Edm Ecm Report Whole 0307 Tech Distilled

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A REPORT ON TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT

OF ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE AND
ELECTRO-CHEMICAL MACHINE TOOLS
Prepared for
Association for Manufacturing Technology (AMT)
by
K. P. Rajurkar, Distinguished Professor of Engineering

Jayakumar Narasimhan, Graduate Student
Center for Nontraditional Manufacturing Research

University of Nebraska - Lincoln,
Lincoln, NE - 68588, U.S.A.
July 2003
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The invaluable assistance provided by a large number of graduate students of the Center for
Nontraditional Manufacturing Research is gratefully acknowledged. We are especially thankful
to Paul Warndorf for his advice throughout this study.
Published by:
AMT – The Association for Manufacturing Technology

7901 Westpark Drive, McLean, VA 22102
Printed in the United States of America
Copyright © 2004 AMT – The Association for Manufacturing Technology all rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval system or
otherwise, without prior written permission of the publisher.
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Summary
This report is a state-of-the-art technology assessment of Electrical Discharge and Electro-
chemical machine tools and accessories for the Association for Manufacturing Technology
(AMT). The Center for Nontraditional Manufacturing Research (CNMR) at the University of
Nebraska-Lincoln has conducted this technology assessment. The study was focused on the
following aspects:
1. Die-sinking Electrical Discharge Machines (EDM), Wire EDM, Electrical Discharge
Grinding (EDG) and Micro-EDM (MEDM).
2. Electrochemical Machining (ECM), Pulse Electrochemical Machining (PECM), and
Electrochemical Micro Machining (ECMM)
Existing EDM and ECM literature available in the national and international journals, technical
conference proceedings and technical reports has been thoroughly reviewed for preparing this
technology assessment. The main objective of the report is to identify the latest and new
developments in the field of EDM and ECM machine tool technology and the state-of-the-art
research related to EDM and ECM processes.
Chapter 1 of this report provides a brief introduction to the nontraditional manufacturing

processes. Chapter 2 introduces EDM process followed by the brief summaries of publications
related to various aspects of EDM machine tool and process. Chapter 3 describes the ECM
process and reports the summaries of the state-of-the-art literature on the research and
development of the ECM machine tool and process. A complete list of references is included at
the end of the report.
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Table of Contents
Title Page No.
CHAPTER 1 1-1
1. Introduction to Nontraditional manufacturing processes ------------------- 1
CHAPTER 2 2-59
2. Electrical Discharge Machining ------------------------------------------------ 2
2.1 Macro EDM --------------------------------------------------------------- 4
2.1.1 Equipment --------------------------------------------------------- 6
2.1.2 Tool ----------------------------------------------------------------- 9
2.1.3 Process and Process Characteristics ---------------------------- 15
2.1.4 Monitoring and Control ------------------------------------------ 21
2.1.5 Surface Integrity -------------------------------------------------- 22
2.2 Wire EDM ----------------------------------------------------------------- 26
2.2.1 Equipment --------------------------------------------------------- 26
2.2.2 Tool ----------------------------------------------------------------- 30
2.2.5 Applications ------------------------------------------------------- 40
2.3 Micro EDM ---------------------------------------------------------------- 40
2.3.1 Equipment --------------------------------------------------------- 41
2.3.3 Applications ------------------------------------------------------- 51
CHAPTER 3 60-87
3. Electrochemical Machining ----------------------------------------------------- 60
3.1 Macro ECM ---------------------------------------------------------------- 62
3.1.3 Applications -------------------------------------------------------- 71
3.2 Micro ECM ----------------------------------------------------------------- 80
3.2.1 Equipment ---------------------------------------------------------- 81
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Title Page No.

