 160
Concrete (only for zones I and 2) 8 -
Heavy timber 8 65
Moment-resisting frame system
Special moment-resisting frames (SMRF)
Steel 12 N.L.
Concrete 12 N.L.
Concrete intermediate moment-resisting frames (IMRF)only for zones 1 and 2 8 -
Ordinary moment-resisting frames (OMRF)
Steel 6 160
Concrete (only for zone 1) 5 -
Dual systems (selected cases are for ductile rigid frames only)
Shear walls
Concrete with SMRF 12 N.L.
Masonry with SMRF 8 160
Steel eccentrically braced ductile frame 6-12 160-N.L.
Concentrically braced frame 12 N. L.
Steel with steel SMRF 10 N.L.
Steel with steel OMRF 6 160
Concrete with concrete SMRF (only for zones 1 and 2) 9 -
Table 2.12: Partial List of RW for Various Structure Systems, (UBC 1995)

Draft
2{16 LOADS
4. Check
C = 2:75 = 0:23 > 0:075p (2.18)
RW 12
5. The total vertical load is
W = 2 ((200 + 0:5(400)) (20) = 16000 lbs (2.19)
6. The total seismic base shear is
V = ZIC
RW = (0:3)(1:25)(2:75) = 0:086W
12 (2.20-a)
= (0:086)(16000) = 1375 lbs (2.20-b)
7. Since T < 0:7 sec. there is no whiplash.
8. The load on each oor is thus given by
F2 = (1375)(24)
12 + 24 = 916.7 lbs (2.21-a)
F1 = (1375)(12)
12 + 24 = 458.3 lbs (2.21-b)
Example 2-4: Earthquake Load on a Tall Building, (Schueller 1996)

Determine the approximate critical lateral loading for a 25 storey, ductile, rigid space frame concrete
structure in the short direction. The rigid frames are spaced 25 ft apart in the cross section and 20
ft in the longitudinal direction. The plan dimension of the building is 175x100 ft, and the structure is
25(12)=300 ft high. This oce building is located in an urban environment with a wind velocity of 70
mph and in seismic zone 4. For this investigation, an average building total dead load of 192 psf is used.
Soil conditions are unknown.

Draft
470 k
2638 k
25(12)=300’
1523 k
2(300)/3=200’
300/2=150’
84000 k
7(25)=175’
3108 k
5(20)=100’
Solution:
1. The total building weight is
W = (0:1926) (100 175) ksf ft
2 25 storeys = 84; 000 k (2.22)
2. the fundamental period of vibration for a rigid frame is
T = Ct (hn )3=4 = 0:030(300)3=4 = 2:16 sec. > 0:7 sec.
p (2.23)
3. The C coecient is
C = 1T:25 S (1:25)(1:5) p
2=3 = (2:16)2=3 = 1:12 2:75 (2.24)
4. The other coecients are Z =0.4; I =1, RW =12
5. We check
C 1:12 p
R = 12 = 0:093 0:075 W
(2.25)
6. The total seismic base shear along the critical short direction is
V = ZIC RW W =
(0:4)(1)(1:12) W = 0:037W
(12) (2.26-a)
= (0:037)(84000) = 3108 kip (2.26-b)
7. Since T > 0:7 sec. , the whiplash eect must be considered
Ft = 0:07TV = (0:07)(2:16)(3108) = 470 k (2.27-a)
le 0:25V = (0:25)(3108) = 777 k (2.27-b)
Draft
2{18 LOADS
Hence the total triangular load is
V ; Ft = 3108 ; 470 = 2638 k (2.28)
8. let us check if wind load governs. From Table xx we conservatively assume a uniform wind pressure
of 29 psf resulting in a total lateral force of
PW = (0:029) (175 300) 2 = 1523 < 3108
psf ft k k (2.29)
The magnitude of the total seismic load is clearly larger than the total wind force.
2.4 Other Loads

2.4.1 Hydrostatic and Earth
38 Structures below ground must resist lateral earth pressure.
q = K h (2.30)
;sin is the pressure coecient, h is the height.

where is the soil density, K = 11+sin
39 For sand and gravel = 120 lb= ft3 , and 30.
40 If the structure is partially submerged, it must also resist hydrostatic pressure of water, Fig. 2.9.
Figure 2.9: Earth and Hydrostatic Loads on Structures
q = W h (2.31)
where W = 62:4 lbs = 3.

ft
Example 2-5: Hydrostatic Load

Draft
2.4 Other Loads 2{19
The basement of a building is 12 ft below grade. Ground water is located 9 ft below grade, what
thickness concrete slab is required to exactly balance the hydrostatic uplift?
Solution:
The hydrostatic pressure must be countered by the pressure caused by the weight of concrete. Since p =
h we equate the two pressures and solve for h the height of the concrete slab (62
|
:4) = 3{z (12 ; 9) } =
lbs ft ft
water
(150) = 3 h ) h = (62:4) = 3 (3) (12)
lbs ft
= 14 :976 ' 15.0 inch
|
lbs ft
{z } (150) = 3
lbs ft
ft in/ft in
concrete
2.4.2 Thermal
41If a member is uniformly heated (or cooled) without restraint, then it will expand (or contract).
This expansion is given by
l = lT (2.32)
where is the coecient of thermal expansion, Table 2.13

(/F )
Steel 6:5 10;6
Concrete 5:5 10;6
Table 2.13: Coecients of Thermal Expansion
42 If the member is restrained against expansion, then a compressive stress = ET is developed.

43 To avoid excessive stresses due to thermal loading expansion joints are used in bridges and buildings.
Example 2-6: Thermal Expansion/Stress (Schueller 1996)

A low-rise building is enclosed along one side by a 100 ft-long clay masonary ( = 3:6 10;6
in./in./oF, E = 2; 400; 000 psi) bearing wall. The structure was built at a temperature of 60oF and
is located in the northern part of the United States where the temperature range is between -20o and
+120oF.
Solution:
1. Assuming that the wall can move freely with no restraint from cross-walls and foundation, the wall
expansion and contraction (summer and winter) are given by
LSummer = TL = (3:6 10;6) = =oF (120 ; 60)o F (100) (12)
in in ft = 0.26 (2.33-a)
in/ft in
LWinter = TL = (3:6 10;6) = =oF (;20 ; 60)oF (100) (12)

in in ft = -0.35(2.33-b)
in/ft in

Draft
2{20 LOADS
2. We now assume (conservatively) that the free movement cannot occur (L = 0) hence the resulting
stress would be equal to = E" = E LL = E LTL = ET
Summer = ET = (2; 400; 000) 2 (3:6 10;6 ) = =oF (120 ; 60)oF = 518
lbs
in
in in
lbs
in
2 Tension(2.34-a)
Winter = ET = (2; 400; 000) 2 (3:6 10;6 ) = =oF (;20 ; 60)o F = -691
lbs
in
in in
lbs
in
2 Compression
(2.34-b)
(2.34-c)
Note that the tensile stresses being beyond the masonary capacity, cracking will occur.
2.5 Other Important Considerations

2.5.1 Load Combinations
44 Live loads specied by codes represent the maximum possible loads.
45 The likelihood of all these loads occurring simultaneously is remote. Hence, building codes allow
certain reduction when certain loads are combined together.
46 Furthermore, structures should be designed to resist a combination of loads.
47 Denoting D= dead; L= live; Lr= roof live; W= wind; E= earthquake; S= snow; T= temperature;
H= soil:
48 For the load and resistance factor design (LRFD) method of concrete structures, the American Con-
crete Institute (ACI) Building design code (318) (318 n.d.) requires that the following load combinations
be considered:
1. 1.4D+1.7L
2. 0.75(1.4D+1.7L+1.7W)
3. 0.9D+1.3W
4. 1.4D +1.7L+1.7H
5. 0.75(1.4D+1.4T+1.7L)
6. 1.4(D+T)
whereas for steel structures, the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) code, (of Steel COn-
struction 1986) requires that the following combinations be veried
1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D+1.6L+0.5(Lr or S)
3. 1.2D+0.5L (or 0.8W)+1.6(Lr or S)
4. 1.2D+0.5L+0.5(Lr or S)+1.3W
5. 1.2D+0.5L(or 0.2 S)+1.5E

Draft
2.5 Other Important Considerations 2{21
6. 0.9D+1.3W(or 1.5 E)
49 Analysis can be separately performed for each of the basic loads (L, D, W, etc) and then using the
principle of superposition the loads can be linearly combined (unless the elastic limit has been reached).
50 Loads are often characterized as Usual, Unusual and Extreme.
2.5.2 Load Placement

51Only the dead load is static. The live load on the other hand may or may not be applied on a given
component of a structure. Hence, the load placement arrangement resulting in the highest internal forces
(moment +ve or -ve, shear) at dierent locations must be considered, Fig. 2.10.
Figure 2.10: Load Placement to Maximize Moments
2.5.3 Load Transfer

52Whereas we will be focusing on the design of a reinforced concrete or steel section, we must keep in
mind the following:
1. The section is part of a beam or girder.
2. The beam or girder is really part of a three dimensional structure in which load is transmitted
from any point in the structure to the foundation through any one of various structural forms.
53 Load transfer in a structure is accomplished through a \hierarchy" of simple exural elements which
are then connected to the columns, Fig. 2.11 or by two way slabs as illustrated in Fig. 2.12.
2.5.4 Structural Response
54 Under the action of the various forces and loadings described above, the structure must be able to
respond with proper behavior, Fig. 9.1.
Draft
2{22 LOADS
Figure 2.11: Load Transfer in R/C Buildings

Draft
Figure 2.12: Two Way Actions

Draft
2{24 LOADS
Figure 2.13: Load Life of a Structure, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)

Draft
2.5.5 Tributary Areas
55 For preliminary analyses, the tributary area of a structural component will determine the total applied
load.
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11111
00000 11
00000000
00000
11111 00
110000
111100
11
00000
11111 00
110000
111100
11
00000
11111 00
110000
111100
11
00000
11111
00000
11111 00
11
00
110000
1111
0000
111100
11
00
11
00000
11111 00
110000
1111
000011
00
00000
11111
11111
00000 001111
11
11
001111
000000
11
11
00
Figure 2.14: Concept of Tributary Areas for Structual Member Loading

Draft
2{26 LOADS

Draft
Chapter 3
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
1 Proper understanding of structural materials is essential to both structural analysis and to structural
design.
2 Characteristics of the most commonly used structural materials will be highlighted.
3.1 Steel
3.1.1 Structural Steel
3 Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Its properties can be greatly varied by altering the carbon content
(always less than 0.5%) or by adding other elements such as silicon, nickle, manganese and copper.
4 Practically all grades of steel have a Young Modulus equal to 29,000 ksi, density of 490 lb/cu ft, and
a coecient of thermal expansion equal to 0:65 10;5 /deg F.
5 The yield stress of steel can vary from 40 ksi to 250 ksi. Most commonly used structural steel are A36
(yld = 36 ksi) and A572 (yld = 50 ksi), Fig. 3.1
6 Structural steel can be rolled into a wide variety of shapes and sizes. Usually the most desirable
members are those which have a large section moduli (S ) in proportion to their area (A), Fig. 3.2.
7 Steel can be bolted, riveted or welded.
8 Sections are designated by the shape of their cross section, their depth and their weight. For example
W 27 114 is a W section, 27 in. deep weighing 114 lb/ft.
9 Common sections are:
S sections were the rst ones rolled in America and have a slope on their inside ange surfaces of 1 to
6.
W or wide ange sections have a much smaller inner slope which facilitates connections and rivetting.
W sections constitute about 50% of the tonnage of rolled structural steel.
C are channel sections
MC Miscellaneous channel which can not be classied as a C shape by dimensions.
HP is a bearing pile section.
Draft
3{2 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
Figure 3.1: Stress Strain Curves of Concrete and Steel
Figure 3.2: Standard Rolled Sections

Draft
3.1 Steel 3{3
M is a miscellaneous section.
L are angle sections which may have equal or unequal sides.
WT is a T section cut from a W section in two.
10 The section modulus Sx of a W section can be roughly approximated by the following formula
Sx wd=10 or Ix Sx d2 wd2 =20 (3.1)
and the plastic modulus can be approximated by
Zx wd=9 (3.2)
11 Properties of structural steel are tabulated in Table 3.1.

ASTM Shapes Available Use y (kksi) u (kksi)
Desig.
A36 Shapes and bars Riveted, bolted, welded; 36 up through 8 in. (32 above
Buildings and bridges 8.)
A500 Cold formed welded and General structural pur- Grade A: 33; Grade B: 42;
seamless sections; pose Riveted, welded or Grade C: 46
bolted;
A501 Hot formed welded and seam- Bolted and welded 36
less sections;
A529 Plates and bars in and less Building frames and
1
42
thick; trusses; Bolted and
2
welded
A606 Hot and cold rolled sheets; Atmospheric corrosion 45-50
resistant
A611 Cold rolled sheet in cut Cold formed sections Grade C 33; Grade D 40;
lengths Grade E 80
A 709 Structural shapes, plates and Bridges Grade 36: 36 (to 4 in.); Grade
bars 50: 50; Grade 100: 100 (to
2.5in.) and 90 (over 2.5 to 4
in.)
Table 3.1: Properties of Major Structural Steels
12 Rolled sections, Fig. 3.3 and welded ones, Fig3.4 have residual stresses. Those originate during the
rolling or fabrication of a member. The member is hot just after rolling or welding, it cools unevenly
because of varying exposure. The area that cool rst become stier, resist contraction, and develop
compressive stresses. The remaining regions continue to cool and contract in the plastic condition and
develop tensile stresses.
13 Due to those residual stresses, the stress-strain curve of a rolled section exhibits a non-linear segment
prior to the theoretical yielding, Fig. 3.5. This would have important implications on the exural and
axial strength of beams and columns.

Draft
Maximum compressive
stress, say 12 ksi average
Compression (-)
(-)
Tension (+)
(+)
Figure 3.3: Residual Stresses in Rolled Sections
say 20 ksi
say 12 ksi _
- + +
say 40 ksi
+ +
20 ksi
+ say 35 ksi
tension
Welded H
say 20 ksi
compression
Welded box
Figure 3.4: Residual Stresses in Welded Sections

Draft
3.1 Steel 3{5
Ideal coupon containing
no residual stress
Fy .3
Maximum
Average stress P/A .2 residual
compressive
stress
Fp .1 1
Members with
residual stress
2 3
Average copressive strain Shaded portion indicates area
which has achieved a stress Fy
Figure 3.5: In uence of Residual Stress on Average Stress-Strain Curve of a Rolled Section
3.1.2 Reinforcing Steel

14 Steel is also used as reinforcing bars in concrete, Table 3.2. Those bars have a deformation on their
surface to increase the bond with concrete, and usually have a yield stress of 60 ksi1 .
Bar Designation Diameter Area Perimeter Weight
(in.) ( 2) in lb/ft
in
No. 2 2/8=0.250 0.05 0.79 0.167

No. 3 3/8=0.375 0.11 1.18 0.376
No. 4 4/8=0.500 0.20 1.57 0.668
No. 5 5/8=0.625 0.31 1.96 1.043
No. 6 6/8=0.750 0.44 2.36 1.5202
No. 7 7/8=0.875 0.60 2.75 2.044
No. 8 8/8=1.000 0.79 3.14 2.670
No. 9 9/8=1.128 1.00 3.54 3.400
No. 10 10/8=1.270 1.27 3.99 4.303
No. 11 11/8=1.410 1.56 4.43 5.313
No. 14 14/8=1.693 2.25 5.32 7.650
No. 18 18/8=2.257 4.00 7.09 13.60
Table 3.2: Properties of Reinforcing Bars
15 Steel loses its strength rapidly above 700 deg. F (and thus must be properly protected from re), and
becomes brittle at ;30 deg. F
16 Steel is also used as wire strands and ropes for suspended roofs, cable-stayed bridges, fabric roofs and
other structural applications. A strand is a helical arrangement of wires around a central wire. A rope
consists of multiple strands helically wound around a central plastic core, and a modulus of elasticity of
20,000 ksi, and an ultimate strength of 220 ksi.
17 Prestressing Steel cables have an ultimate strength up to 270 ksi.
1
Stirrups which are used as vertical reinforcement to resist shear usually have a yield stress of only 40 ksi.

Draft
3.2 Aluminum
18 Aluminum is used whenever light weight combined with strength is an important factor. Those
properties, along with its resistance to corrosion have made it the material of choice for airplane
structures, light roof framing.
19 Aluminum members can be connected by riveting, bolting and to a lesser extent by welding.
20 Aluminum has a modulus of elasticity equal to 10,000 ksi (about three times lower than steel),
a coecient of thermal expansion of 2:4 10;5 and a density of 173 = 3 . lbs ft
21 The ultimate strength of pure aluminum is low (13,000 psi) but with the addition of alloys it can go
up.
22 When aluminum is in contact with other metals in the presence of an electrolyte, galvanic corrosion
may cause damage. Thus, steel and aluminum in a structure must be carefully separated by means of
painting or a nonconductive material.
3.3 Concrete
23 Concrete is a mixture of Portland cement2 , water, and aggregates (usually sand and crushed stone).
An ideal mixture is one in which:
1. A minimum amount of cement-water paste is used to ll the interstices between the particles of
aggregates.
2. A minimum amount of water is provided to complete the chemical reaction with cement.
In such a mixture, about 3/4 of the volume is constituted by the aggregates, and the remaining 1/4
being the cement paste.
24 Smaller particles up to 1/4 in. in size are called ne aggregates, and the larger ones being coarse
aggregates.
25 Contrarily to steel to modulus of elasticity of concrete depends on the strength and is given by
p
E = 57; 000 fc0 (3.3)
or p
E = 33 1:5 fc0 (3.4)
where both fc0 and E are in psi and is in = 3 . lbs ft
26 Typical concrete (compressive) strengths range from 3,000 to 6,000 psi; However high strength
concrete can go up to 14,000 psi.
27 All concrete fail at an ultimate strain of 0.003, Fig. 3.1.
28 Pre-peak nonlinearity is caused by micro-cracking Fig. 3.6.
29 The tensile strength of concrete ft0 is about 10% of the compressive strength.
30 Density of normal weight concrete is 145 = 3 and 100 = 3 for lightweight concrete.
lbs ft lbs ft
Portland cement is a mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials which are calcined in a kiln and then pulverized.
2
When mixed with water, cement hardens through a process called hydration.

Draft
3.4 Masonry 3{7
εu
linear
.5f’c
non-linear
f’c
Figure 3.6: Concrete microcracking
31 Coecient of thermal expansion is 0:65 10;5 /deg F for normal weight concrete.
32 When concrete is poured (or rather placed), the free water not needed for the hydration process
evaporates over a period of time and the concrete will shrink. This shrinkage is about 0.05% after one
year (strain). Thus if the concrete is restrained, then cracking will occur3.
33 Concrete will also deform with time due to the applied load, this is called creep. This should be taken
into consideration when computing the de ections (which can be up to three times the instantaneous
elastic de ection).
3.4 Masonry
34 Masonry consists of either natural materials, such as stones, or of manufactured products such as
bricks and concrete blocks4, stacked and bonded together with mortar.
35 As for concrete, all modern structural masonry blocks are essentially compression members with low
tensile resistance.
36 The mortar used is a mixture of sand, masonry cement, and either Portland cement or hydrated lime.
3.5 Timber
37 Timber is one of the earliest construction materials, and one of the few natural materials with good
tensile properties.
38 The properties of timber vary greatly, and the strength is time dependent.
39 Timber is a good shock absorber (many wood structures in Japan have resisted repeated earthquakes).
40 The most commonly used species of timber in construction are Douglas r, southern pine, hemlock
and larch.
41 Members can be laminated together under good quality control, and exural strengths as high as
2,500 psi can be achieved.
For this reason a minimum amount of reinforcement is always necessary in concrete, and a 2% reinforcement, can
3
reduce the shrinkage by 75%.

Mud bricks were used by the Babylonians, stones by the Egyptians, and ice blocks by the Eskimos...
4

Draft
3.6 Steel Section Properties
42 Dimensions and properties of rolled sections are tabulated in the following pages, Fig. 3.7.
Figure 3.7: W and C sections

==============

Draft
3.6 Steel Section Properties 3{9
bf hc
Designation A d 2tf tw Ix Sx Iy Sy Zx Zy
in
2
in in4
in3
in4
in3
in
3
in
3
W 36x848 249.0 42.45 2.0 12.5 67400 3170 4550 501 3830.0 799.0
W 36x798 234.0 41.97 2.1 13.2 62600 2980 4200 467 3570.0 743.0
W 36x720 211.0 41.19 2.3 14.5 55300 2690 3680 414 3190.0 656.0
W 36x650 190.0 40.47 2.5 16.0 48900 2420 3230 367 2840.0 580.0
W 36x588 172.0 39.84 2.7 17.6 43500 2180 2850 328 2550.0 517.0
W 36x527 154.0 39.21 3.0 19.6 38300 1950 2490 289 2270.0 454.0
W 36x485 142.0 38.74 3.2 21.0 34700 1790 2250 263 2070.0 412.0
W 36x439 128.0 38.26 3.5 23.1 31000 1620 1990 235 1860.0 367.0
W 36x393 115.0 37.80 3.8 25.8 27500 1450 1750 208 1660.0 325.0
W 36x359 105.0 37.40 4.2 28.1 24800 1320 1570 188 1510.0 292.0
W 36x328 96.4 37.09 4.5 30.9 22500 1210 1420 171 1380.0 265.0
W 36x300 88.3 36.74 5.0 33.3 20300 1110 1300 156 1260.0 241.0
W 36x280 82.4 36.52 5.3 35.6 18900 1030 1200 144 1170.0 223.0
W 36x260 76.5 36.26 5.7 37.5 17300 953 1090 132 1080.0 204.0
W 36x245 72.1 36.08 6.1 39.4 16100 895 1010 123 1010.0 190.0
W 36x230 67.6 35.90 6.5 41.4 15000 837 940 114 943.0 176.0
W 36x256 75.4 37.43 3.5 33.8 16800 895 528 86 1040.0 137.0
W 36x232 68.1 37.12 3.9 37.3 15000 809 468 77 936.0 122.0
W 36x210 61.8 36.69 4.5 39.1 13200 719 411 68 833.0 107.0
W 36x194 57.0 36.49 4.8 42.4 12100 664 375 62 767.0 97.7
W 36x182 53.6 36.33 5.1 44.8 11300 623 347 58 718.0 90.7
W 36x170 50.0 36.17 5.5 47.8 10500 580 320 53 668.0 83.8
W 36x160 47.0 36.01 5.9 50.0 9750 542 295 49 624.0 77.3
W 36x150 44.2 35.85 6.4 52.0 9040 504 270 45 581.0 70.9
W 36x135 39.7 35.55 7.6 54.1 7800 439 225 38 509.0 59.7
W 33x619 181.0 38.47 2.4 15.2 41800 2170 2870 340 2560.0 537.0
W 33x567 166.0 37.91 2.6 16.6 37700 1990 2580 308 2330.0 485.0
W 33x515 151.0 37.36 2.8 18.2 33700 1810 2290 276 2110.0 433.0
W 33x468 137.0 36.81 3.0 19.7 30100 1630 2030 247 1890.0 387.0
W 33x424 124.0 36.34 3.3 21.7 26900 1480 1800 221 1700.0 345.0
W 33x387 113.0 35.95 3.6 23.8 24300 1350 1620 200 1550.0 312.0
W 33x354 104.0 35.55 3.8 25.8 21900 1230 1460 181 1420.0 282.0
W 33x318 93.5 35.16 4.2 28.8 19500 1110 1290 161 1270.0 250.0
W 33x291 85.6 34.84 4.6 31.2 17700 1010 1160 146 1150.0 226.0
W 33x263 77.4 34.53 5.0 34.5 15800 917 1030 131 1040.0 202.0
W 33x241 70.9 34.18 5.7 36.1 14200 829 932 118 939.0 182.0
W 33x221 65.0 33.93 6.2 38.7 12800 757 840 106 855.0 164.0
W 33x201 59.1 33.68 6.8 41.9 11500 684 749 95 772.0 147.0
W 33x169 49.5 33.82 4.7 44.7 9290 549 310 54 629.0 84.4
W 33x152 44.7 33.49 5.5 47.2 8160 487 273 47 559.0 73.9
W 33x141 41.6 33.30 6.0 49.6 7450 448 246 43 514.0 66.9
W 33x130 38.3 33.09 6.7 51.7 6710 406 218 38 467.0 59.5
W 33x118 34.7 32.86 7.8 54.5 5900 359 187 33 415.0 51.3
W 30x581 170.0 35.39 2.3 13.7 33000 1870 2530 312 2210.0 492.0
W 30x526 154.0 34.76 2.5 15.1 29300 1680 2230 278 1990.0 438.0
W 30x477 140.0 34.21 2.7 16.6 26100 1530 1970 249 1790.0 390.0
W 30x433 127.0 33.66 2.9 18.0 23200 1380 1750 222 1610.0 348.0
W 30x391 114.0 33.19 3.2 19.9 20700 1250 1550 198 1430.0 310.0
W 30x357 104.0 32.80 3.5 21.8 18600 1140 1390 179 1300.0 279.0
W 30x326 95.7 32.40 3.7 23.7 16800 1030 1240 162 1190.0 252.0
W 30x292 85.7 32.01 4.1 26.5 14900 928 1100 144 1060.0 223.0
W 30x261 76.7 31.61 4.6 29.0 13100 827 959 127 941.0 196.0
W 30x235 69.0 31.30 5.0 32.5 11700 746 855 114 845.0 175.0
W 30x211 62.0 30.94 5.7 34.9 10300 663 757 100 749.0 154.0
W 30x191 56.1 30.68 6.3 38.0 9170 598 673 90 673.0 138.0
W 30x173 50.8 30.44 7.0 41.2 8200 539 598 80 605.0 123.0
W 30x148 43.5 30.67 4.4 41.5 6680 436 227 43 500.0 68.0
W 30x132 38.9 30.31 5.3 43.9 5770 380 196 37 437.0 58.4
W 30x124 36.5 30.17 5.7 46.2 5360 355 181 34 408.0 54.0
W 30x116 34.2 30.01 6.2 47.8 4930 329 164 31 378.0 49.2
W 30x108 31.7 29.83 6.9 49.6 4470 299 146 28 346.0 43.9
W 30x 99 29.1 29.65 7.8 51.9 3990 269 128 24 312.0 38.6
W 30x 90 26.4 29.53 8.5 57.5 3620 245 115 22 283.0 34.7
Draft
bf hc
in
2
in in4
in3
in4
in3
in
3
in
3
W 27x539 158.0 32.52 2.2 12.3 25500 1570 2110 277 1880.0 437.0
W 27x494 145.0 31.97 2.3 13.4 22900 1440 1890 250 1710.0 394.0
W 27x448 131.0 31.42 2.5 14.7 20400 1300 1670 224 1530.0 351.0
W 27x407 119.0 30.87 2.7 15.9 18100 1170 1480 200 1380.0 313.0
W 27x368 108.0 30.39 3.0 17.6 16100 1060 1310 179 1240.0 279.0
W 27x336 98.7 30.00 3.2 19.2 14500 970 1170 161 1130.0 252.0
W 27x307 90.2 29.61 3.5 20.9 13100 884 1050 146 1020.0 227.0
W 27x281 82.6 29.29 3.7 22.9 11900 811 953 133 933.0 206.0
W 27x258 75.7 28.98 4.0 24.7 10800 742 859 120 850.0 187.0
W 27x235 69.1 28.66 4.4 26.6 9660 674 768 108 769.0 168.0
W 27x217 63.8 28.43 4.7 29.2 8870 624 704 100 708.0 154.0
W 27x194 57.0 28.11 5.2 32.3 7820 556 618 88 628.0 136.0
W 27x178 52.3 27.81 5.9 33.4 6990 502 555 79 567.0 122.0
W 27x161 47.4 27.59 6.5 36.7 6280 455 497 71 512.0 109.0
W 27x146 42.9 27.38 7.2 40.0 5630 411 443 64 461.0 97.5
W 27x129 37.8 27.63 4.5 39.7 4760 345 184 37 395.0 57.6
W 27x114 33.5 27.29 5.4 42.5 4090 299 159 32 343.0 49.3
W 27x102 30.0 27.09 6.0 47.0 3620 267 139 28 305.0 43.4
W 27x 94 27.7 26.92 6.7 49.4 3270 243 124 25 278.0 38.8
W 27x 84 24.8 26.71 7.8 52.7 2850 213 106 21 244.0 33.2
W 24x492 144.0 29.65 2.0 10.9 19100 1290 1670 237 1550.0 375.0
W 24x450 132.0 29.09 2.1 11.9 17100 1170 1490 214 1410.0 337.0
W 24x408 119.0 28.54 2.3 13.1 15100 1060 1320 191 1250.0 300.0
W 24x370 108.0 27.99 2.5 14.2 13400 957 1160 170 1120.0 267.0
W 24x335 98.4 27.52 2.7 15.6 11900 864 1030 152 1020.0 238.0
W 24x306 89.8 27.13 2.9 17.1 10700 789 919 137 922.0 214.0
W 24x279 82.0 26.73 3.2 18.6 9600 718 823 124 835.0 193.0
W 24x250 73.5 26.34 3.5 20.7 8490 644 724 110 744.0 171.0
W 24x229 67.2 26.02 3.8 22.5 7650 588 651 99 676.0 154.0
W 24x207 60.7 25.71 4.1 24.8 6820 531 578 89 606.0 137.0
W 24x192 56.3 25.47 4.4 26.6 6260 491 530 82 559.0 126.0
W 24x176 51.7 25.24 4.8 28.7 5680 450 479 74 511.0 115.0
W 24x162 47.7 25.00 5.3 30.6 5170 414 443 68 468.0 105.0
W 24x146 43.0 24.74 5.9 33.2 4580 371 391 60 418.0 93.2
W 24x131 38.5 24.48 6.7 35.6 4020 329 340 53 370.0 81.5
W 24x117 34.4 24.26 7.5 39.2 3540 291 297 46 327.0 71.4
W 24x104 30.6 24.06 8.5 43.1 3100 258 259 41 289.0 62.4
W 24x103 30.3 24.53 4.6 39.2 3000 245 119 26 280.0 41.5
W 24x 94 27.7 24.31 5.2 41.9 2700 222 109 24 254.0 37.5
W 24x 84 24.7 24.10 5.9 45.9 2370 196 94 21 224.0 32.6
W 24x 76 22.4 23.92 6.6 49.0 2100 176 82 18 200.0 28.6
W 24x 68 20.1 23.73 7.7 52.0 1830 154 70 16 177.0 24.5
W 24x 62 18.2 23.74 6.0 50.1 1550 131 34 10 153.0 15.7
W 24x 55 16.2 23.57 6.9 54.6 1350 114 29 8 134.0 13.3
W 21x402 118.0 26.02 2.1 10.8 12200 937 1270 189 1130.0 296.0
W 21x364 107.0 25.47 2.3 11.8 10800 846 1120 168 1010.0 263.0
W 21x333 97.9 25.00 2.5 12.8 9610 769 994 151 915.0 237.0
W 21x300 88.2 24.53 2.7 14.2 8480 692 873 134 816.0 210.0
W 21x275 80.8 24.13 2.9 15.4 7620 632 785 122 741.0 189.0
W 21x248 72.8 23.74 3.2 17.1 6760 569 694 109 663.0 169.0
W 21x223 65.4 23.35 3.5 18.8 5950 510 609 96 589.0 149.0
W 21x201 59.2 23.03 3.9 20.6 5310 461 542 86 530.0 133.0
W 21x182 53.6 22.72 4.2 22.6 4730 417 483 77 476.0 119.0
W 21x166 48.8 22.48 4.6 24.9 4280 380 435 70 432.0 108.0
W 21x147 43.2 22.06 5.4 26.1 3630 329 376 60 373.0 92.6
W 21x132 38.8 21.83 6.0 28.9 3220 295 333 54 333.0 82.3
W 21x122 35.9 21.68 6.5 31.3 2960 273 305 49 307.0 75.6
W 21x111 32.7 21.51 7.1 34.1 2670 249 274 44 279.0 68.2
W 21x101 29.8 21.36 7.7 37.5 2420 227 248 40 253.0 61.7
W 21x 93 27.3 21.62 4.5 32.3 2070 192 93 22 221.0 34.7
W 21x 83 24.3 21.43 5.0 36.4 1830 171 81 20 196.0 30.5
W 21x 73 21.5 21.24 5.6 41.2 1600 151 71 17 172.0 26.6

Draft
Designation A d btff
2
hc
tw Ix Sx Iy Sy Zx Zy
in
2
in in4
in 3
in in
4 3
in 3
in 3
W 21x 68 20.0 21.13 6.0 43.6 1480 140 65 16 160.0 24.4

W 21x 62 18.3 20.99 6.7 46.9 1330 127 58 14 144.0 21.7
W 21x 57 16.7 21.06 5.0 46.3 1170 111 31 9 129.0 14.8
W 21x 50 14.7 20.83 6.1 49.4 984 94 25 8 110.0 12.2
W 21x 44 13.0 20.66 7.2 53.6 843 82 21 6 95.4 10.2
W 18x311 91.5 22.32 2.2 10.6 6960 624 795 132 753.0 207.0
W 18x283 83.2 21.85 2.4 11.5 6160 564 704 118 676.0 185.0
W 18x258 75.9 21.46 2.6 12.5 5510 514 628 107 611.0 166.0
W 18x234 68.8 21.06 2.8 13.8 4900 466 558 96 549.0 149.0
W 18x211 62.1 20.67 3.0 15.1 4330 419 493 85 490.0 132.0
W 18x192 56.4 20.35 3.3 16.7 3870 380 440 77 442.0 119.0
W 18x175 51.3 20.04 3.6 18.0 3450 344 391 69 398.0 106.0
W 18x158 46.3 19.72 3.9 19.8 3060 310 347 61 356.0 94.8
W 18x143 42.1 19.49 4.2 21.9 2750 282 311 56 322.0 85.4
W 18x130 38.2 19.25 4.6 23.9 2460 256 278 50 291.0 76.7
W 18x119 35.1 18.97 5.3 24.5 2190 231 253 45 261.0 69.1
W 18x106 31.1 18.73 6.0 27.2 1910 204 220 39 230.0 60.5
W 18x 97 28.5 18.59 6.4 30.0 1750 188 201 36 211.0 55.3
W 18x 86 25.3 18.39 7.2 33.4 1530 166 175 32 186.0 48.4
W 18x 76 22.3 18.21 8.1 37.8 1330 146 152 28 163.0 42.2
W 18x 71 20.8 18.47 4.7 32.4 1170 127 60 16 145.0 24.7
W 18x 65 19.1 18.35 5.1 35.7 1070 117 55 14 133.0 22.5
W 18x 60 17.6 18.24 5.4 38.7 984 108 50 13 123.0 20.6
W 18x 55 16.2 18.11 6.0 41.2 890 98 45 12 112.0 18.5
W 18x 50 14.7 17.99 6.6 45.2 800 89 40 11 101.0 16.6
W 18x 46 13.5 18.06 5.0 44.6 712 79 22 7 90.7 11.7
W 18x 40 11.8 17.90 5.7 51.0 612 68 19 6 78.4 9.9
W 18x 35 10.3 17.70 7.1 53.5 510 58 15 5 66.5 8.1
W 16x100 29.4 16.97 5.3 24.3 1490 175 186 36 198.0 54.9
W 16x 89 26.2 16.75 5.9 27.0 1300 155 163 31 175.0 48.1
W 16x 77 22.6 16.52 6.8 31.2 1110 134 138 27 150.0 41.1
W 16x 67 19.7 16.33 7.7 35.9 954 117 119 23 130.0 35.5
W 16x 57 16.8 16.43 5.0 33.0 758 92 43 12 105.0 18.9
W 16x 50 14.7 16.26 5.6 37.4 659 81 37 10 92.0 16.3
W 16x 45 13.3 16.13 6.2 41.2 586 73 33 9 82.3 14.5
W 16x 40 11.8 16.01 6.9 46.6 518 65 29 8 72.9 12.7
W 16x 36 10.6 15.86 8.1 48.1 448 56 24 7 64.0 10.8
W 16x 31 9.1 15.88 6.3 51.6 375 47 12 4 54.0 7.0
W 16x 26 7.7 15.69 8.0 56.8 301 38 10 3 44.2 5.5
W 14x730 215.0 22.42 1.8 3.7 14300 1280 4720 527 1660.0 816.0
W 14x665 196.0 21.64 2.0 4.0 12400 1150 4170 472 1480.0 730.0
W 14x605 178.0 20.92 2.1 4.4 10800 1040 3680 423 1320.0 652.0
W 14x550 162.0 20.24 2.3 4.8 9430 931 3250 378 1180.0 583.0
W 14x500 147.0 19.60 2.4 5.2 8210 838 2880 339 1050.0 522.0
W 14x455 134.0 19.02 2.6 5.7 7190 756 2560 304 936.0 468.0
W 14x426 125.0 18.67 2.8 6.1 6600 707 2360 283 869.0 434.0
W 14x398 117.0 18.29 2.9 6.4 6000 656 2170 262 801.0 402.0
W 14x370 109.0 17.92 3.1 6.9 5440 607 1990 241 736.0 370.0
W 14x342 101.0 17.54 3.3 7.4 4900 559 1810 221 672.0 338.0
W 14x311 91.4 17.12 3.6 8.1 4330 506 1610 199 603.0 304.0
W 14x283 83.3 16.74 3.9 8.8 3840 459 1440 179 542.0 274.0
W 14x257 75.6 16.38 4.2 9.7 3400 415 1290 161 487.0 246.0
W 14x233 68.5 16.04 4.6 10.7 3010 375 1150 145 436.0 221.0
W 14x211 62.0 15.72 5.1 11.6 2660 338 1030 130 390.0 198.0
W 14x193 56.8 15.48 5.5 12.8 2400 310 931 119 355.0 180.0
W 14x176 51.8 15.22 6.0 13.7 2140 281 838 107 320.0 163.0
W 14x159 46.7 14.98 6.5 15.3 1900 254 748 96 287.0 146.0
W 14x145 42.7 14.78 7.1 16.8 1710 232 677 87 260.0 133.0
W 14x132 38.8 14.66 7.1 17.7 1530 209 548 74 234.0 113.0
W 14x120 35.3 14.48 7.8 19.3 1380 190 495 68 212.0 102.0
W 14x109 32.0 14.32 8.5 21.7 1240 173 447 61 192.0 92.7
W 14x 99 29.1 14.16 9.3 23.5 1110 157 402 55 173.0 83.6
W 14x 90 26.5 14.02 10.2 25.9 999 143 362 50 157.0 75.6
W 14x 82 24.1 14.31 5.9 22.4 882 123 148 29 139.0 44.8
Draft
bf hc
Designation A d f
2t tw Ix Sx Iy Sy Zx Zy
in
2
in in4
in3
in in
4 3
in 3
in 3
W 14x 74 21.8 14.17 6.4 25.3 796 112 134 27 126.0 40.6
W 14x 68 20.0 14.04 7.0 27.5 723 103 121 24 115.0 36.9
W 14x 61 17.9 13.89 7.7 30.4 640 92 107 22 102.0 32.8
W 14x 53 15.6 13.92 6.1 30.8 541 78 58 14 87.1 22.0
W 14x 48 14.1 13.79 6.7 33.5 485 70 51 13 78.4 19.6
W 14x 43 12.6 13.66 7.5 37.4 428 63 45 11 69.6 17.3
W 14x 38 11.2 14.10 6.6 39.6 385 55 27 8 61.5 12.1
W 14x 34 10.0 13.98 7.4 43.1 340 49 23 7 54.6 10.6
W 14x 30 8.9 13.84 8.7 45.4 291 42 20 6 47.3 9.0
W 14x 26 7.7 13.91 6.0 48.1 245 35 9 4 40.2 5.5
W 14x 22 6.5 13.74 7.5 53.3 199 29 7 3 33.2 4.4
W 12x336 98.8 16.82 2.3 5.5 4060 483 1190 177 603.0 274.0
W 12x305 89.6 16.32 2.4 6.0 3550 435 1050 159 537.0 244.0
W 12x279 81.9 15.85 2.7 6.3 3110 393 937 143 481.0 220.0
W 12x252 74.1 15.41 2.9 7.0 2720 353 828 127 428.0 196.0
W 12x230 67.7 15.05 3.1 7.6 2420 321 742 115 386.0 177.0
W 12x210 61.8 14.71 3.4 8.2 2140 292 664 104 348.0 159.0
W 12x190 55.8 14.38 3.7 9.2 1890 263 589 93 311.0 143.0
W 12x170 50.0 14.03 4.0 10.1 1650 235 517 82 275.0 126.0
W 12x152 44.7 13.71 4.5 11.2 1430 209 454 73 243.0 111.0
W 12x136 39.9 13.41 5.0 12.3 1240 186 398 64 214.0 98.0
W 12x120 35.3 13.12 5.6 13.7 1070 163 345 56 186.0 85.4
W 12x106 31.2 12.89 6.2 15.9 933 145 301 49 164.0 75.1
W 12x 96 28.2 12.71 6.8 17.7 833 131 270 44 147.0 67.5
W 12x 87 25.6 12.53 7.5 18.9 740 118 241 40 132.0 60.4
W 12x 79 23.2 12.38 8.2 20.7 662 107 216 36 119.0 54.3
W 12x 72 21.1 12.25 9.0 22.6 597 97 195 32 108.0 49.2
W 12x 65 19.1 12.12 9.9 24.9 533 88 174 29 96.8 44.1
W 12x 58 17.0 12.19 7.8 27.0 475 78 107 21 86.4 32.5
W 12x 53 15.6 12.06 8.7 28.1 425 71 96 19 77.9 29.1
W 12x 50 14.7 12.19 6.3 26.2 394 65 56 14 72.4 21.4
W 12x 45 13.2 12.06 7.0 29.0 350 58 50 12 64.7 19.0
W 12x 40 11.8 11.94 7.8 32.9 310 52 44 11 57.5 16.8
W 12x 35 10.3 12.50 6.3 36.2 285 46 24 7 51.2 11.5
W 12x 30 8.8 12.34 7.4 41.8 238 39 20 6 43.1 9.6
W 12x 26 7.7 12.22 8.5 47.2 204 33 17 5 37.2 8.2
W 12x 22 6.5 12.31 4.7 41.8 156 25 5 2 29.3 3.7
W 12x 19 5.6 12.16 5.7 46.2 130 21 4 2 24.7 3.0
W 12x 16 4.7 11.99 7.5 49.4 103 17 3 1 20.1 2.3
W 12x 14 4.2 11.91 8.8 54.3 89 15 2 1 17.4 1.9
W 10x112 32.9 11.36 4.2 10.4 716 126 236 45 147.0 69.2
W 10x100 29.4 11.10 4.6 11.6 623 112 207 40 130.0 61.0
W 10x 88 25.9 10.84 5.2 13.0 534 98 179 35 113.0 53.1
W 10x 77 22.6 10.60 5.9 14.8 455 86 154 30 97.6 45.9
W 10x 68 20.0 10.40 6.6 16.7 394 76 134 26 85.3 40.1
W 10x 60 17.6 10.22 7.4 18.7 341 67 116 23 74.6 35.0
W 10x 54 15.8 10.09 8.2 21.2 303 60 103 21 66.6 31.3
W 10x 49 14.4 9.98 8.9 23.1 272 55 93 19 60.4 28.3
W 10x 45 13.3 10.10 6.5 22.5 248 49 53 13 54.9 20.3
W 10x 39 11.5 9.92 7.5 25.0 209 42 45 11 46.8 17.2
W 10x 33 9.7 9.73 9.1 27.1 170 35 37 9 38.8 14.0
W 10x 30 8.8 10.47 5.7 29.5 170 32 17 6 36.6 8.8
W 10x 26 7.6 10.33 6.6 34.0 144 28 14 5 31.3 7.5
W 10x 22 6.5 10.17 8.0 36.9 118 23 11 4 26.0 6.1
W 10x 19 5.6 10.24 5.1 35.4 96 19 4 2 21.6 3.3
W 10x 17 5.0 10.11 6.1 36.9 82 16 4 2 18.7 2.8
W 10x 15 4.4 9.99 7.4 38.5 69 14 3 1 16.0 2.3
W 10x 12 3.5 9.87 9.4 46.6 54 11 2 1 12.6 1.7