3.2.3 Mask ECMM process --------------------------------------------- 84
3.2.4 Applications -------------------------------------------------------- 87
4. References ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 88
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List of Figures
Fig. No. Title Page No.
2-1 Sequence of events occurring during one pulse of and EDM cycle 3
2-2 A schematic diagram of an EDM relaxation power ------------- 3
2.1-1 Schematic of die-sinking EDM system ---------------------------- 5
2.1-2 Schematic of EDM milling system -------------------------------- 5
2.1.1.1-1 On-the-machine 3D measurement system ------------------------ 6
2.1.1.2-1 Linear Motor Head --------------------------------------------------- 7
2.1.1.2-2 Block diagrams of two servo system ------------------------------ 7
2.1.1.3-1 Relationship between tool wear rate and ratio M using AC
combined pulse line -------------------------------------------------- 8
2.1.1.3-2 Relationship between machining rate and ratio M using AC
combined pulse line -------------------------------------------------- 8
2.1.1.4-1 Sectional view of the mechanism ---------------------------------- 9
2.1.1.4-2 Principle of the electrode direct drive device --------------------- 9
2.1.2.1-1 Simulation Algorithm ------------------------------------------------ 10
2.1.2.1-2 Principle of reverse simulation ------------------------------------- 10
2.1.2.2-1 Shape changes of edge portion of cylindrical copper electrode 11
2.1.2.2-2 Relation between pulse duration and radius of attached area and of
single discharge crater ----------------------------------------------- 11
2.1.2.3-1 Tool Wear Compensation ------------------------------------------- 12
2.1.2.3-2 Schematic overview of combined wear compensation ---------- 12
2.1.2.4-1 Structure of CVD-carbon -------------------------------------------- 13
2.1.2.5-1 Grooving with a spinning electrode -------------------------------- 14
2.1.3.2-1 Principle of Multi-spark EDM -------------------------------------- 15
2.1.3.3-1 Principle of EDM in gas --------------------------------------------- 17
2.1.3.5-1 Experimental Set-up ------------------------------------------------- 18
2.1.3.6-1 Example of coolant tunnel with straight holes ------------------- 19
2.1.3.6-2 Example of curved tunnel ------------------------------------------- 19
2.1.3.7-1 Energy distribution in EDM process ------------------------------- 20
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2.1.3.7-2 Flowchart for determining energy distribution ------------------- 20
2.1.4.3-1 Structure of the adaptive fuzzy logic controller ------------------ 22
2.1.5.1-1 Principle of Laser Surface modification --------------------------- 23
2.1.5.1-2 SEM of EDMed surface --------------------------------------------- 23
2.1.5.1-3 SEM of Laser irradiated surface ------------------------------------ 23
2.1.5.3-1 Variation of removal rate and surface roughness with NP
concentration ---------------------------------------------------------- 24
2.1.5.3-2 Relationship between nickel content in resolidified layer and NP
concentration ---------------------------------------------------------- 25
2.1.5.3-3 Vickers hardness of surface layers --------------------------------- 25
2.1.5.3-4 Results of sand abrasion test ---------------------------------------- 25
2.2-1 A schematic view of a WEDM system ---------------------------- 26
2.2.1.1-1 Principle of double-wire system and wire positions in various
cutting situations ------------------------------------------------------ 27
2.2.1.1-2 Wire lag for cut length of 7mm ------------------------------------- 27
2.2.1.2-1 Self-spinning Wire EDM -------------------------------------------- 28
2.2.1.3-1 Twin-Wire EDM developed by Charmillies Technologies ----- 28
2.2.1.3-2 Pocketing using Single wire and Twin Wire EDM -------------- 28
2.2.1.4-1 KE 500 Series Wire-EDM ONA America ------------------------ 29
2.2.1.5-1 Wire-cut micro parts for a medical application; material: TiAl6V4 30
2.2.2.1-1 Schematic diagram of detecting circuits -------------------------- 30
2.2.2.1-2 Variation of discharge position just before the wire breakage - 31
2.2.2.2-1 Shape of the workpiece finished with wire resonance frequency 31
2.2.2.3-1 Selected geometries and the main test conditions ---------------- 32
2.2.3.1-1 Relationship between electrical conductivity and machining rate,
surface roughness ----------------------------------------------------- 33
2.2.3.2-1 Cutting rate and surface finish as a function of pulse frequency for
various PCD grades and WC --------------------------------------- 34
2.2.3.2-2 Cutting rate and surface quality depending on the dielectric fluid 34
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2.2.3.3-1 Geometry of WEDMed surfaces measured parallel to wire
electrode --------------------------------------------------------------- 35
2.2.3.3-2 Results of surface roughness ---------------------------------------- 35
2.2.3.4-1 Pressure distribution in case of front discharge ------------------ 36
2.2.3.4-2 Pressure distribution in case of side discharge ------------------- 36
2.2.4.1-1 A voltage waveform of the wire rupture process ----------------- 36
2.2.4.1-2 Block Diagram of the Sparking frequency monitor ------------- 37
2.2.4.2-1 On-line recorded identification data ------------------------------- 37
2.2.4.3-1 Sparking frequency monitoring and fuzzy control system ------ 38
2.2.4.4-1 On-line identified workpiece height ------------------------------- 39
2.2.4.6-1 HS-WEDM pulse state monitor system --------------------------- 40
2.2.5.1-1 Wire cut Titanium template ----------------------------------------- 40
2.3-1 Schematic of Micro EDM system ---------------------------------- 41
2.3.1.1-1 Scheme of micro-EDM system for mass production of microholes 41
2.3.1.1-2 Setup of micro-EDM system ---------------------------------------- 42
2.3.1.2-1 Entire process to produce a coaxial cavity with an over hang -- 43
2.3.1.2-2 Advantage of EDG with disc electrode ---------------------------- 43
2.3.1.2-3 Possible applications ------------------------------------------------- 43
2.3.1.3-1 Structure of the system ---------------------------------------------- 44
2.3.1.4-1 Sectional view of electrode feeding device with Impact Drive
Mechanism ------------------------------------------------------------ 45
2.3.1.4-2 Mechanism of IDM movement ------------------------------------- 46
2.3.1.4-3 Examples of electrode feeding with IDM ------------------------- 46
2.3.1.4-4 Structure of electrode feeding device utilizing impulsive force 47
2.3.1.4-5 Structure of electrode feeding device utilizing elliptical movement 47
2.3.2.1-1 Experimental configuration ----------------------------------------- 49
2.3.2.2-1 Internal surface of a micro-hole ------------------------------------ 50
2.3.2.2-2 Defects inside micro-hole bore ------------------------------------- 50
2.3.2.3-1 Wire Electro-Discharge Grinding ---------------------------------- 50
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2.3.2.3-2 Traveling Wire in WEDG ------------------------------------------- 51
2.3.3.1-1 Layer by layer machining ------------------------------------------- 52
2.3.3.1-2 To-and-fro tool path -------------------------------------------------- 52
2.3.3.1-3 Machining cross cavity with inclined surface -------------------- 52
2.3.3.1-4 Machined spherical cavity and the electrode --------------------- 52
2.3.3.3- Basic set-up for machining silicon by EDM ---------------------- 54
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2.3.3.3- Micro mirror -------------------------------------------------------- 54
2
--
2.3.3.3- Top view and assembled bevel gear (ĭ 4.3 mm) -------- 55
3
--------
2.3.3.3- Finished spring (7mm long, 4mm wide) against the
4 backdrop of Belgian coin -------------------------------------- 55
---------------------
2.3.3.4-1 Scanning tool path ---------------------------------------------------- 55
2.3.3.4-2 Experimental setup for circular holes ------------------------------ 56
2.3.3.4-3 Micro hole through 2.5mm plate ----------------------------------- 56
2.3.3.4-4 Triangular and square blind hole machined with planetary
movement ------------------------------------------------------------- 57
2.3.3.4-5 Comparison of Material Removal Rate (MRR) and Relative
Electrode Wear (REW) when drilling square blind micro hole 57
2.3.3.5-1 Fabrication process of a pin-plate module ------------------------ 58
2.3.3.5-2 MMA unit ------------------------------------------------------------- 58
2.3.3.5-3 Micro pipe and macro cylinder combination --------------------- 59
2.3.3.5-4 Machining process of Micro pipe and macro cylinder combination 59
3-1 Schematics of electrochemical machining operations ----------- 60
3-2 Electrochemical machining equipment schematic --------------- 61
3.1-1 Principle of Electrochemical Machining -------------------------- 62
3.1.1.2-1 PECM with group pulses -------------------------------------------- 64
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3.1.1.2-2 Interelectrode gap ---------------------------------------------------- 64
3.1.1.2-3 Experimental setup --------------------------------------------------- 64
3.1.1.2-4 Comparison of experimental and theoretical current pulses ---- 64
3.1.1.2-5 Comparison of peak current profiles ------------------------------- 64

3.1.1.3-2 Computer prediction of erosion with moving tool and initial gap
of 0.05 mm ------------------------------------------------------------ 65
3.1.1.3-3 Computer prediction of erosion with moving tool and initial gap of
0.08 mm --------------------------------------------------------------- 66
3.1.1.3-4 Example of 2-D Erosion showing the effect of a stepped tool - 66
3.1.1.4-1 Typical workpiece surface profile ---------------------------------- 67
3.1.1.4-2 Computer Simulation of a Homogeneous material -------------- 67
3.1.1.4-3 Computer Simulation of a Heterogeneous material ------------- 67
3.1.1.5-1 Scheme of shaped-surface electrochemical machining with a
nonprofiled electrode ------------------------------------------------ 68
3.1.1.5-2 Profilograms representing a cross section of the machined material
used for calculating a, ' and Vw values -------------------------- 68
3.1.2.1-1 Simulated time response of the current to a ramp input --------- 69
3.1.2.1-2 Simulated time response of the ram position to a ramp input -- 69
3.1.2.1-3 ECM sparkout --------------------------------------------------------- 69
3.1.2.2-1 PECM data acquisition system ------------------------------------- 70
3.1.2.2-2 Correlation between damping ratio and gap size ----------------- 70
3.1.2.2-3 Correlation between variance of J and gap size ------------------ 70
3.1.3.1-1 Schematic of an idealized charge modulated electric field ----- 71
3.1.3.1-2 A 3-axis batch mode ECM positioning system designed and built
by Faraday Tech Inc ------------------------------------------------- 71
3.1.3.1-3 A 3-axis batch mode ECM surface finishing set-up designed and
built by Faraday Tech Inc ------------------------------------------- 71
3.1.3.1-4 Before and after polishing of Inconnel 718 part ------------------ 72
3.1.3.1-5 Before and after deburring of casting aluminum wheel --------- 72
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3.1.3.2-1 Current waveforms for ECM finishing ---------------------------- 73
3.1.3.2-2 Experimental Setup -------------------------------------------------- 73
3.1.3.2-3 Finished surfaces with graphite electrode ------------------------- 74
3.1.3.3-1 Factors influencing the ECM Process ----------------------------- 75