Draft
Designation A d btff
2
hc
tw Ix Sx Iy Sy Zx Zy
in
2
in in in in in
4 3 4 3
in
3
in
3
W 8x 67 19.7 9.00 4.4 11.1 272 60 89 21 70.2 32.7

W 8x 58 17.1 8.75 5.1 12.4 228 52 75 18 59.8 27.9
W 8x 48 14.1 8.50 5.9 15.8 184 43 61 15 49.0 22.9
W 8x 40 11.7 8.25 7.2 17.6 146 36 49 12 39.8 18.5
W 8x 35 10.3 8.12 8.1 20.4 127 31 43 11 34.7 16.1
W 8x 31 9.1 8.00 9.2 22.2 110 28 37 9 30.4 14.1
W 8x 28 8.2 8.06 7.0 22.2 98 24 22 7 27.2 10.1
W 8x 24 7.1 7.93 8.1 25.8 83 21 18 6 23.2 8.6
W 8x 21 6.2 8.28 6.6 27.5 75 18 10 4 20.4 5.7
W 8x 18 5.3 8.14 8.0 29.9 62 15 8 3 17.0 4.7
W 8x 15 4.4 8.11 6.4 28.1 48 12 3 2 13.6 2.7
W 8x 13 3.8 7.99 7.8 29.9 40 10 3 1 11.4 2.2
W 8x 10 3.0 7.89 9.6 40.5 31 8 2 1 8.9 1.7
W 6x 25 7.3 6.38 6.7 15.5 53 17 17 6 18.9 8.6
W 6x 20 5.9 6.20 8.2 19.1 41 13 13 4 14.9 6.7
W 6x 15 4.4 5.99 11.5 21.6 29 10 9 3 10.8 4.8
W 6x 16 4.7 6.28 5.0 19.1 32 10 4 2 11.7 3.4
W 6x 12 3.5 6.03 7.1 21.6 22 7 3 2 8.3 2.3
W 6x 9 2.7 5.90 9.2 29.2 16 6 2 1 6.2 1.7
W 5x 19 5.5 5.15 5.8 14.0 26 10 9 4 11.6 5.5
W 5x 16 4.7 5.01 6.9 15.8 21 9 8 3 9.6 4.6
W 4x 13 3.8 4.16 5.9 10.6 11 5 4 2 6.3 2.9
M 14x 18 5.1 14.00 7.4 60.3 148 21 3 1 24.9 2.2
M 12x 12 3.5 12.00 6.8 62.5 72 12 1 1 14.3 1.1
M 12x 11 3.2 11.97 7.3 63.6 65 11 1 1 13.2 1.0
M 12x 10 2.9 11.97 9.1 68.0 62 10 1 1 12.2 1.0
M 10x 9 2.7 10.00 6.5 58.4 39 8 1 0 9.2 0.8
M 10x 8 2.3 9.95 7.4 59.3 34 7 1 0 8.2 0.7
M 10x 8 2.2 9.99 7.8 65.0 33 7 0 0 7.7 0.6
M 8x 6 1.9 8.00 6.0 53.8 18 5 0 0 5.4 0.5
M 6x 4 1.3 6.00 5.4 47.0 7 2 0 0 2.8 0.3
M 5x 19 5.6 5.00 6.0 11.2 24 10 8 3 11.0 5.0
S 24x121 35.6 24.50 3.7 26.4 3160 258 83 21 306.0 36.2
S 24x106 31.2 24.50 3.6 34.1 2940 240 77 20 279.0 33.2
S 24x100 29.3 24.00 4.2 28.3 2390 199 48 13 240.0 23.9
S 24x 90 26.5 24.00 4.1 33.7 2250 187 45 13 222.0 22.3
S 24x 80 23.5 24.00 4.0 42.1 2100 175 42 12 204.0 20.7
S 20x 96 28.2 20.30 3.9 21.6 1670 165 50 14 198.0 24.9
S 20x 86 25.3 20.30 3.8 26.2 1580 155 47 13 183.0 23.0
S 20x 75 22.0 20.00 4.0 27.1 1280 128 30 9 153.0 16.7
S 20x 66 19.4 20.00 3.9 34.1 1190 119 28 9 140.0 15.3
S 18x 70 20.6 18.00 4.5 21.8 926 103 24 8 125.0 14.4
S 18x 55 16.1 18.00 4.3 33.6 804 89 21 7 105.0 12.1
S 15x 50 14.7 15.00 4.5 23.2 486 65 16 6 77.1 10.0
S 15x 43 12.6 15.00 4.4 31.0 447 60 14 5 69.3 9.0
S 12x 50 14.7 12.00 4.2 13.9 305 51 16 6 61.2 10.3
S 12x 41 12.0 12.00 4.0 20.7 272 45 14 5 53.1 8.9
S 12x 35 10.3 12.00 4.7 23.4 229 38 10 4 44.8 6.8
S 12x 32 9.4 12.00 4.6 28.6 218 36 9 4 42.0 6.4
S 10x 35 10.3 10.00 5.0 13.8 147 29 8 3 35.4 6.2
S 10x 25 7.5 10.00 4.7 26.4 124 25 7 3 28.4 5.0
S 8x 23 6.8 8.00 4.9 14.5 65 16 4 2 19.3 3.7
S 8x 18 5.4 8.00 4.7 23.7 58 14 4 2 16.5 3.2
S 7x 20 5.9 7.00 4.9 12.3 42 12 3 2 14.5 3.0
S 7x 15 4.5 7.00 4.7 21.9 37 10 3 1 12.1 2.4
S 6x 17 5.1 6.00 5.0 9.9 26 9 2 1 10.6 2.4
S 6x 12 3.7 6.00 4.6 19.9 22 7 2 1 8.5 1.9
S 5x 15 4.3 5.00 5.0 7.5 15 6 2 1 7.4 1.9
S 5x 10 2.9 5.00 4.6 17.4 12 5 1 1 5.7 1.4
S 4x 10 2.8 4.00 4.8 8.7 7 3 1 1 4.0 1.1
S 4x 8 2.3 4.00 4.5 14.7 6 3 1 1 3.5 1.0
S 3x 8 2.2 3.00 4.8 5.6 3 2 1 0 2.4 0.8
S 3x 6 1.7 3.00 4.5 11.4 3 2 0 0 2.0 0.7
Draft
bf hc
in 2
in in4
in3
in4
in
3
in3
in 3
C 15.x 50 14.7 15. 0 0 404.0 53.8 11. 3.78 8.20 8.17

C 15.x 40 11.8 15. 0 0 349.0 46.5 9.23 3.37 57.20 6.87
C 15.x 34 10.0 15. 0 0 315.0 42.0 8.13 3.11 50.40 6.23
C 12.x 30 8.8 12. 0 0 162.0 27.0 5.14 2.06 33.60 4.33
C 12.x 25 7.3 12. 0 0 144.0 24.1 4.47 1.88 29.20 3.84
C 12.x 21 6.1 12. 0 0 129.0 21.5 3.88 1.73 25.40 3.49
C 10.x 30 8.8 10. 0 0 103.0 20.7 3.94 1.65 26.60 3.78
C 10.x 25 7.3 10. 0 0 91.2 18.2 3.36 1.48 23. 3.19
C 10.x 20 5.9 10. 0 0 78.9 15.8 2.81 1.32 19.30 2.71
C 10.x 15 4.5 10. 0 0 67.4 13.5 2.28 1.16 15.80 2.35
C 9.x 20 5.9 9. 0 0 60.9 13.5 2.42 1.17 16.80 2.47
C 9.x 15 4.4 9. 0 0 51.0 11.3 1.93 1.01 13.50 2.05
C 9.x 13 3.9 9. 0 0 47.9 10.6 1.76 0.96 12.50 1.95
C 8.x 19 5.5 8. 0 0 44.0 11.0 1.98 1.01 13.80 2.17
C 8.x 14 4.0 8. 0 0 36.1 9.0 1.53 0.85 10.90 1.73
C 8.x 12 3.4 8. 0 0 32.6 8.1 1.32 0.78 9.55 1.58
C 7.x 15 4.3 7. 0 0 27.2 7.8 1.38 0.78 9.68 1.64
C 7.x 12 3.6 7. 0 0 24.2 6.9 1.17 0.70 8.40 1.43
C 7.x 10 2.9 7. 0 0 21.3 6.1 0.97 0.63 7.12 1.26
C 6.x 13 3.8 6. 0 0 17.4 5.8 1.05 0.64 7.26 1.36
C 6.x 11 3.1 6. 0 0 15.2 5.1 0.87 0.56 6.15 1.15
C 6.x 8 2.4 6. 0 0 13.1 4.4 0.69 0.49 5.13 0.99
C 5.x 9 2.6 5. 0 0 8.9 3.6 0.63 0.45 4.36 0.92
C 5.x 7 2.0 5. 0 0 7.5 3.0 0.48 0.38 3.51 0.76
C 4.x 7 2.1 4. 0 0 4.6 2.3 0.43 0.34 2.81 0.70
C 4.x 5 1.6 4. 0 0 3.8 1.9 0.32 0.28 2.26 0.57
C 3.x 6 1.8 3. 0 0 2.1 1.4 0.31 0.27 1.72 0.54
C 3.x 5 1.5 3. 0 0 1.9 1.2 0.25 0.23 1.50 0.47
C 3.x 4 1.2 3. 0 0 1.7 1.1 0.20 0.20 1.30 0.40
Designation A wgt Ix Sx Iy Sy Zx Zy
in2
k=ft in 4
in
3
in 4
in 3
in3
in 3
L 8.0x4.0x1.000 11.00 37.40 69.6 14.1 11.60 3.94 24.30 7.72

L 8.0x4.0x0.750 8.44 28.70 54.9 10.9 9.36 3.07 18.90 5.81
L 8.0x4.0x0.563 6.43 21.90 42.8 8.4 7.43 2.38 14.50 4.38
L 8.0x4.0x0.500 5.75 19.60 38.5 7.5 6.74 2.15 13.00 3.90
L 7.0x4.0x0.750 7.69 26.20 37.8 8.4 9.05 3.03 14.80 5.65
L 7.0x4.0x0.625 6.48 22.10 32.4 7.1 7.84 2.58 12.60 4.74
L 7.0x4.0x0.500 5.25 17.90 26.7 5.8 6.53 2.12 10.30 3.83
L 7.0x4.0x0.375 3.98 13.60 20.6 4.4 5.10 1.63 7.87 2.90
L 6.0x6.0x1.000 11.00 37.40 35.5 8.6 35.50 8.57 15.50 15.50
L 6.0x6.0x0.875 9.73 33.10 31.9 7.6 31.90 7.63 13.80 13.80
L 6.0x6.0x0.750 8.44 28.70 28.2 6.7 28.20 6.66 12.00 12.00
L 6.0x6.0x0.625 7.11 24.20 24.2 5.7 24.20 5.66 10.20 10.20
L 6.0x6.0x0.563 6.43 21.90 22.1 5.1 22.10 5.14 9.26 9.26
L 6.0x6.0x0.500 5.75 19.60 19.9 4.6 19.90 4.61 8.31 8.31
L 6.0x6.0x0.438 5.06 17.20 17.7 4.1 17.70 4.08 7.34 7.34
L 6.0x6.0x0.375 4.36 14.90 15.4 3.5 15.40 3.53 6.35 6.35
L 6.0x6.0x0.313 3.65 12.40 13.0 3.0 13.00 2.97 5.35 5.35
L 6.0x4.0x0.875 7.98 27.20 27.7 7.2 9.75 3.39 12.70 6.31
L 6.0x4.0x0.750 6.94 23.60 24.5 6.3 8.68 2.97 11.20 5.47
L 6.0x4.0x0.625 5.86 20.00 21.1 5.3 7.52 2.54 9.51 4.62
L 6.0x4.0x0.563 5.31 18.10 19.3 4.8 6.91 2.31 8.66 4.19
L 6.0x4.0x0.500 4.75 16.20 17.4 4.3 6.27 2.08 7.78 3.75
L 6.0x4.0x0.438 4.18 14.30 15.5 3.8 5.60 1.85 6.88 3.30
L 6.0x4.0x0.375 3.61 12.30 13.5 3.3 4.90 1.60 5.97 2.85
L 6.0x4.0x0.313 3.03 10.30 11.4 2.8 4.18 1.35 5.03 2.40
L 6.0x3.5x0.500 4.50 15.30 16.6 4.2 4.25 1.59 7.50 2.91
L 6.0x3.5x0.375 3.42 11.70 12.9 3.2 3.34 1.23 5.76 2.20
L 6.0x3.5x0.313 2.87 9.80 10.9 2.7 2.85 1.04 4.85 1.85

Draft
in
2
k=ft in in
4 3
in
4
in
3
in
3
in
3
L 5.0x5.0x0.875 7.98 27.20 17.8 5.2 17.80 5.17 9.33 9.33

L 5.0x5.0x0.750 6.94 23.60 15.7 4.5 15.70 4.53 8.16 8.16
L 5.0x5.0x0.625 5.86 20.00 13.6 3.9 13.60 3.86 6.95 6.95
L 5.0x5.0x0.500 4.75 16.20 11.3 3.2 11.30 3.16 5.68 5.68
L 5.0x5.0x0.438 4.18 14.30 10.0 2.8 10.00 2.79 5.03 5.03
L 5.0x5.0x0.375 3.61 12.30 8.7 2.4 8.74 2.42 4.36 4.36
L 5.0x5.0x0.313 3.03 10.30 7.4 2.0 7.42 2.04 3.68 3.68
L 5.0x3.5x0.750 5.81 19.80 13.9 4.3 5.55 2.22 7.65 4.10
L 5.0x3.5x0.625 4.92 16.80 12.0 3.7 4.83 1.90 6.55 3.47
L 5.0x3.5x0.500 4.00 13.60 10.0 3.0 4.05 1.56 5.38 2.83
L 5.0x3.5x0.438 3.53 12.00 8.9 2.6 3.63 1.39 4.77 2.49
L 5.0x3.5x0.375 3.05 10.40 7.8 2.3 3.18 1.21 4.14 2.16
L 5.0x3.5x0.313 2.56 8.70 6.6 1.9 2.72 1.02 3.49 1.82
L 5.0x3.5x0.250 2.06 7.00 5.4 1.6 2.23 0.83 2.83 1.47
L 5.0x3.0x0.625 4.61 15.70 11.4 3.5 3.06 1.39 6.27 2.61
L 5.0x3.0x0.500 3.75 12.80 9.4 2.9 2.58 1.15 5.16 2.11
L 5.0x3.0x0.438 3.31 11.30 8.4 2.6 2.32 1.02 4.57 1.86
L 5.0x3.0x0.375 2.86 9.80 7.4 2.2 2.04 0.89 3.97 1.60
L 5.0x3.0x0.313 2.40 8.20 6.3 1.9 1.75 0.75 3.36 1.35
L 5.0x3.0x0.250 1.94 6.60 5.1 1.5 1.44 0.61 2.72 1.09
L 4.0x4.0x0.750 5.44 18.50 7.7 2.8 7.67 2.81 5.07 5.07
L 4.0x4.0x0.625 4.61 15.70 6.7 2.4 6.66 2.40 4.33 4.33
L 4.0x4.0x0.500 3.75 12.80 5.6 2.0 5.56 1.97 3.56 3.56
L 4.0x4.0x0.438 3.31 11.30 5.0 1.8 4.97 1.75 3.16 3.16
L 4.0x4.0x0.375 2.86 9.80 4.4 1.5 4.36 1.52 2.74 2.74
L 4.0x4.0x0.313 2.40 8.20 3.7 1.3 3.71 1.29 2.32 2.32
L 4.0x4.0x0.250 1.94 6.60 3.0 1.0 3.04 1.05 1.88 1.88
L 4.0x3.5x0.500 3.50 11.90 5.3 1.9 3.79 1.52 3.50 2.73
L 4.0x3.5x0.438 3.09 10.60 4.8 1.7 3.40 1.35 3.11 2.42
L 4.0x3.5x0.375 2.67 9.10 4.2 1.5 2.95 1.16 2.71 2.11
L 4.0x3.5x0.313 2.25 7.70 3.6 1.3 2.55 0.99 2.29 1.78
L 4.0x3.5x0.250 1.81 6.20 2.9 1.0 2.09 0.81 1.86 1.44
L 4.0x3.0x0.500 3.25 11.10 5.1 1.9 2.42 1.12 3.41 2.03
L 4.0x3.0x0.438 2.87 9.80 4.5 1.7 2.18 0.99 3.03 1.79

Draft
in k=ft in in
2 4 3
in
4
in
3
in
3
in
3
L 4.0x3.0x0.375 2.48 8.50 4.0 1.5 1.92 0.87 2.64 1.56

L 4.0x3.0x0.313 2.09 7.20 3.4 1.2 1.65 0.73 2.23 1.31
L 4.0x3.0x0.250 1.69 5.80 2.8 1.0 1.36 0.60 1.82 1.06
L 3.5x3.5x0.500 3.25 11.10 3.6 1.5 3.64 1.49 2.68 2.68
L 3.5x3.5x0.438 2.87 9.80 3.3 1.3 3.26 1.32 2.38 2.38
L 3.5x3.5x0.375 2.48 8.50 2.9 1.1 2.87 1.15 2.08 2.08
L 3.5x3.5x0.313 2.09 7.20 2.5 1.0 2.45 0.98 1.76 1.76
L 3.5x3.5x0.250 1.69 5.80 2.0 0.8 2.01 0.79 1.43 1.43
L 3.5x3.0x0.500 3.00 10.20 3.5 1.5 2.33 1.10 2.63 1.98
L 3.5x3.0x0.438 2.65 9.10 3.1 1.3 2.09 0.98 2.34 1.76
L 3.5x3.0x0.375 2.30 7.90 2.7 1.1 1.85 0.85 2.04 1.53
L 3.5x3.0x0.313 1.93 6.60 2.3 1.0 1.58 0.72 1.73 1.30
L 3.5x3.0x0.250 1.56 5.40 1.9 0.8 1.30 0.59 1.41 1.05
L 3.5x2.5x0.500 2.75 9.40 3.2 1.4 1.36 0.76 2.53 1.40
L 3.5x2.5x0.438 2.43 8.30 2.9 1.3 1.23 0.68 2.26 1.24
L 3.5x2.5x0.375 2.11 7.20 2.6 1.1 1.09 0.59 1.97 1.07
L 3.5x2.5x0.313 1.78 6.10 2.2 0.9 0.94 0.50 1.67 0.91
L 3.5x2.5x0.250 1.44 4.90 1.8 0.8 0.78 0.41 1.36 0.74
L 3.0x3.0x0.500 2.75 9.40 2.2 1.1 2.22 1.07 1.93 1.93
L 3.0x3.0x0.438 2.43 8.30 2.0 1.0 1.99 0.95 1.72 1.72
L 3.0x3.0x0.375 2.11 7.20 1.8 0.8 1.76 0.83 1.50 1.50
L 3.0x3.0x0.313 1.78 6.10 1.5 0.7 1.51 0.71 1.27 1.27
L 3.0x3.0x0.250 1.44 4.90 1.2 0.6 1.24 0.58 1.04 1.04
L 3.0x3.0x0.188 1.09 3.71 1.0 0.4 0.96 0.44 0.79 0.79
L 3.0x2.5x0.500 2.50 8.50 2.1 1.0 1.30 0.74 1.88 1.35
L 3.0x2.5x0.438 2.21 7.60 1.9 0.9 1.18 0.66 1.68 1.20
L 3.0x2.5x0.375 1.92 6.60 1.7 0.8 1.04 0.58 1.47 1.05
L 3.0x2.5x0.313 1.62 5.60 1.4 0.7 0.90 0.49 1.25 0.89
L 3.0x2.5x0.250 1.31 4.50 1.2 0.6 0.74 0.40 1.02 0.72
L 3.0x2.5x0.188 1.00 3.39 0.9 0.4 0.58 0.31 0.78 0.55
L 3.0x2.0x0.500 2.25 7.70 1.9 1.0 0.67 0.47 1.78 0.89
L 3.0x2.0x0.438 2.00 6.80 1.7 0.9 0.61 0.42 1.59 0.79
L 3.0x2.0x0.375 1.73 5.90 1.5 0.8 0.54 0.37 1.40 0.68
L 3.0x2.0x0.313 1.46 5.00 1.3 0.7 0.47 0.32 1.19 0.58
L 3.0x2.0x0.250 1.19 4.10 1.1 0.5 0.39 0.26 0.97 0.47
L 3.0x2.0x0.188 0.90 3.07 0.8 0.4 0.31 0.20 0.75 0.36
L 2.5x2.5x0.500 2.25 7.70 1.2 0.7 1.23 0.72 1.31 1.31
L 2.5x2.5x0.375 1.73 5.90 1.0 0.6 0.98 0.57 1.02 1.02
L 2.5x2.5x0.313 1.46 5.00 0.8 0.5 0.85 0.48 0.87 0.87
L 2.5x2.5x0.250 1.19 4.10 0.7 0.4 0.70 0.39 0.71 0.71
L 2.5x2.5x0.188 0.90 3.07 0.5 0.3 0.55 0.30 0.55 0.55
L 2.5x2.0x0.375 1.55 5.30 0.9 0.5 0.51 0.36 0.99 0.66
L 2.5x2.0x0.313 1.31 4.50 0.8 0.5 0.45 0.31 0.84 0.56
L 2.5x2.0x0.250 1.06 3.62 0.7 0.4 0.37 0.25 0.69 0.46
L 2.5x2.0x0.188 0.81 2.75 0.5 0.3 0.29 0.20 0.53 0.35
L 2.0x2.0x0.375 1.36 4.70 0.5 0.4 0.48 0.35 0.63 0.63
L 2.0x2.0x0.313 1.15 3.92 0.4 0.3 0.42 0.30 0.54 0.54
L 2.0x2.0x0.250 0.94 3.19 0.3 0.2 0.35 0.25 0.44 0.44
L 2.0x2.0x0.188 0.71 2.44 0.3 0.2 0.27 0.19 0.34 0.34
L 2.0x2.0x0.125 0.48 1.65 0.2 0.1 0.19 0.13 0.23 0.23
L 1.8x1.8x0.250 0.81 2.77 0.2 0.2 0.23 0.23 0.34 0.34
L 1.8x1.8x0.188 0.62 2.12 0.2 0.1 0.18 0.14 0.26 0.26
L 1.5x1.5x0.250 0.69 2.34 0.1 0.1 0.14 0.13 0.24 0.24
L 1.5x1.5x0.188 0.53 1.80 0.1 0.1 0.11 0.10 0.19 0.19
L 1.3x1.3x0.250 0.56 1.92 0.1 0.1 0.08 0.09 0.16 0.16
L 1.3x1.3x0.188 0.43 1.48 0.1 0.1 0.06 0.07 0.13 0.13
L 1.1x1.1x0.125 0.27 0.90 0.0 0.0 0.03 0.04 0.07 0.07
L 1.0x1.0x0.125 0.23 0.80 0.0 0.0 0.02 0.03 0.06 0.06

Draft
3.7 Joists 3{17
3.7 Joists
43 Steel joists, Fig. 3.8 look like shallow trusses (warren type) and are designed as simply supported uni-
formly loaded beams assuming that they are laterally supported on the top (to prevent lateral torsional
buckling). The lateral support is often proded by the concrete slab it suppors.
44 The standard open-web joist designation consists of the depth, the series designation and the chord
type. Three series are available for oor/roof construction, Table 3.3
Series Depth (in) Span (ft)
K 8-30 8-60
LH 18-48 25-96
DLH 52-72 89-120
Table 3.3: Joist Series Characteristics
[Design Length = Span – 0.33 FT.]

4"
4"
4"
Span
Figure 3.8: prefabricated Steel Joists
45Typical joist spacing ranges from 2 to 4 ft, and provides an ecient use of the corrugated steel deck
which itself supports the concrete slab.
Draft
46 For preliminary estimates of the joist depth, a depth to span ratio of 24 can be assumed, therefore
d L=2 (3.5)
where d is in inches, and L in ft.

47 Table 3.4 list the load carrying capacity of open web, K-series steel joists based on a amximum
allowable stress of 30 ksi. For each span, the rst line indicates the total safe uniformly distributed
load-carrying capacity in pounds per linear foot. Note that the dead load (including the one of the joist)
must be substracted in order to determine the safe live load. The second line indicates the live load
(pounds/linear foot) which will produce an approximate delection of L=360.

Draft
3.7 Joists 3{19
Joint 8K1 10K1 12K1 12K3 12K5 14K1 14K3 14K4 14K6 16K2 16K3 16K4 16K5 16K6 16K7 16K9
Desig.
Depth 8 10 12 12 12 14 14 14 14 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
(in.)
W 5.1 5 5 5.7 7.1 5.2 6 6.7 7.7 5.5 6.3 7 7.5 8.1 8.6 10.0
(lbs/ft)
Span
(ft.)
8 550
550
9 550
550
10 550 550
480 550
11 532 550
377 542
12 444 550 550 550 550
288 455 550 550 550
13 377 479 550 550 550
225 363 510 510 510
14 324 412 500 550 550 550 550 550 550
179 289 425 463 463 550 550 550 550
15 281 358 434 543 550 511 550 550 550
145 234 344 428 434 475 507 507 507
16 246 313 380 476 550 448 550 550 550 550 550 550 550 550 550 550
119 192 282 351 396 390 467 467 467 550 550 550 550 550 550 550
17 277 336 420 550 395 495 550 550 512 550 550 550 550 550 550
159 234 291 366 324 404 443 443 488 526 526 526 526 526 526
18 246 299 374 507 352 441 530 550 456 508 550 550 550 550 550
134 197 245 317 272 339 397 408 409 456 490 490 490 490 490
19 221 268 335 454 315 395 475 550 408 455 547 550 550 550 550
113 167 207 269 230 287 336 383 347 386 452 455 455 455 455
20 199 241 302 409 284 356 428 525 368 410 493 550 550 550 550
97 142 177 230 197 246 287 347 297 330 386 426 426 426 426
21 218 273 370 257 322 388 475 333 371 447 503 548 550 550
123 153 198 170 212 248 299 255 285 333 373 405 406 406
22 199 249 337 234 293 353 432 303 337 406 458 498 550 550
106 132 172 147 184 215 259 222 247 289 323 351 385 385
23 181 227 308 214 268 322 395 277 308 371 418 455 507 550
93 116 150 128 160 188 226 194 216 252 282 307 339 363
24 166 208 282 196 245 295 362 254 283 340 384 418 465 550
81 101 132 113 141 165 199 170 189 221 248 269 298 346
25 180 226 272 334 234 260 313 353 384 428 514
100 124 145 175 150 167 195 219 238 263 311
26 166 209 251 308 216 240 289 326 355 395 474
88 110 129 56 133 148 173 194 211 233 276
27 154 193 233 285 200 223 268 302 329 366 439
79 98 115 139 119 132 155 173 188 208 246
28 143 180 216 265 186 207 249 281 306 340 408
70 88 103 124 106 118 138 155 168 186 220
29 173 193 232 261 285 317 380
95 106 124 139 151 167 198
30 161 180 216 244 266 296 355
86 96 112 126 137 151 178
31 151 168 203 228 249 277 332
78 87 101 114 124 137 161
32 142 158 190 214 233 259 311
71 79 92 103 112 124 147
Table 3.4: Joist Properties

Draft

Draft
Chapter 4
Case Study I: EIFFEL TOWER

Adapted from (Billington and Mark 1983)
4.1 Materials, & Geometry

1 The tower was built out of wrought iron, less expensive than steel,and Eiel had more expereince with
this material, Fig. 4.1
Figure 4.1: Eiel Tower (Billington and Mark 1983)

Draft
4{2 Case Study I: EIFFEL TOWER
2 The structure is essentially a tower, subjected to gravity and

wind load. It is a relatively \light" structure, so dead load is small
compared to the wind load.
3 To avoid overturning
M gravity
M wind had to be much higher than 1.
This can be achieved either by:
1. Increase self weight (as in Washington's monument)
2. Increase the width of the base
3. Design support to resist tension.
4. Post-tension the support.
4 The tower is 984 feet high, and 328 feet wide at the base. The
large base was essential to provide adequate stability in the pres-
ence of wind load.
5 We can assume that the shape of the tower is parabolic. If we
take the x axis to be along the vertical axis of symmetry and y the
half width, then we know that at x = 984 the (half) width y = 0
and at x = 0 the half width is 328=2 = 164, thus the equation of
the half width is given by
2
y = 164 984984; x (4.1)
| {z }
av(x)2
2 We recall from calculus that for y = v(x)
dy dy dv
dx = dv dx (4.2-a)
d 2
dx ax = 2ax (4.2-b)
Thus for our problem

dy 984 ; x 1
dx = |2(164){z 984 } | ;{z
984 } (4.3-a)
dy dv
dv dx
= 984 ;x (4.3-b)
2; 952
Also
dy = tan ) = tan;1 dy (4.4)
dx dx
where is the angle measured from the x axis to the tangent to the curve.
3 We now can tabulate the width and slope at various elevations

Draft
4.2 Loads 4{3
Width
Location Height Width/2 Estimated Actual dxdy
Support 0 164 328 .333 18.4o
First platform 186 108 216 240 .270 15.1o
second platform 380 62 123 110 .205 11.6o
Intermediate platform 644 20 40 .115 6.6o
Top platform 906 1 2 .0264 1.5o
Top 984 0 0 0.000 0o
4 The tower is supported by four inclined supports, each with a cross section of 800 in
2. An idealization
of the tower is shown in Fig. 4.2.
ACTUAL
CONTINUOUS
CONNECTION IDEALIZED
CONTINUOUS
CONNECTION
ACTUAL
POINTS OF
CONNECTION
Figure 4.2: Eiel Tower Idealization, (Billington and Mark 1983)
4.2 Loads
5 The total weight of the tower is 18; 800 .
k
6 The dead load is not uniformly distributed, and is approximated as follows, Fig. 4.3:
Location Height Dead Weight
Ground- second platform 380 ft 15; 500 k
Second platform-intermediate platform 264 ft 2; 200 k
intermediate platform - top 340 ft 1; 100 k
Total 984 ft 18; 800 k
7 From the actual width of the lower two platforms we can estimate the live loads (the intermediate and
top platforms would have negligible LL in comparison):
1st platform: (50) (240)2 2 (1;000)
psf ft
kip 2; 880 k
lbs
psf
2 2
2nd platform: (50) (110) (1;000)ft
k
600 k
lbs
Total: 3; 480 k
Hence the total vertical load is Pvert = DL + LL = 18; 800 + 3; 480 = 22; 280 .k

Draft
Figure 4.3: Eiel Tower, Dead Load Idealization; (Billington and Mark 1983)
8 The wind pressure is known to also have a parabolic distribution (maximum at the top), the cross
sectional area over which the wind is acting is also parabolic (maximum at the base). Hence we will
simplify our analysis by considering an equivalent wind force obtained from a constant wind pressure
(force/length) and constant cross section Fig. 4.4: The pressure is assumed to be 2.6 k/ft, thus the
lateral wind force is, Fig. 4.5
Plat = (2:6) (984) = 2,560 acting at 984
k/ft ft k
2 = 492 ft (4.5)
4.3 Reactions
9 Simplifying the three dimensional structure with 4 supports into a two dimensional one with two
supports, the reactions can be easily determined for this statically determinate structure, Fig.4.6.
Gravity Load
Pvert = 22; 280 ? (4.6-a)
Rvert
grav
= 22;2280 = 11,140 k 6 (4.6-b)
Lateral Load
Lateral Moment (we essentially have a cantilivered beam subjected to a uniform load). The
moment at a distance x from the support along the cantilevered beam subjected to a uniform
pressure p is given by
Mlat = p| (L{z; x}) L ;2 x = p (L ;2 x)
2
(4.7)
| {z }
Force Moment arm
Draft
4.3 Reactions 4{5
Figure 4.4: Eiel Tower, Wind Load Idealization; (Billington and Mark 1983)
TOTAL
LOADS
LOADS
P
P=2560k
Q
L/2 Q=22,280k 1111

0000
0000 H
1111
0000
1111
000 0
111
0000
1111
000
111
V111
000
000
111
000
111
0 REACTIONS
000
111
000
111
000
111
M0
Figure 4.5: Eiel Tower, Wind Loads, (Billington and Mark 1983)
+ =
WINDWARD LEEWARD
SIDE SIDE
VERTICAL WIND TOTAL

FORCES FORCES
Figure 4.6: Eiel Tower, Reactions; (Billington and Mark 1983)

Draft
Thus the lateral moment caused by the wind is parabolic. At the base (x = 0), the maximum
moment is equal to
Mlat = p (L ;2 x) = (2:6) (984 2; 0) 2 = 1,260,000 ;
2 2
k/ft ft k.ft (4.8)
We observe that the shape of the moment diagram is also parabolic, just like the tower itself.
This is not accidental, as nearly optimum structures have a shape which closely approximate
their moment diagram (such as the varying depth of continuous long span bridges).
To determine the resulting internal forces caused by the lateral (wind) moment, and since we
have two supports (one under tension and the other under compression) we use
Rvert
wind
= M d = 1; 260; 000 = 3,850
328 ft
k.ft
6? k (4.9)
Lateral Forces to be resisted by each of the two pairs. By symmetry, the lateral force will be
equally divided among the two pairs of supports and will be equal to
Rlat
wind
= (2; 560)
2 = 1,280
k
k (4.10)
4.4 Internal Forces

10 First, a biref reminder
θ
cos = FFx (4.11-a)
Fy F sin = FFy (4.11-b)
θ tan = FFy (4.11-c)
x
Fx
11 Internal forces are rst determined at the base.

12 Gravity load are rst considered, remember those are caused by the dead load and the live load,
Fig. 4.7:
β=18.40
β=18.4
INCLINED
INTERNAL
N V
FORCE: N
CONSEQUENT
HORIZONTAL KNOWN VERTICAL H
COMPONENT: H COMPONENT: V
FORCE POLYGON
Figure 4.7: Eiel Tower, Internal Gravity Forces; (Billington and Mark 1983)
V )N= V
cos = N (4.12-a)
cos
Draft
4.4 Internal Forces 4{7
N = 11 ; 140
cos 18:4o = 11,730 kip (4.12-b)
k
tan = H
V ) H = V tan (4.12-c)
H = 11; 140 (tan 18:4o) = 3,700 kip
k (4.12-d)
The horizontal forces which must be resisted by the foundations, Fig. 4.8.
H H
3700 k 3700 k
Figure 4.8: Eiel Tower, Horizontal Reactions; (Billington and Mark 1983)
13 Because the vertical load decreases with height, the axial force will also decrease with height.
14 At the second platform, the total vertical load is Q = 1; 100 + 2; 200 = 3; 300 and at that height the
k
angle is 11:6o thus the axial force (per pair of columns) will be
3;300 k
2
Nvert = cos 11 :6o = 1; 685 k (4.13-a)
Hvert = 3; 300 o
2 (tan 11:6 ) = 339
k
k (4.13-b)
Note that this is about seven times smaller than the axial force at the base, which for a given axial
strength, would lead the designer to reduce (or taper) the cross-section.
The horizontal force will be resisted by the axial forces in the second platform itself.
15 Wind Load: We now have determined at each pair of support the vertical and the horizontal forces
caused by the wind load, the next step is to determine their axial components along the inclined leg,
Fig. 4.9:
Nc = ;Rvert
wind
cos ; Rlat
wind
sin (4.14-a)
k
o
= ;(3; 850) (cos 18:4 ) ; (1; 280) (sin 18:40) k (4.14-b)
= -4,050 Leeward
k (4.14-c)
Nt = ;R cos + Rlat
wind
vert
wind
sin (4.14-d)
= k
o
(3; 850) (cos 18:4 ) + (1; 280) (sin 18:40)
k (4.14-e)
= 4,050 Winward
k (4.14-f)

Draft
3,850 cos 18.4

3,850 k
18.4
1,280 sin 18.4
18.4
1,280 k
Figure 4.9: Eiel Tower, Internal Wind Forces; (Billington and Mark 1983)
4.5 Internal Stresses

16 The total forces caused by both lateral and gravity forces can now be determined:
NLTotal = ;(11; 730) ;(4; 050) = -15,780 Leeward side
| {z
k
}| {z
k
}
k (4.15-a)
gravity lateral
Total
NW = ; (11;{z730) } +(4 ;{z050) } = -7,630
k k k Winward side (4.15-b)
| |
gravity lateral
We observe that even under wind load, the windward side is still under compression.
17 In the idealization of the tower's geometry, the area of each pair of the simplied columns is 1; 600
2. in
and thus the maximum stresses will be determined from

comp = NAL = ;1;15600
T ; 780 = -9.9
2
k
ksi (4.16)
in
18 The strength of wrought iron is 45 ksi, hence the safety factor is

Safety Factor = ultimate stress 45
actual stress = 9:9 = 4.5
ksi
ksi
(4.17)

Draft
Chapter 5
REVIEW of STATICS
To every action there is an equal
and opposite reaction.
Newton's third law of motion
5.1 Reactions
1 In the analysis of structures (hand calculations), it is often easier (but not always necessary) to start
by determining the reactions.
2 Once the reactions are determined, internal forces are determined next; nally, internal stresses and/or
deformations (de ections and rotations) are determined last1 .
3 Reactions are necessary to determine foundation load.
4 Depending on the type of structures, there can be dierent types of support conditions, Fig. 5.1.
Roller: provides a restraint in only one direction in a 2D structure, in 3D structures a roller may provide
restraint in one or two directions. A roller will allow rotation.
Hinge: allows rotation but no displacements.
Fixed Support: will prevent rotation and displacements in all directions.
5.1.1 Equilibrium
5 Reactions are determined from the appropriate equations of static equilibrium.
6 Summation of forces and moments, in a static system must be equal to zero2.
7 In a 3D cartesian coordinate system there are a total of 6 independent equations of equilibrium:
1
This is the sequence of operations in the exibility method which lends itself to hand calculation. In the stiness
method, we determine displacements rsts, then internal forces and reactions. This method is most suitable to computer
implementation.
In a dynamic system F = ma where m is the mass and a is the acceleration.
2
Draft
5{2 REVIEW of STATICS
Figure 5.1: Types of Supports
Fx = Fy = Fz = 0 (5.1)

Mx = My = Mz = 0
8 In a 2D cartesian coordinate system there are a total of 3 independent equations of equilibrium:
Fx = Fy = Mz = 0 (5.2)
9 For reaction calculations, the externally applied load may be reduced to an equivalent force3 .
10 Summation of the moments can be taken with respect to any arbitrary point.
11 Whereas forces are represented by a vector, moments are also vectorial quantities and are represented
by a curved arrow or a double arrow vector.
12 Not all equations are applicable to all structures, Table 5.1
13 The three conventional equations of equilibrium in 2D: Fx ; Fy and Mz can be replaced by the
independent moment equations MzA, MzB , MzC provided that A, B, and C are not colinear.
14 It is always preferable to check calculations by another equation of equilibrium.
15 Before you write an equation of equilibrium,
1. Arbitrarily decide which is the +ve direction

2. Assume a direction for the unknown quantities
3. The right hand side of the equation should be zero
3
However for internal forces (shear and moment) we must use the actual load distribution.

Draft
5.1 Reactions 5{3
Structure Type Equations
Beam, no axial forces Fy Mz
2D Truss, Frame, Beam Fx Fy Mz
Grid Fz Mx My
3D Truss, Frame Fx Fy Fz Mx My Mz
Alternate Set
Beams, no axial Force MzA MzB
2 D Truss, Frame, Beam Fx MzA MzB
MzA MzB MzC
Table 5.1: Equations of Equilibrium
If your reaction is negative, then it will be in a direction opposite from the one assumed.
16 Summation of external forces is equal and opposite to the internal ones. Thus the net force/moment
is equal to zero.
17 The external forces give rise to the (non-zero) shear and moment diagram.
5.1.2 Equations of Conditions

18 If a structure has an internal hinge (which may connect two or more substructures), then this will
provide an additional equation (M = 0 at the hinge) which can be exploited to determine the reactions.
19 Those equations are often exploited in trusses (where each connection is a hinge) to determine reac-
tions.
20 In an inclined roller support with Sx and Sy horizontal and vertical projection, then the reaction
R would have, Fig. 5.2.
Rx = Sy (5.3)
Ry Sx
Figure 5.2: Inclined Roller Support
5.1.3 Static Determinacy

21 In statically determinate structures, reactions depend only on the geometry, boundary conditions and
loads.
Draft
22 If the reactions can not be determined simply from the equations of static equilibrium (and equations
of conditions if present), then the reactions of the structure are said to be statically indeterminate.
23 The degree of static indeterminacy is equal to the dierence between the number of reactions
and the number of equations of equilibrium (plus the number of equations of conditions if applicable),
Fig. 5.3.
Figure 5.3: Examples of Static Determinate and Indeterminate Structures
24 Failure of one support in a statically determinate system results in the collapse of the structures.
Thus a statically indeterminate structure is safer than a statically determinate one.
25 For statically indeterminate structures, reactions depend also on the material properties (e.g. Young's
and/or shear modulus) and element cross sections (e.g. length, area, moment of inertia).
5.1.4 Geometric Instability

26 The stability of a structure is determined not only by the number of reactions but also by their
arrangement.
27 Geometric instability will occur if:
1. All reactions are parallel and a non-parallel load is applied to the structure.
2. All reactions are concurrent, Fig. 5.4.
Figure 5.4: Geometric Instability Caused by Concurrent Reactions

Draft
5.1 Reactions 5{5
3. The number of reactions is smaller than the number of equations of equilibrium, that is a mech-
anism is present in the structure.
28 Mathematically, this can be shown if the determinant of the equations of equilibrium is equal to
zero (or the equations are inter-dependent).
5.1.5 Examples
29 Examples of reaction calculation will be shown next. Each example has been carefully selected as it
brings a dierent \twist" from the preceding one. Some of those same problems will be revisited later
for the determination of the internal forces and/or de ections. Many of those problems are taken from
Prof. Gerstle textbok Basic Structural Analysis.
Example 5-7: Simply Supported Beam

Determine the reactions of the simply supported beam shown below.
Solution:
The beam has 3 reactions, we have 3 equations of static equilibrium, hence it is statically determinate.
(+ - ) Fx = 0; ) Rax ; 36 = 0
(+ 6) Fy = 0; ) Ray + Rdy ; 60 ; (4) (12) = 0
k
(+ ;) Mzc = 0; ) 12Ray ; 6Rdy ; (60)(6) = 0

k k/ft ft
or through matrix inversion (on your calculator)

2 38 9 8 9 8 9 8 9
1 0 0 < Rax = < 36 = < Rax = < 36 k =
4 0 1 1 5 Ray =: 108 ): Ray =: 56 k
0 12 ;6 :
Rdy ;
360 ;
Rdy ;
52 k
;
Alternatively we could have used another set of equations:

(+ ;) Mza = 0; (60)(6) + (48)(12) ; (Rdy )(18) = 0 ) Rdy = 52 k 6
(+ ;) Mzd = 0; (Ray )(18) ; (60)(12) ; (48)(6) = 0 ) Ray = 56 k 6
Check: p
(+ 6) Fy = 0; ; 56 ; 52 ; 60 ; 48 = 0

Draft
Example 5-8: Three Span Beam

Determine the reactions of the following three spans beam
Solution:
We have 4 unknowns (Rax ; Ray ; Rcy and Rdy ), three equations of equilibrium and one equation of
condition (Mb = 0), thus the structure is statically determinate.
1. Isolating ab:
M ;b = 0; (9)(Ray ) ; (40)(5) = 0 ) Ray = 22.2 6 k
(+ ;) Ma = 0; (40)(4) ; (S )(9) = 0 ) S = 17.7 6

) Rax = 30
k
Fx = 0; k
2. Isolating bd:
(+ ;) Md = 0; ;(17:7)(18) ; (40)(15) ; (4)(8)(8) ; (30)(2) + Rcy (12) = 0
) Rcy = 1;12236 = 103 6
(+ ) Mc = 0; ;(17:7)(6) ; (40)(3) + (4)(8)(4) + (30)(10) ; Rdy (12) = 0
k
;
) Rdy = 20112:3 = 16.7 6

k

Draft
5.1 Reactions 5{7
3. Check p
Fy = 0; 6; 22:2 ; 40 ; 40 + 103 ; 32 ; 30 + 16:7 = 0
Example 5-9: Three Hinged Gable Frame

The three-hinged gable frames spaced at 30 ft. on center. Determine the reactions components on the
frame due to: 1) Roof dead load, of 20 of roof area; 2) Snow load, of 30 of horizontal projection;
psf psf
3) Wind load of 15 of vertical projection. Determine the critical design values for the vertical and
psf
horizontal reactions.
Solution:
1. Due to symmetry, we will consider only the dead load on one side of the frame.
2. Due to symmetry, there is no vertical force transmitted by the hinge for snow and dead load.
3. Roof dead load per frame is
1 = 20:2 ?
p
DL = (20) (30)
psf ft302 + 152 1; 000
ft lbs/k k

Draft
4. Snow load per frame is
SL = (30) psf ft
1
(30) (30) 1; 000 ft lbs/k = 27: k ?
5. Wind load per frame (ignoring the suction) is
WL = (15) psf ft
1
(30) (35) 1; 000 ft lbs/k = 15:75 -
k
6. There are 4 reactions, 3 equations of equilibrium and one equation of condition ) statically
determinate.
7. The horizontal reaction H due to a vertical load V at midspan of the roof, is obtained by taking
moment with respect to the hinge
(+ ;) MC = 0; 15(V ) ; 30(V ) + 35(H ) = 0 ) H = 1535V = :429V
Substituting for roof dead and snow load we obtain
A =
VDL B
VDL = 20:2 6
= (:429)(20:2) = 8:66 -
k
A
HDL = B
HDL
27: 6
k
A =
VSL B
VSL =
= (:429)(27:) = 11:58 -
k
A
HSL = B
HSL k
8. The reactions due to wind load are

(+ ;) MA = 0; (15:75)( 20+15
2 ) ; VWL (60) = 0
B ) VWL
B = 4:60 6
(+ ) MC = 0; HWL (35) ; (4:6)(30) = 0
k
; B ) HWL
B = 3:95
(+ - ) Fx = 0; 15:75 ; 3:95 ; HWL
k
A =0 ) HWL = 11:80
A
(+ 6) Fy = 0; VWL ; VWL = 0 ?
k
B A A = ;4:60
) VWL k
9. Thus supports should be designed for

H = 8:66 + 11:58 + 3:95
k k k = 24.19 k
V = 20:7 + 27:0 + 4:60

k k k = 52.3 k
5.2 Trusses
5.2.1 Assumptions
30 Cables and trusses are 2D or 3D structures composed of an assemblage of simple one dimensional
components which transfer only axial forces along their axis.
31 Trusses are extensively used for bridges, long span roofs, electric tower, space structures.
32 For trusses, it is assumed that
1. Bars are pin-connected

Draft
5.2 Trusses 5{9
2. Joints are frictionless hinges4 .
3. Loads are applied at the joints only.
33 A truss would typically be composed of triangular elements with the bars on the upper chord under
compression and those along the lower chord under tension. Depending on the orientation of the
diagonals, they can be under either tension or compression.
34 In a truss analysis or design, we seek to determine the internal force along each member, Fig. 5.5
Figure 5.5: Bridge Truss
5.2.2 Basic Relations

Sign Convention: Tension positive, compression negative. On a truss the axial forces are indicated as
forces acting on the joints.
Stress-Force: = PA
Stress-Strain: = E"
Force-Displacement: " = LL
Equilibrium: F = 0
5.2.3 Determinacy and Stability
35 Trusses are statically determinate when all the bar forces can be determined from the equations
of statics alone. Otherwise the truss is statically indeterminate.
36 A truss may be statically indeterminate with respect to the reactions or externally indeterminate
and/or statically indeterminate with respect to the internal forces that is internally indeterminate.
37 a 2D truss is externally indeterminate if there are more than 3 reactions.
In practice the bars are riveted, bolted, or welded directly to each other or to gusset plates, thus the bars are not free
4
to rotate and so-called secondary bending moments are developed at the bars. Another source of secondary moments
is the dead weight of the element.

Draft
38 Since each joint is pin-connected, we can apply M = 0 at each one of them. Furthermore, summation
of forces applied on a joint must be equal to zero.
39 For a 2D truss we have 2 equations of equilibrium FX = 0 and FY = 0 which can be applied at
each joint. For 3D trusses we would have three equations: FX = 0, FY = 0 and FZ = 0.
40 If we refer to j as the number of joints, R the number of reactions and m the number of members,
then we would have a total of m + R unknowns and 2j (or 3j ) equations of statics (2D or 3D at each
joint). If we do not have enough equations of statics then the problem is indeterminate, if we have too
many equations then the truss is unstable, Table 5.2.
2D 3D
Static Indeterminacy
External R>3 R>6
Internal m + R > 2j m + R > 3j
Unstable m + R < 2j m + R < 3j
Table 5.2: Static Determinacy and Stability of Trusses
41 Fig. 5.6 shows a truss with 4 reactions, thus it is externally indeterminate. This truss has 6 joints
(j = 6), 4 reactions (R = 4) and 9 members (m = 9). Thus we have a total of m + R = 9 + 4 = 13
unknowns and 2 j = 2 6 = 12 equations of equilibrium, thus the truss is statically indeterminate.
Figure 5.6: A Statically Indeterminate Truss
42 There are two methods of analysis for statically determinate trusses

1. The Method of joints
2. The Method of sections
5.2.4 Method of Joints

43 The method of joints can be summarized as follows
1. Determine if the structure is statically determinate

Draft
5.2 Trusses 5{11
2. Compute all reactions
3. Sketch a free body diagram showing all joint loads (including reactions)
4. For each joint, and starting with the loaded ones, apply the appropriate equations of equilibrium
(Fx and Fy in 2D; Fx , Fy and Fz in 3D).
5. Because truss elements can only carry axial forces, the resultant force (F~ = F~x + F~y ) must be
along the member, Fig. 5.7.
F = Fx = Fy (5.4)
l lx ly
44 Always keep track of the x and y components of a member force (Fx , Fy ), as those might be needed
later on when considering the force equilibrium at another joint to which the member is connected.
Figure 5.7: X and Y Components of Truss Forces
45 This method should be used when all member forces should be determined.
46 In truss analysis, there is no sign convention. A member is assumed to be under tension (or
compression). If after analysis, the force is found to be negative, then this would imply that the wrong
assumption was made, and that the member should have been under compression (or tension).
47 On a free body diagram, the internal forces are represented by arrow acting on the joints and
not as end forces on the element itself. That is for tension, the arrow is pointing away from the joint,
and for compression toward the joint, Fig. 5.8.
Figure 5.8: Sign Convention for Truss Element Forces

Draft
Example 5-10: Truss, Method of Joints

Using the method of joints, analyze the following truss
Solution:
1. R = 3, m = 13, 2j = 16, and m + R = 2j
p
2. We compute the reactions
(+ ;) ME = 0; ) (20 + 12)(3)(24) + (40 + 8)(2)(24) + (40)(24) ; RAy (4)(24) = 0
) RAy = 58 6
(+ ?) Fy = 0; ) 20 + 12 + 40 + 8 + 40 ; 58 ; REy = 0
k
) REy = 62 6 k
3. Consider each joint separately:

Node A: Clearly AH is under compression, and AB under tension.
(+ 6) Fy = 0; ) FAHy ; 58 = 0
FAH = lly (FAHy ) p
ly = 32 l = 322 + 242 = 40
) FAH = 4032 (58) = 72:5 Compression
(+ - ) Fx = 0; ) ;FAHx + FAB = 0
FAB = llxy (FAHy ) = 24
32 (58) = 43:5 Tension

Draft
5.2 Trusses 5{13
Node B:
(+ - ) Fx = 0; ) FBC = 43:5 Tension

(+ 6) Fy = 0; ) FBH = 20 Tension
Node H:
(+ - ) Fx = 0; ) FAHx ; FHCx ; FHGx = 0

43:5 ; p2424
2 +322 (FHC ) ; 242 +102 (FHG ) = 0
p 24 (I)
(+ 6) Fy = 0; ) FAHy + FHCy ; 12 ; FHGy ; 20 = 0
2 +322 (FHC ) ; 12 ; 242 +102 (FHG ) ; 20 = 0 (II)
58 + p2432 p 10
Solving for I and II we obtain
FHC = ;7:5 Tension
FHG = 52 Compression
Node E:
Fy = 0; ) FEFy = 62 ) FEF = p2432 2 (62) = 77:5

24 (F+32
k
2
Fx = 0; ) FED = FEFx ) FED = 32 EFy ) = 24
32 (62) = 46:5 k
The results of this analysis are summarized below

Draft
4. We could check our calculations by verifying equilibrium of forces at a node not previously used,
such as D
5.3 Shear & Moment Diagrams

5.3.1 Theory
5.3.1.1 Design Sign Conventions
48 Before we derive the Shear-Moment relations, let us arbitrarily dene a sign convention.
5
49 The sign convention adopted here, is the one commonly used for design purposes . With reference to
Fig. 5.9
Figure 5.9: Shear and Moment Sign Conventions for Design

5
Later on, in more advanced analysis courses we will use a dierent one.

Draft
5.3 Shear & Moment Diagrams 5{15
2D:
Load Positive along the beam's local y axis (assuming a right hand side convention), that is
positive upward.
Axial: tension positive.
Flexure A positive moment is one which causes tension in the lower bers, and compression in
the upper ones. For frame members, a positive moment is one which causes tension along the
inner side.
Shear A positive shear force is one which is \up" on a negative face, or \down" on a positive one.
Alternatively, a pair of positive shear forces will cause clockwise rotation.
Torsion Counterclockwise
Draftpositive
3D: Use double arrow vectors (and NOT curved arrows). Forces and moments
x
(including torsions) are
dened with respect to a right hand side coordinate system,6M
6 Fig.*

5.10.
y
*
* Tx

y --
Mz
6M
y
6
6
-- - z
>

>

Figure 5.10:
Sign Conventions
M for 3D Frame Elements
z
Tx
5.3.1.2 Load, Shear, Moment Relations

50 Let us (re)derive the basic relations between load, shear and moment. Considering an innitesimal
length dx of a beam subjected to a positive load6 w(x), Fig. 5.11. The innitesimal section must also
Figure 5.11: Free Body Diagram of an Innitesimal Beam Segment

be in equilibrium.
51 There are no axial forces, thus we only have two equations of equilibrium to satisfy Fy = 0 and
Mz = 0.
52 Since dx is innitesimally small, the small variation in load along it can be neglected, therefore we
assume w(x) to be constant along dx.
53 To denote that a small change in shear and moment occurs over the length dx of the element, we add
the dierential quantities dVx and dMx to Vx and Mx on the right face.
6
In this derivation, as in all other ones we should assume all quantities to be positive.

Draft
54 Next considering the rst equation of equilibrium
(+ 6) Fy = 0 ) Vx + wx dx ; (Vx + dVx ) = 0
or
dV = w(x) (5.5)
dx
The slope of the shear curve at any point along the axis of a member is given by
the load curve at that point.
55 Similarly
(+ ;) Mo = 0 ) Mx + Vx dx ; wx dx dx
2 ; (Mx + dMx ) = 0
Neglecting the dx2 term, this simplies to
dM = V (x) (5.6)
dx
The slope of the moment curve at any point along the axis of a member is given
by the shear at that point.
56 Alternative forms of the preceding equations can be obtained by integration
Z
V = w(x)dx (5.7)
Z x2
V21 = Vx2 ; Vx1 = w(x)dx (5.8)
x1
The change in shear between 1 and 2, V21 , is equal to the area under the load
between x1 and x2 .
and
Z
M = V (x)dx (5.9)
Z x2
M21 = M2 ; M1 = V (x)dx (5.10)
x1
The change in moment between 1 and 2, M21, is equal to the area under the
shear curve between x1 and x2 .
57 Note that we still need to have V1 and M1 in order to obtain V2 and M2 respectively.
58 Fig. 5.12 and 5.13 further illustrates the variation in internal shear and moment under uniform and
concentrated forces/moment.
5.3.1.3 Moment Envelope
59 For design, we often must consider dierent load combinations.
60 For each load combination, we should draw the shear, moment diagrams. and then we should use the
Moment envelope for design purposes.
Draft
Figure 5.12: Shear and Moment Forces at Dierent Sections of a Loaded Beam
Positive Constant Negative Constant Positive Increasing Positive Decreasing Negative Increasing Negative Decreasing
Load
Shear
Positive Constant Negative Constant Positive Increasing Positive Decreasing Negative Increasing Negative Decreasing
Shear
Moment
Figure 5.13: Slope Relations Between Load Intensity and Shear, or Between Shear and Moment

Draft
5.3.1.4 Examples
Example 5-11: Simple Shear and Moment Diagram

Draw the shear and moment diagram for the beam shown below
Solution:
The free body diagram is drawn below

Draft
Reactions are determined from the equilibrium equations
(+ ) Fx = 0; ) ;RAx + 6 = 0 ) RAx = 6
(+ ;) MA = 0; ) (11)(4) + (8)(10) + (4)(2)(14 + 2) ; RFy (18) = 0 ) RFy = 14
k
(+ 6) Fy = 0; ) RAy ; 11 ; 8 ; (4)(2) + 14 = 0 ) RAy = 13

k
Shear are determined next.

1. At A the shear is equal to the reaction and is positive.
2. At B the shear drops (negative load) by 11 to 2 .
k k
3. At C it drops again by 8 to ;6 .
k k
4. It stays constant up to D and then it decreases (constant negative slope since the load is
uniform and negative) by 2 per linear foot up to ;14 .
k k
5. As a check, ;14 is also the reaction previously determined at F .

k
Moment is determined last:

1. The moment at A is zero (hinge support).
2. The change in moment between A and B is equal to the area under the corresponding shear
diagram, or MB;A = (13)(4) = 52.
3. etc...
Example 5-12: Frame Shear and Moment Diagram

Draw the shear and moment diagram of the following frame
Solution:

Draft

Draft
Reactions are determined rst
(+ ) Fx = 0; ) RAx ; 45 (3)(15) = 0
| {z }
load
) RAx = 36
(+ ;) MA = 0; )
k
;
(3)(30)( 302 ) + 35 (3)(15) 30 + 29 ; 45 (3)(15) 122 ; 39RDy = 0
) RFy = 52:96
(+ 6) Fy = 0; )
k
RAy ; (3)(30) ; 35 (3)(15) + 52:96 = 0

) RAy = 64:06 k
Shear:
1. For A ; B , the shear is constant, equal to the horizontal reaction at A and negative according
to our previously dened sign convention, VA = ;36 k
2. For member B ; C at B , the shear must be equal to the vertical force which was transmitted
along A ; B , and which is equal to the vertical reaction at A, VB = 64:06.
3. Since B ; C is subjected to a uniform negative load, the shear along B ; C will have a slope
equal to ;3 and in terms of x (measured from B to C ) is equal to
VB;C (x) = 64:06 ; 3x
4. The shear along C ; D is obtained by decomposing the vertical reaction at D into axial and
shear components. Thus at D the shear is equal to 53 52:96 = 31:78 and is negative. Based
k
on our sign convention for the load, the slope of the shear must be equal to ;3 along C ; D.
Thus the shear at point C is such that Vc ; 53 9(3) = ;31:78 or Vc = 13:22. The equation for
the shear is given by (for x going from C to D)
V = 13:22 ; 3x
5. We check our calculations by verifying equilibrium of node C
p
(+ ) Fx = 0 ) 53 (42:37) + 45 (13:22) = 25:42 + 10:58 = 36 p
(+ 6) Fy = 0 ) 54 (42:37) ; 35 (13:22) = 33:90 ; 7:93 = 25:97
Moment:
1. Along A ; B , the moment is zero at A (since we have a hinge), and its slope is equal to the
shear, thus at B the moment is equal to (;36)(12) = ;432 k.ft
2. Along B ; C , the moment is equal to

Z x Z x
MB;C = MB + VB;C (x)dx = ;432 + (64:06 ; 3x)dx
0 0
= ;432 + 64:06x ; 3 x2
2
which is a parabola. Substituting for x = 30, we obtain at node C : MC = ;432+64:06(30) ;

30
3 2 = 139:8
2
k.ft
3. If we need to determine the maximum moment along B ; C , we know that dMdxB;C = 0 at the
point where VB;C = 0, that is VB;C (x) = 64:06 ; 3x = 0 ) x = 643:06 = 25:0 . In other
ft
words, maximum moment occurs where the shear is zero.

Thus MBmax (25:0)2
;C = ;432 + 64:06(25:0) ; 3 2 = ;432 + 1; 601:5 ; 937:5 = 232 k.ft

Draft
4. Finally along C ; D, the moment varies quadratically (since we had a linear shear), the
moment rst increases (positive shear), and then decreases (negative shear). The moment
along C ; D is given by
MC ;D = MC + 0x VC ;D (x)dx2 = 139:8 + 0x (13:22 ; 3x)dx
R R
= 139:8 + 13:22x ; 3 x2
which is a parabola.
Substituting for xp= 15, we obtain at node C MC = 139:8 + 13:22(15) ; 3 152 = 139:8 +
2
198:3 ; 337:5 = 0
Example 5-13: Frame Shear and Moment Diagram; Hydrostatic Load

The frame shown below is the structural support of a ume. Assuming that the frames are spaced 2
ft apart along the length of the ume,
1. Determine all internal member end actions
2. Draw the shear and moment diagrams
3. Locate and compute maximum internal bending moments
4. If this is a reinforced concrete frame, show the location of the reinforcement.
Solution:
The hydrostatic pressure causes lateral forces on the vertical members which can be treated as
cantilevers xed at the lower end.
The pressure is linear and is given by p = h. Since each frame supports a 2 ft wide slice of the
ume, the equation for w (pounds/foot) is
w = (2)(62:4)(h)
= 124:8h lbs/ft
At the base w = (124:8)(6) = 749 lbs/ft= :749 k/ft Note that this is both the lateral pressure on the
end walls as well as the uniform load on the horizontal members.
Draft
End Actions
1. Base force at B is FBx = (:749) 26 = 2:246k
2. Base moment at B is MB = (2:246) 36 = 4:493 k.ft
3. End force at B for member B ; E are equal and opposite.

4. Reaction at C is RCy = (:749) 162 = 5:99
k
Shear forces
1. Base at B the shear force was determined earlier and was equal to 2:246 . Based on the
k
orientation of the x ; y axis, this is a negative shear.

2. The vertical shear at B is zero (neglecting the weight of A ; B )
3. The shear to the left of C is V = 0 + (;:749)(3) = ;2:246 .
k
4. The shear to the right of C is V = ;2:246 + 5:99 = 3:744

k
Moment diagrams
Draft
1. At the base: B M = 4:493 as determined above.
k.ft
2. At the support C , Mc = ;4:493 + (;:749)(3)( 23 ) = ;7:864 k.ft
3. The maximum moment is equal to Mmax = ;7:864 + (:749)(5)( 25 ) = 1:50 k.ft
Design: Reinforcement should be placed along the bers which are under tension, that is on the side
of the negative moment7 . The gure below schematically illustrates the location of the exural8
reinforcement.
Example 5-14: Shear Moment Diagrams for Frame

7
That is why in most European countries, the sign convention for design moments is the opposite of the one commonly
used in the U.S.A.; Reinforcement should be placed where the moment is \postive".
8
Shear reinforcement is made of a series of vertical stirrups.

Draft
8’ 12’ 10’ Vba Vbc

5k/ft 30k 10k
2k/ft
B C
A
M ba H
bd
E M bc
5’ M bd
VA 20k G Vbd
52.5k 30k
15’
0 0
0
650’k 200’k
D HD 450’k
4k/ft
VD 82.5k
CHECK
30k 10k
5k/ft
2k/ft
B Hba Hbc B C
A
M ba M bc
17.5k Vba Vbc
(10)+(2)(10) 30k
10k
17.5k Vbc
17.5-5*x=0
-22.5k 17.5-(5)(8) M bc
3.5’ -200’k
(10)(10)+(2)(10)(10)/2
-22.5+(-30) -52.5k Vba
30.6’k (17.5)(3.5)/2
-20’k (17.5)(3.5)/2+(-22.5)(8-3.5)/2
(-52.5)(12)+(-20) -650’k M ba
Vbd
M bd
450’k Hbd
(50)-(4)(15)/2
20k 450’k 20k

(50)(15)-[(4)(5)/2][(2)(15)/3)]
50k
4k/ft 50k
82.5k

Draft
Example 5-15: Shear Moment Diagrams for Inclined Frame

Draft
26k 10’ 10’

26k 13’
13’ 20k
13’ C
13 5
5 3 15’
12 4
B D
2k/ft
20’
A Ha E
36’ 20’ Ve
Va
(60)(20)-(2)(20)(20)/2
19.2k (20)(20)+(60-20)(20)/2
48.8k Fx
800k’
F z
20k 800’k y
Fy
60-(2)(20)
20k
0k’ x
F/Fy=z/x
F/Fx=z/y
2k/ft 60k Fx/Fy=y/x
60k
19.2k 1 2 3 4 48.8k 5 6
28.8k
26k 778k’
1k
17.2 (20)(15)/13=7.7
8k
23.
26k 10k 12k

0k (20)(12)/(13)=18.46
20k
10k
24k
(19.2)(5)/(13)=7.38
24k
16k
20-10-10
(19.2)(12)/(13)=17.72
26.6k 11.1k 778k’ (26)(12)/(13)=24
800k’ 8k 0k’ (26.6)(13)/(12)=28.8
20k 28.8k 0k (26.6)(5)/(12)=11.1
18.46k (28.8)(4)/(5)=23.1
29.3k (28.8)(3)/(5)=17.28
17.72k 7.38k 39.1k
48.9k (20)(4)/(5)=16
19.2k 7 10 (20)(3)/(5)=12
(39.1)(5)/(4)=48.9
-23 (39.1)(3)/(4)=29.3
8.7 .1k
17.7+ .4k
+25 -
k -2 39
k -26.6 3.1 .1
-16 k
-0.58 26 -0.6-26 -
25.42 8 B-C 11 C-D
1,122-(26.6)(13)
488+(23.1)(12.5)
k’
’
1,130-(.58)(13) 777k
777
k’ (39.1)(12.5)
800+(25.4)(13) 1122 ’k 488’k
1130
800’k
9 B-C 12 C-D
13 14
2k’ 777k’
112
0’k 48
k -23 113 8’
+25.4 .1 k
5 8 k . 6 k k
+20k
- 0 . - 2 6 800’k
-39
. 1k
+60k

Draft
5.3.2 Formulaes
Adapted from (of Steel COnstruction 1986)

Draft
1) Simple Beam; uniform Load
L
w L
R R
R = V
= w L2 ; x
L / 2 L / 2
Vx
2
at center Mmax = wL
V
8
Shear
Mx = wx
V
2 (L ;4 x)
5 wL
max = 384 EI 3
M max.
x = 24wx
EI (L ; 2Lx + x )
2 3
Moment
2) Simple Beam; Unsymmetric Triangular Load
R1 = V1 = W3
Max R2 = V2 = 2W3 2
Vx = 3 ; Wx
W
L 2
at x = :577L Mmax = :1283WL
Mx = Wx
3L2 (L ; x )
2 2
3
at x = :5193L max = :01304 WL
EI
3
x = 180Wx
EIL2 (3x ; 10L x + 7L )
4 2 2 4
3) Simple Beam; Symmetric Triangular Load
R=V = W
2
W
for x < L2 Vx = L2 (L ; 4x )
2WL
2 2
at center Mmax = 6
1 2 x 2
for x < L2 Mx = Wx 2 ; 3 L2
for x < L2 x = 480Wx
EIL 2 (5L ; 4x )
2 22
WL 3
max = 60 EI

Draft
4) Simple Beam; Uniform Load Partially Distributed
Max when a < c R1 = V1 wb

= 2L (2c + b)
Max when a > c R2 = V2 wb
= 2L (2a + b)
when a < x < a + b Vx = R1 ; w(x ; a)
when x < a Mx = R1 x
when a < x < a + b Mx = R1 x ; w2 (x ; a)2
when a + b < x Mx = R2 (L ; x)
at x = a + Rw1 Mmax = R1 a + 2Rw1
5) Simple Beam; Concentrated Load at Center
max R1 = V1 = wa (2L ; a)
2L
R=V = 2P
at x = L2 Mmax = PL
Px4
when x < L2 Mx = 2Px
whenx < L2 x = 48EI3 (3L ; 4x )
2 2
at x = L2 max PL
= 48 EI
6) Simple Beam; Concentrated Load at Any Point
max when a < b R1 = V1 = Pb

L
Pa
max when a > b R2 = V2 = L
at x = a Mmax = Pab
L
Pbx
when x < a Mx = L2 2
at x = a a Pa
= 3EILb
when x < a x = 6Pbx
EIL (L ; p
2 b2 ; x2 )
q
at x = a(a+2b) & a > b =
Pab(a + 2b) 3a(a + 2b)
3 max 27EIL

Draft
7) Simple Beam; Two Equally Concentrated Symmetric Loads
R=V = P
Mmax = Pa
max = 24Pa
EI (3L2 ; 4a2 )
when x < a x = 6Px
EI (3La ; 3a2 ; x2 )
when a < x < L ; a x = 6Pa
EI (3Lx ; 3x ; a )
2 2
8) Simple Beam; Two Equally Concentrated Unsymmetric Loads
max when a < b R1 = V1 = P ( L ; a + b)

max when b < a R2 = V2 = PL (L ; b + a)
when a < x < L ; b Vx = PL (b ; a)
L
max when b < a M1 = R1 a
max when a < b M2 = R2 b
when x < a Mx = R1 x
when a < x < L ; b Mx = R1 x ; P (x ; a)
9) Cantilevered Beam, Uniform Load
R1 = V1 = 3 wL
85
R2 = V2 = 8 wL
Vx = R1 ; wx
Mmax = wL2
at x = 38 L M1 = 98 wL2
128 2
Mx = R1 x ; wx2
x = 48wx
EI4 (L ; 3Lx 2x )
3 + 3
at x = :4215L max wL
= 185 EI

Draft
10) Propped Cantilever, Concentrated Load at Center
R1 = V1 = 5P
16P
11
R2 = V2 =
at x = L Mmax = 316
PL
16
5Px
when x < L2 Mx = 16
when L2 < x Mx = P L2 ; 1116
x
3
at x = :4472L max = :009317 PL
EI
11) Propped Cantilever; Concentrated Load
R1 = V1 = Pb2 (a + 2L)
L3
2Pa
2L3 (3L ; a )
R2 = V2 = 2 2
at x = a M1 = R1 a
at x = L M2 = Pab (a + L)
2L2 2 3
at x = a a = 12Pa b
EIL32(3L +2 a3 )
when a < :414L at x = L 3LL22+;aa22 max = 3Pa (L ; a )
EI2(3rL2 ; a2 )2
= Pab a
q
when :414L < a at x = L a max
2L+a 6EI 2L + a2
12) Beam Fixed at Both Ends, Uniform Load
R = V = wL
2
Vx L
= w 2 ;x
2
at x = 0 and x = L Mmax = wL 122
L
at x = 2 M wL
= 24
wL4
at x = L2 max = 384 EI
2
x wx
= 24EI (L ; x)2

Draft
13) Beam Fixed at Both Ends; Concentrated Load
R = V = P2
at x = L2 Mmax = PL 8
when x < L2 Mx = P8 (4x ; L)
at x = L2 max = 192PL3
EI
2
L
when x < 2 x Px
= 48EI (3L ; 4x)
14) Cantilever Beam; Triangular Unsymmetric Load
R=V = 83 W
2
Vx = W Lx 2
at x = L Mmax = WL 32
Mx = Wx
3LW2
x = 60EIL2 (x5 ; 5L2x + 4L5 )
at x = 0 max WL3
= 15EI
15) Cantilever Beam; Uniform Load
R=V = wL
Vx = wx
2
Mx = wx2
2
at x = L Mmax = wL2
x = 24wEI (x4 ; 4L3 x + 3L4 )
4
at x = 0 max = wL
8EI

Draft
16) Cantilever Beam; Point Load
R=V = P
at x = L Mmax = Pb
when a < x Mx = P (x ; a)
at x = 0 max = Pb2 (3L ; b)
6EI3
at x = a a = 3Pb
EI2
when x < a x = 6Pb
EI (3L ;2 3x ; b)
when a < x x ; x) (3b ; L + x)
= P (L6EI
17) Cantilever Beam; Point Load at Free End
R=V = P
at x = L Mmax = PL
Mx = Px
3
at x = 0 max = PL
3PEI
x = 6EI (2L3 ; 3L2x + x3 )
18) Cantilever Beam; Concentrated Force and Moment at Free End
R=V = P
Mx = P L2 ; x
at x = 0 and x = L Mmax = PL2
PL3
at x = 0 max = 12 EI 2
x = P (L ; x) ((L + 2x)
12EI

Draft
19) Beam Overhanging One Support; Uniform Load Between Supports
R = V = wL
2
Vx = w L2 ; x
Mx = wx
2 (L4 ; x)
5wL
at x = L2 max = 384 EI 3
x = 24wx
EI (L ; 2Lx2 + x3 )
3 x1 x
when L < x < L + a x1 = wL24EI
20) Beam Overhanging one Support; Concentrated Force
Max when a < b R1 = V1 = Pb L
Max when b < a R2 = V2 = L Pa
at x < aL Mx = Pbx
L
q p
at x = a ( a +2 b) when a > b =
Pab (a + 2b) 3a(a + 2b)
max
2 b2 27EIL
3
at x = a a Pa
= 3EIL
when x < a x = 6Pbx
EIL (L ; b ; x )
2 2 2
when a < x x L ; x) (2Lx ; x2 ; a2 )

= Pa6(EIL
at L < x < L + a x1 = Pabx 1
6EIL (L + a)
21) Continuous Beam, Two Equal Spans; Concentrated Force
R1 = V1 = Pb 4L2 ; a(L + a)

L3
4Pa
R2 = V2 + V3 = 2 L 2 + b(L + a)
2L 3
R3 = V3 = ; Pab 3 (L + a)
V2 = Pa4L4L2 + b(L + a)
4L3
Mmax = Pab 4L2 ; a(L + a)
4L3
Pab
at x = L M1 = 4L2 (L + a)

Draft
22) Simple Beam, Uniform Load, End Moments
R1 = V1 = wL
2 + M1 ; L
M2
R2 = V2 = wL M1 ; M2
2 ; L
Vx = w L2 ; x + M1 ; L
M2
;M2
at x = L2 + M1wL
Mx wx
= 2 (L ; x) + M 1 ; M 2 x ; M1
s L

b = L2 ; M1 + M2 + M1 ; M2 2
4 w wl
x wx 3M
= 24EI x ; 2L + wL ; wL2 x2
3 1 4 M

+ 12wM1 x + L3 ; 8Mw1 L ; 4Mw2L
23) Simple Beam; Concentrated Force, End Moments
R1 = V1 = P + M1 ; M2
P2 ; M1 ; LM
R2 = V2 = 2
2PL ML+ M
at x = L2 M3 =
4
; 1 2 2
when x < L2 Mx = P2 + M1 ; L
M2 x ; M
1
when L2 < x Mx = P2 (L ; x) + M1 ;L
M2 x ; M
1
when x < L2 x Px 2
= 48EI 3L ; 4x2

8( L ; x)
; PL (M1 (2L ; x) + M2(L + x))

Draft
5.4 Flexure 5{37
24) Beam Overhanging one Support; Uniform Load
R1 = V1 = w (L2 ; a2 )
2wL
R2 = V2 + V3 2
= 2L (L + a)
V2 = wa
V3 = w (L2 + a2 )
2L
at 0 < x < L Vx = R1 ; wx
at L < x< L + a Vx1 = w(a ; x1 )
at x = L2 1 ; La22 w
8L22 (L + a) (L ; a)
M1 = 2 2
at x = L M2 = wa2
at 0 < x < L Mx = wx
2wL (L ; a2 ; xL)
2 2
at L < x < L + a Mx1 = (a ; x )
2 1
at 0 < x < L x = wx (L4 ; 2L2x2 + Lx3 ; 2a2 L2 + 2a2 x2 )

at L < x < L + a x1 = wxEIL
24 1 (4a2 L; L3 + 6a2 x ; 4ax2 + x3 )
24 EI 1 1 1
R1 = V1 = w (L2 ; a2 )
2wL
R2 = V2 + V3 2
= 2 L ( L + a)
V2 = wa
V3 = w (L2 + a2 )
2L
at 0 < x < L Vx = R1 ; wx
at L < x< L + a Vx1 = w(a ; x1 )
at x = L2 1 ; La 2 w
8L22 (L + a) (L ; a)
2
M1 = 2 2
at x = L M2 = wa
at 0 < x < L Mx = wx2 (L2 ; a2 ; xL)
at L < x < L + a Mx1 = w2L(a ; x )2
2 wx 1
at 0 < x < L x = 24 EIL (L4 ; 2L2x2 + Lx3 ; 2a2 L2 + 2a2 x2 )
at L < x < L + a x1 = wx1 (4a2 L; L3 + 6a2x ; 4ax2 + x3 )
24EI 1 1 1
5.4 Flexure
5.4.1 Basic Kinematic Assumption; Curvature
61 Fig.5.14 shows portion of an originally straight beam which has been bent to the radius by end
couples M . support conditions, Fig. 5.1. It is assumed that plane cross-sections normal to the length of
the unbent beam remain plane after the beam is bent.
62 Except for the neutral surface all other longitudinal bers either lengthen or shorten, thereby creating
a longitudinal strain "x. Considering a segment EF of length dx at a distance y from the neutral axis,
its original length is
EF = dx = d (5.11)

Draft
O
+ve Curvature, +ve bending
dθ
-ve Curvature, -ve Bending
ρ
M M
Neutral Axis
E’ F’
Y
dA
E F X Z
dx
Figure 5.14: Deformation of a Beam un Pure Bending
and
d = dx
(5.12)
63 To evaluate this strain, we consider the deformed length E 0 F 0

E 0 F 0 = ( ; y)d = d ; yd = dx ; y dx
(5.13)
The strain is now determined from:
E 0 F 0 ; EF dx ; y dx
; dx
"x = EF = dx (5.14)
or after simplication
"x = ; y (5.15)
where y is measured from the axis of rotation (neutral axis). Thus strains are proportional to the
distance from the neutral axis.
64 (Greek letter rho) is the radius of curvature. In some textbook, the curvature (Greek letter
kappa) is also used where
= 1 (5.16)
thus,
"x = ;y (5.17)

Draft
5.4 Flexure 5{39
5.4.2 Stress-Strain Relations
65 So far we considered the kinematic of the beam, yet later on we will need to consider equilibrium in
terms of the stresses. Hence we need to relate strain to stress.
66 For linear elastic material Hooke's law states
x = E"x (5.18)
where E is Young's Modulus.