3.1.3.3-2 ECM Electrolytic System ------------------------------------------- 75
3.1.3.3-4 Cone with electrolytic formed edges ------------------------------ 76
3.1.3.3-5 Electrolytically formed rifling --------------------------------- 76
3.1.3.3-6 10 Diesel Injector Fuel Chamber ----------------------------------- 76
3.1.3.3-7 Turbine blade with tip machined electrolytically ---------------- 76
3.1.3.4-1 Electrochemical Deburring ------------------------------------------ 77
3.1.3.4-2 Cut Away View of EC Deburred Valve --------------------------- 77
3.1.3.4-3 Electrochemical radiusing of blade dovetail ---------------------- 78
3.1.3.4-4 Ratchet contour ------------------------------------------------------- 78
3.1.3.4-5 Eight component tool with manual loading carrier -------------- 78
3.1.3.5-1 EDM damaged layers ------------------------------------------------ 79
3.1.3.5-2 S-N diagram showing EDM vs. PECM fatigue life ------------- 79
3.1.3.6-1 Schematic view of PECM copying process with a stepped tool 80
3.2-1 Scheme of an Electrochemical Cell -------------------------------- 80
3.2-2 Cu Microstructures using ECMM ---------------------------------- 80
3.2.1.1-1 Block diagram of the various System Components of the ECMM
setup -------------------------------------------------------------------- 82
3.2.2.2-1 ECM modeling by characteristic relations ------------------------ 82
3.2.2.2-2 Efficiency vs. current density for various pulse-on times using
250g/l NaNO3 electrolyte ------------------------------------------- 83
3.2.2.2-3 Efficiency vs. current density for various for various NaNO3
electrolyte concentrations, pulse-on times 10ms ----------------- 83
3.2.2.3-1 Schematic Diagram for ECMM Process -------------------------- 83
3.2.2.3-2 Effect of feed rate on side and frontal gap ------------------------ 84
3.2.2.3-3 Effect of voltage on side and frontal gap -------------------------- 84
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3.2.2.3-4 Comparison of theoretical and experimental values ------------- 84
3.2.3.1-1 Shape evolution during through mask ECMM ------------------- 85
3.2.3.2-1 Incorporation of a dummy photoresist to avoid island formation 86
3.2.3.3-1 Relationship between ECMM performance and parameters --- 86

3.2.3.3-2 Schematic diagram of an experimental tool for one sided ECMM 86
3.2.4.1-1 Schematic representation of electrochemical actuator ---------- 87
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List of Tables
Table No. Title Page No.
2-1 Process characteristics of different EDM processes ---------- 4
2.1.2.4-1 Physical properties of CVD-carbon and graphite ------------- 13
2.1.3.2-1 Comparison of machining characteristics --------------------- 16
2.3.1.4-1 Comparison between electrode feeding devices -------------- 48
2.3.3.2-1 Micromachining technology comparison ---------------------- 53
2.3.3.2-2 Compatibility of machining technologies with different
materials ------------------------------------------------------------ 53
2.3.3.2-3 Adjustment of polarity according to the doping type of silicon 53
3.1.3.2-1 Surface Quality with bipolar pulses ---------------------------- 74
3.1.3.2-2 Surface Quality with combination pulses ---------------------- 74
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CHAPTER 1
1. Introduction to Nontraditional manufacturing processes

Nontraditional machining processes, such as Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM),
Electrochemical Machining (ECM), Laser Beam Machining (LBM), Abrasive Water Jet
Machining (AWJM), Abrasive Flow Machining (AFM), and hybrid machining processes provide
one of the best alternatives, and sometimes the only alternative for machining a growing number
of high-strength, corrosion resistant, and wear resistant materials. Many advanced materials such
as superalloys, engineering ceramics and metal matrix composites cannot be machined by
traditional methods, or at best they are machined with excessive tool wear and at high cost. The
complexity and required surface quality of machined parts, tools and geometries, such as deep
internal cavities, may only be produced by these advanced or nontraditional manufacturing
processes. These processes are rapidly gaining importance in producing complex parts from a
variety of material such as superalloys, ceramics, plastics, fiber reinforced composites, wood and
textiles in diverse applications throughout the aerospace, automotive, electronic and medical
industries, i.e. essentially all competitive manufacturers of durable goods.
This technology assessment report deals mainly with Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) and
Electro-chemical Machining (ECM) processes and related machine tools. A brief introduction of
each process is followed by the summary of recent research and development reported
worldwide.
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CHAPTER 2
2. Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)

Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is a thermoelectric process that removes material from the
workpiece by a series of discrete sparks between a work and tool electrode immersed in a liquid
dielectric medium. The method of material removal from the workpiece is by melting and
vaporizing. The molten material is ejected and flushed away by the dielectric leaving a very
small crater on the electrode surface. The electro-erosion process is used to produce complex two
and three dimensional shapes, even in harder materials. According to the most agreed-on process
mechanism, when a voltage is applied through a dielectric medium across the gap between the
tool and the workpiece, an electric field builds along the path of least resistance. This causes a
breakdown of the dielectric and initiates the flow of current. In the second stage, electrons and
ions migrate towards the anode and cathode respectively at high current density, forming a
column of plasma and initiating the melting of the workpiece. When the application of voltage is
stopped, the plasma column collapses, a portion of the molten metal is ejected from the
workpiece, and a very small crater is formed. The debris remaining on the workpiece is flushed
away by the dielectric*. The sequence of event during an EDM cycle is shown in the Fig. 2-1.
In EDM the erosion rate and tool wear, and the resulting surface integrity and geometry depend
on many factors including current, voltage, on-time, off-time, polarity, pulse shape, work and
tool material properties, dielectric flushing conditions, dielectric properties, electrode geometry,
and machine characteristics.
2a. EDM Equipment:

All EDM systems include the machine (including the frame, ram, worktable, tool and workpiece
holders, and clamping devices), pulse power supply, tool electrode, dielectric system, and servo
control system. Various types of power supply systems exist today among those that are suitable
for EDM are the relaxation power system, which consists of a charge loop and a discharge loop,
and independent power system, which consists of a dc power source, pulse controller and a
power controller (Fig. 2-2). The pulse controller in this of power supply sets a time basis and
controls the “on” and “off” states of the power controller. The power controller delivers the pulse
to the gap with the required power. Some EDM machines are equipped with power supplies that
combine the relaxation and independent power supplies in order to improve surface roughness.
Tool Material. The basic requirements for a tool material are high electrical conductivity, high
melting point, and high thermal conductivity. The tool materials should be easy to machine and
inexpensive. Some of the most frequently used tool materials include graphite and bronze for
machining steels and copper-tungsten for machining carbides. Bronze and copper-tungsten are
often used for producing smooth surfaces and for high-precision EDM.
Dielectric Fluid. The main functions of the dielectric fluid are to insulate the gap between the
tool and the workpiece before high energy is accumulated, to concentrate the discharge energy to
a very small area, to recover the gap conditions after the discharge, and to flush away the
discharge products. The two most commonly used dielectric fluids are petroleum-based
* Rajurkar, K.P., Kozak, J., Chatterjee, A., “Nonabrasive Finishing Methods,” ASM Handbook, Surface Engineering, Vol. 5, 1994.
16
hydrocarbon mineral oils and deionized water. Dielectric flushing is very important in EDM
operations, the commonly used flushing methods are immersion, spray, or jet.
Fig. 2-1 Sequence of events occurring during one pulse of an EDM cycle*
Fig. 2-2 A schematic diagram of an EDM relaxation power**