67 Combining Eq. with equation 5.17 we obtain
x = ;Ey (5.19)
5.4.3 Internal Equilibrium; Section Properties

68 Just as external forces acting on a structure must be in equilibrium, the internal forces must also
satisfy the equilibrium equations.
69 The internal forces are determined by slicing the beam. The internal forces on the \cut" section must
be in equilibrium with the external forces.
5.4.3.1 Fx = 0; Neutral Axis
70 The rst equation we consider is the summation of axial forces.
71 Since there are no external axial forces (unlike a column or a beam-column), the internal axial forces
must be in equilibrium. Z
Fx = 0 ) x dA = 0 (5.20)
A
where x was given by Eq. 5.19, substituting we obtain
Z Z
x dA = ; EydA = 0 (5.21-a)
A A
But since the curvature and the modulus of elasticity E are constants, we conclude that
Z
ydA = 0 (5.22)
A
or the rst moment of the cross section with respect to the z axis is zero. Hence we conclude that the
neutral axis passes through the centroid of the cross section.
5.4.3.2 M = 0; Moment of Inertia
72The second equation of internal equilibrium which must be satised is the summation of moments.
However contrarily to the summation of axial forces, we now have an external moment to account for,
Draft
the one from the moment diagram at that particular location where the beam was sliced, hence
Z
Mz = 0; ;+ve; |{z}
M = ; x ydA (5.23)
Ext. | A{z }
Int.
where dA is an dierential area a distance y from the neutral axis.
73 Substituting Eq. 5.19 9
Z
Z
M = ; x ydA = M = E y2 dA (5.24)
A
x = ;Ey ; A
74 We now pause and dene the section moment of inertia with respect to the z axis as
Z
I def
= y2 dA (5.25)
A
and section modulus as
= Ic
S def (5.26)
75 Section properties for selected sections are shown in Table 5.3.

5.4.4 Beam Formula
76 We now have the ingredients in place to derive one of the most important equations in structures, the
beam formula. This formula will be extensively used for design of structural components.
77 We merely substitute Eq. 5.25 into 5.24,
Z 9
M = E y2 dA >
=
M 1
Z A EI = = (5.27)
I = y2 dA >
;
a
which shows that the curvature of the longitudinal axis of a beam is proportional to the bending moment
M and inversely proportional to EI which we call exural rigidity.
78 Finally, inserting Eq. 5.19 above, we obtain

x = ;Ey = ; My (5.28)
= EI M x I
Hence, for a positive y (above neutral axis), and a positive moment, we will have compressive stresses
above the neutral axis.
79 Alternatively, the maximum ber stresses can be obtained by combining the preceding equation with
Equation 5.26
x = ; M
S
(5.29)
Example 5-16: Design Example

Draft
5.4 Flexure 5{41
Y Y
bh ; b0 h0
x
x
A = bh A =
x = b x = b
2h 2h
h X y = 2 h h’ X y = 2
Ix = bh3 Ix = bh3 ;b0 h03
y 12 y
12
Iy = hb3 Iy = hb3 ;h0 b03
12 b’ 12
b b
Y c
a Y
A = bh
b2+c
x
A = h(a2+b) x =
y = h3
y = h3((2aa++bb)) 3
h h
X X
Ix = bh3
36 2
Ix = h (36(
y 3 a2 +4ab+b2 y
a+b) Iy = bh (b ; bc + c2 )
36
b b
Y Y
r
X
A = r42 = d4 42 t r
X A = 2rt = dt3
Ix = Iy = r4 = d64 Ix = Iy = r3 t = d8 t
b
A = ab3
Ix = ab3 3
X
Iy = ba4
b
a a
Table 5.3: Section Properties

Draft
A 20 ft long, uniformly loaded, beam is simply supported at one end, and rigidly connected at the
other. The beam is composed of a steel tube with thickness t = 0:25 . Select the radius such that
in
max 18 , and max L=360.

ksi
1 k/ft
r 0.25’
20’
Solution:
1. Steel has E = 29; 000 , and from above Mmax = wL8 , max = 185
wL , and I = r3 t.
2 4
ksi
EI
2. The maximum moment will be
Mmax = wL
2 (1)
= (20)2 2 = 50
k/ft ft
(5.30)
8 8 k.ft
3. We next seek a relation between maximum de ection and radius

= wL4
wL4 185Er3 t 4 4 3 3 3
max = 185 (1) k/ft(20) ft (12) in = ft (5.31)
3EI
I = r t = (185)(29;000) ksi(3:14)r3 (0:25) in
= 65:365
r
4. Similarly for the stress
= MS
9
= = rM2 t
S = Ir ;
= (3:14)r2(12)
(50)
(0:25)
k.ft in/ft
(5.32)
I = r3 t
in
= 764
r2
5. We now set those two values equal to their respective maximum
r
L = (20) (12)
max = 360 ft in/ft
= 0:67 = 65r:365 ) r = 3 65:65 = 4:61 (5.33-a)
360 r
in
0:67 in
max = (18) ksi = 764

r2 ) r =
764 = 6.51
18 in (5.33-b)
5.4.5 Approximate Analysis

M = = 1 ), we recall that that the moment is directly proportional
From Fig. 5.14, and Eq. 5.27 ( EI
80

to the curvature .
81 Thus,

Draft
5.4 Flexure 5{43
1. A positive and negative moment would correspond to positive and negative curvature respectively
(adopting the sign convention shown in Fig. 5.14).
2. A zero moment correspnds to an in ection point in the de ected shape.
82 Hence, for
Statically determinate structure, we can determine the de ected shape from the moment diagram,
Fig. 5.15.
Figure 5.15: Elastic Curve from the Moment Diagram
Statically indeterminate structure, we can:

1. Plot the de ected shape.
2. Identify in ection points, approximate their location.
3. Locate those in ection points on the structure, which will then become statically determinate.
4. Perform an approximate analysis.
Draft
Figure 5.16: Approximate Analysis of Beams

Draft
5.4 Flexure 5{45
Example 5-17: Approximate Analysis of a Statically Indeterminate beam

Perform an approximate analysis of the following beam, and compare your results with the exact
solution.
20k
16’ 12’ 28’

28’
Solution:
20k
16’ 12’ 28’

28’
22’ 6’ 28’
20k Approximate Location of IP
A B C D
22’ 6’ 28’
1. We have 3 unknowns RA , RC , and RD , all in the vertical directions, and only two applicable
equations of equilibrium (since we do not have any force in the x direction), thus the problem is
statically indeterminare.
2. We sketch the anticipated de ected shape, and guess the location of the in ection point.
3. At that location, we place a hinge, and we now have an additional equation of condition at that
location (M = 0).

Draft
4. If we consider AB, and take the moments with respect to point B:
(+ ;) MB = 0; (22)(RA ) ; (20)(22 ; 16) = 0 ) RA = 5.45 k 6
(5.34-a)
5. If we now consider the entire beam:
(+ ;) MD = 0; (RA )(28 + 28) ; (20)(28 + 12) + (RC )(28) = 0
(5:45)(56) ; (20)(40) + (RC )(28) = 0
) RC = 17.67 6 k
(+ 6) Fy = 0; RA ; 20 + Rc + RD = 0
5:45 ; 20 + 17:67 + RD = 0
) RD = ;3:12 3.12 ? k
6. Check
(+ ;) MA = 0; (20)(16) ; (RC )(28) + (RD )(28 + 28) =
320 ; (17:67)(28) + (3:12)(56) =
320 ; 494:76 + 174:72 = 0
p (5.36-a)
7. The moments are determined next
Mmax = RA a = (5:45)(16) = 87.2 (5.37-a)
M1 = RD L = (3:12)(28) = 87.36 (5.37-b)
8. We now compare with the exact solution from Section 5.3.2, solution 21 where:L = 28, a = 16,
b = 12, and P = 20
R1 = RA = 4Pb
2
L 3 4 L ; a ( L + a )
= (20)(12)
2 ; (16)(28 + 16) = 6.64
4(28) 3 4(28) (5.38-a)
Pa
R2 = RB = 2L3 2L2 + b(L + a)

(5.38-b)
= (20)(16)
2 + 12(28 + 16) = 15.28
2(28) 3 2(28) (5.38-c)
R3 = RD = ; Pab
4L3 (L + a) (5.38-d)
= ; (20)(16)(12)
4(28)3 (28 + 16) = ;1.92 (5.38-e)
Mmax = R1 a = (6:64)(16) = 106.2 (5.38-f)
M1 = R3 L = (1:92)(28) = 53.8 (5.38-g)
9. If we tabulate the results we have

Draft
5.4 Flexure 5{47
Value Approximate Exact % Error
RA 5.45 6.64 18
RC 17.67 15.28 -16
RD 3.12 1.92 63
M1 87.36 53.8 62
Mmax 87.2 106.2 18
10. Whereas the correlation between the approximate and exact results is quite poor, one should not
underestimate the simplicity of this method keeping in mind (an exact analysis of this structure
would have been computationally much more involved). Furthermore, often one only needs a rough
order of magnitude of the moments.

Draft

Draft
Chapter 6
Case Study II: GEORGE

WASHINGTON BRIDGE
6.1 Theory
1 Whereas the forces in a cable can be determined from statics alone, its conguration must be derived
from its deformation. Let us consider a cable with distributed load p(x) per unit horizontal pro-
jection of the cable length (thus neglecting the weight of the cable). An innitesimal portion of that
cable can be assumed to be a straight line, Fig. 6.1 and in the absence of any horizontal load we have
T V
V θ
H w
H x w(x)
v(x)
dv
ds
v
dx
L dx H
θ
V+dV T+dT
Figure 6.1: Cable Structure Subjected to p(x)

H =constant. Summation of the vertical forces yields
(+ ?) Fy = 0 ) ;V + wdx + (V + dV ) = 0 (6.1-a)
dV + wdx = 0 (6.1-b)
where V is the vertical component of the cable tension at x (Note that if the cable was subjected to its
own weight then we would have wds instead of wdx). Because the cable must be tangent to T , we have
V
tan = H (6.2)
Substituting into Eq. 6.1-b yields
d (H tan ) = w
d(H tan ) + wdx = 0 ) ; dx (6.3)
Draft
6{2 Case Study II: GEORGE WASHINGTON BRIDGE
2 But H is constant (no horizontal load is applied), thus, this last equation can be rewritten as
d (tan ) = w
;H dx (6.4)
3
dv which when substituted in Eq. 6.4 yields
Written in terms of the vertical displacement v, tan = dx
the governing equation for cables
;Hv00 = w (6.5)
4 For a cable subjected to a uniform load w , we can determine its shape by double integration of Eq.
6.5
;Hv0 = wx + C1 (6.6-a)
2
;Hv = wx2 + C1 x + C2 (6.6-b)
and the constants of integrations C1 and C2 can be obtained from the boundary conditions: v = 0 at
x = 0 and at x = L ) C2 = 0 and C1 = ; wL 2 . Thus
v = 2wH x(L ; x) (6.7)
This equation gives the shape v(x) in terms of the horizontal force H ,
5 Since the maximum sag h occurs at midspan (x =
L ) we can solve for the horizontal force
2
2
H = wL
8h
(6.8)
we note the analogy with the maximum moment in a simply supported uniformly loaded beam M =
Hh = wL8 2 . Furthermore, this relation clearly shows that the horizontal force is inversely proportional
to the sag h, as h & H %. Finally, we can rewrite this equation as
= Lh
r def (6.9-a)
wL = 8r (6.9-b)
H
6 Eliminating H from Eq. 6.7 and 6.8 we obtain

2
v = 4h ; Lx 2 + Lx (6.10)
Thus the cable assumes a parabolic shape (as the moment diagram of the applied load).
7 Whereas the horizontal force H is constant throughout the cable, the tension T is not. The maximum
tension occurs at the support where the vertical component is equal to V = wL2 and the horizontal one
to H , thus s s
2 2
p
Tmax = V 2 + H 2 = wL + H 2 = H 1 + wL=2 (6.11)
2 H
Draft
6.2 The Case Study 6{3
Combining this with Eq. 6.8 we obtain1 .
p
Tmax = H 1 + 16r2 H (1 + 8r2 ) (6.12)
8 Had we assumed a uniform load w per length of cable (rather than horizontal projection), the
equation would have been one of a catenary2.

v=H w L
w cosh H 2 ; x +h (6.13)
The cable between transmission towers is a good example of a catenary.
6.2 The Case Study

9 The George Washington bridge, is a suspension bridge spanning the Hudson river from New York City
to New Jersey. It was completed in 1931 with a central span of 3,500 ft (at the time the world's longest
span). The bridge was designed by O.H. Amman, who had emigrated from Switzerland. In 1962 the
deck was stiened with the addition of a lower deck.
6.2.1 Geometry
10 A longitudinal and plan elevation of the bridge is shown in For simplicity we will assume in our
analysis that the two approaching spans are equal to 650 ft.
11 There are two cables of three feet diameter on each side of the bridge. The centers of each pair are 9
ft apart, and the pairs themselves are 106 ft apart. We will assume a span width of 100 ft.
12 The cables are idealized as supported by rollers at the top of the towers, hence the horizontal com-
ponents of the forces in each side of the cable must be equal (their vertical components will add up).
13 The cables support the road deck which is hungby suspenders attached at the cables. The cables are
made of 26,474 steel wires, each 0.196 inch in diameter. They are continuous over the tower supports
and are rmly anchored in both banks by huge blocks of concrete, the anchors.
14 Because the cables are much longer than they are thick (large
I
L ), they can be idealized a perfectly
exible members with no shear/bending resistance but with high axial strength.
15 The towers are 578 ft tall and rest on concrete caissons in the river. Because of our assumption
regarding the roller support for the cables, the towers will be subjected only to axial forces.
6.2.2 Loads
16 The dead load is composed of the weight of the deck and the cables and is estimated at 390 and 400
psf respectively for the central and side spans respectively. Assuming an average width of 100 ft, this
Recalling that (a + b)n = an + nan; b + n n; an; b + or (1 + b)n = 1 + nb + n n; b + n n; n; b + ;
( 1)
2 ( 1)
3 ( 1)( 2)
1 1 2 2
p
Thus for b << 1, 1 + b = (1 + b) 2 1 + b
2
1
2! 2! 3!
Derivation of this equation is beyond the scope of this course.

2
2

Draft
??
377 ft 327 ft
610 ft 3,500 ft 650 ft
4,760 ft
ELEVATION
N.J. HUDSON RIVER N.Y.
PLAN
Figure 6.2: Longitudinal and Plan Elevation of the George Washington Bridge

Draft
would be equivalent to
DL = (390) (100) (1; 000)
psf ft
k
lbs
= 39 k/ft (6.14)
for the main span and 40 for the side ones.
k/ft
17 For highway bridges, design loads are given by the AASHTO (Association of American State Highway
Transportation Ocials). The HS-20 truck is often used for the design of bridges on main highways, Fig.
6.3. Either the design truck with specied axle loads and spacing must be used or the equivalent uniform
load and concentrated load. This loading must be placed such that maximum stresses are produced.
Figure 6.3: Truck Load
18 With two decks, we estimate that there is a total of 12 lanes or

LL = (12)Lanes(:64) = =Lane = 7:68
k ft k/ft 8 k/ft (6.15)
We do not consider earthquake, or wind loads in this analysis.
19 Final DL and LL are, Fig. 6.4: TL = 39 + 8 = 47 k/ft
6.2.3 Cable Forces

20 The thrust H (which is the horizontal component of the cable force) is determined from Eq. 6.8
H = wL8hcs
2
(3;500)
= (47) (8)(327)
k/ft
2 ft
2
ft
= 220; 000 k

Draft
wD,S = 40 k/ft wD = 39 k/ft wD,S = 40 k/ft
DEAD LOADS
wL = 8 k/ft
Figure 6.4: Dead and Live Loads

Draft
From Eq. 6.12 the maximum tension is
r = h = 327 = 0:0934
p 3;500
Lcs
Tmax = H 1 + 16pr2
= (2; 200) 1 + (16)(0:0934)2
k
= (2; 200) (1:0675) = 235,000

k k
6.2.4 Reactions
21 Cable reactions are shown in Fig. 6.5.
POINTS WITH
REACTIONS TO
CABLES
Figure 6.5: Location of Cable Reactions
22 The vertical force in the columns due to the central span (cs) is simply the support reaction, 6.6
wTOT = 39 + 8 = 47 k/ft
A B
POINT OF NO REACTIONS AT
MOMENT TOP OF TOWER
L = 3,500 FT
Figure 6.6: Vertical Reactions in Columns Due to Central Span Load
Vcs = 21 wLcs = 12 (47) k/ft (3; 500) = 82; 250

ft k (6.16)
Note that we can check this by determining the vector sum of H and V which should be equal to Tmax :
Vcs + H = (82; 250) + (220; 000) = 235; 000 kp
p p
2 2 2 2
(6.17)
23Along the side spans (ss), the total load is TL = 40 + 8 = 48 . We determine the vertical reaction
k/ft
by taking the summation of moments with respect to the anchor:

MD = 0; ;+; hssH + (wss Lss) L2ss ; Vss Lss = 0 (6.18-a)
Draft
= (377) (220; 000) + (48)

k k (650) (650)
k/ft
2 ; 650Vss = 0
ft
ft
(6.18-b)
Vss = 143; 200 k (6.18-c)
24 Hence the total axial force applied on the column is

V = Vcs + Vss = (82; 250) + (143; 200) = 225,450
k k k (6.19)
25 The vertical reaction at the anchor is given by summation of the forces in the y direction, Fig. 6.7:
(+ 6) Fy = 0; (wss Lss) + Vss + Ranchor = 0 (6.20-a)
;(48) (650) + (143; 200) + Ranchor = 0
k/ft ft k (6.20-b)
Ranchor = 112,000 ? (6.20-c)
k
(6.20-d)
225,450 k
220,000 k
112,000 k
Figure 6.7: Cable Reactions in Side Span
26 The axial force in the side cable is determined the vector sum of the horizontal and vertical reactions.
q p
ss
Tanchor = Ranchor2 + H 2 = (112; 000)2 + (220; 000)2 = 247; 000 (6.21-a)k
q p
ss
Ttower = Vss2 + H 2 = (143; 200)2 + (220; 000)2 = 262,500 (6.21-b)
k
27 The cable stresses are determined last, Fig. 6.8:

2 (3:14)(0:196)2
Awire = D 4 = 4 = 0:03017 2 in (6.22-a)
Atotal = (4)cables(26; 474)wires/cable(0:03017) 2 =wire = 3; 200 (6.22-b)
in in
2
Central Span = H = (220; 000) = 68:75

A (3; 200) 2 in
k
ksi (6.22-c)
ss T ss (262; 500) 2 = 82
Side Span Tower tower = tower = in
(6.22-d)
A (3; 200) 2
ksi
in
ss T ss (247; 000) 2 = 77:2

Side Span Anchor tower = anchor A = (3; 200) 2 in
in
ksi (6.22-e)
Draft
73.4 ksi 81.9 ksi
68.75 ksi
77.2 ksi
Figure 6.8: Cable Stresses
28 If the cables were to be anchored to a concrete block, the volume of the block should be at least equal
to V = (112;000)k (1;000) = = 747; 000 3 or a cube of approximately 91 ft
150 = 3
lbs ft
lbs k
ft
29The deck, for all practical purposes can be treated as a continuous beam supported by elastic springs
with stiness K = AL=E (where L is the length of the supporting cable). This is often idealized as
a beam on elastic foundations, and the resulting shear and moment diagrams for this idealization are
shown in Fig. 6.9.
K=AL/E
Shear
Moment
Figure 6.9: Deck Idealization, Shear and Moment Diagrams

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Chapter 7
A BRIEF HISTORY OF
STRUCTURAL ARCHITECTURE
If I have been able to see a little farther than some others,
it was because I stood on the shoulders of giants.
Sir Isaac Newton
1 More than any other engineering discipline, Architecture/Mechanics/Structures is the proud outcome
of a of a long and distinguished history. Our profession, second oldest, would be better appreciated if
we were to develop a sense of our evolution.
7.1 Before the Greeks

2 Throughout antiquity, structural engineering existing as an art rather than a science. No record exists
of any rational consideration, either as to the strength of structural members or as to the behavior of
structural materials. The builders were guided by rules of thumbs and experience, which were passed from
generation to generation, guarded by secrets of the guild, and seldom supplemented by new knowledge.
Despite this, structures erected before Galileo are by modern standards quite phenomenal (pyramids,
Via Appia, aqueducs, Colisseums, Gothic cathedrals to name a few).
3 The rst structural engineer in history seems to have been Imhotep, one of only two commoners to be
deied. He was the builder of the step pyramid of Sakkara about 3,000 B.C., and yielded great in uence
over ancient Egypt.
4 Hamurrabi's code in Babylonia (1750 BC) included among its 282 laws penalties for those \architects"
whose houses collapsed, Fig. 7.1.
7.2 Greeks
5 The greek philosopher Pythagoras (born around 582 B.C.) founded his famous school, which was
primarily a secret religious society, at Crotona in southern Italy. At his school he allowed neither
textbooks nor recording of notes in lectures, on pain of death. He taught until the age of 95, and is
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7{2 A BRIEF HISTORY OF STRUCTURAL ARCHITECTURE
228. If a builder build a house for some one and complete it, he shall
give him a fee of two shekels in money for each sar of surface.
229 If a builder build a house for some one, and does not construct it
properly, and the house which he built fall in and kill its owner, then
that builder shall be put to death.
230. If it kill the son of the owner the son of that builder shall be put to
death.
231. If it kill a slave of the owner, then he shall pay slave for slave to
the owner of the house.
232. If it ruin goods, he shall make compensation for all that has been
ruined, and inasmuch as he did not construct properly this house which
he built and it fell, he shall re-erect the house from his own means.
233. If a builder build a house for some one, even though he has not yet
completed it; if then the walls seem toppling, the builder must make the
walls solid from his own means.
Figure 7.1: Hamurrabi's Code
reported to have coined the term mathematics which means literally the \science of learning" (and also
the word philosopher meaning \one who loves wisdom").
6 Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) was Dean of the Lyceum, a college just outside the city gates of Athens,
and was a man of universal ability. He is credited with having written in more than 25 dierent elds
of knowledge. One of the most in uential men of early civilization.
7 A pupil of Aristotle was Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.) who founded the city of Alexandria
in 323. Upon his death, one of his generals Ptolemy I became Pharaoh and established a library.
The library of Alexandria was founded with the private library of Aristotle as a nucleus, and later
became the largest of the ancient world, containing about 700,000 scrolls. Many of these scrolls were
subsequently brought to the attention of the western world through translations by the arabs.
8 Alexandria was also the seat of the rst university (with a reported enrollment of 14,000 students),
and its rst professor of geometry was Euclid (315-250 B.C.).
9 The greatest of the Greeks was Archimedes (287-212) who was one of the greatest physicist of the
ancient world and one of its greatest mathematician, Fig. 7.2. He is considered by many as the founder
of mechanics because of his treatise \On Equilibrium". He introduced the concept of center of gravity.
He refused to write about \practical stu" such as machines, catapults, spiral pumps, and others. It
was one such invention (the lens) which kept the Roman armies at bay outside Syracuse for three years.
When the city fell, he was supposed to have had his life spared. But the circumstances of his subsequent
death are obscure. By some accounts he was killed by an ignorant soldier who disobeyed orders, and by
other he was slain because he was too busy solving a mathematical problem to appear in front of the
Roman consul and conqueror of Syracuse.

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7.3 Romans 7{3
Figure 7.2: Archimed
7.3 Romans
10 Science made much less progress under the Romans than under the Greeks. The Romans apparently
were more practical, and were not as interested in abstract thinking though they were excellent ghters
and builders.
11 As the roman empire expanded, the Romans built great roads (some of them still in use) such as the
Via Appia, Cassia, Aurelia; Also they built great bridges (such as the third of a mile bridge over the
Rhine built by Caesars), and stadium (Colliseum).
12 One of the most notable Roman construction was the Pantheon, Fig. 7.3. It is the best-preserved
Figure 7.3: Pantheon

major edice of ancient Rome and one of the most signicant buildings in architectural history. In
shape it is an immense cylinder concealing eight piers, topped with a dome and fronted by a rectangular
colonnaded porch. The great vaulted dome is 43 m (142 ft) in diameter, and the entire structure is
lighted through one aperture, called an oculus, in the center of the dome. The Pantheon was erected by
the Roman emperor Hadrian between AD 118 and 128.
13 Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (70?-25 BC) was a Roman architect and engineer. He was an artillery
engineer in the service of the rst Roman emperor, Augustus. His Ten Books on Architecture (Vitruvius
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1960) is the oldest surviving work on the subject and consists of dissertations on a wide variety of
subjects relating to architecture, engineering, sanitation, practical hydraulics, acoustic vases, and the
like. Much of the material appears to have been taken from earlier extinct treatises by Greek architects.
Vitruvius's writings have been studied ever since the Renaissance as a thesaurus of the art of classical
Roman architecture, Fig. 7.4.
Figure 7.4: From Vitruvius Ten Books on Architecture, (Vitruvius 1960)
7.4 The Medieval Period (477-1492)

14 This period, also called the Dark Ages, was marked by a general decline of civilization throughout
Europe following the decline and fall of the western Roman Empire.
15 The eastern Roman Empire on the other hand was to continue, and the center of Greek life had by
then been transferred to Constantinople. This city exerted great in uence throughout Asia Minor.
16 Hagia Sophia, also Church of the Holy Wisdom, Fig. 7.5, was the most famous Byzantine structure
in Constantinople (now Istanbul). Built (532-37) by Emperor Justinian I, its huge size and daring
technical innovations make it one of the world's key monuments. The size of its dome though, 112 ft,
was nevertheless smaller than the one of the Pantheon in Rome.
17 During that period, the Arabs carried the torch of knowledge, gave birth to algebra, translated some
of the great books of the Library of Alexandria.
18 Architecture, was the most important and original art form during the Gothic period, (Anon. xx). The
principal structural characteristics of Gothic architecture arose out of medieval masons' eorts to solve
the problems associated with supporting heavy masonry ceiling vaults over wide spans. The problem was
that the heavy stonework of the traditional arched barrel vault and the groin vault exerted a tremendous
downward and outward pressure that tended to push the walls upon which the vault rested outward,

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7.5 The Renaissance 7{5
Figure 7.5: Hagia Sophia
thus collapsing them. A building's vertical supporting walls thus had to be made extremely thick and
heavy in order to contain the barrel vault's outward thrust.
Medieval masons solved this dicult problem about 1120 with a number of brilliant innovations.
First and foremost they developed a ribbed vault, in which arching and intersecting stone ribs support
a vaulted ceiling surface that is composed of mere thin stone panels. This greatly reduced the weight
(and thus the outward thrust) of the ceiling vault, and since the vault's weight was now carried at
discrete points (the ribs) rather than along a continuous wall edge, separate widely spaced vertical piers
to support the ribs could replace the continuous thick walls. The round arches of the barrel vault were
replaced by pointed (Gothic) arches which distributed thrust in more directions downward from the
topmost point of the arch.
Since the combination of ribs and piers relieved the intervening vertical wall spaces of their supportive
function, these walls could be built thinner and could even be opened up with large windows or other
glazing. A crucial point was that the outward thrust of the ribbed ceiling vaults was carried across the
outside walls of the nave, rst to an attached outer buttress and then to a freestanding pier by means
of a half arch known as a ying buttress. The ying buttress leaned against the upper exterior of the
nave (thus counteracting the vault's outward thrust), crossed over the low side aisles of the nave, and
terminated in the freestanding buttress pier, which ultimately absorbed the ceiling vault's thrust.
These elements enabled Gothic masons to build much larger and taller buildings than their Ro-
manesque predecessors and to give their structures more complicated ground plans. The skillful use of
ying buttresses made it possible to build extremely tall, thin-walled buildings whose interior structural
system of columnar piers and ribs reinforced an impression of soaring verticality.
19 Vilet-Le-Duc classical book, (le Duc 1977) provided an in depth study of Gothic architecture.
7.5 The Renaissance

20 During the Renaissance there was a major revival of interest in science and art.

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7.5.1 Leonardo da Vinci 1452-1519
21 Leonardo da Vinci was the most outstanding personality of that period (and of human civilization
for that matter). He was not only a great artist (Mona Lisa), but also a great scientist and engineer.
22 He did not write books, but much information was found in his notebooks, one the most famous
(Codex Leicester) was recently purchased by Bill Gates whose company Corbis made a CD-ROM from
it.
23 He was greatly interested in mechanics, (Timoshenko 1982), and in one of his notes he states
\Mechanics is the Paradise of mathematical science because here we come to the fruits of
mathematics."
24 He was the rst to explore concepts of mechanics, since Archimedes, using a scientic approach.
He applied the principle of virtual displacements to analyze various systems of pulleys and levers. He
appears to have developped a correct idea of the thrust produced by an arch.
25 In one of his manuscripts there is a sketch of two members on which a vertical load Q is acting and
the question is asked: What forces are needed at a and b to have equilibrium? (From the dotted line
parallelogram, in the sketch, it can be concluded that he had the right answer).
26 Leonardo also studied the strength of structural materials experimentally. He tried to determine the
tensile strength of an iron wire of dierent length (size eect).
27 He also studied the load carrying capacity of a simply supported uniformly loaded beam and concluded
that \the strength of the beam supported at both ends varies inversely as the length and directly as the
width" (is this correct? how about the depth of the beam?).
28 For a cantilevered beam he stated
\If a beam 2 braccia long supports 100 libre, a beam 1 braccia long will support 200"
Finally, Leonardo brie y studied the strength of columns and found that
\it varies inversely as its length, but directly as some ratio of its cross section."
29 Leonardo's was the rst indeed to attempt to apply statics in nding the forces acting in members of
structures, friction and the rst to perform experiments to determine the strength of structural materials.
30 Interestingly, here is Leonardo's denition of force, (Penvenuto 1991)
\I say that force is a spiritual virtue, an invisible power, which, through accidental exterior
violence, is caused by motion and placed and infused into bodies which are [thus] removed
and deviated from their natural use, giving to such virtue an active life of marvelous power".
31 Unfortunatly, these important ndings, were buried in his notes, and engineers in the fteenth and
sixteenth centuries continued, as in the Roman era, to x dimensions of structural elements by relying
on experience and judgment.
7.5.2 Brunelleschi 1377-1446

32 Brunelleschi was a Florentine architect and one of the initiators of the Italian Renaissance. His
revival of classical forms and his championing of an architecture based on mathematics, proportion, and
perspective make him a key artistic gure in the transition from the Middle Ages to the modern era.
Draft
33 He was born in Florence in 1377 and received his early training as an artisan in silver and gold. In 1401
he entered, and lost, the famous design competition for the bronze doors of the Florence Baptistery. He
then turned to architecture and in 1418 received the commission to execute the dome of the unnished
Gothic Cathedral of Florence, also called the Duomo. The dome, Fig. 7.6 a great innovation both
Figure 7.6: Florence's Cathedral Dome

artistically and technically, consists of two octagonal vaults, one inside the other. Its shape was dictated
by its structural needs one of the rst examples of architectural functionalism. Brunelleschi made a
design feature of the necessary eight ribs of the vault, carrying them over to the exterior of the dome,
where they provide the framework for the dome's decorative elements, which also include architectural
reliefs, circular windows, and a beautifully proportioned cupola. This was the rst time that a dome
created the same strong eect on the exterior as it did on the interior.
34 Completely dierent from the emotional, elaborate Gothic mode that still prevailed in his time,
Brunelleschi's style emphasized mathematical rigor in its use of straight lines, at planes, and cubic
spaces. This set the tone for many of the later buildings of the Florentine Renaissance.
35 His in uence on his contemporaries and immediate followers was very strong and has been felt even
in the 20th century, when modern architects came to revere him as the rst great exponent of rational
architecture.
7.5.3 Alberti 1404-1472
36Alberti was an Italian architect and writer, who was the rst important art theorist of the Re-
naissance and among the rst to design buildings in a pure classical style based on a study of ancient
Roman architecture.

Draft
37 He was born in Genoa, the son of a Florentine noble. He received the best education available in
the 15th century. He was procient in Greek, mathematics, and the natural sciences. As a poet, a
philosopher, and one of the rst organists of his day, Alberti greatly in uenced his contemporaries.
38 Alberti's architectural training began with the study of antique monuments during his rst stay in
Rome. Subsequently he joined the papal court in Florence, where he became intensely involved with the
cultural life of the city. Probably at this time he became familiar with the mathematical laws of linear
perspective, which Brunelleschi had studied.
39 Alberti took took an active part in the literary life of Florence and championed the literary use of
Italian rather than the use of Latin.
40 In the late 1440s, Alberti began to work as an architect. Although his buildings rank among the best
architecture of the Renaissance, he was a theoretical rather than a practical architect. He furnished
the plans of his buildings but never supervised their construction. His De Re Aedicatoria (1485) was
the rst printed work on architecture of the Renaissance. He also wrote books on sculpture, the family,
government, and literature.
7.5.4 Palladio 1508-1580

41 Andrea Palladio was one of the most in uential architects in European history. He was born in
Padua, and trained as a stonemason, he later joined the poet Trissino who took him to Rome, where
Palladio studied and measured Roman architectural ruins; he also absorbed the treatises of Vitruvius.
One outcome of these studies was Palladio's Antiquities of Rome (1554) (Palladio 19xx), the principal
guidebook to Roman ruins for the next two centuries.
42 In and near Vicenza he designed many residences and public buildings. The best known of these
are the Barbarano, Chieregati, Tiene, Porto, and Valmarana palaces and the Villa Capri, or Villa
Rotunda. Although the historical antecedents of Palladio's style are the classically Roman-in uenced
High Renaissance works of architects such as the Italian Donato Bramante, Palladio's own use of classical
motifs came through his direct, extensive study of Roman architecture. He freely recombined elements
of Roman buildings as suggested by his own building sites and by contemporary needs, Fig. 7.7 At
the same time he shared the Renaissance concern for harmonious proportion, and his facades have a
noteworthy simplicity almost austerity and repose.
43 Palladio was the author of an important scientic treatise on architecture, I Quattro Libri dell'Architettura,
(Palladio 19xx) which was widely translated and in uenced many later architects. Its precise rules and
formulas were widely utilized, especially in England, and were basic to the Palladian style, adopted
by Inigo Jones, Christopher Wren, and other English architects, which preceded and in uenced the
neoclassical architecture of the Georgian Style.
7.5.5 Stevin
44 Stevin, Fig. 7.8, was a Dutch mathematician and engineer who founded the science of hydrostatics
by showing that the pressure exerted by a liquid upon a given surface depends on the height of the liquid
and the area of the surface.
45 Stevin was a bookkeeper in Antwerp, then a clerk in the tax oce at Brugge. After this he moved to
Leiden where he rst attended the Latin school, then he entered the University of Leiden in 1583 (at the
age of 35). While quartermaster in the Dutch army, Stevin invented a way of ooding the lowlands in
the path of an invading army by opening selected sluices in dikes. He was an outstanding engineer who

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Figure 7.7: Palladio's Villa Rotunda
Figure 7.8: Stevin

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built windmills, locks and ports. He advised the Prince Maurice of Nassau on building fortications for
the war against Spain.
46 The author of 11 books, Stevin made signicant contributions to trigonometry, geography, fortica-
tion, and navigation. Inspired by Archimedes, Stevin wrote important works on mechanics. In his book
De Beghinselen der Weeghconst in 1586 appears the theorem of the triangle of forces giving impetus to
statics. In 1586 (3 years before Galileo) he reported that dierent weights fell a given distance in the
same time.
7.5.6 Galileo 1564-1642
47Galilei Galileo was born in Pisa in 1564. He received his early education in Latin, Greek and logic
near Florence, Fig. 7.9. Just as his father had played an important role in the musical revolution
Figure 7.9: Galileo

from medieval polyphony to harmonic modulation, Galileo came to see Aristotelian physical theology as
limiting scientic inquiry.
48 In 1581 he entered the University of Pisa to study medicine, but he soon turned to philosophy and
mathematics, leaving the university without a degree in 1585. For a time he tutored privately and wrote
on hydrostatics and natural motions, but he did not publish.
49 In 1589 he became professor of mathematics at Pisa, where he is reported to have shown his students
the error of Aristotle's belief that speed of fall is proportional to weight, by dropping two objects of
dierent weight simultaneously from the Leaning Tower, thus modern dynamics was born. His contract
was not renewed in 1592, probably because he contradicted Aristotelian professors. The same year, he
was appointed to the chair of mathematics at the University of Padua, where he remained until 1610.
50 In Padua he achieved great fame, and lecture halls capable of containing 2,000 students from all
over Europe were used. In 1592 he wrote Della Scienza Meccanica in which various problems of statics
were treated using the principle of virtual displacement. He subsequently became interested in
astronomy and built one of the rst telescope through which he saw Jupiter and became an ardent
proponent of the Copernican theory (which stated that the planets circle the sun as opposed to the
Aristotelian and Ptolemaic assumptions that it was the sun which was circling Earth). This theory
being condemned by the church, he received a semiocial warning to avoid theology and limit himself
to physical reasoning. When he published his books dealing with the two ways of regarding the universe
(which clearly favored the Copernican theory) he was called to Rome by the Inquisition, condemned and
had to read his recantation (At the end of his process he murmured the famous e pur se muove).
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51 When he was almost seventy years old, his life shattered by the Inquisition, he retired to his villa
near Florence and wrote his nal book, Discourses Concerning Two New Sciences, (Galilei 1974), Fig.
7.10. His rst science was the study of the forces that hold objects together -the dialogue taking place
Figure 7.10: Discourses Concerning Two New Sciences, Cover Page

in a shipyard, triggered by observations of craftsmen building the Venetian eet. His second science
concerned local motions - laws governing the trajectory of projectiles. A portion of the book dealing
with the mechanical properties of structural materials and with the strength of beams. Strength of
Materials as a discipline was born.
52 He observed that if we make structures geometrically similar, then with increase of the dimensions
they become weaker and weaker, One cannot reason from the small to the large, because many mechanical
devices succeed on a small scale that cannot exist in great size.
53 It is interesting to note that when Galileo studied the strength of a cantilevered (wooden) beam with
an applied load at the end, Fig. 7.11, he failed to properly understand the exact internal stress/strain
Figure 7.11: \Galileo's Beam"

distribution. He determined that the stress is constant throughout the cross section (whereas as we
know it varies linearly).
54 Galileo's lifelong struggle to free scientic inquiry from restriction by philosophical and theological
interference stands beyond science. Since the full publication of Galileo's trial documents in the 1870s,
Draft
entire responsibility for Galileo's condemnation has customarily been placed on the Roman Catholic
church. This conceals the role of the philosophy professors who rst persuaded theologians to link
Galileo's science with heresy. An investigation into the astronomer's condemnation, calling for its rever-
sal, was opened in 1979 by Pope John Paul II. In October 1992 a papal commission acknowledged the
Vatican's error.
7.6 Pre Modern Period, Seventeenth Century

7.6.1 Hooke, 1635-1703
55 Hooke was best known for his study of elasticity but also original contributions to many other elds
of science.
56 Hooke was born on the Isle of Wight and educated at the University of Oxford. He served as assistant
to the English physicist Robert Boyle and assisted him in the construction of the air pump. In 1662
Hooke was appointed curator of experiments of the Royal Society and served in this position until his
death. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1663 and was appointed Gresham Professor of
Geometry at Oxford in 1665. After the Great Fire of London in 1666, he was appointed surveyor of
London, and he designed many buildings.
57 Hooke anticipated some of the most important discoveries and inventions of his time but failed to carry
many of them through to completion. He formulated the theory of planetary motion as a problem in
mechanics, and grasped, but did not develop mathematically, the fundamental theory on which Newton
formulated the law of gravitation.
58 His most important contribution was published in 1678 in the paper De Potentia Restitutiva. It
contained results of his experiments with elastic bodies, and was the rst paper in which the elastic
properties of material was discused, Fig. 7.12.
Figure 7.12: Experimental Set Up Used by Hooke
\Take a wire string of 20, or 30, or 40 ft long, and fasten the upper part thereof to a nail,
and to the other end fasten a Scale to receive the weights: Then with a pair of compasses take
the distance of the bottom of the scale from the ground or oor underneath, and set down the
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7.6 Pre Modern Period, Seventeenth Century 7{13
said distance,then put inweights into the said scale and measure the several stretchings of the
said string, and set them down. Then compare the several strtchings of the said string, and
you will nd that they will always bear the same proportions one to the other that the weights
do that made them".
This became Hooke's Law = E".
59 Because he was concerned about patent rights to his invention, he did not publish his law when rst
discovered it in 1660. Instead he published it in the form of an anagram \ceiinosssttuu" in 1676 and
the solution was given in 1678. Ut tensio sic vis (at the time the two symbos u and v were employed
interchangeably to denote either the vowel u or the consonant v), i.e. extension varies directly with force.
7.6.2 Newton, 1642-1727
60 Born on christmas day in the year of Galileo's death, Newton, Fig. 7.13 was Professor of Mathematics
Figure 7.13: Isaac Newton

at Cambridge university.
61 In 1684 Newton's solitude was interrupted by a visit from Edmund Halley, the British astronomer and
mathematician, who discussed with Newton the problem of orbital motion. Newton had also pursued
the science of mechanics as an undergraduate, and at that time he had already entertained basic notions
about universal gravitation. As a result of Halley's visit, Newton returned to these studies.
62 During the following two and a half years, Newton established the modern science of dynamics by
formulating his three laws of motion. Newton applied these laws to Kepler's laws of orbital motion
formulated by the German astronomer Johannes Kepler and derived the law of universal gravitation.
Newton is probably best known for discovering universal gravitation, which explains that all bodies
in space and on earth are aected by the force called gravity. He published this theory in his book
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica or simply Principia, in 1687, Fig. 7.14. This book
marked a turning point in the history of science.
63 The Principia's appearance also involved Newton in an unpleasant episode with the English philoso-
pher and physicist Robert Hooke. In 1687 Hooke claimed that Newton had stolen from him a central
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Figure 7.14: Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Cover Page
idea of the book: that bodies attract each other with a force that varies inversely as the square of their
distance. However, most historians do not accept Hooke's charge of plagiarism.
64 Newton also engaged in a violent dispute with Leibniz over priority in the invention of calculus.
Newton used his position as president of the Royal Society to have a committee of that body investigate
the question, and he secretly wrote the committee's report, which charged Leibniz with deliberate
plagiarism. Newton also compiled the book of evidence that the society published. The eects of the
quarrel lingered nearly until his death in 1727.
65 In addition to science, Newton also showed an interest in alchemy, mysticism, and theology. Many
pages of his notes and writings particularly from the later years of his career are devoted to these topics.
However, historians have found little connection between these interests and Newton's scientic work.
7.6.3 Bernoulli Family 1654-1782

66 The Bernouilli family originally lived in Antwerp, but because of religious persecution, they left
Holland and settled in Basel. Near the end of the seventeenth century this family produced outstanding
mathematicians for more than a hundred years. Jacob and John were brothers. John was the father of
Daniel, and Euler his pupil.
67 Whereas Galileo (and Mariotte) investigated the strength of beams (Strength), Jacob Bernoulli (1654-
1705) made calculation of their de ection (Stiness) and did not contribute to our knowledge of physical
properties. Jacob Bernouilli is also credited in being the rst to to have assumed that a bf plane section
of a beam remains plane during bending, but assumed rotation to be with respect to the lower ber
(as Galileo did) and this resulted in an erroneous solution (where is the exact location of the axis of
rotation?). He also showed that the curvature at any point along a beam is proportional to the curvature
of the de ection curve.
68 Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) rst postulated that a force can be decomposed into its equivalent
(\Potentiis quibuscunque possunt substitui earundem aequivalentes". Another hypothesis dened the
sum of two \conspiring" forces applied to the same point. According to Bernoulli, this \necessary truth"
follows from the metaphysical principle that the whole equalts the sum of its parts, (Penvenuto 1991).

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7.6 Pre Modern Period, Seventeenth Century 7{15
7.6.4 Euler 1707-1783
69 Leonhard Euler was born in Basel and early on caught the attention of John Bernoulli whose
teaching was attracting young mathematicians from all over Europe, Fig. 7.15. He obtained his Master
Figure 7.15: Leonhard Euler

at age 16, and before the age of 20 won a competition from the French Academy of Sciences. At age 20
he moved to the Russian Academy of Sciences in St Petersburg along with the two sons of John Bernoulli
(Nicholas and Daniel). He was appointed professor of physics in 1730 and professor of mathematics in
1733. In 1741 he became professor of mathematics at the Berlin Academy of Sciences at the urging of
the Prussian king Frederick the Great. Euler returned to St. Petersburg in 1766, remaining there until
his death.
70 Although hampered from his late 20s by partial loss of vision and in later life by almost total blind-
ness, Euler produced a number of important mathematical works and hundreds of mathematical and
scientic memoirs. In his Introduction to the Analysis of Innities, Euler gave the rst full analytical
treatment of algebra, the theory of equations, trigonometry, and analytical geometry. In this work he
treated the series expansion of functions and formulated the rule that only convergent innite series can
properly be evaluated. He also discussed three-dimensional surfaces and proved that the conic sections
are represented by the general equation of the second degree in two dimensions. Other works dealt with
calculus, including the calculus of variations, number theory, imaginary numbers, and determinate and
indeterminate algebra. Euler, although principally a mathematician, made contributions to astronomy,
mechanics, optics, and acoustics.
71 In Russia he wrote a famous book in mechanics in which instead of applying the geometrical methods
used by Newton, he introduced analytical methods.
72 As a mathematician, Euler was interested principally in the geometrical forms of elastic curves. He
approached problems from the point of view of variational calculus and in the introduction of his book
Methodus inveniendi lineas curva ... he stated
Since the fabric of the universe is most perfect, and is the work of a most wise Creator, nothing
whatsover takes place in the universe in which some relation o maximum an minimum does
not appear. Therefore there is absolutely no doubt that every eect in the universe can be
explained as satisfactorily from nal causes, by the aid of the method of maxima and minima,
as it can from the eective causes themselves...
73 Euler obtained a near exact expression for the de ection of a cantilever subjected to a point load, and
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for the buckling load of a column.
7.7 The pre-Modern Period; Coulomb and Navier

74 Coulomb (1736-1806) was a French military engineer, Fig. 7.16, as was the rst to publish the correct
Figure 7.16: Coulomb

analysis of the ber stresses in exed beam with rectangular cross section (Sur une Application des
Regles de maximis et minimis a quelques problemes de statique relatifs a l'architecture in 1773). He used
Hooke's law, placed the neutral axis in its exact position, developed the equilibrium of forces on the
cross section with external forces, and then correcly determined the stresses. He also worked on friction
(\Coulomb friction") and on earth pressure.
75 Coulomb did also research on magnetism, friction, and electricity. In 1777 he invented the torsion
balance for measuring the force of magnetic and electrical attraction. With this invention, Coulomb
was able to formulate the principle, now known as Coulomb's law, governing the interaction between
electric charges. In 1779 Coulomb published the treatise Theorie des machines simples (Theory of
Simple Machines), an analysis of friction in machinery. After the war Coulomb came out of retirement
and assisted the new government in devising a metric system of weights and measures. The unit of
quantity used to measure electrical charges, the coulomb, was named for him.
76 Navier (1785-1836) Navier was educated at the Ecole Polytechnique and became a professor there
in 1831. Whereas the famous memoir of Coulomb (1773) contained the correct solution to numerous
important problems in mechanics of materials, it took engineers more than forty years to understand
them correctly and to use them in practical application
77 In 1826 he published his Le cons (lecture notes) which is considered the rst great textbook in me-
chanics for engineering. In it he developed the rst general theory of elastic solids as well as the rst
systematic treatment of the theory of structures.
78 It should be noted that no clear division existed between the theory of elasticity and the theory
of structures until about the middle of the nineteenth century (Coulomb and Navier would today be
considered professional structural engineers).
79 Three other structural engineers who pioneered the development of the theory of elasticity from that
point on were Lame, Clapeyron and de Saint-Venant. Lam'e published the rst book on elasticity
in 1852, and credited Clapeyron for the theorem of equality between external and internal work. de
Saint-Venant was perhaps the greatest elasticians who according to Southwell \... combined with high
mathematical ability an essentially practical outlook which gave direction to all his work". In 1855-6 he
published his classical work on torsion, exure, and shear stresses.

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7.8 The Modern Period (1857-Present) 7{17
7.8 The Modern Period (1857-Present)
7.8.1 Structures/Mechanics
80 From 1857 the evolution of a comprehensive theory of structures proceeded at astonishing rate now
that the basic and requisite principles had been determined.
81 Great contributors in that period include: Maxwell (rst analysis of indeterminate structures), Cul-
mann (graphics statics), Mohr (Mohr's circle, indeterminate analysis), Castigliano (1st and 2nd theo-
rems), Cross (moment distribution), Southwell (relaxation method).
7.8.2 Eiel Tower
82 The Eiel Tower was designed and built by the French civil engineer Alexandre Gustave Eiel for
the Paris World's Fair of 1889. The tower, without its modern broadcasting antennae, is 300 m (984
ft) high. The lower section consists of four immense arched legs set on masonry piers. The legs curve
inward until they unite in a single tapered tower. Platforms, each with an observation deck, are at three
levels; on the rst is also a restaurant.
83 The tower, constructed of about 6300 metric tons (about 7000 tons) of iron, has stairs and elevators.
A meteorological station, a radio communications station, and a television transmission antenna, as well
as a suite of rooms that were used by Eiel, are located near the top of the tower.
7.8.3 Sullivan 1856-1924

84 Sullivan wan an American architect, whose brilliant early designs for steel-frame skyscraper construc-
tion led to the emergence of the skyscraper as the distinctive American building type. Through his own
work, especially his commercial structures, and as the founder of what is now known as the Chicago
school of architects, he exerted an enormous in uence on 20th-century American architecture. His most
famous pupil was the architect Frank Lloyd Wright, who acknowledged Sullivan as his master.
85 After studying architecture at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, he spent a year in Paris
at the E cole des Beaux-Arts and in the oce of a French architect. Settling in Chicago in 1875, he
was employed as a draftsman, then in 1881 formed a partnership with Dankmar Adler. Together they
produced more than 100 buildings.
86 Adler secured the clients and handled the engineering and acoustical problems, while Sullivan con-
cerned himself with the architectural designs. One of their earliest and most distinguished joint enter-
prises was the ten-story Auditorium Building (1886-89) in Chicago. This famous showplace incorporated
a hotel, an oce building, and a theater renowned for its superb acoustics. The Wainwright Building,
also ten stories high, with a metal frame, was completed in 1891 in Saint Louis, Missouri. In 1895 the
Sullivan-Adler partnership was dissolved, leading to a decline in Sullivan's practice. The Carson Pirie
Scott (originally Schlesinger and Meyer) Department Store, Chicago, regarded by many as Sullivan's
masterpiece, was completed in 1904.
87 His famous axiom, Form follows function became the touchstone for many in his profession. Sul-
livan, however, did not apply it literally. He meant that an architect should consider the purpose of the
building as a starting point, not as a rigidly limiting stricture.
88 He also had tremendous respect for the natural world which played an enormous role in forging his
theories about architecture (he spent all of his rst summers on his grandparents' farm in Massachusetts
where he developed this love and respect for nature) expressed in his Autobiography of an Idea), 1924).

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7.8.4 Roebling, 1806-1869
89 John Augustus Roebling was an American civil engineer, who was one of the pioneers in the
construction of suspension bridges. He was born in Germany, educated at the Royal Polytechnic School
of Berlin and immigrated to the States in 1831.
90 In his rst job he was employed by the Pennsylvania Railroad Corp. to survey its route across the
Allegheny Mountains between Harrisburg and Pittsburgh. He then demonstrated the practicability of
steel cables in bridge construction and in 1841 established at Saxonburg the rst factory to manufacture
steel-wire rope in the U.S.
91 Roebling utilized steel cables in the construction of numerous suspension bridges and is generally
considered one of the pioneers in the eld of suspension-bridge construction. He built railroad suspension
bridges over the Ohio and Niagara rivers and completed plans for the Brooklyn Bridge shortly before
his death. Roebling was the author of Long and Short Span Railway Bridges (1869).
7.8.5 Maillart
From (Billington 1973)
92 Robert Maillart was born on February 6, 1872, in Bern, Switzerland, where his father, a Belgian
citizen, was a banker. He studied civil engineering at the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich and
graduated in 1894. Ironically, one of his lowest grades was in bridge design, even though he is regarded
today as one of the half dozen greatest bridge designers of the twentieth century.
93 For eight years following his graduation, he worked with dierent civil engineering organizations. In
1902, he founded his own rm for design and construction; thereafter, his business grew rapidly and
expanded as far as Russia and Spain. In the summer of 1914, he took his wife and three children to
Russia. Since the World War prevented their return to Switzerland, Maillart stayed and worked in
Russia until 1919, when his business was liquidated by the Revolution. Forced to ee, he returned to
Switzerland penniless and lonely, his wife having died in Russia.
94 Because of these misfortunes Maillart felt unable to take up the construction business again and
henceforth concentrated on design alone. He opened an oce in Geneva in 1919 and branches in Bern
and Zurich in 1924.
95 During the twenties he began to develop and modify his ideas of bridge design; and from 1930, when
the Salginatobel and Landquart Bridges were completed, until his death in 1940, he produced over
thirty bridge designs of extraordinary originality. Unfortunately, no Swiss municipality would accept his
designs for prominent urban locations.
96 In 1936, he was elected an honorary member of the Royal institute of British Architects (R.I.B.A.)
although he had never ocially acted as architect on any project. The 1941 rst edition of Space, Time
and Architecture by art historian Siegfried Giedion introduced Maillart to a wide public in the U.S.A.
Finally, Max Bill's 1949 book, Robert Maillart, with its photographs and commentary on nearly all
Maillart's bridges powerfully presented him as an artist of rst rank.
7.8.6 Nervi, 1891-1979

97 Pier Luigi Nervi was an Italian architect and engineer, whose technical innovations, particularly
in the use of reinforced concrete, made possible aesthetically pleasing solutions to dicult structural
problems.

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98 He attended the Civil Engineering School in Bologna and established his own rm in 1920. His rst
major commission (a stadium in Florence, 1932) features cantilevered beams and a daringly exposed
concrete structure. For airplane hangars he used reinforced concrete to cover enormous spans with a
light but strong latticework.
99 Nervi considered himself primarily an engineer and technician, not an architect, and he
strove primarily for strength through form. He maintained that the strong aesthetic appeal of his
buildings was simply a by-product of their structural correctness. His introduction of a versatile new
type of reinforced concrete layers of ne steel mesh sprayed with cement mortar made possible one of his
masterpieces, the Turin Exposition Hall (1949), in which the approximately 76-m (250-ft) corrugated
lattice roof (only about 5 cm thick) creates an immense interior space as dramatic as a cathedral.
100 The best known and most in uential is probably his Palazetto dello Sport (Small Sport Palace, 1960,
Rome), Fig. 7.17. Encircled by Y-shaped supports and topped by a shallow scalloped concrete dome,
Figure 7.17: Nervi's Palazetto Dello Sport

this building has become a paradigm of the 20th-century sports arena.
7.8.7 Khan
Fazlur Khan was born in 1929 in Dacca India, (Anon. xx). After obtaining a B.A. in engineering from
the University of Dacca in 1950, Khan worked as assistant engineer for the India Highway Department
and taught at the University of Dacca. Qualifying for a scholarship in 1952, he enrolled at the Uni-
versity of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana, where he received master's degrees in both applied mechanics
and structural engineering and a Ph.D. in structural engineering. He returned brie y to Pakistan and
won an important position as executive engineer of the Karachi Development Authority. Frustrated by
administrative demands that kept him from design work, however, he returned to the United States and

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joined the prestigious architectural rm of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill in Chicago in 1955, eventually
becoming a partner (1966).
Among his many designs for skyscrapers are Chicago's John Hancock Center (1970) and the Sears
Tower (1973), which are among the world's tallest buildings, and One Shell Plaza in Houston, Texas.
The Sears Tower was his rst skyscraper to employ his "bundled tube" structural system, which consists
of a group of narrow steel cylinders that are clustered together to form a thicker column. The system
was innovative because it minimized the amount of steel needed for high towers, eliminated the need
for internal wind bracing (since the perimeter columns carried the wind loadings), and permitted freer
organization of the interior space.
His later projects included the strikingly dierent Haj Terminal of the King Abdul Aziz International
Airport, Jiddah, Saudi Arabia (1976-81), and King Abdul Aziz University, also in Jiddah (1977-78).
7.8.8 et al.
101To name just a few of the most in uential Architects/Engineers: Menn, Isler, Candella, Torroja,
Johnson, Pei, Calatrava, ...

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NEW ARCHITECTURE
by
Felix Candela
Professor - University of Illinois
Unauthorized reprint from (Billington 1973)
The title of my lecture is New Architecture; but I cannot avoid the feeling that I have not too much
to do with this subject. I don't think I can speak of my work as of any new architecture or even as
architecture at all, and perhaps the same could be said of Maillart's work. But, of course, it all depends
on what you consider architecture and there is not anymore a general consent about the meaning of this
word,
But, anyway, upon discussing this with David Billington, he told me it could be interesting to know
what had been the in uence of Maillart on my development, and all of a sudden I realized that he may
have been one of the strongest in uences at the critical moment in my career in which I was trying to
become a builder of shells.
But let me speak rst about my background, because it may be important to know what impels
people to do things and the circumstances and diculties that they had to deal with in order to achieve
their purposes.
I was trained as an architect with, you may say, quite a backward kind of curriculum, in Madrid
during the thirties. We had only one course in strength of materials, but it was a very good course,
dealing mainly with theory of elasticity and following the classical and rigoristic French tradition. As
you can imagine, most students considered the matter completely useless for their professional practice
and, as it required some knowledge of mathematics, it was very dicult for most of them to pass the
examination. This gave me opportunity to do some private tutoring to my classmates, which was a very
instructive manner to make some money to pay for my studies. As a result, I became more familiar
with the theoretical bases of the current methods of calculation of indeterminate structures. I discovered
later that this modest background made me more knowledgeable on the matter than most practicing
engineers whose training and interest tend to be directed towards mastering the accepted methods of
analysis rather than questioning the basic hypotheses.
Anyway, since I never had a high opinion of myself as an artist, I was more interested in the technical
part of the curriculum and began to read extensively about structures. Among my lectures I found
several French and German papers dealing with shells which were beginning to be in vogue at that time
in Europe. Examples of such structures built in Germany and France could be found in magazines and
Torroja was building the famous roof of the "Fronton Recoletos" in Madrid, with an unusual shape and
a record span.
Shells appeared to be an intriguing challenge for me, and I dreamed about the possibility of building
some in the future. But my lack of experience and my youthful faith in the impressive wisdom displayed in
learned magazines led me to believe that the key to shell design was in complete mathematical calculation,
and I tried, rather unsucessfully, to understand and follow them and to make some sense of their results.
I was not the only one misled and discouraged by the mathematical barrier so cunningly deployed by
German engineers, a clever move which secured them practically an exclusive on the construction of
barrel vaults for more than twenty years, hindering the normal employment of such structures during
the same time.
However, such was my enthusiasm with this mathematical approach that I managed to get a fellowship
to go to Germany, hoping to learn something more from the German professors. But the outbreak of
the Spanish Civil War saved me from such an ordeal. I could not leave the country and ended in Mexico
after three years of military service, with no more baggage than my bare hands and no further addition
to my academic background. After several years of general practice in Mexico, as draftsman, designer
and contractor, I recalled my old fancy with shells and began to collect again papers on the subject.
Whatever I learned from then on was to be the hard way, working alone, with no direct help from any
university or engineering oce. But I am indebted to many people who did help me through their

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writings and Maillart was one of the foremost.
I discovered him in Giedion's Space, Time and Architecture; and then I got Max Bill's book with
its invaluable collection of Maillart's essays. I devoured his articles about "Reinforced Concrete Design
and Calculation" (he was very careful to dierentiate the meaning of such words and to avoid the
more than semantic confusion prevalent nowadays in English-speaking countries)., "The Engineer and
the Authorities" which expresses his position in front of the establishment and "Mass and Quality in
Reinforced Concrete Structures." Very short papers, indeed, but well provided with opinions, something
I could rarely nd in other engineering articles. I learned later that to express personal opinions is
considered bad taste among technical writers. Any discussion should be restricted to insignicant details,
but never touch fundamental dogmas, in a fashion curiously similar to what could be expected of the
councils of the Church or the meetings of any Politbureau.
But my attitude with respect to calculations of reinforced concrete structures was becoming un-
orthodox, being tired perhaps of performing long and tedious routines whose results were not always
meaningful. Therefore, I found Maillart's thoughts delightfully sympathetic and encouraging. If a rebel
was able to produce such beautiful and sound structures there could not be anything wrong with be-
coming also a rebel, which was besides, my only way to break the mystery surrounding shell analysis.
Thus, I started to follow the bibliographic tread and met, through their writings, with Freudenthal,
Johansen, Van der Broek, Kist, Saliger, Kacinczy and so many others who showed me there was more
than a single and infallible manner to approach structural analysis. The discovery of rupture methods,
with their emphasis on simple statics and their bearing on the actual properties of construction materials
and their behavior in the plastic range, allowed me to trust in simplied procedures to understand and
analyze the distribution of stresses in shell structures. It also helped me to get out of my naive belief in
the indisputable truth of the printed word and to start reading with a new critical outlook. No longer did
I need to believe whatever was in print, no matter how high-sounding the name of the author. I could
make my own judgements about what methods of stress analysis were better suited for my practice.
Since I was working practically alone, I could not aord nor had time for complex calculations and
did welcome Maillart's advice that simpler calculations are more reliable than complex ones, especially
for somebody who builds his own structures. This was exactly my case and, since most structures I was
building were of modest scale, I could control what was happening, check the results and conrm the
accuracy of my judgement or correct my mistakes. In a way, I was working with full scale models. I
understand that this was also true of Maillart who in many cases was the actual builder of his designs.
Following the general trend to mess up issues, there has been a lot of speculation about the engineer
as an artist and in some instances, like in the case of Nervi, about the engineer as an architect (as if the
title of architect could confer, per se, artistic ability to its holder); but few people realize that the only
way to be an artist in this dicult specialty of building is to be your own contractor. in countries like
this, where the building industry has been thoroughly and irreversibly fragmented and the responsibility
diluted among so many trades, it may be shocking to think of a contractor as an artist; but it is indeed
the only way to have in your hands the whole set of tools or instruments to perform the forgotten art of
building, to produce "works of art" which, by the way, was the common expression to designate a bridge
in the old French engineering vocabulary.
Implicit in the above statement is the fact that you have to be, besides your own structural designer
and calculator and perhaps your own architect, also your own contractor, a very dicult proposition in
some countries where such mergings of today's disparate professions may even be considered unlawful.
This means, of course, that the price for being the master of your trade is to accept the whole responsi-
bility for the good performance of the structure, and not too many people today would readily endorse
such an awesome commitment. I am not advocating a return to the past; history is an irreversible
process. I am simply stating that the Maillart phenomenom could not happen under today's situation
of the industry.
I like to think, however, that Maillart did not judge himself an artist. As Picasso said of himself "he
was not looking for beauty; he found it". His main concerns must have been eciency and economy of
means, since to be able to build one of his bridges he had to win a bidding competition and prove that

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he could do it cheaper than anybody else. But an ecient and economical structure has not necessarily
to be ugly. Beauty has no price tag and there is never one single solution to an engineering problem.
Therefore, it is always possible to modify the whole or the parts until the ugliness disappears. This
aversion to ugliness is quite the opposite of the task of the professional artist who has to produce beauty
as an obligation or of today's star-architect who has to be original at any cost in each new project.
Maillart's works did not need to be beautiful. This word did not even exist in the practical world
of the serious citizens who had to judge his competitive bids. He achieved a beauty without need or
purpose; just for the pure joy of it. The kind of joy that you can feel also in the works of Haydn or
Vivaldi. They were simply enjoying what they were doing, and so was obviously Maillart.
He did also possess that rare quality, source of artistic creation and of all invention, of being able
to challenge the conventional wisdom and come up with the obvious solution, one, nevertheless, which
nobody could think of before. I can imagine the ts of rage and jealousy of some of his contemporary
colleagues at the sight of one of his bridges (Landquart or Schwandbach), in which the curved route
is supported in a straight arched slab. The problem with this unusual combination - which, of course,
looks perfectly logical after the fact - is that it was very dicult, if not impossible, to analyze with the
methods available at that time. But Maillart would not take any unnecessary risk and rst he tried the
soundness of his approximated calculations in a small example (the Halbkern Bridge) with a span of
only fteen meters. This was his testing model which gave him rm ground from which to extrapolate
at the next opportunity.
I would like to insist at this moment c-n something that everybody knows but which is easily for-
gotten; that all calculations, no matter how sophisticated and complex, can not be more than rough
approximations of the natural phenomenon they try to represent by means of a mathematical model.
The complexity, or even elegance, of such a model bears no relation at all with the degree of approxi-
mation. There is not such a thing as an exact method of structural analysis and, notwithstanding the
popular belief in the letter of the codes, the accuracy of any calculation is still a question of personal
judgement. This fortunate circumstance allows engineering to reach sometimes the highest category of
art, to the despair of dull and in exible technicians.
If I nd something lacking in this commendable conference in memory of one of the greatest engineers
of all times it is that the side of Maillart's personality as a rebel, with his tireless and successful struggle
against the establishment of his times, has not been suciently stressed.

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Chapter 8
Case Study III: MAGAZINI

GENERALI
8.1 Geometry
1 This sotrage house, built by Maillart in Chiasso in 1924, provides a good example of the mariage
between aesthetic and engineering.
2 The most strking feature of the Magazini Generali is not the structure itself, but rather the shape of
its internal supporting frames, Fig. 8.1.
3 The frame can be idealized as a simply supported beam hung from two cantilever column supports.
Whereas the beam itself is a simple structural idealization, the overhang is designed in such a way as to
minimize the net moment to be transmitted to the supports (foundations), Fig. 8.2.
8.2 Loads
4 The load applied on the frame is from the weights of the roof slab, and the frame itself. Given the
space between adjacent frames is 14.7 ft, and that the roof load is 98 , and that the total frame
psf
weight is 13.6 kips, the total uniform load becomes, Fig. 8.3:
qroof = (98) (14:7) = 1:4
psf ft k/ft (8.1-a)
(13:6) = 0:2
qframe = (63 k
(8.1-b)
:6) ft
k/ft
qtotal = 1:4 + 0:2 = 1.6 k/ft (8.1-c)

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8{2 Case Study III: MAGAZINI GENERALI
HINGE IDEALIZATION
OF THIN SECTIONS
ACTUAL FRAME
ABSTRACTION OF MID SECTIONAS A SIMPLE BEAM
9.2 ft
63.6 ft
Figure 8.1: Magazzini Generali; Overall Dimensions, (Billington and Mark 1983)
B
P
MB =B*d1
MP =P*d 2
d2 d1
MR=MB -M P
Figure 8.2: Magazzini Generali; Support System, (Billington and Mark 1983)

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8.3 Reactions 8{3
q ROOF = 1.4 k/ft + q FRAME = 0.2 k/ft
q ROOF = 1.4 k/ft
+ q FRAME = 0.2 k/ft
q TOTAL = 1.6 k/ft
Figure 8.3: Magazzini Generali; Loads (Billington and Mark 1983)
8.3 Reactions
5 Reactions for the beam are determined rst taking advantage of symmetry, Fig. 8.4:
W = (1:6) (63:6) = 102
k/ft ft k (8.2-a)
R = W2 = 102
2 = 51 k (8.2-b)
We note that these reactions are provided by the internal shear forces.
q TOTAL = 1.6 k/ft
63.6 ft
51 k 51 k
Figure 8.4: Magazzini Generali; Beam Reactions, (Billington and Mark 1983)
8.4 Forces
6 The internal forces are pimarily the shear and moments. Those can be easily determined for a simply
supported uniformly loaded beam. The shear varies linearly from 51 kip to -51 kip with zero at the
center, and the moment diagram is parabolic with the maximum moment at the center, Fig. 8.5, equal
to: 2 2
Mmax = qL8 = (1:6) 8(63:6) = 808
k/ft ft
k.ft (8.3)
7 The externally induced moment at midspan must be resisted by an equal and opposite internal moment.
This can be achieved through a combination of compressive force on the upper bers, and tensile ones
on the lower. Thus the net axial force is zero, however there is a net internal couple, Fig. 8.6.

Draft
51 K
SHEAR FORCE
25 K
L
0 x
L/2
25 K
51 K
MOMENT
Mmax
L x
0 L/4 L/2 3L/4
Figure 8.5: Magazzini Generali; Shear and Moment Diagrams (Billington and Mark 1983)
q TOTAL
A C
d M
VA
T
Figure 8.6: Magazzini Generali; Internal Moment, (Billington and Mark 1983)

Draft
8.4 Forces 8{5
Mext = Cd ) C = Mdext (8.4-a)

T = C = (808)
(9:2)
k.ft
ft
= 88 k (8.4-b)
8 Because the frame shape (and thus d(x)) is approximately parabolic, and the moment is also parabolic,
then the axial forces are constants along the entire frame, Fig. 8.7.
M d
MOMENT DIAGRAM FRAME
CABLE : FRAME :
CURVE OF DIAGRAM SHAPE OF DIAGRAM
Figure 8.7: Magazzini Generali; Similarities Between The Frame Shape and its Moment Diagram,
(Billington and Mark 1983)
9 The axial force at the end of the beam is not balanced, and the 88 kip compression must be transmitted
to the lower chord, Fig. 8.8. Fig. 8.9 This is analogous to the forces transmiited to the support by a
88 k Tension
88 k
88 k
88 k
Compression
Horizontal Component
Tied Arch
Cable Force
Axial Force
Vertical Reaction
Figure 8.8: Magazzini Generali; Equilibrium of Forces at the Beam Support, (Billington and Mark 1983)
tied arch.
10 It should be mentioned that when a rigorous computer analysis was performed, it was determined
that the supports are contributing a compression force of about 8 kips which needs to be superimposed
over the central values, Fig. 8.9.

Draft
FRAME ACTS AS A
UNIT, UNLIKE THE
ABSTRACTION
-88 k - 8 k = -96 k
16 k
88 k - 8 k = 80 k
16 k
Figure 8.9: Magazzini Generali; Eect of Lateral Supports, (Billington and Mark 1983)
8.5 Internal Stresses

11 The net compressive stress, for a top chord with a cross sectional area of 75 2 is equal to
in
= PA = (75)
(88) = 1.17
k
in
2 ksi (8.5)
this is much lower than the allowable compressive stress of concrete which is about 1,350 ksi. It should
be noted that if the frame was cast along with the roof (monolithic construction), than this stress would
be even lower.
12 Since concrete has practically no tensile strength, the tensile force in the lower chord must be resisted
by steel. The lower chord has 4 bars with 0.69 2 and 6 other bars with 0.58 2 , thus we have a total
in in
of
As = 4(0:69) + 6(0:58) = 6:24 2 in (8.6)
Thus the steel stresses will be
= PA = (6(88)
:24) 2 = 14.1
k
in
ksi (8.7)
which is lower than the allowable steel stress.

Draft
Chapter 9
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES and

GUIDELINES
9.1 Safety Provisions
1 Structures and structural members must always be designed to carry some reserve load above what is
expected under normal use. This is to account for
Variability in Resistance: The actual strengths (resistance) of structural elements will dier from
those assumed by the designer due to:
1. Variability in the strength of the material (greater variability in concrete strength than in
steel strength).
2. Dierences between the actual dimensions and those specied (mostly in placement of steel
rebars in R/C).
3. Eect of simplifying assumptions made in the derivation of certain formulas.
Variability in Loadings: All loadings are variable. There is a greater variation in the live loads than
in the dead loads. Some types of loadings are very dicult to quantify (wind, earthquakes).
Consequences of Failure: The consequence of a structural component failure must be carefully as-
sessed. The collapse of a beam is likely to cause a localized failure. Alternatively the failure of a
column is likely to trigger the failure of the whole structure. Alternatively, the failure of certain
components can be preceded by warnings (such as excessive deformation), whereas other are sud-
den and catastrophic. Finally, if no redistribution of load is possible (as would be the case in a
statically determinate structure), a higher safety factor must be adopted.
2 The purpose of safety provisions is to limit the probability of failure and yet permit economical
structures.
3 The following items must be considered in determining safety provisions:
1. Seriousness of a failure, either to humans or goods.

2. Reliability of workmanship and inspection.
3. Expectation of overload and to what magnitude.
Draft
9{2 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES and GUIDELINES
4. Importance of the member in the structure.
5. Chance of warning prior to failure.
4 Two major design philosophies have emerged
1. Working Stress Method
2. Ultimate Strength Method
9.2 Working Stress Method

5 This is the simplest of the two methods, and the one which has been historically used by structural
engineers.
6 Structural elements are designed for their service loads, and are dimensioned such that the stresses
do not exceed some predesignated allowable strength, Fig. 9.1.
Figure 9.1: Load Life of a Structure
7 In R/C this method was the one adopted by the ACI (American Concrete institute) code up to 1971,
Working Stress Design Method (WSD).
8 The AISC (American Institute of Steel Construction) code refers to it as the Allowable Stress
Design (ASD) and was used until 1986.
Draft
9.3 Ultimate Strength Method 9{3
9 In this method:
1. All loads are assumed to have the same average variability.
2. The entire variation of the loads and the strengths is placed on the strength side of the equation.
yld
< all = F:S: (9.1)
where F:S: is the factor of safety.

10 Major limitations of this method
1. An elastic analysis can not easily account for creep and shrinkage of concrete.
2. For concrete structures, stresses are not linearly proportional to strain beyond 0:45fc0 .
3. Safety factors are not rigorously determined from a probabilistic approach, but are the result of
experience and judgment.
11 Allowable strengths are given in Table 9.1.
Steel, AISC/ASD
Tension, Gross Area Ft = 0:6Fy
Tension, Eective Net Area Ft = 0:5Fu
Bending Fb = 0:66Fy
Shear Fv = 0:40Fy
Concrete, ACI/WSD
Tension 0
Compression 0:45fc0
Eective net area will be dened in section ??.
Table 9.1: Allowable Stresses for Steel and Concrete
9.3 Ultimate Strength Method

9.3.1 y Probabilistic Preliminaries
12 In this approach, it is assumed that the load Q and the resistance R are random variables.
13 Typical frequency distributions of such random variables are shown in Fig. 9.2.
14 The safety margin is dened as Y = R ; Q. Failure would occur if Y < 0
15 Q and R can be combined and the result expressed logarithmically, Fig. 9.3.
R
X = ln Q (9.2)
Failure would occur for negative values of X
16 The probability of failure Pf is equal to the ratio of the shaded area to the total area under the
curve in Fig. 9.3.
Draft
Figure 9.2: Frequency Distributions of Load Q and Resistance R
Figure 9.3: Denition of Reliability Index

Draft
9.3 Ultimate Strength Method 9{5

17 If X is assumed to follow a Normal Distribution than it has a mean value X = ln QR and a
m
standard deviation .
18 We dene the safety index (or reliability index) as =
X
19 For standard distributions and for = 3:5, it can be shown that the probability of failure is Pf =
1
9;091
or 1:1 10;4. That is 1 in every 10,000 structural members designed with = 3:5 will fail because of
either excessive load or understrength sometime in its lifetime.
20 Target values for are shown in Table 9.2.
Type of Load/Member
AISC
DL + LL; Members 3.0
DL + LL; Connections 4.5
DL + LL + WL; Members 3.5
DL + LL +EL; Members 1.75
ACI
Ductile Failure 3-3.5
Sudden Failures 3.5-4
Table 9.2: Selected values for Steel and Concrete Structures
21 Because the strengths and the loads vary independently, it is desirable to have one factor to account
for variability in resistance, and another one for the variability in loads.
22 These factors are referred to as resistance factor and Load Factor respectively. The resistance
factor is dened as
= RRm exp(;0:55VR ) (9.3)
n
where RM RN and VR are the mean resistance, the nominal resistance (to be dened later), and the
coecient of variation of the resistance.
9.3.2 Discussion
23 ACI refers to this method as the Strength Design Method, (previously referred to as the Ultimate
Strength Method).
24 AISC refers to it as Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD).
25 Terms such as failure load should be avoided; it is preferable to refer to a structure's Limit State
load.
26 The general form is (LRFD-A4.1)
1
Rn i Qi (9.4)
where
is a strength reduction factor, less than 1, and must account for the type of structural element,
Table 9.3.
1
Throughout the notes we will refer by this symbol the relevant design specication in the AISC code.

Draft
Type of Member
ACI
Axial Tension 0.9
Flexure 0.9
Axial Compression, spiral reinforcement 0.75
Axial Compression, other 0.70
Shear and Torsion 0.85
Bearing on concrete 0.70
AISC
Tension, yielding 0.9
Tension, fracture 0.75
Compression 0.85
Beams 0.9
Fasteners, Tension 0.75
Fasteners, Shear 0.65
Table 9.3: Strength Reduction Factors,
Rn is the nominal resistance (or strength).

Rn is the design strength.
i is the load factor corresponding to Qi and is greater than 1.
i Qi is the required strength based on the factored load:
i is the type of load
27 The various factored load combinations which must be considered are
AISC
1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D+1.6L+0.5(Lr or S)
3. 1.2D+0.5L (or 0.8W)+1.6(Lr or S)
4. 1.2D+0.5L+0.5(Lr or S)+1.3W
5. 1.2D+0.5L(or 0.2 S)+1.5E
6. 0.9D+1.3W(or 1.5 E)
ACI
1. 1.4D+1.7L
2. 0.75(1.4D+1.7L+1.7W)
3. 0.9D+1.3W
4. 1.05D+1.275W
5. 0.9D+1.7H
6. 1.4D +1.7L+1.7H
7. 0.75(1.4D+1.4T+1.7L)

Draft
9.4 Example 9{7
8. 1.4(D+T)
where D= dead; L= live; Lr= roof live; W= wind; E= earthquake; S= snow; T= temperature; H= soil.
We must select the one with the largest limit state load.
28 Thus, in this method, we must perform numerous analysis, one for each load, of a given structure.
For trusses, this is best achieved if we use the matrix method, invert the statics matrix [B ], and multiply
[B ];1 by each one of the load cases, (Refer to Section ??). For the WSD method, we need not perform
more than one analysis in general.
29 Serviceability Limit States must be assessed under service loads (not factored). The most impor-
tant ones being
1. De ections
2. Crack width (for R/C)
3. Stability
9.4 Example
Example 9-18: LRFD vs ASD

To illustrate the dierences between the two design approaches, let us consider the design of an axial
member, subjected to a dead load of 100 and live load of 80 . Use A36 steel.
k k
ASD: We consider the total load P = 100 + 80 = 180 . From Table 9.1, the allowable stress is
k
0:6yld = 0:6 36 = 21:6 . Thus the required cross sectional area is

ksi
180 = 8:33
A = 21 2
:6 in
USD we consider the largest of the two load combinations

i Qi : 1:4D = 1:4(100) = 140
1:2D + 1:6L = 1:2(100) + 1:6(80) = 248
k
k
From Table 9.3 = 0:9, and Rn = (0:9)Ayld . Hence, applying Eq. 9.4 the cross sectional area
should be
A = i Qi = (0:248
9)(36) = 7:65
2 in
yld
Note that whereas in this particular case the USD design required a smaller area, this may not be the
case for dierent ratios of dead to live loads.
9.5 Design Guidelines

30To assist in the preliminary design/dimensioning of structures, Table 9.4 provides average, maximum
and typical spans for various types of structures.

Draft
Average Max Typical Span

Ft.
TIMBER
Plywood 36 40 3-5
Planks 28 32 2-6
Joists 22 26 10-25
Beams 16 20 15-30
Girders 12 16 20-35
Gable bents 26 30 30-50
Trusses 4 8 30-100
I Beams 18 24 15-60
Joists 18 25 15-60
Plate and I girders 14 20 40-100
Trusses 12 18 40-80
Arches span to rise 8 16 80-200
Arches span to thickness 40 50 -
Simple suspension (span to rise) 10 15 150-300
Cable stayed 6 10 150-300
REINFORCED CONCRETE
Solid slabs 28 32 10-25
Slabs with drops and capitals 30 36 20-35
Two-way slab on beams 30 36 20-35
Wae slabs 20 24 30-40
Joists 22 26 25-45
Beams 16 20 15-40
Girders 12 16 20-60
Arches span to rise 8 12 60-150
Arches span to thickness 30 40 -
Cylindrical thin shell roof (Min. thickness may govern)
Longitudinal span to Structural depth 12 15 50-70
Transverse span to thickness 50 60 12-30
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Solid slabs 40 44 20-35
Slabs with drops 44 48 35-45
Two-way slab on beams 44 48 35-45
Wae slabs 28 32 35-70
Cored slabs 36 40 30-60
Joists 32 36 40-60
Beams 24 28 30-80
Girders 20 24 40-120
Cylindrical thin shell roof (Min. thickness may govern)
Longitudinal span to structural depth 15 20 60-120
Transverse span to thickness 60 70 15-35
Table 9.4: Approximate Structural Span-Depth Ratios for Horizontal Subsystems and Components (Lin
and Stotesbury 1981)

Draft
Chapter 10
BRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS

1 This chapter deals with the behavior and design of laterally supported steel beams according to the
LRFD provisions.
2 A laterally stable beam is one which is braced laterally in the direction perpendicular to the plane
of the web. Thus overall buckling of the compression ange as a column cannot occur prior to its full
participation to develop the moment strength of the section.
3 If a beam is not laterally supported, Fig. 10.1, we will have a failure mode governed by lateral torsional
A) COMPOSITE BEAM B) OTHER FRAMING
C) CROSS BRACING
Figure 10.1: Lateral Bracing for Steel Beams

buckling.
4 By the end of this lecture you should be able to select the most ecient section (light weight with
adequate strength) for a given bending moment and also be able to determine the exural strength of a
given beam.
Draft
10{2 BRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS
10.1 Nominal Strength
5 The strength requirement for beams in load and resistance factor design is stated as
b Mn Mu (10.1)
where:
b strength reduction factor; for exure 0:90
Mn nominal moment strength
Mu factored service load moment.
6 The equations given in this chapter are valid for exural members with the following kinds of cross
section and loading:
1. Doubly symmetric (such as W sections) and loaded in plane of symmetry
2. Singly symmetric (channels and angles) loaded in plane of symmetry or through the shear center
parallel to the web1 .
10.2 Failure Modes and Classication of Steel Beams

7 A beam is classied as laterally supported depending on Lb which is the distance between lateral
supports (or unbraced length) and Lp .
Lb < Lp (10.2)
Lp = p 300 r (10.3)
Fy ; y ksi
r
ry = IAy (10.4)
where ry is the radius of gyration with respect to the (minor) y axis (as opposed to the major x axis).
8 The strength of exural members is limited by:
Plastic Hinge: at a particular cross section, Fig. 10.2.
local buckling: of a cross-sectional element (e.g. the web or the ange), Fig. 10.3.
Lateral-Torsional buckling: of the entire member, Fig. 10.4.
9 Accordingly, the LRFD manual classies steel sections as
Compact sections: No local buckling can occur. Strength is based on the plastic moment.
Partially compact sections: Where local buckling may occur
Slender sections: where lateral torsional buckling may occur.
We will cover only the rst two cases.
10 Shear should be checked, however with exception of short beams (and no self-respecting architect
will ever conceive such a thing:-), exure generally controls.
1
More about shear centers in Mechanics of Materials II.