* “Technological aspects of spark erosion,” Agietron Corporation, Addison III, 1983.
** Rajurkar, K.P., “Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes,” Handbook of Manufacturing and Automation, Chapter. 13, 1994, pp. 211-242.
17
Controls. A servo control is used to keep the inter-electrode gap within a small range of
variations around a desired setting during machining. Depending on the voltage, current,
dielectric media, surface finish requirements, the gaps can be as small as a few microns to as
large as several hundreds microns. In order to maintain a constant gap size, the tool feed rate
should equal the material removal rate in the feed direction. However, because the removal rate
is often not constant, a servo control is used that takes the gap signals as the measure of the gap
size and compares them with the servo reference voltage. Accordingly, either the tool is retracted
or moved faster towards the workpiece to maintain the stability of the erosion process.
2b. EDM classification:

EDM process is classified mainly into two groups: Die-sinking and Wire EDM. The Electrical
Discharge Grinding (EDG) process uses a wheel electrode but its principle is similar to the die-
sinking operation. EDM process can also be classified as Macro EDM and Micro EDM
depending on the scale of the part or the feature on the part. The details of each of these types of
processes are presented before.
2c. Process characteristics:

In the case of EDM, the metal removal rate and the surface roughness depend on the peak
current, pulse, on-time, peak voltage, frequency of pulses, and the flow rate of the dielectric. The
process characteristics of the different EDM processes are summarized in the Table 2-1.
Table. 2-1 Process characteristics of different EDM processes

EDM process Voltage Current / MRR Ra
Capacitance
I. Macro EDM
(i) Die-sinking EDM 30 - 300V 20 - 400A 0.002 - 0.8mm3/sec 2.5 - 30Pm
(ii) EDM Milling 20 - 200V 20 - 300A 0.02 - 0.5mm3/sec 3 - 25Pm
II. Wire EDM 30 - 120V 0.5 - 128A 5 - 15mm3/sec 0.127 - 0.254Pm
III. Micro EDM 60 - 100V 100 - 3300pF 200 - 1000Pm3/sec 0.2 - 0.6Pm
2d. Applications, Process Capabilities, and Limitations:

EDM is capable of machining difficult-to-cut materials such as hardened steels carbides, high –
strength alloys, and even ultra hard conductive material such as polycrystalline diamond and
some ceramics. The process is particularly well suited to sinking cavities and drilling irregularly
shaped holes. The only limit in machinability is the electrical conductivity of the workpiece
material. The other problems in EDM include tool wear and the irregularity of the tool wear, and
limitations of EDM to machine very sharp corners because of the existence of the gap between
the tool and the workpiece. The recent development of micro-EDM expands the capabilities of
EDM with respect to fine part fabrication.
The recent advances in the EDM process are discussed in the following sections.
2.1 Macro EDM

Diesinking EDM is traditionally performed vertically, but it may also be conducted horizontally.
The tool takes the mirror image of the shape that needs to be produced. Because of the tool wear
18
multiple tools are required in machining 3D complex shapes. The schematic of the diesinking
EDM system is shown in the Fig. 2.1-1. The EDM power system transforms the utility ac power
into pulsed dc power with 30 - 300 V and from several milliamperes to 100 A of peak current.
Fig. 2.1-1 Schematic of die-sinking EDM system*
In EDM milling the simple shaped tool is strategically moved along a predetermined tool path to
machine or finish a 3D cavity. The shape of the tool can be square or cylindrical depending on
the shape requirement. EDM milling system eliminates the tool design and fabrication
complexities. Fig. 2.1-2 shows the EDM milling schematic. The power supply and dielectric
flow mechanism are same as diesinking EDM.
Fig. 2.1-2 Schematic of EDM milling system

* Benedict, G.E., “Nontraditional Manufacturing Process,” Marcel Dekker, 1987.
19
The following are brief summaries of recently published papers/reports that focus on die-sinking
EDM and EDM milling machine tools and processes.
2.1.1 Equipment
2.1.1.1 Mohri, N., Takezawa, H., Satio, N., “On-the-Machine Measurement in EDM Process by
a calibration System with Polyhedra,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 43, No. 1, 1994, pp. 203-
206.
x This paper deals with on-the-machine measurement of an electrode and a workpiece shape
and accuracy during electrical discharge machining. It describes the principle of calibration
method and the change of complex shape of an electrode and a workpiece measured in the
process.
Fig. 2.1.1.1-1 On-the-machine 3D measurement system
x Fig.2.1.1.1-1 illustrates the overview of the developed system. The system consists of
numerically controlled electrical discharge machine, position detecting probes, and polyhedra
for calibration. The signal from demodulation circuit for the transducer is sent to
microcomputer when stylus touches the surface being measured. The coordinates of the
target position are measured by reading NC data, which are transferred to microcomputer.
x The measurement process consists of three stages:
1. Location of stylus normal to surface being measured.
2. Calibration of edge position of stylus.
3. Detection of surface coordinates of the workpiece.
x The following conclusions are obtained by using the above measurement system:
1. High accuracy less than several micrometers have been achieved.
2. It is confirmed through the measurement under a high wear rate condition that the wear
rate of the electrode depends on the location and the shape of the electrode
3. The shape changes of an electrode and a workpiece with gap distance between them can
be observed against machining time by means of the proposed measurement system.
2.1.1.2 Kaneko, Y., Yamada, H., Toyonaga, T., “Performance of Linear Motor Equipped Die-
Sinking EDM”, International Journal of Electrical Machining No. 5, 2000, pp. 59-64.
x This paper reports on the improvement in the machining performance of quick response and
higher speed in the linear motor servo-equipped Die-Sinking EDM.
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Fig. 2.1.1.2-1 Linear Motor Head
x Fig.2.1.1.2-1 shows the structure of the linear motor head. Armature coil units and magnets
are installed on both sides of the ceramic column; a magnetic force countervailing structure is
incorporated to prevent the axis distortion. The column is made of self-developed ceramics to
restrict its gravity weight. Coolant fluid is supplied to offer a satisfactory cooling
performance against heat emitted by the two armature coils.
x Fig.2.1.1.2-2 shows the block diagram of linear motor servo system. This system allows the
motor itself to move, so the travel distance measured by the linear scale is directly sent back
to the motor, this provides a simpler control mechanism without the effect of backlash.
x As the electrode is directly installed at the motor itself, the movement of both the electrode
and the motor can be regarded as a one-piece body’s movement. Due to this characteristic,
even in machining systems based on the voltage feedback of the electrical discharge gaps, an
excellent follow-up and a quick response are possible.
Fig. 2.1.1.2-2 Block diagrams of two servo system
x Quick response servo technology enables stable and consistent machining at higher speed.
The good follow-up performance at high speed and high acceleration jump movement makes
short-circuit between electrode and workpiece to be prevented.
x High-speed jump operation improves machining efficiency and also improves the debris
disposal function and makes the efficient flushing possible even in deep machining.
21
2.1.1.3 Fuzhu, H., Kunieda, M., Hashimoto, H., “EDM Using Combined Pulse Lines,”
International Journal of Electrical Machining, No. 6, 2001, pp. 47-52.
x This paper describes the dramatic improvement in the processing capabilities of EDM by the
introduction of combined pulse lines, which is a combination of main-pulses, and sub-pulses
in which sub-pulses are inserted periodically in main-pulse lines.
x The main pulse is characterized by its short duration and high peak current. With these pulses
the machining rate is high although tool wear is considerable.
x The sub-pulse is characterized by its long duration, low peak current, and negative workpiece
polarity. These pulses form carbon layers on tool surface thereby prevent tool wear.
x With conventional pulse lines, which are the succession of only one kind of wave form, it is
impossible to satisfy the three requirements of high machining rate, small tool wear and fine
surface roughness simultaneously.
Fig. 2.1.1.3-1 Relationship between tool Fig. 2.1.1.3-2 Relationship between

wear rate and ratio M using AC combined machining rate and ratio M using AC
pulse line combined pulse line
x In the machining using combined pulse lines, the effects of two kinds of pulses interact with
each other. When long duration pulses are mixed into short duration pulses, lower tool wear
machining can be performed, because of carbon adhesion caused by the long duration pulses.
x The three important requirements in performance, machining rate, tool wear, and surface
roughness, can be satisfied simultaneously using the combined pulse lines.
x Normally the DC combined pulse line is effective. But it is considered that when the main-
pulse is extremely short, the AC combined pulse-line is more effective than the DC
combined pulse-line.
2.1.1.4 Zhao, W., Liu, W., Di, S., “Research on Miniaturized Direct Drive Mechanism of EDM
Electrode Using Linear Ultrasonic Motors,” International Journal of Electrical
Machining, No. 4, 1999, pp. 29-31.
x This paper deals with an electrode direct drive device for EDM utilizing dual stator linear
ultrasonic motor.
x Fig.2.1.1.4-1 shows the structure of the new electrode driving mechanism that basically is a
dual stator linear ultrasonic motor. The electrode corresponds to the moving object and being
pressed by two stators with pre-pressing force of 1-3N. The stators have a number of teeth on
the top of it and several piezoelectric elements are adhered at the bottom.
22
Fig. 2.1.1.4-1 Sectional view of the mechanism
x Fig.2.1.1.4-2 illustrates the principle of electrode direct drive device. When an ultrasonic
signal is applied to the piezoelectric elements, according to certain phase relation, the elastic
stator vibrates in a standing wave pattern, thus the tooth on the stator vibrate obliquely. As
the electrode is pressed on the tooth of the stator, the frictional force generated by the
horizontal element of the oblique vibration drives the electrode moving along its longitudinal
direction in small step quickly. Since two stators are arranged to drive the electrode moving
forward and backward respectively, controlling two stators alternately can easily generate
coaxial vibration of the electrode.
Fig. 2.1.1.4-2 Principle of the electrode direct drive device
x Coaxial vibration of electrode applied by controlling the stators, improves the machining
stability and efficiency due to better evacuation of the debris.
x Machining test verifies that the device is suitable for small hole EDM drilling and the
machining speed increases with the driving frequency for dielectric fluids, distilled water and
kerosene.
2.1.2 Tool
2.1.2.1 Kunieda, M., Wataru, K., Takita, T., “Reverse Simulation of Die-Sinking EDM,” Annals
of the CIRP, Vol. 48, No. 1, 1999, pp. 115-118.
x This paper aims to develop a simulation method for die-sinking EDM to solve the inverse
problem of obtaining the appropriate tool electrode shape for achieving the desired final
workpiece shape.
x Fig.2.1.2.1-1 shows the simulation algorithm. In reverse simulation method developed, the
same algorithm as that used in forward simulation is adopted.
x Fig.2.1.2.1-2 shows the principle of reverse simulation. The initial state of reverse simulation
is considered to be the final state of the forward simulation. The workpiece is fed in the
reverse direction towards the tool electrode taking the workpiece to be the tool electrode. The
value for the depth of the layers removed from the tool electrode and workpiece surface per
pulse discharge is reversed.
23
Fig. 2.1.2.1-1 Simulation Algorithm
Fig. 2.1.2.1-2 Principle of reverse simulation
x The simulation takes into account a variety of influencing factors such as tool electrode wear,
gap width distribution, curvature of the tool electrode surface, and debris particle
concentration, all of which affect each other in a complex manner.
x The suitability of the proposed algorithm was proved by demonstrating, through reverse
simulation, that the shapes of the tool electrode and workpiece are restored to their initial
shapes in forward simulation.
2.1.2.2 Mohri, N., Suzuki, M., Furuya, M., Saito, N., “Electrode Wear Process in Electrical
Discharge Machining,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 44, No. 1, 1995, pp. 165-168.
x This paper deals with a systematic consideration of electrode wear phenomena in EDM. The
whole process of electrode wear is evaluated in two stages in order to consider the
mechanism of electrode wear. The first stage is the transition state at the beginning of
machining and the second is the stationary state.
x The shape of the electrode is measured by on-the-machine measurement system, which uses
a polyhedron. Some of the measured samples are shown in Fig.2.1.2.2-1.
24
Fig. 2.1.2.2-1 Shape changes of edge portion of cylindrical copper electrode
x The observation of electrode shape, revealed significant wear at the edge portion of the
electrode at the beginning of machining.
x Fig.2.1.2.2-2 shows the relation between pulse duration and radius of the attached carbon.
x The electro-erosion of carbon steel results in the molten material being ejected out of the
workpiece surface. The carbon precipitates as turbo-static carbon on the electrode surface.
Thus, a low wear of electrode is realized.
Fig. 2.1.2.2-2 Relation between pulse duration and radius of attached area and of single
discharge crater
x Zero wear of electrode can be realized with a very long pulse duration taking into account of
equilibrium of the removal rate with precipitation and deposited substance on the electrode.
x Powder suspended oil for working fluid is remarkably effective for getting the stability of
machining even under the long pulse duration.
25
2.1.2.3 Bleys, P., Kruth, J., Lauwers, B., Zryd, A., Delpretti, R., Tricarico, C., “Real Time Tool
Wear Compensation in Milling EDM,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 51, No. 1, 2002, pp.
157-160.
x This paper presents a new method of wear compensation. On-line estimation of tool wear is
used for combining anticipated compensation with real-time compensation.
Fig. 2.1.2.3-1 Tool Wear Compensation
x The anticipated wear compensation (Fig.2.1.2.3) is based on off-line tool wear simulation
prior to machining. However, this method requires a solid model of the blank geometry as
input for the wear simulation module as it needs to know where the material is to be
removed.
x As an alternative to anticipated wear compensation, real-time wear compensation is based on
the actual tool wear as it is evaluated on-line, without wear simulation before machining, thus
a model of the blank is not required. However, in this method a small over-estimation in on-
line wear sensing results in a continuously increasing machining depth and therefore, rapidly
yields a very large geometrical error.
Fig. 2.1.2.3-2 Schematic overview of combined wear compensation
x A new method of tool wear compensation for milling EDM is presented, which is called the
combined wear compensation (Fig.2.1.2.3-2), which combines the existing anticipated wear
compensation with real-time compensation based on on-line tool wear sensing. This enables
milling EDM process without the need to provide an accurate model of the blank geometry.
2.1.2.4 Uno, Y., Okada, A., Nakanishi, H., Gua, C., Okamota, Y., Takagi, T., “EDM