Draft
10.2 Failure Modes and Classication of Steel Beams 10{3
w σy
-
M=(wL2 )/8 +
σy
wu σy
-
11
00
00
11
00
11
Mp +
σy
M p=(wL2 )/8
Figure 10.2: Failure of Steel beam; Plastic Hinges
tw
bf
hf
hc
COMPACT FLANGE BUCKLING WEB BUCKLING
Figure 10.3: Failure of Steel beam; Local Buckling

Draft
LATERAL DEFLECTION
AND TORSION OF THE COMPRESSION FLANGE
B
LATERAL DEFLECTION AND
TORSION OF THE COMPRESSION
COMPRESSION
FLANGE
FLANGE
B A
B
A
Figure 10.4: Failure of Steel beam; Lateral Torsional Buckling
10.3 Compact Sections

11 For compact sections, the mode of failure is the formation of a plastic hinge that is the section is
fully plastied. Hence we shall rst examine the bending behavior of beams under limit load. Then we
will relate this plastic moment to the design of compact sections.
10.3.1 Bending Capacity of Beams

12 The stress distribution on a typical wide- ange shape subjected to increasing bending moment is
shown in Fig.10.5. In the service range (that is before we multiplied the load by the appropriate factors
in the LRFD method) the section is elastic. This elastic condition prevails as long as the stress at the
extreme ber has not reached the yield stress Fy . Once the strain " reaches its yield value "y , increasing
strain induces no increase in stress beyond Fy .
Figure 10.5: Stress distribution at dierent stages of loading

Draft
10.3 Compact Sections 10{5
Figure 10.6: Stress-strain diagram for most structural steels
13 When the yield stress is reached at the extreme ber, the nominal moment strength Mn, is referred
to as the yield moment My and is computed as
Mn = My = SxFy (10.5)
(assuming that bending is occurring with respect to the x ; x axis).

14 When across the entire section, the strain is equal or larger than the yield strain (" "y = Fy =Es )
then the section is fully plastied, and the nominal moment strength Mn is therefore referred to as the
plastic moment Mp and is determined from
Z
Mp = Fy ydA = Fy Z (10.6)
A
where
Z
def (10.7)
Z = ydA
is the Plastic Section Modulus.
15 The plastic section modulus Z should not be confused with the elastic section modulus S dened,
Eq. 5.25 as
S = d=I 2 (10.8-a)
Z
I def
= y2 dA (10.8-b)
A
16 The section modulus Sx of a W section can be roughly approximated by the following formula
Sx wd=10 or Ix Sx d2 wd2 =20 (10.9)
and the plastic modulus can be approximated by
Zx wd=9 (10.10)

Draft
10.3.2 Design of Compact Sections
17 A section is compact if the following conditions are met:
1. Flanges are continuously connected to the web
2. Width to thickness ratios, known as the slenderness ratios, of the ange and the web must not
exceed the limiting ratios p dened as follows:
Flange 2btff p p = p65Fy
(10.11)
Web thwc p p = p640Fy
Note that 2btff and thwc are tabulated in Sect. 3.6.
18 The nominal strength Mn for laterally stable compact sections according to LRFD is
Mn = Mp (10.12)
where:
Mp plastic moment strength = ZFy
Z plastic section modulus
Fy specied minimum yield strength
19 Note that section properties, including Z values are tabulated in Section 3.6.
10.4 Partially Compact Section

20 If the width to thickness ratios of the compression elements exceed the p values mentioned in Eq.
10.11 but do not exceed the following r , the section is partially compact and we can have local buckling.
Flange: p < 2btff r p = p65Fy r = pF141
y ;Fr (10.13)
Web: p < thwc r p = p640Fy r = p970Fy
where:
Fy specied minimum yield stress in kksi
bf width of the ange
tf thickness of the ange
hc unsupported height of the web which is twice the distance from the neutral axis
to the inside face of the compression ange less the llet or corner radius.
tw thickness of the web.
Fr residual stress = 10:0 ksi for rolled sections and 16:5 ksi for welded sections.
21 The nominal strength of partially compact sections according to LRFD is, Fig. 10.7
Mn = Mp ; (Mp ; Mr )( ;;p ) Mp (10.14)

r p

Draft
10.5 Slender Section 10{7
Draft
Mn
6
Compact Partially Compact Slender
- - -
Mp
Mr
-
p r
Flanges bf
2tf
p65Fy
pF141;F
y r
Web hc
tw
p640F
y
p970F y
Figure 10.7: Nominal Moments for Compact and Partially Compact Sections
where:
Mr Residual Moment equal to (Fy ; Fr )S
bf =2tf for I-shaped member anges and
hc=tw for beam webs.
22 All other quantities are as dened earlier. Note that we use the associated with the one being
violated (or the lower of the two if both are).
10.5 Slender Section

23If the width to thickness ratio exceeds r values of ange and web, the element is referred to as slender
compression element. Since the slender sections involve a dierent treatment, it will not be dealt here.
10.6 Examples
Example 10-19: Z for Rectangular Section

Determine the plastic section modulus for a rectangular section, width b and depth d.

Draft
Solution:
1. The internal plastic moment is equal to
2
M = Fy b d2 d2 = Fy b d4 (10.15)
| {z }
Force
2. The yield stress, Fy , plastic moment Mp and plastic section modulus Z are related by:
Z = MZp (10.16)
3. Substituting, we get:
Z=M p = Fy bd2 = bd2 (10.17)
Fy 4Fy 4
Note that this is to be contrasted with the elastic section modulus S = bd62 .
Example 10-20: Beam Design

Select the lightest W or M section to carry a uniformly distributed dead load of 0:2 kip/ft superim-
posed (i.e., in addition to the beam weight) and 0:8 kip/ft live load. The simply supported span is 20
ft. The compression ange of the beam is fully supported against lateral movement. Select the sections
for the following steels: A36; A572 Grade 50; and A572 Grade 65.
Solution:
Case 1: A36 Steel
1. Determine the factored load.
wD = 0:2 k/ft
wL = 0:8 k/ft
wu = 1:2wD + 1:6wL
= 1:2(0:2) + 1:6(0:8) = 1:52 k/ft

Draft
10.6 Examples 10{9
2. Compute the factored load moment Mu . For a simply supported beam carrying uniformly
distributed load,
Mu = wu L2 =8 = (1:52)(20)2=8 = 76 k.ft
Assuming compact section, since a vast majority of rolled sections satisfy p for both the
ange and the web. The design strength b Mn is
b Mn = b Mp = b Zx Fy
The design requirement is
b Mn = Mu
or, combing those two equations we have:
b Zx Fy = Mu
3. Required Zx is
Zx = MFu = 076(12)
:90(36) = 28:1 in
3
b y
From the notes on Structural Materials, we select a W12X22 section which has a Zx = 29:3 in
3
Note that Zx is approximated by wd (22)(12)
9 = 9 = 29:3.
4. Check compact section limits p for the anges from the table
= 2btff = 4:7
p = p65Fy = p6536 = 10:8 > p
and for the web:
= thwc = 41:8
p = p640Fy = p64036 = 107p
5. Check the Strength by correcting the factored moment Mu to include the self weight. Self
weight of the beam W12X22 is 22 lb./ft. or 0.022 kip/ft
wD = 0:2 + 0:022 = 0:222 k/ft
wu = 1:2(0:222) + 1:6(0:8) = 1:55 k/ft
Mu = (1:55)(20)2=8 = 77:3 3 k.ft
Mn = Mp = Zx Fy = (29:3)(12) (36) = 87:9

in ksi
p
k.ft
in/ft
b Mn = 0:90(87:9) = 79:1 > Mu

k.ft
Therefore use W12X22 section.

6. We nally check for the maximum distance between supports.
r r
ry = Iy = 5 = 0:88 (10.18-a)
A 6:5 in
300
Lp = p ry (10.18-b)
Fy
300
= p 0:88 = 43 (10.18-c)
36
ft

Draft
Case 2: A572 Grade 65 Steel:
1. same as in case 1
2. same as in case 1
3. Required Zx = Mb Fuy = 076(12)
:90(65) = 15:6 in
3 Select W12X14: Zx = 17:4 in
3 Note that Zx is
approximated by wd (14)(12)
9 = 9 = 18:7.
4. Check compact section limits p :
= hc = 54:3
pwFy = p64065 = 79:4p
t640
p =
bf
= 2tf = 8:82
p = p65Fy = p6565 = 8:1 < Not Good
In this case the controlling limit state is local buckling of the ange.
Since p < < r , as above, the section is classied as non-compact.
5. Check the strength:
Since the section is non-compact, the strength is obtained by interpolation between Mp and
Mr .
For the anges:
r = pF141
y ;10
= p65141;10 = 19:0
Mn = Mp ; (Mp ; Mr )( r;;pp ) Mp
ZxFy = (17:4)(12) (65) = 94:2
3
Mp = in
in/ft
ksi
k.ft
Sx (Fy ; Fr ) = (14:9)(12)(65;10) = 68:3

3
Mr = in ksi
k.ft :

in/ft
Mn = 94:2 ; (94:2 ; 68:3) 198::80;;88::11 = 92:5

p
k.ft
b Mn = 0:90(92:5) = 83:25 > Muk.ft
Therefore provide W12X14 section.

Draft
Chapter 11
REINFORCED CONCRETE
BEAMS
11.1 Introduction
1 Recalling that concrete has a tensile strength (ft0 ) about one tenth its compressive strength (fc0 ),
concrete by itself is a very poor material for exural members.
2 To provide tensile resistance to concrete beams, a reinforcement must be added. Steel is almost
universally used as reinforcement (longitudinal or as bers), but in poorer countries other indigenous
materials have been used (such as bamboos).
3 The following lectures will focus exclusively on the exural design and analysis of reinforced con-
crete rectangular sections. Other concerns, such as shear, torsion, cracking, and de ections are left for
subsequent ones.
4 Design of reinforced concrete structures is governed in most cases by the Building Code Requirements
for Reinforced Concrete, of the American Concrete Institute (ACI-318). Some of the most relevant
provisions of this code are enclosed in this set of notes.
5 We will focus on determining the amount of exural (that is longitudinal) reinforcement required at a
given section. For that section, the moment which should be considered for design is the one obtained
from the moment envelope at that particular point.
11.1.1 Notation
6 In R/C design, it is customary to use the following notation
Draft
11{2 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS
As Area of steel
b Width
c Distance from top of compressive bers to neutral axis
d Distance from the top of the compressive bers to the centroid
of the reinforcement
fc0 Concrete compressive strength
fr0 Concrete modulus of rupture
fs0 Steel stress
ft0 Concrete tensile strength
fy Steel yield stress (equivalent to Fy in AISC)
h Height
Steel ratio, Abds
11.1.2 Modes of Failure
7 A reinforced concrete beam is a composite structure where concrete provides the compression and steel
the tension.
8 Failure is initiated by, Fig. 11.5:
Steel Yielding Concrete Crushing
Figure 11.1: Failure Modes for R/C Beams

1. Yielding of the steel when the steel stress reaches the yield stress (fs = fy ). This occurs if we
do not have enough reinforcement that is the section is under-reinforced. This will result in
excessive rotation and deformation prior to failure.
2. Crushing of the concrete, when the concrete strain reaches its ultimate value ("c = "u = 0:003),
ACI 318: 10.2.3. This occurs if there is too much reinforcement that is the section is over-
reinforced. This is a sudden mode of failure.
9 Ideally in an optimal (i.e. most ecient use of materials) design, a section should be dimensioned
such that crushing of concrete should occur simultaneously with steel yielding. This would then be a
balanced design.
10 However since concrete crushing is a sudden mode of failure with no prior warning, whereas steel
yielding is often accompanied by excessive deformation (thus providing ample warning of an imminent
failure), design codes require the section to be moderately under-reinforced.
11.1.3 Analysis vs Design
11 In R/C we always consider one of the following problems:
Draft
11.1 Introduction 11{3
Analysis: Given a certain design, determine what is the maximum moment which can be applied.
Design: Given an external moment to be resisted, determine cross sectional dimensions (b and h) as
well as reinforcement (As ). Note that in many cases the external dimensions of the beam (b and
h) are xed by the architect.
12 We often consider the maximum moment along a member, and design accordingly.
11.1.4 Basic Relations and Assumptions

13 In developing a design/analysis method for reinforced concrete, the following basic relations will be
used, Fig. ??:
Compatibility Equilibrium
d
εy T
T=C
M_ext=Cd
Figure 11.2: Internal Equilibrium in a R/C Beam
1. Equilibrium: of forces and moment at the cross section. 1) Fx = 0 or Tension in the reinforcement
= Compression in concrete; and 2) M = 0 or external moment (that is the one obtained from
the moment envelope) equal and opposite to the internal one (tension in steel and compression of
the concrete).
2. Material Stress Strain: We recall that all normal strength concrete have a failure strain u = :003
in compression irrespective of fc0 .
14 Basic assumptions used:
Compatibility of Displacements: Perfect bond between steel and concrete (no slip). Note that those
two materials do also have very close coecients of thermal expansion under normal temperature.
Plane section remain plane ) strain is proportional to distance from neutral axis.
11.1.5 ACI Code
15 The ACI code is based on limit strength, or Mn Mu thus a similar design philosophy is used as
the one adopted by the LRFD method of the AISC code, ACI-318: 8.1.1; 9.3.1; 9.3.2
16 The required strength is based on (ACI-318: 9.2)

Draft
U = 1:4D + 1:7L (11.1)

= 0:75(1:4D + 1:7L + 1:7W ) (11.2)
11.2 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method

11.2.1 Equivalent Stress Block
17 In determining the limit state moment of a cross section, we consider Fig. 11.3. Whereas the strain
distribution is linear (ACI-318 10.2.2), the stress distribution is non-linear because the stress-strain
curve of concrete is itself non-linear beyond 0:5fc0 .
18 Thus we have two alternatives to investigate the moment carrying capacity of the section, ACI-318:
10.2.6
1. Use the non-linear stress distribution.
2. Use a simpler equivalent stress distribution.
19 The ACI code follows the second approach. Thus we seek an equivalent stress distribution such
that:
1. The resultant force is equal
2. The location of the resultant is the same.
We note that this is similar to the approach followed in determining reactions in a beam subjected to a
distributed load when the load is replaced by a single force placed at the centroid.
Figure 11.3: Cracked Section, Limit State

Draft
11.2 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method 11{5
20 It was shown that the depth of the equivalent stress block is a function of fc0 :
1 = :85 if fc0 4; 000 (11.3)

= :85 ; (:05)(fc ; 4; 000) 1;000 if 4; 000 < fc0 < 8; 000
0 1
Figure 11.4: Whitney Stress Block
11.2.2 Balanced Steel Ratio

21 Next we seek to determine the balanced steel ratio b such that failure occurs by simultaneous
yielding of the steel fs = fy and crushing of the concrete "c = 0:003, ACI-318: 10.3.2 We will
separately consider the two failure possibilities:
Tension Failure: we stipulate that the steel stress is equal to fy :

= Abds ) c = 0:85ffy0 d (11.4)
As fy = :85fc0 ab = :85fc0 b1 c c 1
Compression Failure: where the concrete strain is equal to the ultimate strain; From the strain
diagram
"c = 0:003 )c= :003 d (11.5)
c :003
d = :003+"s fs
Es + :003
22 Balanced Design is obtained by equating Eq. 11.4 to Eq. 11.5 and by replacing by b and fs by fy :
9
fy = fs:003
0:85fc0 1 d Es +:003
d >
=
b fy :003
fs = fy >
; :85fc0 1 d = Efys + :003 d
= b
When we replace Es by 29; 000 ksi we obtain
0
b = :851 ffc 87;87000
; 000
+f
(11.6)
y y
This b corresponds to the only combination of b, d and As which will result in simultaneous yielding of
the steel and crushing of the concrete, that is an optimal design.

Draft
23 Because we need to have ample warning against failure, hence we prefer to have an under-reinforced
section. Thus, the ACI code stipulates:
< :75b (11.7)
24 In practice, depending on the relative cost of steel/concrete and of labour it is common to select lower
values of . If < 0:5b (thus we will have a deeper section) then we need not check for de ection.
25 A minimum amount of reinforcement must always be used to prevent temperature and shrinkage
cracks:
200
min fy
(11.8)
26 The ACI code adopts the limit state design method
MD = Mn > Mu = b = 0:9 (11.9)
11.2.3 Analysis
Given As , b, d, fc0 , and fy determine the design moment:
1. act = Abds
0
2. b = (:85)1 ffyc 87+
87
fy
3. If act < b (that is failure is triggered by yielding of the steel, fs = fy )
)
a = :A85sffc0yb ;From Equilibrium
MD = As fy d ; 0:59 Afs0fby
MD = As fy d ; a2 | {z c }
Mn
Combining this last equation with = Abds yields

MD = fy bd2 1 ; :59 ffy0 (11.10)
c
4. y If act > b is not allowed by the code as this would be an over-reinforced section which would
fail with no prior warning. However, if such a section exists, and we need to determine its moment
carrying capacity, then we have two unknowns:
(a) Steel strain "s (which was equal to "y in the previous case)
(b) Location of the neutral axis c.
We have two equations to solve this problem
Equilibrium: of forces
c = :85Afs0fb
s (11.11)
c 1

Draft
Strain compatibility: since we know that at failure the maximum compressive strain "c is equal
to 0.003. Thus from similar triangles we have
c = :003 (11.12)
d :003 + "s
Those two equations can be solved by either one of two methods:
(a) Substitute into one single equation
(b) By iteration
Once c and fs = E"s are determined then

MD = As fs d ; 21 c (11.13)
11.2.4 Design
27 We distinguish between two cases. The rst one has dimensions as well as steel area unknown, the
second has the dimensions known (usually specied by the architect or by other constraints), and we
seek As .
b, d and As unknowns and MD known:
1. We start by assuming , at most = :75b, and if de ection is of a concern (or steel too
expensive), then we can select = 0:5b with b determined from Eq. 11.6
0
= 0:75 :851 ffc 87;87000
; 000
+f
y y
2. From Eq. 11.10
MD = fy 1 ; :59 ffy0 bd2
| {z c }
R
or

f y
R = fy 1 ; :59 f 0 (11.14)
c
which does not depend on unknown quantities1 . Then solve for bd2 :
bd2 = M
R
D (11.15)
3. solve for b and d (this will require either an assumption on one of the two, or on their ratio).
4. As = bd
1
Note analogy with Eq. 10.6 Mp = Fy Z for stell beams.

Draft
y b, d and Md known, As unknown: In this case there is no assurance that we can have a design
with b . If the section is too small, then it will require too much steel resulting in an over-reinforced
section.
We will again have an iterative approach
1. Since we do not know if the steel will be yielding or not, use fs .
2. Assume an initial value for a (a good start is a = d5 )
3. Assume initially that fs = fy
4. Check equilibrium of moments (M = 0)
As = M
;
D (11.16)
fs d ; a2
5. Check equilibrium of forces in the x direction (Fx = 0)
a = :A85sff0sb (11.17)
c
6. Check assumption of fs from the strain diagram
"s :003 d;c
d ; c = c ) fs = Es c :003 < fy (11.18)
where c = a1 .
7. Iterate until convergence is reached.
Example 11-21: Ultimate Strength Capacity

Determine the ultimate Strength of a beam with the following properties: b = 10 , d = 23 , in in
As = 2:35 2 , f 0 = 4; 000 and fy = 60 .

in
c psi ksi
Solution:
act = Abds = (10)(23)
2:35 = :0102
b
0 87 = :02885 > act p
= :851 ffyc 87+87fy = (:85)(:85) 604 87+60
a = :A85sffc0yb = (:(285)(4)(10)
:35)(60) = 4:147
in
Mn = (2:35)(60)(23 ; 4:147 2 ) = 2; 950k.in
MD = Mn = (:9)(2; 950) = 2; 660 k.in
Note that from the strain diagram

c = 0:a85 = 40::414
85 = 4:87in
Alternative solution

Mn = act fy bd 2 1 ; :59act fy0
cf
= As fy d 1 ; :59act ffyc0
= (2:35)(60)(23) 1 ; (:59) 604 (:01021) = 2; 950 = 245
k.in k.ft
MD = Mn = (:9)(2; 950) = 2; 660 k.in

Draft
Example 11-22: Beam Design I

Design a 15 ft beam to support a dead load of 1.27 k/ft, a live load of 2.44 k/ft using a 3,000 psi
concrete and 40 ksi steel. Neglect beam weight
Solution:
wu = 1:4(1:27) + 1:7(22 :44) = 5:92 k/ft
MD = (5:92) 0 8 (15) (12)

2
k/ft ft
= 2; 000 in/ft k.in
b = :851 ffyc 87+87fy

= (:85)(:85) 403 87+4087 = 0:040
= :75b = :75(0:04) = 0:030
R = fy 1 ; :59 fy0
fc
= (0:03)(40) 1: ; (0:59)(02:03) 403 = 0:917 ksi
bd2 = M 2;000 = 2; 423 3

R = (0:9)(0:917)
d k.in in
in
k
q
Assume b = 10 , this will give d = 2;10423 = 15:57 . We thus adopt b = 10
in in in and d = 16 in .
Finally,
As = bd = (0:030)(10)(16) = 4:80 2 in
we select 3 bars No. 11
Example 11-23: Beam Design II

Select the reinforcement for a cross section with b = 11:5 ; d = 20 in in to support a design moment
Md = 1; 600 using fc0 = 3 ; and fy = 40
k.in ksi ksi
Solution:
1. Assume a = d5 = 205 = 4 and fs = fy

in
2. Equilibrium of moments:
As = f M D
(d ; a ) ==
1; 600 k.in
= 2:47 2
(:9)(40) (20 ; 42 )
in
y 2 ksi in
3. Check equilibrium of forces:
a = :A85sff0yb = (:(2:47) 2 (40)

in ksi
= 3:38
c 85)(3) (11:5)
ksi in
in
4. We originally assumed a = 4, at the end of this rst iteration a = 3:38, let us iterate again with
a = 3:30

Draft
5. Equilibrium of moments:
As = f M D
(d ; a ) ==
1; 600 k.in
= 2:42 2
(:9)(40) (20 ; 32:3 )
in
y 2 ksi in
6. Check equilibrium of forces:

a = :A85sff0yb = (:(2:42) 2 (40)
in ksi
= 3:3
p
c 85)(3) (11:5)
ksi in
in
7. we have converged on a.
:42 = :011
8. Actual is act = (112:5)(20)
9. b is equal to 0
b = :851 ffc 87 87
+f = ( : 85)(:85) 3 87 = :037
40 87 + 40
y y
p
10. max = :75 = (0:75)(0:037) = :0278 > 0:011 thus fs = fy and we use As = 2:42 in
2
11.3 Continuous Beams

28 Whereas coverage of continuous reinforced concrete beams is beyond the scope of this course, Fig. ??
illustrates a typical reinforcement in such a beam.
11.4 ACI Code

Attached is an unauthorized copy of some of the most relevant ACI-318-89 design code provisions.
8.1.1 - In design of reinforced concrete structures, members shall be proportioned for adequate
strength in accordance with provisions of this code, using load factors and strength reduction factors
specied in Chapter 9.
8.3.1 - All members of frames or continuous construction shall be designed for the maximum eects
of factored loads as determined by the theory of elastic analysis, except as modied according to Section
8.4. Simplifying assumptions of Section 8.6 through 8.9 may be used. p
8.5.1 - Modulus of elasticity Ec for concrete may be taken as Wc1:533 fc0 ( psi) forpvalues of Wc
between 90 and 155 lb per cu ft. For normal weight concrete, Ec may be taken as 57; 000 fc0 .
8.5.2 - Modulus of elasticity Es for non-prestressed reinforcement may be taken as 29,000 psi.
9.1.1 - Structures and structural members shall be designed to have design strengths at all sections
at least equal to the required strengths calculated for the factored loads and forces in such combinations
as are stipulated in this code.
9.2 - Required Strength
9.2.1 - Required strength U to resist dead load D and live load L shall be at least equal to
U = 1:4D + 1:7L
9.2.2 - If resistance to structural eects of a specied wind load W are included in design, the
following combinations of D, L, and W shall be investigated to determine the greatest required strength
U
U = 0:75(1:4D + 1:7L + 1:7W )
Cracks
Draft
Victor Saouma
11.4 ACI Code
Cracks Reinforcement
(a) Deflected shape
Points of deflection
(b) Moment diagram under typical loading
Stirrups Straight top bar Top bars
Stirrups Bottom bars

Straight bottom bar
Interior column
Section through beam
Exterior span Interior span Interior span
(c) Straight bar reinforcement
No.3 stirrup support if necessary Stirrups Straight bar Top bars

Bent bar
Figure 11.5: Reinforcement in Continuous R/C Beams

Stirrups Bottom bars
Straight bottom bar Interior column Bent bars
Bent bar at noncontinuous end
Section through beam
Exterior span Interior span Interior span
(d) Straight and bent bar reinforcement
Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

11{11
Draft
where load combinations shall include both full value and zero value of L to determine the more severe
condition, and
U = 0:9D + 1:3W
but for any combination of D, L, and W, required strength U shall not be less than Eq. (9-1).
9.3.1 - Design strength provided by a member, its connections to other members, and its cross
sections, in terms of exure, axial load, shear, and torsion, shall be taken as the nominal strength
calculated in accordance with requirements and assumptions of this code, multiplied by a strength
reduction factor .
9.3.2 - Strength reduction factor shall be as follows:
9.3.2.1 - Flexure, without axial load 0.90
9.4 - Design strength for reinforcement Designs shall not be based on a yield strength of reinforcement
fy in excess of 80,000 psi, except for prestressing tendons.
10.2.2 - Strain in reinforcement and concrete shall be assumed directly proportional to the distance
from the neutral axis, except, for deep exural members with overall depth to clear span ratios greater
than 2/5 for continuous spans and 4/5 for simple spans, a non-linear distribution of strain shall be
considered. See Section 10.7.
10.2.3 - Maximum usable strain at extreme concrete compression ber shall be assumed equal to
0.003.
10.2.4 - Stress in reinforcement below specied yield strength fy for grade of reinforcement used
shall be taken as Es times steel strain. For strains greater than that corresponding to fy , stress in
reinforcement shall be considered independent of strain and equal to fy .
10.2.5 - Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected in exural calculations of reinforced concrete,
except when meeting requirements of Section 18.4.
10.2.6 - Relationship between concrete compressive stress distribution and concrete strain may be
assumed to be rectangular, trapezoidal, parabolic, or any other shape that results in prediction of
strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests.
10.2.7 - Requirements of Section 10.2.5 may be considered satised by an equivalent rectangular
concrete stress distribution dened by the following:
10.2.7.1 - Concrete stress of 0:85fc0 shall be assumed uniformly distributed over an equivalent com-
pression zone bounded by edges of the cross section and a straight line located parallel to the neutral
axis at a distance (a = 1 c) from the ber of maximum compressive strain.
10.2.7.2 - Distance c from ber of maximum strain to the neutral axis shall be measured in a
direction perpendicular to that axis.
10.2.7.3 - Factor 1 shall be taken as 0.85 for concrete strengths fc0 up to and including 4,000 psi.
For strengths above 4,000 psi, 1 shall be reduced continuously at a rate of 0.05 for each 1000 psi of
strength in excess of 4,000 psi, but 1 shall not be taken less than 0.65.
10.3.2 - Balanced strain conditions exist at a cross section when tension reinforcement reaches the
strain corresponding to its specied yield strength fy just as concrete in compression reaches its assumed
ultimate strain of 0.003.
10.3.3 - For exural members, and for members subject to combined exure and compressive axial
load when the design axial load strength (Pn ) is less than the smaller of (0:10fc0 Ag ) or (Pb ), the ratio
of reinforcement p provided shall not exceed 0.75 of the ratio b that would produce balanced strain
conditions for the section under exure without axial load. For members with compression reinforcement,
the portion of b equalized by compression reinforcement need not be reduced by the 0.75 factor.
10.3.4 - Compression reinforcement in conjunction with additional tension reinforcement may be
used to increase the strength of exural members.
10.5.1 - At any section of a exural member, except as provided in Sections 10.5.2 and 10.5.3, where
positive reinforcement is required by analysis, the ratio provided shall not be less than that given by
= 200
min fy
Draft
Chapter 12
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
12.1 Introduction
1 Beams with longer spans are architecturally more appealing than those with short ones. However, for
a reinforced concrete beam to span long distances, it would have to have to be relatively deep (and at
some point the self weight may become too large relative to the live load), or higher grade steel and
concrete must be used.
2 However, if we were to use a steel with fy much higher than 60 ksi in reinforced concrete (R/C),
then to take full advantage of this higher yield stress while maintaining full bond between concrete and
steel, will result in unacceptably wide crack widths. Large crack widths will in turn result in corrosion
of the rebars and poor protection against re.
3 One way to control the concrete cracking and reduce the tensile stresses in a beam is to prestress the
beam by applying an initial state of stress which is opposite to the one which will be induced by the
load.
4 For a simply supported beam, we would then seek to apply an initial tensile stress at the top and
compressive stress at the bottom. In prestressed concrete (P/C) this can be achieved through prestressing
of a tendon placed below the elastic neutral axis.
5 Main advantages of P/C: Economy, de ection & crack control, durability, fatigue strength, longer
spans.
6 There two type of Prestressed Concrete beams:
Pretensioning: Steel is rst stressed, concrete is then poured around the stressed bars. When enough
concrete strength has been reached the steel restraints are released, Fig. 12.1.
Postensioning: Concrete is rst poured, then when enough strength has been reached a steel cable is
passed thru a hollow core inside and stressed, Fig. 12.2.
12.1.1 Materials
7 P/C beams usually have higher compressive strength than R/C. Prestressed beams can have fc0 as
high as 8,000 psi.
8 The importance of high yield stress for the steel is illustrated by the following simple example.
If we consider the following:
Draft
12{2 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Vertical Harping Harping

bulkhead hold-up hold-down
point point
Anchorage Jacks
Precast Concrete Continuous Casting bed

Prestressing
bed slab element tendon
Jacks Tendon
Jacks
anchorage
Casting bed Tendon

Support Hold-down
force force
Figure 12.1: Pretensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978)
Anchorage Anchorage Jack

Intermediate Beam
diaphragms Jack
Tendon in conduct
Anchorage
Slab Jack
Wrapped tendon
Figure 12.2: Posttensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978)

Draft
1. An unstressed steel cable of length ls
2. A concrete beam of length lc
3. Prestress the beam with the cable, resulting in a stressed length of concrete and steel equal to
ls0 = lc0 .
4. Due to shrinkage and creep, there will be a change in length
lc = ("sh + "cr )lc (12.1)
we want to make sure that this amout of deformation is substantially smaller than the stretch of
the steel (for prestressing to be eective).
;3 =
5. Assuming ordinary steel: fs = 30 , Es = 29; 000 , "s = 2930
ksi ksi
;000 = 1:03 10 in in
6. The total steel elongation is "s ls = 1:03 10;3ls

7. The creep and shrinkage strains are about "cr + "sh ' :9 10;3
8. The residual stres which is left in the steel after creep and shrinkage took place is thus
(1:03 ; :90) 10;3(29 103) = 4 ksi (12.2)
Thus the total loss is 3030;4 = 87% which is unacceptably too high.
9. Alternatively if initial stress was 150 after losses we would be left with 124
ksi ksi or a 17% loss.
10. Note that the actual loss is (:90 10;3)(29 103 ) = 26 in each case
ksi
9Having shown that losses would be too high for low strength steel, we will use
Strands usually composed of 7 wires. Grade 250 or 270 ksi, Fig. 12.3.
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Figure 12.3: 7 Wire Prestressing Tendon
Tendon have diameters ranging from 1/2 to 1 3/8 of an inch. Grade 145 or 160 ksi.
Wires come in bundles of 8 to 52.
Note that yield stress is not well dened for steel used in prestressed concrete, usually we take 1% strain
as eective yield.
10 Steel relaxation is the reduction in stress at constant strain (as opposed to creep which is reduction
of strain at constant stress) occrs. Relaxation occurs indenitely and produces signicant prestress loss.
If we denote by fp the nal stress after t hours, fpi the initial stress, and fpy the yield stress, then

fp = 1 ; log t fpi ; :55 (12.3)
fpi 10 fpy

Draft
12.1.2 Prestressing Forces
11 Prestress force \varies" with time, so we must recognize 3 stages:
1. Pj Jacking force. But then due to
(a) friction and anchorage slip in post-tension
(b) elastic shortening in pretension
is reduced to:
2. Pi Initial prestress force; But then due to time dependent losses caused by
(a) relaxation of steel
(b) shrinkage of concrete
(c) creep of concrete
is reduced to:
3. Pe Eective force
12.1.3 Assumptions
12 The following assumptions are made;
1. Materials are both in the elastic range
2. section is uncracked
3. sign convention: +ve tension, ;ve compression
4. Subscript 1 refers to the top and 2 to the bottom
5. I; S1 = cI1 ; S2 = cI2
6. e + ve if downward from concrete neutral axis
12.1.4 Tendon Conguration

13Through proper arrangement of the tendon (eccentricity at both support and midspan) various internal
exural stress distribution can be obtained, Fig. 12.4.
12.1.5 Equivalent Load

14 An equivalent load for prestressing can be usually determined from the tendon conguration and the
prestressing force, Fig. 12.5.
12.1.6 Load Deformation

15 The load-deformation curve for a prestressed concrete beam is illustrated in Fig. 12.6.

Draft
12.2 Flexural Stresses 12{5
W
000
111
111
000
h 000
111
000
111
000
111
f’y
Q fc 2f c
fc
00
11
11
00 000
111
111
000 00
11
11
00
P h/2 00
11
00
11 + 000
111
000
111 = 00
11
00
11
P 00
11 000
111 00
11
fc fc =f t
2Q
0 2f c 2f c
11
00
00
11 0000000
1111111 11
00
00 +1111111
11
00
11
0000000
0000000 =
1111111
0000000
1111111
00
11
00
11
00
11
P 2h/3 00 1111111
11 0000000 00
11
P
2f c 2f =2f 0
t c
0 2f c 2f c
11
00
00
11 0000000
1111111 11
00
2Q 00 +1111111
11
00
11
0000000
0000000 =
1111111
0000000
1111111
00
11
00
11
00
11
00 1111111
11 0000000 00
11
2f c 2f t =2f c 0
fc fc
P Midspan 00
11
P 000
111 00
11
000 +
111 0 = 00
11
h/2 000
111
000
111 00
11
000
111 00
11
h/3 Ends fc
fc
0 f fc
c
00
11
00
11 111
000
000
111 11
00
00
11
Q 00
11 + 000
111 = 00
11
00
11
00
11 000
111
000
111 00
11
00
11
2f c ft =f c fc
P P Midspan
fc fc
h/2 00
11
00
11 11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11 + 0 = 00
11
00
11
h/3 00
11 00
11
fc Ends fc
Figure 12.4: Alternative Schemes for Prestressing a Rectangular Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978)
12.2 Flexural Stresses

16We now identify the following 4 stages:
Initial Stage when the beam is being prestressed (recalling that r2 = AIc 1. the prestressing force, Pi
only
f1 = ; APi + PiIec1 = ; APi 1 ; ecr21 (12.4)

c c
P
f2 = ; A ; I = ; A 1 + ecr22 (12.5)
P ec P
i i 2 i
c c
2. Pi and the self weight of the beam M0 (which has to be acconted for the moment the beam
cambers due to prestressing)
f1 = ; APi 1 ; ecr21 ; M

0 (12.6)
c S1
P i ec M
f2 = ; A 1 + r2 + S 0 (12.7)
2
c 2
Service Load when the prestressing force was reduced from Pi to Pe beacause of the losses, and the
actual service (not factored) load is apllied
3. Pe and M0

Draft
Member Equivalent load on concrete from tendon Moment from prestressing
(a)
P P P sin θ P sin θ
θ
P cos θ P cos θ
2 P sin θ
(b)
P P sin θ P sin θ
P
θ
P cos θ P cos θ
(c)
Pe Pe
P P P
e
P
(d) P P
θ M P sin θ P sin θ M
e
P cos θ P cos θ
(e)
P P P sin θ P sin θ
P
None
P cos θ P cos θ
2 P sin θ
(f)
P
P None
(g)
P P
Figure 12.5: Determination of Equivalent Loads
Load
Ultimate Ru
ptu
Steel yielding re
Service load limit

including Overload
tolerable overload Tn
Service
load
First cracking load range
fcr
Decompression or higher
Balanced cgs (f=0)
Full dead load
∆o ∆D ∆L Deformation ∆
(deflection of camber)
∆ pe
∆ pi= Initial prestress camber
∆ pe= Effective prestress camber
∆ O= Self-weight deflection
∆ pi ∆ D= Dead load deflection
∆ L= Live load deflection
Figure 12.6: Load-De ection Curve and Corresponding Internal Flexural Stresses for a Typical Pre-
stressed Concrete Beam, (Nilson 1978)

Draft
f1 = ; APe 1 ; ecr21 ; M

0
c S1 (12.8)
f2 = ; APe 1 + ecr22 + M

0
c S (12.9) 2
4. Pe and M0 + MDL + MLL
f1 = ; APe 1 ; ecr21 ; M0 + MSDL + MLL (12.10)

c 1
P e ec
f2 = ; A 1 + r 2 + 2
M +M
0 DL + MLL (12.11)
c S 2
The internal stress distribution at each one of those four stages is illustrated by Fig. 12.7.
Pi Pi e c 1 Pi e c1
(1- )
Ac Ic Ac r2
11
00 11111
00000
00
11 00000
11111 111111111
000000000
00
11 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
00
11
00
11 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
c1
00
11 00000
11111
00000
11111 000000000
111111111
00
11 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
00
11 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
00
11 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
00
11 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
00
11 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
e c2 00
11 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
00
11 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
00
11 00000
11111
00000
11111 000000000
111111111
00
11
00 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
11 00000
11111 000000000
111111111
Pi Pi e c 2 Pi e c2
Stage 1 (1+ )
Ac Ic Ac r2
Pi e c1 Mo Pi e c1 Mo
(1- ) - (1- )-
Ac r2 S1 Ac r2 S1
111111111
000000000 111111
000000
000000
111111
000000000
111111111 111
000 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111
000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111 000000
111111
000000000
111111111 000
111
Pi e c2 Mo Pi e c2 Mo
(1+ ) + (1+ )+
Stage 2 Ac r2 S2 Ac r2 S2
Pe e c1 Mo Md + Ml Pe e c1 Mt
(1- )- - (1- )-
Ac r2 S1 S1 Ac r2 S1
000000
111111 00000000000
11111111111
11111111111
00000000000
111111
000000 00000000000
11111111111 111111
000000
000000
111111
000000
111111 00000000000
11111111111 000000
111111
000000
111111 00000000000
11111111111 000000
111111
000000
111111 00000000000
11111111111 000000
111111
000000
111111 00000000000
11111111111 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111 00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111 000000
111111
000000
111111 00000000000
11111111111 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111 00000000000
11111111111 000000
111111
000000
111111 00000000000
11111111111 000000
111111
000000
111111 00000000000
11111111111 000000
111111
000000
111111 00000000000
11111111111 000000
111111
000000
111111 00000000000
11111111111 000000
111111
000000
111111 00000000000
11111111111 000000
111111
000000
111111
Pe e c2 Mo Md + Ml Pe e c2 Mt
(1+ )+ + (1+ )+
Ac r2 S2 S2 Ac r2 S2
Stage 4
Figure 12.7: Flexural Stress Distribution for a Beam with Variable Eccentricity; Maximum Moment
Section and Support Section, (Nilson 1978)
17 Those (service) exural stresses must be below those specied by the ACI code (where the subscripts
c, t, i and s refer to compression, tension, initial and service respectively):

Draft
fci permitted concrete compression stress at initial stage :60fp0
ci
fti permitted concrete tensile stress at initial stage < 3 fci0
fcs permitted concrete compressive stress at service stage :45 0
pfc p
fts permitted concrete p
tensile stress at initial stage 6 fc0 or 12 fc0
Note that fts can reach 12 fc0 only if appropriate de ection analysis is done, because section would
be cracked.
18 Based on the above, we identify two types of prestressing:
Full prestressing (pioneered by Freysinet), no tensile stresses, no crack, but there are some problems
with excessive camber when unloaded.
Partial prestressing (pioneered by Leonhardt, Abeles, Thurliman), cracks are allowed to occur (just
as in R/C), and they are easier to control in P/C than in R/C.
19 The ACi code imposes the following limits on the steel stresses in terms of fpu which is the ultimate
strength of the cable: Pj < :80fpuAs and Pi < :70fpuAs . No limits are specied for Pe .
Example 12-24: Prestressed Concrete I Beam

Adapted from (Nilson 1978)
The following I Beam has fc0 = 4; 000 , L = 40 ft, DL+LL =0.55 k/ft, concrete density = 150
psi
lb/ft3 and multiple 7 wire strands with constant eccentricity e = 5:19 . Pi = 169 , and the total losses
in k
due to creep, shinkage, relaxation are 15%.