Characteristics of CVD-Carbon Electrode,” International Journal of Electrical Machining,
No. 3, 1998, pp. 19-24.
26
x In EDM process, the reduction of electrode wear is very important to attain high accuracy
machining. This paper investigates the EDM characteristics of CVD (Chemical Vapor
Deposition) -carbon electrode with turbostratic structure to attain higher performance.
x Turbostratic carbon has a chemical structure in which hexagonal lattice plane are laminated
irregularly, different from graphite structure.
x EDM with low electrode wear rate can be accomplished by adhesion of carbon to the
electrode and the workpiece, because of the protection effect of the carbon, which has a large
heat resistivity. As this phenomenon is observed only under the long pulse duration, EDM
with low electrode wear rate under finishing condition is not possible.
Fig. 2.1.2.4-1 Structure of CVD-carbon
x As proposed in this paper, EDM with low electrode wear rate is possible by using CVD-
carbon electrode (Fig. 2.1.2.4-1) under finishing conditions, since the heat resolved carbon
adhered to the end surface of CVD-carbon electrode has a stronger adhering ability than that
of graphite one.
x Table 2.1.2.4-1 shows the physical properties of CVD-carbon.
Table. 2.1.2.4-1 Physical properties of CVD-carbon and graphite
x EDM without electrode wear is possible using finishing conditions with CVD-carbon
electrode. This is due to the high impact resistance as CVD-carbon has denser structure and
high heat conduction in layer direction.
x The surface roughness increases with an increase in pulse duration. Under short pulse
duration, the surface roughness in case of CVD-carbon electrode is smaller than that of
graphite.
x The CVD-carbon electrode was found to be slightly fractured. This is due to the frequent
impact generated during electrical discharges and the weak bond resulting from Van Der
Waal’s force in the deposition direction of CVD-carbon.
27
2.1.2.5 Sato, T., Imai, Y., Goto, A., Magara, T., “A New Grooving Method based on Steady
Wear Model in EDM,” International Journal of Electrical Machining, No. 5, 2000, pp.
41-49.
x In this paper, a new grooving method using steady state in proposed. First, the electrode wear
model at the steady state is described. Based on this model, an approach to determine the
machining conditions for grooves of any cross-sectional shape is described.
x EDM with an electrode being moved along a preprogrammed path is called EDM contouring.
EDM contouring has advantages of lower machining cost and higher flexibility as complex
geometries can be produced using simple and inexpensive electrodes. EDM contouring can
achieve high accuracy by using the steady state of the electrode wear.
x Using the steady wear model, different types of grooves can be machined with a non-
spinning electrode, such as:
1. Trapezoidal grooving with trapezoid electrode
2. Isogonal Trapezoid grooving with square electrode
3. Semi-ellipse grooving with cylindrical electrode
4. Deep trapezoid grooving
5. Deep grooving with complex electrode
Fig. 2.1.2.5-1 Grooving with a spinning electrode
x Grooving can be done with a spinning electrode (Fig. 2.1.2.5-1). Since the electrode spinning
promotes the flow of the dielectric fluid in the working gap, a larger working current can be
employed and, as a result, the machining becomes faster.
2.1.2.6 Enache, S., Opran, C., Stocia, G., Strajescu, E., “The Study of EDM with Forced
Vibration of Tool-Electrode,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 39, No. 1, 1990, pp. 167-170.
x The paper describes a study of EDM with forced vibration of the tool electrode, coupled with
the technological vibration of the technological machining system.
x The technological force is obtained by quantifying the effect given by the pressure waves
occurring and developing in the working gap, due to the gas and vapor bubbles produced by
microdischarges. The effect of the technological vibration consists in increasing the
machining efficiency, improving the removal of erosion products, decreasing the roughness
of the machined surface, and enhancing the stability of the machining process.
x The technological force is a disturbing force of the technological machining system,
depending on the pulse duration, working intensity and working surface of the tool electrode.
x The vibratory motion of the tool electrode is yielded by adding the vibrations of the
technological machining system to the vibrations of the imposed vibratory system.
28
x Electrodischarge machining with forced vibration of the tool electrode (EDM-FV) provides
significant technical and economic advantages.
2.1.3 Process and Process Characteristics
2.1.3.1 Lonardo, P., Bruzzone, A., “Effect of Flushing and Electrode Material on Die-Sinking
EDM,” Annals of the CIRP Vol. 48, No. 1, 1999, pp. 123-126.
x The important performance measures of EDM are removal rate, electrode wear, accuracy and
surface texture. This paper discusses the influence of electrode material, flushing, electrode
dimension, depth of cut and planetary motion on EDM performance.
x The analysis of the influence of qualitative factors (electrode material and flushing) and
quantitative factors (depth of cut and electrode size), with two levels each, was carried out by
adopting a full factorial experimental design.
x Productivity and electrode wear were measured differently for roughing and finishing
operations. Surface quality was measured only for finishing, by adopting three height
parameters and three form parameters.
x The experiment yielded the following conclusions:
1. The electrode material has significant influence in finishing operations on wear and height
roughness parameters. When copper electrodes are used, wear is larger and surface height
is smaller.
2. Flushing in roughing operations increases both MRR and electrode wear. In finishing
operations flushing influences the form parameters, increasing Rdq (RMS slope of the
profile within the sample length), Rsk (Skewness), and Rku (Kurtosis).
3. In all the experiments, the electrode size was found to have a significant effect on the
productivity and the electrode wear.
2.1.3.2 Kunieda, M., Muto, H., “Development of Multi-Spark EDM,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol.
49, No. 1, 2000, pp. 119-122.
x This paper describes the Multi-spark EDM method to obtain higher removal rates and lower
energy consumption compared with conventional EDM.
Fig. 2.1.3.2-1 Principle of Multi-spark EDM
x Fig.2.1.3.2-1 shows the principle of Multi-spark EDM. The basic circuit of Multi-spark EDM
comprises of a conventional pulse generator, a workpiece, and two electrodes, both of which
29
are fixed onto the quill of the same EDM machine and connected serially. For each generator
pulse, one discharge occurs in the gap between one tool electrode and the workpiece, and
another discharge occurs at the same time in gap between the other tool electrode and
workpiece. The removal rates are different for the two gaps due to reverse polarity of
workpiece and the two gaps. To balance the removal rates in both gaps, the polarity of the
pulse generator is changed adaptively to equalize the gap voltages measured at both gaps.
Table. 2.1.3.2-1 Comparison of machining characteristics
x Advantages of Multi-spark EDM are follows (Table 2.1.3.2-1):

1. The removal rate is higher than those of conventional EDM as the total voltage drop
through the two discharge gaps is two times larger than in conventional EDM.
2. The power efficiency of Multi-spark EDM is two times higher than that of conventional
EDM.
3. The tool wear ratio of Multi-spark EDM is higher than that of the single positive tool
electrode type in conventional EDM.
4. There is no significant difference in surface roughness between Multi-spark EDM and
conventional EDM
5. Multi-spark EDM of high-electric-resistivity materials is advantageous because placing
both the electrodes as close as possible to each other can minimize the voltage drop inside
the materials.
2.1.3.3 Kunieda, M., Yoshida, M., “Electrical Discharge Machining in Gas,” Annals of the
CIRP, Vol. 46, No. 1, 1997, pp. 143-146.
x This paper shows that EDM can be achieved in gas. An appropriate tool path to erode 3D
curved surface is proposed and thus an improved machining rate is achieved by supplying
oxygen gas into the gap.
30
Fig. 2.1.3.3-1 Principle of EDM in gas
x Fig. 2.1.3.3-1 shows the principle of EDM in gas. A high velocity gas jet from a pipe tool
electrode enhances the removal of molten and evaporated workpiece material. The gas jet
cools and solidifies the removed material and prevents them from adhering onto the surface
of tool electrode and the workpiece. During the pulse interval, the gas jet blows off the
plasma formed by the previous discharge, thus guaranteeing the recovery of the dielectric
strength of the gap.
x Comparison of the characteristics of EDM in air with those of conventional EDM in
dielectric liquid shows that,
1. The removed material driven by the high velocity air flow do not attach to the electrode
surface and is flushed out of the gap.
2. Using a thin-walled pipe as the tool electrode, reattachment of the removed material to the
electrode surfaces can be prevented.
3. The material removal rate is improved as the concentration of oxygen in air is increased
due to heat generation caused by oxidation of the electrode materials.
4. A uniform high-velocity air flow over the working gap is enabled by using an NC tool
path, thus making 3D machining possible. The machined shape obtained is very precise as
the tool wear is negligible.
2.1.3.4 Kunieda, M., Nakashima, T., “Factors determining Discharge Location in EDM,”
x This paper describes the factors, which affect the determination of the discharge location in
EDM. The main factors investigated are the working gap width, the debris particle
concentration, the surface area, and the degree of plasma deionization.
x It is observed that when the dielectric fluid is not contaminated, the probability of occurrence
of discharge at the narrow gap is high. In terms of surface area, however, the discharge does
not always occur at the point where the gap is narrowest.
x Debris particles move between the anode and cathode in a direction perpendicular to the
electrode surfaces due to electrophoresis, and some particles are linked in series to form
chains parallel to electric field. Therefore in the gap, there are numerous chains of particles
which almost bridge the gaps and that discharge occurs where the end of a chain is closest to
the opposite electrode surface.
x The debris particle generated and distributed around the first discharge crater in a clean
dielectric fluid does not affect the next discharge location because of the surface area.
31
However, in a series of pulse discharges in which numerous chains of debris particles grow
over the working surface, the influence of the debris particle concentration becomes more
dominant than that of the gap width distribution. This seems to be the main reason for the
occurrence of the discharge localization.
x From two consecutive pulse discharges, the first discharge does not affect the discharge
location of the second one as long as the plasma formed by the first discharge is deionized
during the discharge interval. The minimum discharge interval necessary for the plasma to be
deionized is around 6Ps under the pulse conditions used in the study.
2.1.3.5 Yoshida, M., Kunieda, M., “Study on the Distribution of Scattered Debris Generated by a
Single Pulse Discharge in EDM Process,” International Journal of Electrical Machining,
No. 3, 1998, pp. 39-46.
x This paper investigates the relationship between the bubbles and the distribution of scattered
debris after a single pulse discharge in the dielectric liquid between plane parallel electrodes.
In addition, the possibility of conduction during EDM process with air as dielectric medium
is investigated by studying at the effect of the bubble in material removal in comparison to
the distribution of scattered debris after a single pulse discharge in air.
Fig. 2.1.3.5-1 Experimental Set-up
x Fig. 2.1.3.5-1 shows the experimental setup. The discharge gap, on which a discharge is
produced between electrodes, is distinguished from the gap between the glass disk and the
workpiece. The workpiece is made of steel, and lapped to facilitate the observation of the
distribution of the scattered debris. The wire is held above the workpiece at a set distance by
a micrometer head. The polarity of the copper wire is positive and it is lapped.
x From the experiments it was concluded that, in liquid, the generated debris were mainly
distributed at the boundary of the bubble formed due to evaporation and dissociation of
gelatin.
x In air, the generated debris was distributed over a wide range in the radial direction and
debris density is lower as the radial distance from the center of the discharge crater increases.
x In air, the removal mechanism is mainly evaporation when the pulse duration is short, but the
mechanism becomes removal of molten material as the pulse duration becomes longer.
x The material removal rate during a single pulse discharge reaches a peak in both air and
liquid at 90Ps after the pulse discharge begins and after it decreases.
32
x In air almost all the debris is scattered on the workpiece surface, and gets attached.
Therefore, EDM may be performed with air as a dielectric medium provided the debris
generated in the process is flushed out of the EDM gap before it solidifies on the workpiece
surface.
2.1.3.6 Goto, A., Watanabe, K., Takeuchi, A., “A Method to Machine a Curved Tunnel with
EDM,” International Journal of Electrical Machining, No. 7, 2002, pp. 43-46.
x In this paper, a system to machine a curved tunnel into a workpiece is proposed. With this
technology, temperature control will be precise and quality of injection products will be
improved.
Fig. 2.1.3.6-1 Example of coolant tunnel with straight holes
x Fig. 2.1.3.6-2 is an example of a traditional coolant tunnel of an injection mold. The