12"
4"
5"
2"
7" 6"
4"
24"
7" 6"
2"
5"
4"
The section properties for this beam are Ic = 12; 000 4 , Ac = 176 2 , S1 = S2 = 1; 000 3 ,
in in in
r2 = AI = 68:2 2 .
in
Determine exural stresses at midspan and at support at initial and nal conditions. Solution:
1. Prestressing force, Pi only

f1 = ; APi 1 ; ecr21

(12.12-a)
c
169
= ; 176 ; 000 1 ; (5:19)(12) = ;83 (12.12-b)
68:2 psi
P
f2 = ; Ai 1 + r22 ec
(12.12-c)
c
169 ; 000
= ; 176 1 + 68:21 (5: 19)(12) = 1; 837 psi (12.12-d)

Draft
2. Pi and the self weight of the beam M0 (which has to be acconted for the moment the beam cambers
due to prestressing)
w0 = (144) (176) 2 (:150) = 3 = :183
in
(12.13-a)
in
2= 2 ft
k ft k/ft
2
M0 = (:183)(40) 8 = 36:6 k.ft (12.13-b)
The exural stresses will thus be equal to:
f1w;20 = SM0 = (36:6)(12
1 ;
; 000) = 439
000 psi (12.14)
1;2
f1 = ; APi 1 ; ecr21 ; M

0 (12.15-a)
c S 1
= ;83 ; 439 = ;522 psi (12.15-b)
fti = 3 fc0 = +190p
p
(12.15-c)
f2 = ; APi 1 + ecr22 + M

0 (12.15-d)
c S 2
= ;1; 837 + 439 = ;1; 398 psi (12.15-e)
fci = :6fc0 = ;2; 400p (12.15-f)
3. Pe and M0. If we have 15% losses, then the eective force Pe is equal to (1 ; 0:15)169 = 144 k
f1 = ; APe 1 ; ecr21 ; M

0 (12.16-a)
c
S1
; 000 1 ; (5:19)(12) ; 439
= ; 144176 (12.16-b)
68:2
= ;71 ; 439 = ;510 psi (12.16-c)
f2 = ; APe 1 + ecr22 + M

0 (12.16-d)
c
S 2
144 ; 000
= ; 176 1 + 68:2 (5: 19)(12) + 439 (12.16-e)
= ;1; 561 + 439 = ;1; 122 psi (12.16-f)
note that ;71 and ;1; 561 are respectively equal to (0:85)(;83) and (0:85)(;1; 837) respectively.
2
MDL + MLL = (0:55)(40) 8 = 110 k.ft (12.17)
and corresponding stresses
f1;2 = (110)(12 ; 000) = 1; 320 (12.18)
1; 000 psi
Thus,
f = ; Pe 1 ; ec1 ; M0 + MDL + MLL

1 Ac r2 S1 (12.19-a)
Draft
= ;510 ; 1; 320 = ;1; 830 psi (12.19-b)
fcs = :45fc0 = ;2; 700p (12.19-c)
f2 = ; APe 1 + ecr22 + M0 + MSDL + MLL

(12.19-d)
c 2
= ;1; 122 + 1; 320 = +198 psi (12.19-e)
fts = 6 fc0 = +380p
p
(12.19-f)
5. The stress distribution at each one of the four stages is shown below.
-1830
-510
-522
-83
4 3 2 1
-1122
-1398
-1837
+198
12.3 Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge

20 The historical Walnut Lane Bridge (rst major prestressed concrete bridge in the USA) is made of
three spans, two side ones with lengths of 74 ft and a middle one of length 160 feet. Thirteen prestressed
cocnrete beams are placed side by side to make up a total width of 44 fet of roadway and two 9.25 feet of
sidewalk. In between the beams, and cast with them, are transverse stieners which connect the beams
laterally, Fig. 12.8
12.3.1 Cross-Section Properties

21 The beam cross section is shown in Fig. 12.9 and is simplied
Ac = 2(8" :9)(52) + (7)(61:2) = 1; 354 2 in (12.20-a)
3 2 # 3
I = 2 (52)(8 : 9) + (52)(8:9) 79 ; 8 : 9 + (7)(61:2) (12.20-b)
12 2 2 12
= = 1; 277 103 in
4 (12.20-c)
c1 = c2 = h2 = 79
2 = 39:5 in (12.20-d)
Draft
12.3 Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge 12{11
80 ft
CENTER
LINE
ELEVATION OF BEAM HALF
9.25’ 44 ’ ROAD 9.25’
SIDEWALK
BEAM CROSS SECTIONS TRANSVERSE DIAPHRAGMS
CROSS - SECTION OF BRIDGE
52"
10"
3" TRANSVERSE DIAPHRAGM
7" 10"
3’-3" 7" 6’-7"
6 1/2" SLOTS FOR CABLES

3 1/2"
7"
30"
CROSS - SECTION OF BEAM
Figure 12.8: Walnut Lane Bridge, Plan View

Draft
52"
8.9"
22.5" 7" 22.5"
6’-7"
61.2" = 79"
8.9"
SIMPLIFIED CROSS - SECTION OF BEAM
Figure 12.9: Walnut Lane Bridge, Cross Section
S1 = S2 = Ic = 1; 277 103 = 32; 329 3 (12.20-e)

39:5 in
I 1 ; 277
r2 = A = 1; 354 103 = 943: 2 in (12.20-f)
12.3.2 Prestressing
22 Each beam is prestressed by two middle parabolic cables, and two outer horizontal ones along the
anges. All four have approximately the same eccentricity at midspan of 2.65 ft. or 31.8 inch.
23 Each prestressing cable is made up 64 wires each with a diameter of 0.27 inches. Thus the total area
of prestressing steel is given by:
Awire = (d=2)2 = 3:14( 0:276 2
2 ) = 0:0598
in
2 in (12.21-a)
Acable = 64(0:0598) 2 = 3:83 2
in in (12.21-b)
2
Atotal = 4(3:83) = 15:32
in
2 in (12.21-c)
24 Whereas the ultimate tensile strength of the steel used is 247 ksi, the cables have been stressed only
to 131 ksi, thus the initial prestressing force Pi is equal to
Pi = (131) (15:32) 2 = 2; 000
ksi in k (12.22)
25 The losses are reported ot be 13%, thus the eective force is
Pe = (1 ; 0:13)(2; 000) = 1; 740
k k (12.23)

Draft
12.3 Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge 12{13
12.3.3 Loads
26 The self weight of the beam is q0 = 1:72 . k/ft
27 The concrete (density=.15 = 3 ) road has a thickness of 0.45 feet. Thus for a 44 foot width, the
k ft
total load over one single beam is

1 (44) (0:45) (0:15) = 3 = 0:23
qr;tot = 13 ft ft k ft (12.24)
k/ft
28 Similarly for the sidewalks which are 9.25 feet wide and 0.6 feet thick:
1 (2)(9:25) (0:60) (0:15) = 3 = 0:13
qs;tot = 13 ft ft k ft (12.25) k/ft
We note that the weight can be evenly spread over the 13 beams beacause of the lateral diaphragms.
29 The total dead load is
qDL = 0:23 + 0:13 = 0:36 k/ft (12.26)
30 The live load is created by the trac, and is estimated to be 94 psf, thus over a width of 62.5 feet
this gives a uniform live load of
1 (0:094) =ft2 (62:5) = 0:45
wLL = 13 k ft (12.27)
k/ft
31 Finally, the combined dead and live load per beam is

wDL+LL = 0:36 + 0:45 = 0:81 k/ft (12.28)
12.3.4 Flexural Stresses

1. Prestressing force, Pi only
f1 = ; APi 1 ; ecr21

(12.29-a)
c
= ; (21; 354
106) 1 ; (31:8)(39:5) = 490:
943: psi (12.29-b)
f2 P i
= ; A 1 + r2 ec 2

(12.29-c)
c
= ; 1; 354
(2 106) 1 + (31:8)(39:5) = ;3; 445:
943: psi (12.29-d)
2. Pi and the self weight of the beam M0 (which has to be acconted for the moment the beam cambers
due to prestressing)
2
M0 = (1:72)(160)
8 = 5; 504 k.ft(12.30)
The exural stresses will thus be equal to:
f1w;20 = SM0 = (5; 50:4)(12
943:
; 000) = 2; 043 psi (12.31)
1;2

Draft
f1 = ; APi 1 ; ecr21 ; M

0 (12.32-a)
c S 1
= 490 ; 2; 043 = ;1; 553 psi (12.32-b)
fti = 3 fc0 = +190p
p
(12.32-c)
f2 = APi 1 + ecr22 + M

0 (12.32-d)
c S 2
= ;3; 445 + 2; 043 = ;1; 402: psi (12.32-e)
fci = :6fc0 = ;2; 400p (12.32-f)
3. Pe and M0 . If we have 13% losses, then the eective force Pe is equal to (1 ; 0:13)(2 106 ) =
1:74 106lbs
f1 = ; APe 1 ; ecr21 ; M

0 (12.33-a)
c S 1
6
= ; 1; 354 1 ; :8)(39
1 : 74 10 (31
943:
:5) ; 2; 043: = ;1; 616 psi (12.33-b)
P ec M
f2 = Ae 1 + r22 + S 0 (12.33-c)
c 2
1 : 74 10 6 (31 : 8)(39: 5)

= ; 1; 354 1 + 943: + 2; 043: = ;954: psi (12.33-d)

2
MDL + MLL = (0:81)(160)
8 = 2; 592 k.ft (12.34)
and corresponding stresses
f1;2 = (2; 592)(12; 000) = 962:
32; 329 psi (12.35)
Thus,
f1 = ; APe 1 ; ecr21 ; M0 + MSDL + MLL

(12.36-a)
c 1
= ;1; 616 ; 962: = ;2; 578: psi (12.36-b)
fcs = :45fc0 = ;2; 700p (12.36-c)
f2 = APe 1 + ecr22 + M0 + MSDL + MLL

(12.36-d)
c 2
= ;954 + 962: = +8: psi (12.36-e)
fts = 6 fc0 = +380p
p
(12.36-f)

Draft
Chapter 13
Three-Hinges ARCHES
13.1 Theory
13.1.1 Uniform Horizontal Load
1 In order to optimize dead-load eciency, long span structures should have their shapes approximate the
coresponding moment diagram, hence an arch, suspended cable, or tendon conguration in a prestressed
concrete beam all are nearly parabolic, Fig. 13.1.
2 Long span structures can be built using at construction such as girders or trusses. However, for spans
in excess of 100 ft, it is often more economical to build a curved structure such as an arch, suspended
cable or thin shells.
3 Since the dawn of history, mankind has tried to span distances using arch construction. Essentially
this was because an arch required materials to resist compression only (such as stone, masonary, bricks),
and labour was not an issue.
4 The basic issues of static in arch design are illustrated in Fig. 13.2 where the vertical load is per unit
horizontal projection (such as an external load but not a self-weight). Due to symmetry, the vertical
reaction is simply V = wL 2 , and there is no shear across the midspan of the arch (nor a moment). Taking
moment about the crown,
M = Hh ; wL 2 2 4
L;L =0 (13.1)
Solving for H
2
H = wL
8h
(13.2)
We recall that a similar equation was derived for arches., and H is analogous to the C ; T forces in a
beam, and h is the overall height of the arch, Since h is much larger than d, H will be much smaller
than C ; T in a beam.
5 Since equilibrium requires H to remain constant across thee arch, a parabolic curve would theoretically
result in no moment on the arch section.
6 Three-hinged arches are statically determinate structures which shape can acomodate support settle-
ments and thermal expansion without secondary internal stresses. They are also easy to analyse through
statics.
Draft
13{2 Three-Hinges ARCHES
2
M = w L /8
w=W/L
IDEALISTIC ARCH
SHAPE GIVEN BY
MOMENT DIAGRAM
C
RISE = h M-ARM small
-C C C-T large -C
BEAM BEAM
+T T +T
SAG = h
W/2 T W/2
IDEALISTIC SUSPENSION
SHAPE GIVEN BY
MOMENT DIAGRAM
NOTE THAT THE "IDEAL" SHAPE FOR AN ARCH OR SUSPENSION

SYSTEM IS EQUIVILENT TO THE DESIGN LOAD MOMENT DIAGRAM
Figure 13.1: Moment Resisting Forces in an Arch or Suspension System as Compared to a Beam, (Lin
w
wL/2 w
h h
H H H = wL2 /8h
L L/2
R R 2
R = V 2+ H
V = wL/2 V V = wL/2
2
MCROWN = VL/2 - wL /8 - H h = 0
2
M BASE = wL /8 - H h = 0
Figure 13.2: Statics of a Three-Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)

Draft
13.1 Theory 13{3
7 An arch carries the vertical load across the span through a combination of axial forces and exural ones.
A well dimensioned arch will have a small to negligible moment, and relatively high normal compressive
stresses.
8 An arch is far more ecient than a beam, and possibly more economical and aesthetic than a truss in
carrying loads over long spans.
9 If the arch has only two hinges, Fig. 13.3, or if it has no hinges, then bending moments may exist
either at the crown or at the supports or at both places.
APPARENT LINE OF
APPARENT LINE PRESSURE WITH
OF PRESSURE WITH ARCH BENDING
ARCH BENDING INCLUDING BASE
EXCEPT AT THE BASE
w w
h’ M base
M h h’
M crown h
M base
H’ H
2
h H’<H H’<H L
H’=wl /8h’<
2
wl /8h V V V V
Figure 13.3: Two Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
10 Since H varies inversely to the rise h, it is obvious that one should use as high a rise as possible. For
a combination of aesthetic and practical considerations, a span/rise ratio ranging from 5 to 8 or perhaps
as much as 12, is frequently used. However, as the ratio goes higher, we may have buckling problems,
and the section would then have a higher section depth, and the arch advantage diminishes.
11 In a parabolic arch subjected to a uniform horizontal load there is no moment. However, in practice
an arch is not subjected to uniform horizontal load. First, the depth (and thus the weight) of an arch
is not usually constant, then due to the inclination of the arch the actual self weight is not constant.
Finally, live loads may act on portion of the arch, thus the line of action will not necessarily follow the
arch centroid. This last eect can be neglected if the live load is small in comparison with the dead load.
p 2 2
12 Since the greatest total force in the arch is at the support, (R = V + H ), whereas at the crown
we simply have H , the crown will require a smaller section than the support.
APPARENT LINE OF
APPARENT LINE PRESSURE WITH
OF PRESSURE WITH ARCH BENDING
ARCH BENDING INCLUDING BASE
EXCEPT AT THE BASE
w w
h’ M base
M h h’
M crown h
H’ M base
h H
2 H’<H H’<H L
H’=wl /8h’<
2
wl /8h V V V V
Figure 13.4: Arch Rib Stiened with Girder or Truss, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)

Draft
Example 13-25: Design of a Three Hinged Arch
adapted from (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) A long arch 100 ft high and spanning 510 ft is to be
designed for a garage and hotel building, using air rights over roads and highways.
100’
Garage and hotel Building
510’
It is necessary to determine preliminary dimensions for the size of the arch section. The arches are
spaced 60 ft on centers and carry four-story loading totaling 27 k/ft along each arch.
Solution:
1. To the initial DL and LL of 27 k/ft we add the arch own weight estimated to be 25% of the
load, thus the total load is
w = (1 + :25)27 = 33:7 33 k/ft (13.3)
2. We next determine the various forces:
2 (33)(510)2
H = wL 8h = 8(100) = 10; 700 k (13.4-a)
V = wL 2 =
(33)(510) = 8; 400
2 k (13.4-b)
p p
R = H 2 + V 2 = (10; 700)2 + (8; 400)2 = 13; 600 k(13.4-c)
3. If we use concrete-lled steel pipe for arch section, and selecting a pipe diameter of 6 ft with a
thickness of 1/2 inch, then the steel cross sectional area is
As = 2rt = Dt = (3:14)(6) (12) = (0:5) = 113 2
ft in ft in in (13.5)
4. The concrete area is
2 2
Ac = D4 = (3:14) (6)4 2 (144) 2 =ftsq = 4; 070 2
ft in in (13.6)
5. Assuming that the steel has an allowable stress of 20 ksi and the concrete 2.5 ksi (noting that the
strength of conned concrete can be as high as three times the one of fc0 ), then the load carry-
Steel Ac (113)(20)ksi = 2,260 k
ing capacity of each component is Concrete As (4; 070)(2:5)ksi = 10,180 k
Total 12,440 kip
which is o.k. for the crown section (H =10,700 k) but not quite for the abutments at R=13,600 k.
6. This process of trial and error can be repeated until a satisfactory preliminary design is achieved.
Furthermore, a new estimate for the arch self weight should be undertaken.

Draft
13.2 Case Study: Salginatobel Bridge (Maillart) 13{5
13.2 Case Study: Salginatobel Bridge (Maillart)
13.2.1 Geometry
13 The Salginatobel bridge, perhaps the most famous and in uential structure of Maillart is located in
high up in the Swiss Alps close to Shuders.
14 It is a three hinged pedestrian bridge which crosses a deep valley with a most beautiful shape which
blends perfectly with its surrounding, Fig. 13.5
20 ft 20 ft 20 ft 87.5 ft 87.5 ft 20 ft 20 ft 20 ft
42.6 ft
295 ft
Figure 13.5: Salginatobel Bridge; Dimensions, (Billington and Mark 1983)
15 The load supporting structure is the arch itself, whereas the bridge deck and the piers are transfering
the vertical load into the arch.
16 The arch cross section is not constant, and can be idealized as in Fig. 13.6
17 The basic shape of the supporting structure is a three hinged arch as shown in Fig. 13.7
18 The arch is parabolic (which as we saw an the optimal shape which minimizes exure), and the cross
section at the quarter point has an area of
At = 2[(0:62)(12:46) + (0:59)(12:17)] = 29:8 2
ft = 4; 291 in
2 (13.7)
19 Each ange has an area of

AF = (0:62)(12:46) = 7:73 2 = 1; 113 ft in
2 (13.8)
and the eective depth of the section is d = 12:79 ft, Fig. 13.8.
20 At the crown/hinge the section is rectangular with
Acr = (1:05)(11:48) = 12:05 ft
2 = 1; 735 in2 (13.9)

Draft
ACTUAL ARCH WITH

CENTROID (DOTTED LINE)
42.6 ft
IDEALIZATION
(ONE DEMENSIONAL)
295 ft
Figure 13.6: Salginatobel Bridge; Idealization, (Billington and Mark 1983)
CONCRETE
CORK PADS
HINGE
ACTUAL SPRINGING HINGE IDEALIZATION
CORK PAD
CONCRETE HINGE
HARD WOOD
ACTUAL CROWN HINGE IDEALIZATION
Figure 13.7: Salginatobel Bridge; Hinges, (Billington and Mark 1983)

Draft
42.6 ft
ACTUAL ARCH
SECTIONS
295 ft
12.46 ft
0.62 ft
d=12.79 ft
12.17 ft
13.41 ft
0.59 ft
0.62 ft
Figure 13.8: Salginatobel Bridge; Sections, (Billington and Mark 1983)

Draft
13.2.2 Loads
21The dead load WD is assumed to be linearly distributed (even though it is greater where the arch is
deeper, and the vertical members longer) and is equal to 1,680 kips, Fig. 13.9.
wD = WLD = (1(295)
; 680) = 5:7
ft
k
k/ft (13.10)
wD = 5.7 k/ft
WD = 1680 k
L = 295 ft
Figure 13.9: Salginatobel Bridge; Dead Load, (Billington and Mark 1983)
22 For the sake of simplicity we will neglect the snow load (which is actually negligible compared to the
dead load).
23 The live load is caused by trac, and we consider the case in which two trucks, each weighing 55 kips,
are placed at the quarter-point, Fig. 13.10. This placement of the load actually corresponds to one of
the most critical loading arrangement. The total vertical load is shown in Fig. 13.11
13.2.3 Reactions
24 Reactions are easily determined from equilibrium, Fig. 13.15
VD = 1; 680
2 = 840 k (13.11-a)
VL = 2 110= 55 k (13.11-b)
(+ ;) Mc = 0 (13.11-c)
(840)(147:5) ; (840)(73:75) ; HD (42:6) = 0 (13.11-d)
) HD = 1; 455 k (13.11-e)
(55)(147:5) ; (55)(73:75) ; HL (42:6) = 0 (13.11-f)
) HL = 95 k (13.11-g)
p
RD = (840) + (1; 455)2 =
2 1; 680 k (13.11-h)
p
RL = (55)2 + (95)2 = 110 k (13.11-i)

Draft
42.5 ft
ARCH ABUTMENT
P = 55 k
295 ft
ROADWAY
P = 55 k
PLAN
Figure 13.10: Salginatobel Bridge; Truck Load, (Billington and Mark 1983)

Draft
Q D = 1680 k
P = 55 k P = 55 k
42.6 ft
B B
A A
VA,D = 840 k VB,D = 840 k
DEAD LOAD LIVE LOAD
VA,L = 55 k VB,L = 55 k
295 ft
Figure 13.11: Salginatobel Bridge; Total Vertical Load, (Billington and Mark 1983)
P
C
H d=42.6 ft
A
l/4=73.75 ft
V
l/2=147.5 ft
Figure 13.12: Salginatobel Bridge; Reactions, (Billington and Mark 1983)

Draft
13.2.4 Internal Forces
25 The shear diagrams for the dead, live and combined load is shown in Fig. 13.13.
840 k
420 k +
55 k
3L/4 L/2
SHEAR FORCE
295 ft L
SHEAR FORCE
0 x 0
L/4 L/2
-55 k
420 k
295 ft
840 k
295 ft
+ 895 k =
SHEAR FORCE + 475 k
+ 420 k
0 L
x
- 420 k
- 475 k
- 895 k
295 ft
Figure 13.13: Salganitobel Bridge; Shear Diagrams, (Billington and Mark 1983)
26 At the quarter point the axial force can be expressed as:

N = H cos + V sin (13.12)
where
tan = 2Ld (13.13)
and = 16:1o at this location. The horizontal force for the dead and live loads was determined previously
as 1; 455 and 95 kips respectively, and the vertical forces are obtained from the shear diagram, thus
NDqr = (;1; 455) cos16:1o + (;420) sin 16:1o = ;1; 514 (13.14-a) k
qr
NL = (;95) cos 16:1o + (;55) sin 16:1o = ;106 (13.14-b) k
and at the crown where there is no vertical force (and = 0)

NDcr = (;1; 455) cos0o + (;420) sin 0o = ;1; 455 k (13.15-a)
NLcr = (;95) cos 0o + (;55) sin 0o = ;95 k (13.15-b)
27 The uniform dead load will not produce a moment on the parabolic arch.
28 The (point) live load will create a moment which can be decomposed into two parts,
1. Vertical load will cause a trapezoidal moment diagram, and the max moment is
MLV = P2 L4 = 112o 295
4 = 4; 050 k.ft (13.16)
2. The second is caused by the horizontal reaction, and the resulting moment is MLH = Hd(x), since
d varies parabolically, and H is constant, that second moment is parabolic with a peak value equal
to
MLV = Hdmax = (95)(32:6) = ;4; 050 (13.17) k.ft

Draft
at the quarter point
MLV = Hd1=4 = (95) 3(324 :6) = ;3; 040 k.ft (13.18)
29The overall bending moment diagram from the live loads is determined by simply adding those two
components, Fig. 13.14.
P P
L/4 L/4 + -4,050 k-ft

-3,040 k-ft
BENDING
MOMENT
x
BENDING
MOMENT
0 L/4 L/2 3L/4 L
295 ft
+ PL/4 = 4,050 k-ft
=
4,050 ft.k-3,040 ft.k = 1,010 ft.k

BENDING
MOMENT
295 ft
Figure 13.14: Salginatobel Bridge; Live Load Moment Diagram, (Billington and Mark 1983)
30 We observe that the actual shape of the arch follows this bending moment diagram for one of the
most critical live load case.
31 The maximum moment at midspan is
MLmax = 4; 050 ; 3; 040 = 1; 010 k.ft (13.19)

which would produce internal forces in the upper and lower anges equal to:
max
Fint = MLd = (1(12 ; 010) = 79
:8)
k.ft
ft
k (13.20)
13.2.5 Internal Stresses

32 The axial stresses at the springlines were determined to be ;1; 680 and ;110 kips for the dead and
live loads respectively.
33 At the support the area of concrete is Ac = 2; 240
2 , thus the axial stresses are in
D = ;(1; 680) 1; 000 = ;750

sp (13.21-a)
k
(2; 240) 2
psi
in
L = ;(110) 1; 000 = ;49

sp k
(13.21-b)
(2; 240) 2
psi
in
s spTotal = ;750 ; 49 = ;799 (13.21-c) psi

Draft
13.3 Structural Behavior of Deck-Stiened Arches 13{13
34At the crown, we repeat the same calculations, where the axial force is equal to the horizontal
component of the reactions
crD = ; (1; 455) 1; 000 = ;839
(1; 735) 2 in
k
(13.22-a)
psi
crL = (1;; 735)

(95) 1; 000 = ;55
2
k
in
psi(13.22-b)
s crTotal = ;839 ; 55 = ;894 psi (13.22-c)
35 The stresses at the quarter point are determined next. Note that we must include the eect of both
axial and exural stresses
qrtop = ; (4
(1; 514) 1; 000 + ;(106) 1; 000 ; (79)
; 291)
in
k
2 (4 ; 291) 2
k
in(1 ; 113) 2 (13.23-a)

k
in
| {z } | {z } | {z }
|
DeadLoad {z
LiveLoad }
Flexural
AxialStresses
= ;353 ; 25 ; 71 ;449 psi (13.23-b)
qrbot = ;
(4
(1; 514) 1; 000 + ;(106) 1; 000 (79)
k k
; 291){z 2 } |(4; 291){z 2 } |(1; 113)

in in
k
in
2 (13.23-c)
| {z }
|
DeadLoad {z
LiveLoad }
Flexural
AxialStresses
= ;353 ; 25 + 71 ;307 psi (13.23-d)
13.3 Structural Behavior of Deck-Stiened Arches

From (Billington 1979)
INCOMPLETE
36The issue of unsymmetrical live load on a stiened or unstiened arch was also addressed by Maillart.
As discussed in (Billington 1979) and illustrated by Fig. 13.15

Draft
wL wL
a
∼∆/10
∆
wL wL
wL a 0 wL a
wL a 2
2
wL
Unstiffened Arch Stiffened Arch
Figure 13.15: Structural Behavior of Stiened Arches, (Billington 1979)

Draft
Chapter 14
BUILDING STRUCTURES
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Beam Column Connections
1 The connection between the beam and the column can be, Fig. 14.1:
θb θb θb
θc
θc θc
M=K(θ θ )
s s b- c
θb = θc θb = θc
θ b = θc
Flexible Rigid Semi-Flexible
Figure 14.1: Flexible, Rigid, and Semi-Flexible Joints
Flexible that is a hinge which can transfer forces only. In this case we really have cantiliver action
only. In a exible connection the column and beam end moments are both equal to zero, Mcol =
Mbeam = 0. The end rotation are not equal, col = 6 beam.
Rigid: The connection is such that beam = col and moment can be transmitted through the connection.
In a rigid connection, the end moments and rotations are equal (unless there is an externally applied
moment at the node), Mcol = Mbeam = 6 0, col = beam.
Semi-Rigid: The end moments are equal and not equal to zero, but the rotation are dierent. beam =6
col, Mcol = Mbeam = 6 0. Furthermore, the dierence in rotation is resisted by the spring Mspring =
Kspring (col ; beam).
14.1.2 Behavior of Simple Frames
2 For vertical load across the beam rigid connection will reduce the maximum moment in the beam (at
the expense of a negative moment at the ends which will in turn be transferred to the columns).
Draft
14{2 BUILDING STRUCTURES
3 The advantages of a rigid connection are greater when the frame is subjected to a lateral load. Under
those conditions, the connection will stien the structure and reduce the amount of lateral de ection,
Fig. 14.2.
∆ ∆
H H
θ θ
PI PI
V V V V
PI PI
PI PI
PI PI
Figure 14.2: Deformation of Flexible and Rigid Frames Subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads, (Lin
4 Fig. 14.3 illustrates the deformation, shear, moment and axial forces in frames with dierent boundary
conditions under both vertical and horizontal loads.
14.1.3 Eccentricity of Applied Loads

5 A concentric axial force P and moment M , applied on a support sytem (foundation, columns, pre-
stressing) can be replaced by a static equivalent one in which the moment M is eliminated and the force
P applied with an eccentricity
e= M
P
(14.1)
6 The induced stresses can be decomposed into uniform (;P=L) (assuming a unit width) and linearly
varying one ( = M=S ) and the end stresses are
min = ; PL ; (14.2-a)
max = ; PL + (14.2-b)
We note that the linearly varying stress distribution must satisfy two equilibrium requirements: F = 0,
thus the neutral axis (where the stress is equal to zero) passes through the centroid of the section, and
M = 0, i.e. Mint = Mext .
7 If we seek the eccentricity ecr for which
max equals zero, then = P
L

Draft
2
W=wL, M=wL/8, M’=Ph
Frame Type Deformation Shear Moment Axial
L
w
w/2 M
-w/2
w/2 w/2
a
h P
b
p
POST AND BEAM STRUCTURE
M’
w/2 M
-w/2
w/2 w/2
c
-M’/L M’
d
M’/L
-M’/L
p
SIMPLE BENT FRAME
w/2 M
-w/2
w/2 w/2
e
-M’/L M’
f
M’/L
-M’/L
p
THREE-HINGE PORTAL
w/2 -w/2 M M
M/h
w/2 w/2
-M/h M/h
g
-M/L M’/2 M’/2
h p/2
p/2 p/2
M/L
-M/L
THREE-HINGE PORTAL
0.4M 0.4M
w/2 -w/2
0.4M/h
0.64M
0.36M/h
-0.36M/h
w/2 w/2
i
-M/L M’/2 M’/2
j p/2
p/2 p/2
M’/L
-M’/L
TWO-HINGE FRAME
0.45M 0.45M
w/2 -w/2
0.68M/h
-0.68M/h
0.55M
0.68M/h
w/2 w/2
k
M’/4
-0.5M’/L M’/4
l p/2
M’/2L
p/2 p/2
-M’/2L
RIGID FRAME
M’/4 M’/4
Figure 14.3: Deformation, Shear, Moment, and Axial Diagrams for Various Types of Portal Frames
Subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads

Draft
8 The net tensile force due to the eccentric load is
T = 12 L2 (14.3)
If we want this net tensile force to be equal and opposite to the compressive force, then

T = L4 T = PL (14.4)
= A P applied at 32 L2 from the centroid
Thus the net internal moment is
Mint = 2T 23 L2 = 2 P4 23 L2 = PL
6 (14.5)
9 To satisfy the equilibrium equation, this internal moment must be equal and opposite to the external
moment Mext = Pecr hence
PL = Pe (14.6)
6 | {zcr}
|{z}
Mint Mext
or
ecr = L6 (14.7)
in other words to avoid tensile stresses on either side, the resultant force P must be placed within the
midle third kernel, Fig. 14.4
L/2 L/2 L/3 L/3 L/3 L/3 L/6 L/3 L/3 L/3
e P
P P L/6 P
L/2 L/2 L/3 L/3 L/3 L/3 L/6 L/3 L/3 L/3
e P
P/A
+ + +
M/S
= = =
Figure 14.4: Axial and Flexural Stresses
10 This equation is fundamental in preventing tensile forces in

Draft
14.2 Buildings Structures 14{5
1. Prestressed concrete beams: If the prestressing cable is within the kernel (i.e middle third), then
there will not be any tensile stresses caused by prestressing alone.
2. Foundations: If the eccentricity is within the middle kernel, then we have compressive stresses only
under the foundation and no undesirable uplift.
3. Buildings: If the eccentricity of the vertical load is within the middle third, all columns will be
loaded under compression only.
14.2 Buildings Structures

11There are three primary types of building systems:
Wall Subsytem: in which very rigid walls made up of solid masonry, paneled or braced timber, or steel
trusses constitute a rigid subsystem. This is only adequate for small rise buildings.
Vertical Shafts: made up of four solid or trussed walls forming a tubular space structure. The tubular
structure may be interior (housing elevators, staircases) and/or exterior. Most ecient for very
high rise buildings.
Rigid Frame: which consists of linear vertical components (columns) rigidly connected to sti hor-
izontal ones (beams and girders). This is not a very ecient structural form to resist lateral
(wind/earthquake) loads.
14.2.1 Wall Subsystems

12 Whereas exterior wall provide enclosure and interior ones separation, both of them can also have a
structural role in trnsfering vertical and horizontal loads.
13 Walls are constructed out of masonry, timber concrete or steel.
14 If the wall is braced by oors, then it can provide an excellent resitance to horizontal load in the plane
of the wall (but not orthogonal to it).
15 When shear-walls subsytems are used, it is best if the center of orthogonal shear resistance is close
to the centroid of lateral loads as applied. If this is not the case, then there will be torsional design
problems.
14.2.1.1 Example: Concrete Shear Wall
From (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
16 We consider a reinforced concrete wall 20 ft wide, 1 ft thick, and 120 ft high with a vertical load of
400 k acting on it at the base. As a result of wind, we assume a uniform horizontal force of 0.8 kip/ft
of vertical height acting on the wall. It is required to compute the exural stresses and the shearing
stresses in the wall to resist the wind load, Fig. 14.5.
1. Maximum shear force and bending moment at the base
Vmax = wL = (0:8) (120) = 96
k.ft ft k (14.8-a)
Mmax = wL
2 (0:8)
= (120)2 2 = 5; 760
k.ft ft
(14.8-b)
2 2 k.ft

Draft
1’ w=0.8 k/ft
11111
00000
20’
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
W11111
00000
40011111
00000
00000
11111
k
120’
00000
11111 H=96 k;
00000
11111
00000
11111
M =5760 k’
00000
11111
60’
00000
11111
00000
11111
V
-f
HORIZONTAL
+f 2/(3d)
+F -F
M M
VERTICAL
+ FDL
+140 11111
00000
11111
00000
+ 740 PSI
+ 600
7.7’ IN TENSION
Figure 14.5: Design of a Shear Wall Subsystem, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
2. The resulting eccentricity is

eActual = M
P = (5; 760)
(400)
k.ft
k
= 14:4 ft (14.9)
3. The critical eccentricity is

ecr = L6 = (20)6 = 3:3 < eActual N.G.
ft
ft (14.10)
thus there will be tension at the base.
4. The moment of inertia of the wall is
3 (1) (20) 3
I = bh
12 = 12
ft ft
= 667 ft
4 (14.11)
5. The maximum exural stresses will be
max = Mc I =
(5; 760) (10) = (86:5)
(667) 4
k.ft
ft
ft
ksf = (600) psi (14.12)
6. The average shearing stress is

= VA = (1)(20)
(96) k
ft
2 = 4:8 ksf = 33:3 psi (14.13)
A concrete with nominal shear reinforcement can carry at least 100 psi in shear, those computed
shear streses are permissible.
Draft
7. At the base of the wall, the axial stresses will be
;(400) = (20)
= (1)(20) k
= ;140 (14.14-a)
ft
2 ksf psi
8. The maximum stresses will thus be:

1 = ;140 + 600 = 460 psi (Tension) (14.15-a)
2 = ;140 ; 600 = ;740 psi (Compression) (14.15-b)
9. The compressive stress of 740 psi can easily be sustained by concrete, as to the tensile stress of
460 psi, it would have to be resisted by some steel reinforcement.
10. Given that those stresses are service stresses and not factored ones, we adopt the WSD approach,
and use an allowable stress of 20 ksi, which in turn will be increased by 4=3 for seismic and wind
load,
all = 34 (20) = 26:7 ksi (14.16)
11. The stress distribution is linear, compression at one end, and tension at the other. The length of
the tension area is given by (similar triangles)
x = 20 ) x = 460 (20) = 7:7 (14.17)
460 460 + 740 460 + 740 ft
12. The total tensile force inside this triangular stress block is
T = 12 (460) (7:7 12) (12)
ksi in
| {z }
= 250in k (14.18)
width
13. The total amount of steel reinforcement needed is

As = (26(250) = 9:4 2
k
(14.19)
:7)
ksi
in
This amount of reinforcement should be provided at both ends of the wall since the wind or
eartquake can act in any direction. In addition, the foundations should be designed to resist
tensile uplift forces (possibly using piles).
14.2.1.2 Example: Trussed Shear Wall
17 We consider the same problem previously analysed, but use a trussed shear wall instead of a concrete
one, Fig. 14.6.
1. Using the maximum moment of 5; 760 kip-ft (Eq. 14.8-b), we can compute the compression and
tension in the columns for a lever arm of 20 ft.
F = (5;(20)
760) = 288
ft
k.ft
k (14.20)

Draft
20’
120’
W
400 k H=96 k
60’
1
24’
1.2
~1.6
+FM -F
M
Figure 14.6: Trussed Shear Wall
2. If we now add the eect of the 400 kip vertical load, the forces would be
C = ; (400) 2 ; 288 = ;488
k
k (14.21-a)
T = ; (400) 2 + 288 = 88
k
k (14.21-b)
3. The force in the diagonal which must resist a base shear of 96 kip is (similar triangles)
p p
F = (20)2 + (24)2 ) F = (20)2 + (24)2 (96) = 154 (14.22)
96 20 20 k
4. The design could be modied to have no tensile forces in the columns by increasing the width of
the base (currently at 20 ft).
14.2.2 Shaft Systems

18 Vertical shear-resisting shafts in buildings act as a tubular section and generally have a rectangular
cross section. If there is only one shaft, it is generally located in the center and houses the elevators. If
there are many shafts, then they should be symmetrically arranged.
19 If the shaft is relatively short and wide, with an aspect ratio under 1 or 2, then the dominant strcutral
action is that of a sti shear resisting tube. If the aspect ratio is between 3 and 5, then the shear forces
may not be the controlling criterion, and exure dominates.

Draft
14.2.2.1 Example: Tube Subsystem
20 With reference to Fig. 14.7, the reinforced concrete shaft is 20 ft square, 120 ft high, and with 1 ft
~ 20 ’
20 ’ 20 ’ ~ 20 ’
111111
000000
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
w = 0.8 k/ft 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
120 ’
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
H = 96 k
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
N.A.
60 ’
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
Figure 14.7: Design Example of a Tubular Structure, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
thick walls. It is subjected to a lateral force of 0.8 k/ft.
1. Comparing this structure with the one analysed in Sect. 14.2.1.1 the total vertical load acting on
the base is now increased to
V = 4(400) = 1; 600 k (14.23)
2. As previously, the maximum moment and shear are 5; 760 and 96 respectively. k.ft k
3. The moment of inertia for a tubular section is

3 (20)(20)3 (18)(18)3
I = bd
12 = 12 ; 12 = 4; 600
4 (14.24) ft
4. The maximum exural stresses:

fl = MCI = (5; 760) (20=2) = 12:5 = 87
k.ft
(4; 600) 4 ft
ft
(14.25)
ksf psi
5. The average shear stress is

= VA = 2(20)(1)
(96) k
ft
2 = 2:4 ksf = 17 psi (14.26)
6. The vertical load of 1,600 k produces an axial stress of

;(1; 600) = ;20
ax = PA = (4(20)(1) k
= ;140 (14.27)
2 ft
ksf psi

Draft
7. The total stresses are thus
= ax + fl (14.28-a)
1 = ;140 + 87 = ;53 psi (14.28-b)
2 = ;140 ; 87 = ;227 psi (14.28-c)
thus we do not have any tensile stresses, and those stresses are much better than those obtained
from a single shear wall.
14.2.3 Rigid Frames

21 Rigid frames can carry both vertical and horizontal loads, however their analysis is more complex
than for tubes.
22 The rigorous and exact analysis of a rigid frame can only be accomplished through a computer analysis.
However, for preliminary design it is often sucient to perform approximate analyses.
23 There are two approximate methods for the analysis of rigid frames subjected to lateral loads: 1)
Portal and 2) Cantilever method.
24 The portal frame method is based on the following major assumptions, Fig. 14.8:
P P P
L/2
h/2
h
PI H 1=P/2 H 2=P/2
h/2
V1 =P/(2L) V2 =P/(2L)
Figure 14.8: A Basic Portal Frame, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
1. Each bay of a bent acts as a separate \portal" frame consisting of two adjacent columns and the
connecting girder.
2. The point of in ection (zero moment) for all columns is at midheight
3. The point of in ection for all girders is at midspan.
4. For a multibay frame, the shears on the interior columns are equal and the shear in each exterior
column is half the shear of an interior column.
This method will be discussed in more details in the following section.
14.3 Approximate Analysis of Buildings

25 Despite the widespread availability of computers, approximate methods of analysis are justied by
1. Inherent assumption made regarding the validity of a linear elastic analysis vis a vis of an ultimate
failure design.

Draft
14.3 Approximate Analysis of Buildings 14{11
2. Ability of structures to redistribute internal forces.
3. Uncertainties in load and material properties
26 Vertical loads are treated separately from the horizontal ones.
27 We use the design sign convention for moments (+ve tension below), and for shear (ccw +ve).
28 Assume girders to be numbered from left to right.
29 In all free body diagrams assume positivee forces/moments, and take algeebraic sums.
14.3.1 Vertical Loads

30 The girders at each oor are assumed to be continuous beams, and columns are assumed to resist the
resulting unbalanced moments from the girders.
31 Basic assumptions
1. Girders at each oor act as continous beams supporting a uniform load.

2. In ection points are assumed to be at
(a) One tenth the span from both ends of each girder.
(b) Mid-height of the columns
3. Axial forces and deformation in the girder are negligibly small.
4. Unbalanced end moments from the girders at each joint is distributed to the columns above and
below the oor.
32 Based on the rst assumption, all beams are statically determinate and have a span, Ls equal to 0.8
the original length of the girder, L. (Note that for a rigidly connected member, the in ection point is
at 0.211 L, and at the support for a simply supported beam; hence, depending on the nature of the
connection one could consider those values as upper and lower bounds for the approximate location of
the hinge).
33 End forces are given by
Maximum positive moment at the center of each beam is, Fig. 14.9
M + = 18 wL2s = w 81 (0:8)2 L2 = 0:08wL2 (14.29)
Maximum negative moment at each end of the girder is given by, Fig. 14.9
M left = M rgt = ; w2 (0:1L)2 ; w2 (0:8L)(0:1L) = ;0:045wL2 (14.30)
Girder Shear are obtained from the free body diagram, Fig. 14.10
V lft = wL
2 V rgt = ; wL
2
(14.31)

Draft
w
M lft Mrgt
Vrgt
Vlft
0.1L 0.1L
0.8L
L
Figure 14.9: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Girder Moments
Pabove
Vrgti-1 Vlfti
Pbelow
Figure 14.10: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Axial Forces

Draft
Column axial force is obtained by summing all the girder shears to the axial force transmitted by the
column above it. Fig. 14.10
P dwn = P up + Virgt
;1 ; Vi
lft (14.32)
Column Moment are obtained by considering the free body diagram of columns Fig. 14.11
h/2
h/2
Mcolabove
Mi-1lft Mi-1rgt Milft Mirgt
Vi-1lft Vi-1rgt Vilft Virgt
Mcolbelow
Li-1 Li
h/2
h/2
Figure 14.11: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Moments
bot ; M rgt + M lft

M top = Mabove M bot = ;top (14.33)
i;1 i
Column Shear Points of in ection are at mid-height, with possible exception when the columns on
the rst oor are hinged at the base, Fig. 14.11
top
V = Mh (14.34)
2
Girder axial forces are assumed to be negligible eventhough the unbalanced column shears above and
below a oor will be resisted by girders at the oor.
14.3.2 Horizontal Loads

34We must dierentiate between low and high rise buildings.
Low rise buidlings, where the height is at least samller than the hrizontal dimension, the de ected
shape is characterized by shear deformations.
High rise buildings, where the height is several times greater than its least horizontal dimension, the
de ected shape is dominated by overall exural deformation.

Draft
14.3.2.1 Portal Method
35Low rise buildings under lateral loads, have predominantly shear deformations. Thus, the approximate
analysis of this type of structure is based on
1. Distribution of horizontal shear forces.
2. Location of in ection points.
36 The portal method is based on the following assumptions
1. In ection points are located at
(a) Mid-height of all columns above the second oor.
(b) Mid-height of oor columns if rigid support, or at the base if hinged.
(c) At the center of each girder.
2. Total horizontal shear at the mid-height of all columns at any oor level will be distributed among
these columns so that each of the two exterior columns carry half as much horizontal shear as each
interior columns of the frame.
37Forces are obtained from
Column Shear is obtained by passing a horizontal section through the mid-height of the columns at
each oor and summing the lateral forces above it, then Fig. 14.12
H/2 H H H/2
Figure 14.12: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Shear
P lateral
V ext = 2No.F of bays V int = 2V ext (14.35)
Column Moments at the end of each column is equal to the shear at the column times half the height
of the corresponding column, Fig. 14.12
M top = V h2 M bot = ;M top (14.36)

Draft
h/2
h/2
above
Mcol
Mi-1lft Mirgt
Mi-1rgt Milft
Vi-1rgt Vilft Virgt

Vi-1lft
Mcolbelow
Li-1/2 Li-1/2 Li/2 Li/2
h/2
h/2
Figure 14.13: ***Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Girder Moment
Girder Moments is obtained from the columns connected to the girder, Fig. 14.13
above ; M below + M rgt
Milft = Mcol Mirgt = ;Milft (14.37)
col i;1
Girder Shears Since there is an in ection point at the center of the girder, the girder shear is obtained
by considering the sum of moments about that point, Fig. 14.13
V lft = ; 2LM V rgt = V lft (14.38)
Column Axial Forces are obtained by summing girder shears and the axial force from the column
above, Fig. ??
Pabove
Vrgti-1 Vlfti
Pbelow
Figure 14.14: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Axial Force
P = P above + P rgt + P lft (14.39)
Example 14-26: Approximate Analysis of a Frame subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads

Draft
0.25K/ft
K
15 14
5 12 6 13 7 8
0.50K/ft 14’
K
30 9 10 11
1 2 3 4 16’
20’ 30’ 24’

Figure 14.15: Example; Approximate Analysis of a Building
Draw the shear, and moment diagram for the following frame. Solution:
Vertical Loads
1. Top Girder Moments
= ;0:045w12L212 = ;(0:045)(0:25)(20)2
M12lft =; 4:5 k.ft
M12cnt
= 0:08w12L212 = (0:08)(0:25)(20)2 = 8:0 k.ft
M12rgt
= M12lft =; 4:5 k.ft
= ;0:045w13L213 = ;(0:045)(0:25)(30)2
M13lft =; 10:1 k.ft
M13cnt
= 0:08w13L213 = (0:08)(0:25)(30)2 = 18:0 k.ft
M13rgt
= M13lft =; 10:1 k.ft
= ;0:045w14L214 = ;(0:045)(0:25)(24)2
M14lft =; 6:5 k.ft
M14cnt
= 0:08w14L214 = (0:08)(0:25)(24)2 = 11:5 k.ft
M14rgt
= M14lft =; 6:5 k.ft
2. Bottom Girder Moments

M9lft = ;0:045w9L29 = ;(0:045)(0:5)(20)2 =; 9:0 k.ft
M9cnt = 0:08w9 L29 = (0:08)(0:5)(20)2 = 16:0 k.ft
M9rgt = M9lft =; 9:0 k.ft
M10lft = ;0:045w10L210 = ;(0:045)(0:5)(30)2 =; 20:3 k.ft
M10cnt = 0:08w10 L210 = (0:08)(0:5)(30)2 = 36:0 k.ft
M10rgt = M11lft =; 20:3 k.ft
M11lft = ;0:045w12L212 = ;(0:045)(0:5)(24)2 =; 13:0 k.ft
M11cnt = 0:08w12 L212 = (0:08)(0:5)(24)2 = 23:0 k.ft
M11rgt = M12lft =; 13:0 k.ft
3. Top Column Moments

M5top = +M12lft =; 4:5 k.ft
M5bot = ;M5top = 4:5 k.ft
M6top = ;M12rgt + M13lft = ;(;4:5) + (;10:1) =; 5:6 k.ft
M7top = ;M13rgt + M14lft = ;(;10:1) + (;6:5) =; 3:6 k.ft
M8top = ;M14rgt = ;(;6:5) = 6:5 k.ft
M8bot = ;M8top =; 6:5 k.ft

Draft
4. Bottom Column Moments
M1top = +M5bot + M9lft = 4:5 ; 9:0 =; 4:5 k.ft
M2top = +M6bot ; M9rgt + M10lft = 5:6 ; (;9:0) + (;20:3) =; 5:6 k.ft
M3top = +M7bot ; M10rgt + M11lft = ;3:6 ; (;20:3) + (;13:0) = 3:6 k.ft
M4top = +M8bot ; M11rgt = ;6:5 ; (;13:0) = 6:5 k.ft
0.25K/ft
5 12 6 13 7 14 8
0.50K/ft 14’
9 10 11
1 2 3 4 16’
20’ 30’ 24’
+8.0’k +18.0’k +11.5’k

k
-4.5’ -4.5’k
-10.1’k -10.1’k -6.5’
k
-6.5’k
+16.0’k k
+23.0’k
+32.0’
-9.0’k -9.0’k k -13.0’
k
-13.0’k
-20.2’k -20.2’
-4.5’k -5.6’k +3.6’k +6.5’k
+4.5’k +5.6’k -3.6’k -6.5’k

k k
-4.5’k -5.6’ +3.6’ +6.5’ k
+4.5’k +5.6’k -3.6’k -6.5’k
Figure 14.16: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Vertical Loads
5. Top Girder Shear

V12lft = w12 L12 = (0:25)(20) = 2:5
2 2 k
V12rgt = ;V12lft =; 2:5k
V13lft = w13 L13 = (0:25)(30) = 3:75

2 2 k
V13rgt = ;V13lft =; 3:75 k
V14lft = w14 L14 = (0:25)(24) = 3:0

2 2 k
V14rgt = ;V14lft =; 3:0k

Draft
6. Bottom Girder Shear
V9lft = w9 L9 = (0:5)(20) = 5:00
2 2 k
V9rgt = ;V9 lft =; 5:00 k
V10lft = w10 L10 = (0:5)(30) = 7:50

2 2 k
V10rgt = ;V10lft =; 7:50 k
V11lft = w11 L11 = (0:5)(24) = 6:00

2 2 k
V11rgt = ;V11lft =; 6:00 k
7. Column Shears
V5 = M5top = ;4:5 = ; 0:64 k
H5 14
2
2top
V6 = M6 = ;5:6 = ; 0:80 k
H6 14
2
2
V7 = M7top = 3:6 = 0:52 k
H 7 14
2
2
V8 = M8top = 6:5 = 0:93 k
H8 14
2
2
V1 = M1top = ;4:5 = ; 0:56 k
H1 16
2
2
V2 = M2top = ;5:6 = ; 0:70 k
H 2 16
2
2
V3 = M3top = 3:6 = 0:46
H3 16
2
k
2
V4 = M4top = 6:5 = 0:81
H 4 16
2
k
2
K
+2.5K +3.75 +3.0 K
-2.5K -3.75K
K
-3.0K
+5.0K +7.5 +6.0 K
-5.0K -6.0K
-7.5K
-0.64K -0.80K +0.51K +0.93K
-0.56K -0.70K +0.45K +0.81K
Figure 14.17: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Shears Due to Vertical Loads

Draft
8. Top Column Axial Forces
P5 = V12lft = 2:50 k
P6 = ;V12rgt + V13lft = ;(;2:50) + 3:75 = 6:25 k
P7 = ;V13rgt
rgt
+ V14lft = ;(;3:75) + 3:00 = 6:75 k
P8 = ;V14 = 3:00 k
9. Bottom Column Axial Forces

P1 = P5 + V9lft = 2:50 + 5:0 = 7:5 k
P2 = P6 ; V10rgt + V9lft = 6:25 ; (;5:00) + 7:50 = 18:75 k
P3 = P7 ; V11rgt + V10lft = 6:75 ; (;7:50) + 6:0 = 20:25 k
P4 = P8 ; V11rgt = 3:00 ; (;6:00) = 9:00 k
Horizontal Loads, Portal Method
1. Column Shears 15
V5 = (2)(3) = 2:5 k
V6 = 2(V5 ) = (2)(2:5) = 5k
V7 = 2(V5 ) = (2)(2:5) = 5k
V8 = V5 = 2:5 k
V1 = 15+30 = 7:5
(2)(3) k
V2 = 2(V1 ) = (2)(7:5) = 15 k
V3 = 2(V1 ) = (2)(2:5) = 15 k
V4 = V1 = 7:5 k
2. Top Column Moments

M5top = V1 H5 = (2:5)(14) = 17:5
2 top 2 k.ft
M5bot = ;M5 =; 17:5 k.ft
M6top = V6 H6 = (5)(14) = 35:0

2 2 k.ft
M6bot = ;upM6top =; 35:0 k.ft
M7top = V7 H7 = (5)(14) = 35:0

2 2 k.ft
M7bot = ;upM7top =; 35:0 k.ft
M8top = V8 H8 = (2:5)(14) = 17:5

2 top 2 k.ft
M8bot = ;M8 =; 17:5 k.ft
3. Bottom Column Moments

M1top = V1dwn H1 = (7:5)(16) = 60
2 top 2 k.ft
M1bot = ;dwn
M1 =; 60 k.ft
M2top = V2 H2 = (15)(16) = 120

2 2 k.ft
M2bot = M2top
;dwn =; 120 k.ft
M3top = V3 H3 = (15)(16) = 120

2 2 k.ft
M3bot = M3top
;dwn =; 120 k.ft
M4top = V4 H4 = (7:5)(16) = 60
2 2 k.ft
M4bot = ;M4top =; 60 k.ft

Draft
Approximate Analysis Vertical Loads APROXVER.XLS Victor E. Saouma
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q
1
2 L1 L2 L3
3 Height Span 20 30 24
4 14 Load 0.25 0.25 0.25
5 16 Load 0.5 0.5 0.5
6 MOMENTS
7 Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3
8 Col Beam Column Beam Column Beam Col
9 Lft Cnt Rgt Lft Cnr Rgt Lft Cnt Rgt
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA
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10 AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAA
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12 4.5 AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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13 AAAAAAAA
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-6.5
16 SHEAR
17 Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3
19 Lft Rgt Lft Rgt Lft Rgt
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21 -0.64 AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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23 -0.56 AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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24 AXIAL FORCE
26 Col
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Beam Column Beam Col
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27 AAAAAAAA
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28 2.50 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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Figure 14.18: Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Spread-Sheet Format

Approximate Analysis Vertical Loads APROXVER.XLS Victor E. Saouma
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q
Draft
Victor Saouma
1
2 L1 L2 L3
3 Height Span 20 30 24
4 14 Load 0.25 0.25 0.25
5 16 Load 0.5 0.5 0.5
6 MOMENTS
7 Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3
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14.3 Approximate Analysis of Buildings
16 SHEAR
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Figure 14.19: Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Equations in Spread-Sheet

Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects
14{21
Draft
4. Top Girder Moments
M12lft = M5top = 17:5 k.ft
M12rgt = ;M12lft =; 17:5 k.ft
M13lft = M12rgt + M6top = ;17:5 + 35 = 17:5 k.ft
M13rgt = ;M13lft =; 17:5 k.ft
M14lft = M13rgt + M7top = ;17:5 + 35 = 17:5 k.ft
M14rgt = ;M14lft =; 17:5 k.ft
5. Bottom Girder Moments

M9lft = M1top ; M5bot = 60 ; (;17:5) = 77:5 k.ft
M9rgt = ;M9lft =; 77:5 k.ft
M10lft = M9rgt + M2top ; M6bot = ;77:5 + 120 ; (;35) = 77:5 k.ft
M10rgt = ;M10lft =; 77:5 k.ft
M11lft = M10rgt + M3top ; M7bot = ;77:5 + 120 ; (;35) = 77:5 k.ft
M11rgt = ;M11lft =; 77:5 k.ft
6. Top Girder Shear

; 2LM1212 = ; (2)(17:5) = ;1:75
lft
V12lft = 20 k
V12rgt = +V12 lft = ;1:75 k
V13lft = 2 M (2)(17
; L13 = ; 30 = ;1:17
lft
13 : 5) k
V13rgt = +V13lft = ;1:17 k
V14lft = 2 M (2)(17:
; L1414 = ; 24 = ;1:46
lft 5) k
V14rgt = +V14lft = ;1:46 k
7. Bottom Girder Shear

= ; 2ML912 = ; (2)(77 :5) = ;7:75
lft
V9lft 20 k
V9rgt
= +V9lft = ;7:75 k
= ; 2LM1010 = ; (2)(77:5) = ;5:17

lft
V10lft 30 k
V10rgt
= +V10lft = ;5:17 k
2 M
= ; L11 = ; 24
V11lft
lft
11 (2)(77: 5) = ;6:46 k
V11rgt
= +V11lft = ;6:46 k
8. Top Column Axial Forces (+ve tension, -ve compression)

P5 = ;V12lft = ;(;1:75) k
P6 = +V12rgt ; V13lft = ;1:75 ; (;1:17) = ;0:58 k
P7 = +V13rgt ; V14lft = ;1:17 ; (;1:46) = 0:29 k
P8 = V14rgt = ;1:46 k
9. Bottom Column Axial Forces (+ve tension, -ve compression)

P1 = P5 + V9lft = 1:75 ; (;7:75) = 9:5 k
P2 = P6 + V10rgt + V9lft = ;0:58 ; 7:75 ; (;5:17) = ;3:16 k
P3 = P7 + V11rgt + V10lft = 0:29 ; 5:17 ; (;6:46) = 1:58 k
P4 = P8 + V11rgt = ;1:46 ; 6:46 = ;7:66 k
Design Parameters On the basis of the two approximate analyses, vertical and lateral load, we now
seek the design parameters for the frame, Table 14.2.

Draft
15K 14
5 12 6 13 7 8
14’
30K 9 10 11
1 2 3 4 16’
20’ 30’ 24’
+17.5’K +35’K +35’K +17.5’K
-17.5’K -35’K -35’K -17.5’K

+60’K +120’K +120’K +60’K
-60’K -120’K -120’K -60’K
+17.5’K +17.5’K +17.5’K

-17.5K -17.5K -17.5K
+77.5’K +77.5’K +77.5’K
-77.5’K -77.5’K -77.5’K
Figure 14.20: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Lateral Loads

Draft
Portal Method PORTAL.XLS Victor E. Saouma
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S
1 PORTAL METHOD
2 # of Bays 3 L1 L2 L3
3 20 30 24
4 MOMENTS
5 # of Storeys 2 Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3
6 Force Shear Col Beam Column Beam Column Beam Col
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AAAA -1.46 -1.46AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA A
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAA
AAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAA
19 2.50 AAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA
5.00 AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA 5.00 AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 2.50
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
20 2.50 AAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA 5.00 AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA 5.00 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAA 2.50
A AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA A -7.75 -7.75 AAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA
21 AAAAA AAA -5.17 -5.17 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAA -6.46 -6.46AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
22 7.50 AAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA 15.00 AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA 15.00 AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 7.50
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
15.00 AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
15.00 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
7.50
24 AXIAL FORCE
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
27 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAA
AAAA
A 0.00 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAA
AAA
AAA
AAAAAAA 0.00 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA 0.00 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAA
AAAA
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
28 1.75 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
-0.58
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
0.29
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
-1.46
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA A
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAA
29 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAAA
0.00 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
0.00 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
0.00 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
30 9.50 AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
-3.17 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
1.58 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
-7.92
Figure 14.21: Portal Method; Spread-Sheet Format

Draft
Portal Method PORTAL.XLS Victor E. Saouma
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S
A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A AA
AA A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A
1 PORTAL METHOD A A A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A A A
A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A AA
AA A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A
A
AAAAAAAAA
A A A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A3 A AL1 A
A AAAAAAAA A A
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AA A AA A A A AAAAA A A
2 AAAA
# of Bays L2 L3 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA A AAAA
AAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAA
A A AAAA
AA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
A AAAA
AAAAAAAA
A AAAA
AAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AA AAAA
A AAAA
A AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
A
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
3 A A A A A A A AA A A A A
A A A A A A20 A A AA30 A A A 24 A
A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A AA
AA A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A
4 A A A A A A A MOMENTS A A A A AA A A A A A A
A A A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A A A
A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAA A A A AA A A A A A
A A A A A2 A A A AA A A Bay 3 AA A A
5 # of Storeys A A A A A Bay 1 A A A Bay 2 AA A A A A
A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAA A A A AA A A A A A
A A A A A
6 Force A A Shear A
A Col Beam A
A Column Beam A
A Column Beam A
A Col
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
7 H Lat. AAA Tot Ext AInt
A
A AAAAAAAAAAA
Lft A Rgt
A
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
Lft ARgt
A
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
Lft A Rgt
A
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A A
A
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAA=+H9
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAA=+J8+K9
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAA =+N8+O9
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AA
AAAAAA
8 A A AAAA AAAA AAAA =-I8 AAAA AAAA AAAA =-M8 AAAA AAAA AAAA =-Q8 AAAA AAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
9 AAAA
H1AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 15 AAAAAAAAAA
14 AAAAA =+C9 =+D9/(2*$F$2)
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A=2*E9
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+E9*B9/2 AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA=+F9*B9/2
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA =+K9
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA=+H9
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
10 A
A A
A =-H9 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=-K9
AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+K10
AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+H10
AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAA
A A AAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A A
A
AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA
AAAA=+H12-H10 =-I11 AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAA=+K12-K10+J11 =-M11 AAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAA =+O12-O10+N11 =-Q11 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA AA
11 A A AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAA
AA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA
12 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
H2 16 A30 A =SUM($C$9:C12) A=+D12/(2*$F$2)
A A=2*E12
A =+E12*B12/2 AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA=+F12*B12/2
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA =+K12
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA=+H12
13 A
A A
A =-H12 AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA
AAAA=-K12
AAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA
AAAA AA =+K13
AAAAAA
AA
AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA
AAAA AAA=+H13
AAAAAAA
AAA
A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A AAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
14 A A A A A A A SHEAR A A A A AA A A A A A A
A A A A A A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A A A A A A
A A
A
A
A
A
A
A AA
AA
A A
A
A A A A
A A A A A A A A A AA A
A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
15 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
Bay 1 A
A
A
A
A
A
Bay 2 AAAA
A
A
Bay 3
A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A
16 A A A A A A Col Beam Column Beam Column Beam Col
A A A A A A A
A A A A A A A
17 A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A Lft Rgt Lft Rgt A
A Lft Rgt
A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
18 A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA=-2*I8/I$3 =+I18 AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA=-2*M8/M$3 =+M18AAAA AAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA =-2*Q8/Q$3
AAAAAAA
AAA =+Q18AAAA AAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AA
AAAAAA
AA
A A A A A A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA
A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+F9
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+F9
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+E9
19 A A A A A A =+E9 AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+K19 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+O19 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+S19
20 A A A A A A
=+H19 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=-2*I11/I$3 =+I21 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=-2*M11/M$3 =+M21AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =-2*Q11/Q$3
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
21 A A A A A A AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA =+Q21AAAA AAAAAAAAAA
A A A A A A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
22 A A A A A A =+E12 AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA=+F12 AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AA =+F12 AAAAAAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAAA AAA =+E12
A A A A A A
A A A A A A AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
23 A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A =+H22 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+K22
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+O22
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+S22
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
A A A A A A A AAAA
A A A A AAAA
AA A A A AAAA
A A A
A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A
A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A AA
AA A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A
24 A A A A A A A AXIAL FORCE A A A A AA A A A A A A
A A A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A A A
A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A
A
A A
A A
A AA
AA A
A
25 A A A A A A Bay 1 A A A Bay 2 AA A Bay 3
A A A A A A
A A A A A A
26 A A A A A A
Col Beam Column Beam Column Beam Col
A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
27 A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A
AAAAAAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA0
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA0
AAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA 0
AAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AA
AAAAAA
AA
A A A A A A AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA
28 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
AAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
=-I18
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA=+J18-M18
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA =+N18-Q18
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA=+R18
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A A A A AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAAA0
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAA0
AAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA AAA 0
AAAAAAA AAAAAAAA AA
AAAAAA
29 A A A A A A
A A A A A A
AAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA AAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
30 A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A =+H28-I21 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+K28+J21-M21
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+O28+N21-Q21
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+S28+R21
Figure 14.22: Portal Method; Equations in Spread-Sheet

Draft
Mem. Vert. Hor. Design

Values
Moment 4.50 60.00 64.50
1 Axial 7.50 9.50 17.00
Shear 0.56 7.50 8.06
Moment 5.60 120.00 125.60
2 Axial 18.75 15.83 34.58
Shear 0.70 15.00 15.70
Moment 3.60 120.00 123.60
3 Axial 20.25 14.25 34.50
Shear 0.45 15.00 15.45
Moment 6.50 60.00 66.50
4 Axial 9.00 7.92 16.92
Shear 0.81 7.50 8.31
Moment 4.50 17.50 22.00
5 Axial 2.50 1.75 4.25
Shear 0.64 2.50 3.14
Moment 5.60 35.00 40.60
6 Axial 6.25 2.92 9.17
Shear 0.80 5.00 5.80
Moment 3.60 35.00 38.60
7 Axial 6.75 2.63 9.38
Shear 0.51 5.00 5.51
Moment 6.50 17.50 24.00
8 Axial 3.00 1.46 4.46
Shear 0.93 2.50 3.43
Table 14.1: Columns Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads

Draft
14.4 Lateral De ections 14{27
Mem. Vert. Hor. Design
Values
-ve Moment 9.00 77.50 86.50
9 +ve Moment 16.00 0.00 16.00
Shear 5.00 7.75 12.75
-ve Moment 20.20 77.50 97.70
10 +ve Moment 36.00 0.00 36.00
Shear 7.50 5.17 12.67
-ve Moment 13.0 77.50 90.50
11 +ve Moment 23.00 0.00 23.00
Shear 6.00 6.46 12.46
-ve Moment 4.50 17.50 22.00
12 +ve Moment 8.00 0.00 8.00
Shear 2.50 1.75 4.25
-ve Moment 10.10 17.50 27.60
13 +ve Moment 18.00 0.00 18.00
Shear 3.75 1.17 4.92
-ve Moment 6.50 17.50 24.00
14 +ve Moment 11.50 0.00 11.50
Shear 3.00 1.46 4.46
Table 14.2: Girders Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads
14.4 Lateral De ections

38 Even at schematic or preliminary stages of design, it is important to estimate the lateral de ections
of tall buildings for the following reasons
1. Lateral de ections are often limited by code requirements, for example < h=500 where h is the
height of the story or of the building. This is important because occupants should not experience
uncomfortable horizontal movements.
2. A building that de ects severly under lateral forces may have damage problems associated with
vibration (as with vertical defelctions of beams).
3. Through the evaluation of de ection, one may also get some idea of the relative horizontal load
carried by the various vertical subsystems in a building (i.e. how much is carried by the shaft
compared to the frames). Since all systems are connected, they must move together and through
their stiness (deformation per unit load) we can determine the contribution of each subsystem.
14.4.1 Short Wall

39 In short structures (as with short beams), shear de ections, Fig. 14.23 dominates. For a concentrated
load
1:2V h
GA
(14.40)
where for concrete and steel G 25 E .

Draft
000000000
111111111 ∆
V
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111 h
000000000
111111111
WALL ELEVATION
Figure 14.23: Shear Deformation in a Short Building, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
14.4.2 Tall Wall

40 Alternatively, in a tall building exural deformations, Fig. 14.24 are predominant. dominates.
∆
111111
000000
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
w
000000
111111
000000
111111
h
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
WALL (OR TUBE) ELEVATION
Figure 14.24: Flexural Deformation in a Tall Building, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
4
8wh
EI
(14.41)
and the moment of inertia I = bh12 for rectangular sections.

3
14.4.3 Walls and Lintel

41 When two slender walls are connected by (heavy) lintels, the entire subsystem can be made to act
as one cantilever supported by the foundations and de ections will be small. However if we have light
lintels, their deformation is larger than those of the walls, Fig. 14.25.
Draft
LINTELS ∆
0000
1111 111
000
L
0000
1111
0000
1111 000
111
000
111
0000
1111 000
111
0000
1111
0000
1111 000
111
000
111
0000
1111 000
111 LINTEL BENDING
w
0000
1111
0000
1111 000
111 α h
0000
1111 000
111
000
111
0000
1111
0000
1111 000
111
000
111
α
α
0000
1111 000
111
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
a
WALL AND LINTEL
2 WALLS CONNECTED
DEFORMATION
BY LINTELS
Figure 14.25: De ection in a Building Structure Composed of Two Slender Walls and Lintels, (Lin and
Stotesbury 1981)
42 In this case de ections can be estimated from:

2
Mmax = wh2 (14.42-a)
T = C = Ma (14.42-b)
V=Lintel # of TLintels (14.42-c)
V L2
wall = lintel 12 (14.42-d)
EI
(14.42-e)
and
h (14.43)
14.4.4 Frames
43 De ection of a rigid frame is essentially caused by shear between stories which produces vertical shears
in the girders. From the portal method we can estimate those deformations, Fig. 14.26.
44 The deformation for the rst story at the exterior joint can be approximated from
VcolE h 3
col = 12 EIcolE (14.44-a)
2 2
gdr = V12gdr L h 2VcolE Lh
EIgdr = 12EIgdr (14.44-b)
2
totE = colE + gdr = Vcol
12E
Eh h 2L
IcolE + Ig dr (14.44-c)

Draft
∆ DUE TO GI
DUE TO CO
h STORIES
α θ
α
OVERALL FRAME ELEVATION DEFORMATION OF ONE BE
Vcol Vcol
h/2 L/2 h/2

V gdr
L/2 L/2
Vgdr h/2 Vgd
h/2
Vcol
MOMENT EQUILIBRIUM V
EXTERIOR JOINT INTERIOR JOINT
Vgdr (L/2)=Vcol (h) Vgdr (L)=Vcol (h)
Figure 14.26: Portal Method to Estimate Lateral Deformation in Frames, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
45 For the interior joint:

VcolI h 3
col = 12 EIcolI (14.45-a)
gdr = V12gdr L2 h = 2VcolI Lh2 (14.45-b)

EIgdr 12EIgdr
V col h 2 h L

I
totI = colI + gdr = 12E I + I dr (14.45-c)
colI g
and the total displacement will be
tot = n 2tot (14.46)
where n is the number of stories, and tot is for either the interior or exterior joints.
46 The two major sources of lateral de ection are the bending of column in resisting horizontal shear
and girders in resisting vertical shear, Fig. 14.27.
47 A vertical unsymmetric load will cause lateral de ection in frames, Fig. 14.28.
14.4.5 Trussed Frame

48 The cantilever de ection due to column shortening and lengthening (produced by overturning mo-
ment) is usually of secondary importance until the building is some 40 stories or higher,Fig. ??.
49 The total de ection at C is given by
= PPL
AE
(14.47)

Draft
∆S ∆M ∆S + ∆M
ELONGATION
SHORTENING
SHEAR EFFECT MOMENT EFFECT OVERALL EFFECT
(RACKING) (OVERALL BENDING) (RACKING + BENDING)
Figure 14.27: Shear and Flexural De ection of a Rigid Frame Subsystem, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
SIDE SWAY
P
Figure 14.28: Side-Sway De ection from Unsymmetrical Vertical Load, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
∆c ∆
H1 C C 1 δT
δc
H2
ΣH h
H3
H4 a
P1
a
T C
Figure 14.29: Axial Elongation and Shortening of a Truss Frame, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)

Draft
where: P is the force in any member due to loading on the whole system, L is the length of the member,
A and E the corresponding cross sectional area and modulus of elasticity, P the force in the same member
due to a unit (1) force applied in the direction of the de ection sought, and at the point in question.
50 Alternatively, we can neglect the web deformation and consider only the axial deformations in the
colums:
t + c h (14.48) a
Th
t + c = 2 AE (14.49)
14.4.6 Example of Transverse De ection

51 Typical plan, elevation and oor section of a building are shown in Fig. 14.30. The lateral resiting
111
000 1111
0000
000
111 0000
1111 W=4.8 K/FT
000
111 0000
1111
CORE SHAFT CORE
000
111 0000
1111
000
111
000
111 0000
1111
000
111 0000
1111
0000
1111
000
111
000
111 0000
1111 LOAD
MOMENT
0000
1111
13@12’=156’
000
111
000
111
DIAGRAM
0000
1111
0000
1111
156’
000
111 0000
1111
000
111
000
111 0000
1111
000
111 0000
1111
0000
1111
000
111 0000
1111
000
111 0000
1111
TOTAL M
000
111 0000
1111
58500 K-FT
12’
TYP.
20’ 20’
60’ TRANSVERSE ELEVATION OF CORE
TRANSVERSE ELEVATION OF BUILDING

1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
20" TYP. 0000
1111
1111
20"
0000
1111
0000 COLUMN SECTION
40’
A A 20"
60’
20’
20’
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
0000000000000000
1111111111111111 5"
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
FLOOR PLAN 2.5’ 12"
GIRDER SECTION
Figure 14.30: Transverse De ection, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)

elements are the center concrete shaft (20ft40ft in section and made up of four 12-in walls) and the
reinforced-prestressed concrete frames (made up of 12in30in T beams, Igdr = 3:64 4 , and 20 inch ft
square reinforced concrete columns).

52 We consider a wind load of 4.8 k/ft in the transverse direction and make the following assumptions:
1. Colums are of uniform sectional properties and height for all stories.
2. Shaft walls are of uniform thickness for all stories. We neglect wall openings.
3. The wind load is uniform over the height of the building.
53 The solution proceeds as follows:
Draft
1. Determine the exural deformation of the top of the shaft (we may neglect shear deformations
since the shaft is slender):
4
= 8whEI (14.50-a)
3 ; b2 d3
I = 1 d1 12
b 2 (14.50-b)
3 ; (39)(19)3
= (41)(21) 12 = 9; 400 4 ft (14.50-c)
E = 3 106 = 432; 000
psi ksf (14.50-d)
= (4:8) (156)4 4 = 0:087
k.ft ft
(14.50-e)
8(432; 000) (9; 400) 4
ft
ksf ft
= 0:087 = 1 p (14.50-f)
h 156 1; 800
The h ratio is much less than 1/500 as permitted in most building codes, and s within the usual
index for concrete buildings, which ranges between 1/1,000 and 1/2,500.
If the wall thickness is reduced, and if door openings are considered, the de ection will be corre-
spondingly smaller.
The de ection due to moment increases rapidly at the top, the value of 1/1,800 indicates only the
average drift index for the entire building, whereas the story drift index may be higher, especially
for the top oor.
2. We next consider the de ection of the top of the frame. Assuming that each frame takes 1/9 of
the total wind load and shear, and neglecting column shortening, then:
2
= Vcol Eh h
12E IcolE + Ig dr
2L (14.51-a)
3 (20=12)(20=12)3
Icol = bh
12 = 12 = 0:64 4 ft (14.51-b)
Igdr = 3:64 4 ft (14.51-c)
ground = (4:8)
Vcol (156) = 41:7 =col
k.ft ft
(14.51-d)
I (2)(9) k
(41: 7) (12) 2 (12)

= 12(432; 000) k
+ 2(60) ft ft
(14.51-e)
(0:64) 4 (3:46)
ksf ft ft
4
= 0:00116(18:8 + 34:7) = 0:062 ft (14.51-f)
3. Since the story drift varies with the shear in the story, which decreases linearly to the top, the
average drift will be 0:062=2 = 0:31 per story and the de ection at top of the building is
ft
approximately
= (13)(0:031) = 0:40 ft (14.52)
which indicates a drift ratio of
(0:4) = 1
Drift Ratio for Building = (156) ft
(14.53-a)
400 ft
Drift Ratio for Ground Floor = (0(12) :062) = 1 ft

(14.53-b)
194 ft

Draft
4. Comparing the frame de ection of 0:40 with the shaft de ection of 0:087 , it is seen that the
ft ft
frame is about ve times more exible than the shaft. Furthermore, the frame would not be
sti enough to carry all the lateral load by itlself. Proportioning the lateral load to the relative
stinesses, the frame would carry about 1/6 of the load, and the remaining 5/6 will be carried by
the shaft.
Increasing the column size will stien the frame, but in order to be really eective, the girder
stiness will also need to be increased, since thegirders contribute about 2/3 of the de ection.
Then the frames can be made o carry a larger proportion of the load. Note that the de ected
shapes of the shaft and the frames are quite dierent, so that the above simple comparison of top
de ections is not an accurate assessment.
Finally, we have not studied the eect of the shaft stiened by the exterior columns, which are
rigidly connected to the shaft walls and will avt with the shaft as a unit, Fig. 14.31. This would
60’
20’ 20’ 20’
1111
0000
w
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
CORE
0000
1111
0000
1111
156’
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
+ COLUMNS PARTICIPATE
-
- +
Figure 14.31: Frame Rigidly Connected to Shaft, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
be quite eective as the horizontal oor diaphragms will hold and force them to de ect together.
5. In summary, this appears to be quite an ecient layout, further analysis would rene and optimize
it.
14.4.7 Eect of Bracing Trusses

54Through strategically located havy trusses at the top and possibly at the middle of a building we can
brace the exterior columns against the core shaft. This will result in a frame-like action in the shaft,
Draft
equalize temperature shortening of vertical components, and reduce lateral de ections, Fig. 14.32.
TUBE
HAT
FULL
CANTILEVER
DEFLECTION
WIND
HAT - TRUSS
TRUSS
T C
TENSION COMPRESSION
C T CORE BRACING REDUCE

WITH OVERALL DEFLEC
BRACING OF BUILDING
EFFECT
HEIGHT
MID - HEIGHT
BRACE
WITH CANTILEVER
CORE BENDING
TIEDOWN TOTAL RESISTANCE ARM IS

INCREASED BY COL. ACTION DEFLECTION
RESISTANCE ARM OF
CORE SHAFT ONLY
Figure 14.32: Eect of Exterior Column Bracing in Buildings, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)

Draft

Draft
Bibliography
318, A. C.: n.d., Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, (ACI 318-83), American Concrete
Institute.
Anon.: xx, Envyclopaedia Brittanica, University of Chicago.
Billington, D.: 1973, in D. Billington, R. Mark and J. Abel (eds), The Maillart Papers; Second National
Conference on Civil Engineering: History, Heritage and the Humanities, Department of Civil En-
gineering, Princeton University.
Billington, D.: 1979, Robert Maillart's Bridges; The art of Engineering, Princeton University Press.
Billington, D.: 1985, The Tower and the Bridge, xx.
Billington, D. and Mark, R.: 1983, Structural studies, Technical report, Department of Civil Engineering,
Princeton University.
Galilei, G.: 1974, Two New Sciences, Including Centers of Gravity and Forces of Percussion, University
of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisc. S. Drake translation.
le Duc, V.: 1977, Entretiens sur L'Architecture, Pierre Mardaga, Bruxelles, Belgique.
Lin, T. and Stotesbury, S.: 1981, Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects and Engineers, John
Wiley.
Nilson, A.: 1978, Design of Prestressed Concrete, John Wiley and Sons.
of Steel COnstruction, A. I.: 1986, Manual of Steel Construction; Load and Resistance Factor Design,
American Institute of Steel Construction.
Palladio, A.: 19xx, The Four Books of Architecture, Dover Publications.
Penvenuto, E.: 1991, An Introduction to the History of Structural Mechanics, Springer-Verlag.
Schueller, W.: 1996, The design of Building Structures, Prentice Hall.
Timoshenko, S.: 1982, History of Strength of Materials, Dover Publications.
UBC: 1995, Uniform building code, Technical report, International COnference of Building Ocials.
Vitruvius: 1960, The Ten Books on Architecture, Dover.

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Dept. of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering

In order to invent a structure and to give it ex-

-Pier Luigi Nervi

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

1.2 Structural Engineering

1.3 Structures and their Surroundings

1.4 Architecture & Engineering

1.5 Architectural Design Process

1.6 Architectural Design

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

1.7 Structural Analysis

Strength: stresses should not exceed critical values:  < f

1.8 Structural Design

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Figure 1.1: Types of Forces in Structural Elements (1D)

1.9 Load Transfer Mechanisms

1.10 Structure Types

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Figure 1.2: Basic Aspects of Cable Systems

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Figure 1.3: Basic Aspects of Arches

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Figure 1.4: Types of Trusses

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Figure 1.5: Variations in Post and Beams Con gurations

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

VIERENDEEL TRUSS TREE-SUPPORTED TRUSS

CABLE-STAYED BEAM SUSPENDED CABLE

CABLE-SUPPORTED GABLED TRUSS

CABLE-SUPPORTED ARCHED FRAME CABLE-SUPPORTED PORTAL FRAME

Figure 1.6: Di erent Beam Types

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Figure 1.7: Basic Forms of Frames

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Figure 1.8: Examples of Air Supported Structures

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Figure 1.9: Basic Forms of Shells

Shells are classi ed in terms of their curvature.

1.11 Structural Engineering Courses

Table 1.1: Structural Engineering Coverage for Architects and Engineers

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Vertical Loads or gravity load

2.2 Vertical Loads

REPETITIVE JOIST LOADS

ACTUAL DISCRETE LOADS ON SUPPORT BEAM

w LB/FT = TOTAL LOAD / SPAN

ASSUMED EQUIVALENT UNIFORM LOAD

Figure 2.1: Approximation of a Series of Closely Spaced Loads

2.2.1 Dead Load

Table 2.1: Unit Weight of Materials

2.2.2 Live Loads

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Table 2.2: Weights of Building Materials

Table 2.3: Average Gross Dead Load in Buildings

Victor Saouma Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects

Strength: stresses should not exceed critical values: < f

Figure 1.5: Variations in Post and Beams Congurations

Figure 1.6: Dierent Beam Types

Shells are classied in terms of their curvature.

23 Wind loads are particularly signicant on tall buildings1.

Figure 2.5: Eect of Wind Load on Structures(Schueller 1996)

Table 2.6: Ce Coecients for Wind Load, (UBC 1995)

Table 2.7: Wind Pressure Coecients Cq , (UBC 1995)

Table 2.10: Z Factors for Dierent Seismic Zones, ubc

Table 2.11: S Site Coecients for Earthquake Loading, (UBC 1995)

Fx = h +(Vh ;+Ft)h +x h = (V;n Fht )hx (2.15)

;sin is the pressure coecient, h is the height.

where is the coecient of thermal expansion, Table 2.13

Table 2.13: Coecients of Thermal Expansion

42 If the member is restrained against expansion, then a compressive stress = ET is developed.

Sx wd=10 or Ix Sx d2 wd2 =20 (3.1)