combination of straight holes is likely to make defects to an injection product. A new coolant
tunnel which is proposed is shown in Fig. 2.1.3.6-2.
Fig. 2.1.3.6-2 Example of curved tunnel
x This system is composed of a curved electrode-drive part that has an electrode at the end of it
and a guide to straighten the electrode-drive part.
x The following conclusions are made by conducting machining test:
1. The system proposed is simple and easy to control.
2. Machining stability is good even when the curved area is machined.
3. A smooth curved tunnel can be machined into the workpiece.
2.1.3.7 Hayakawa, S., Yuzawa, M., Kunieda, M., Nishiwaki, N., “Time Variation and
Mechanism of Determining Power Distribution in Electrodes during EDM Process,”
x This paper determines the mechanism of the power distribution in electrodes during EDM
process.
33
x In order to obtain the time variation of the power distribution, the increase in the energy
distributed in the electrodes by a single-pulse discharge is measured with increasing
discharge duration.
x Fig.2.1.3.7-1 shows the energy distribution in the electrode.
Fig. 2.1.3.7-1 Energy distribution in EDM process
x Fig.2.1.3.7-2 shows a flowchart for determining the energy distribution in an electrode.
Fig. 2.1.3.7-2 Flowchart for determining energy distribution
x The time variation of the power distribution is first measured by comparing the measured
temperatures of the electrodes with the calculated results. In earlier stages of each pulse
discharge, the measured power distribution in electrodes is about two thirds of the total
discharge power.
x With the increase in the discharge duration, the power distribution in the electrodes
approaches the total discharge power.
x The power distribution in the dielectric fluid during the time practically used in the EDM
process is much more than for the steady state, which results in the gap condition not in
equilibrium and a large fraction of the discharge power is consumed in transient phenomena
such as evaporating, dissociating and ionizing of the dielectric fluid.
34
2.1.4 Monitoring and Control
2.1.4.1 Kunieda, M., Kojima, H., “On-Line Detection of EDM Spark Locations by Multiple
Connection of Branched Electric Wires,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 39, No. 1, 1990, pp.
171-174.
x This paper describes the on-line detection of spark locations in EDM processes. Supplying a
discharge current through branched wires, and measuring the ratio of current allotted to each
wire, helps in detecting a spark location.
x Under stable machining conditions it is important for the spark location to be distributed
uniformly and not be localized. Localization of the spark contaminates the sludge and the
dielectric strength decreases. Therefore an adequate method for on-line detection of spark
location is necessary so that a better adaptive control of EDM processes can be achieved.
x The uneven distribution of spark locations is initiated when the flushing of the discharge gap
becomes insufficient, and the reduction of the distribution area is a preliminary signal of an
arc.
x An adaptive control of EDM process can be affected by means of monitoring the variance of
the spark location. For this it is necessary to seek a value of variance such that the gap
situation cannot be improved no matter how the discharge conditions are altered. Then the
obtained value is considered to be a threshold of the occurrence of an arc.
2.1.4.2 Rajurkar, K. P., Wang, W. M., “Real-Time Stochastic Model and Control of EDM,”
Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 39, No. 1, 1990, pp. 187-190.
x This paper proposes a new EDM servo control system in which a high-speed computer
directly regulates the servo feed rate instead of servo reference voltage and takes the
parameters of discharge time ratios from an EDM gap monitor as the feed back signal.
x The on-line control strategy is developed according to the real-time achieved stochastic
model to minimize the variance of the controlled process and increase the machining speed
with the control interval time of 2 milliseconds and thus, increasing the productivity.
x The self-tuning regulator for EDM servo adaptive control proposed in this paper can identify
on-line the mathematical model which represents the relationship between the servo driving
signal and the output value of EDM process formed by discharge parameters.
x The process stability significantly increases with this control system. The variance of the
process output data is at least 10% lower than that achieved by many other control methods.
x The new EDM servo adaptive controller improves the process stability to have more normal
sparking and less gap-open and gap-short pulses than many other control systems. This
system increases the machining productivity by 15% when machining small holes and
medium sized cavities.
2.1.4.3 Boccadoro, M., Dauw, D. F., “About the Application of Fuzzy Controllers in High-
Performance Die-Sinking EDM Machines,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 44, No. 1, 1995,
pp. 147-150.
x This paper deals with the die-sinking EDM optimization and control systems. A description
of fuzzy controllers, its principles and experimental results using a commercial EDM AGIE
die sinker are presented.
35
x The optimal working conditions in EDM change continuously and drift away from the
working point may cause process degeneration and damage to the electrodes. The above
problem is distinguished in two parts:
1. Adaptive Control Constraint (ACC) - Their main function is to avoid damage to electrodes
by avoiding arcing and other process degeneration.
2. Adaptive Control Optimization (ACO) – The main function is to optimize the spark
parameters as a function of active surface, and the flushing conditions to maximize the
machining speed.
x In EDM, machining at the optimal work point changes continuously, therefore it is necessary
to add intelligence to the controller to make it capable to adapt automatically to the new
machining situations. This is adaptive fuzzy logic.
Fig. 2.1.4.3-1 Structure of the adaptive fuzzy logic controller
x Fig. 2.1.4.3-1 shows the adaptive fuzzy logic controller. The controller is implemented using
C programming language. The software runs on a single chip 16 bits high performance
controller, featuring a 100 nanoseconds instruction cycle time, allowing the fuzzy controller
implementation to be executed in less than 1 millisecond.
x The results obtained from experiments show that the stock removal increases in the range of
20% and 300% depending upon the machining task complexity. The electrode wear remains
same or decreases. The surface quality is slightly better.
2.1.5 Surface Integrity
2.1.5.1 Tamura, T., “Surface Modification of Electrical Discharge Machined Surface by C02
Laser,” International Journal of Electrical Machining, No. 3, 1998, pp. 47-52.
x This paper presents a new surface modification method, which applies laser beam to the
surface of cemented carbide having cracks and micro craters.
x Fig. 2.1.5.1-1 shows the principle of laser surface modification. The heat-affected zones of
cracks and micro craters generated by EDM disappear due to isolation of tungsten carbide
(WC) based on melting Co acting as a binder. The new method modifies the laser-irradiated
surface including the heat-affected zone to the same sintering state as before machining by
EDM.
36
x SEM observations of EDMed surface and laser irradiated surface are shown in Fig. 2.1.5.1-2
& 3. The abnormal structures consisting of face-centered-cubic and close-packed hexagonal
structures of the surface machined by EDM were transformed to a hexagonal lattice in stable
state by the laser irradiation.
Fig. 2.1.5.1-1 Principle of Laser Surface modification
Fig. 2.1.5.1-2 SEM of EDMed surface Fig. 2.1.5.1-3 SEM of Laser irradiated surface
37
2.1.5.2 Kruth, J. P., Stevens, L., Froyen, L., Lauwers, B., “Study of the White Layer of a Surface
Machined by Die-Sinking Electro-Discharge Machining,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 44,
1995, pp. 169-172.
x EDM generates a white layer at the surface of a workpiece. This paper discusses the
influence of workpiece material, electrode material and type of dielectric on the composition
and metallographic phases of the white layer.
x Tests have been performed on the materials Impax, C35 and Armco, machined in oil or water
dielectric. The tests yield the following conclusions:
1. The white layer of samples machined in oil contains about four times more carbon than
the base material.
2. The carbon in the white layer of a sample machined in oil comes from the dielectric.
3. The white layer machined in an oil dielectric, consists of dendritic structures, formed by
rapid solidification of the molten pool.
4. The use of copper, aluminium or graphite electrodes has almost no influence on the
structure of the white layer, as only small amounts of electrode material migrate from
electrode to the white layer.
2.1.5.3 Uno, Y., Okada, A., Hayashi, Y., Tabuchi, Y., “Surface Modification by EDM with
Nickel Powder Mixed Fluid,” International Journal of Electrical Machining, No. 4, 1999,
pp. 47-52.
x This paper proposes a new method of surface modification of aluminum bronze (AlBC3)
with nickel powder mixed fluid, in order to form nickel layer on the EDM generated surface
for higher wear resistance to shell sand abrasion.
x AlBC3 is characterized by high removal rate as that of steel, and low electrode wear.
Fig. 2.1.5.3-1 Variation of removal rate and surface roughness with NP concentration
x Fig. 2.1.5.3-1 shows variations of removal rate and surface roughness with nickel powder
concentration. Increase in the nickel powder concentration does not affect the removal rate
and it is almost constant. However the EDM generated surface with nickel powder mixed
fluid has a smaller surface roughness than that in conventional EDM with kerosene type
fluid.
38
Fig. 2.1.5.3-2 Relationship between nickel content in resolidified layer and NP concentration
x The resolidified layer containing nickel can be generated on EDM generated surface and the
thickness of the layer becomes larger and uniform with an increase of nickel powder
concentration in the machining fluid (Fig. 2.1.5.3-2).
Fig. 2.1.5.3-3 Vickers hardness of surface layers Fig. 2.1.5.3-4 Results of sand abrasion test
x The EDM generated surface with nickel powder mixed fluid becomes harder than that with
kerosene and it has higher resistance to sand abrasion (Fig. 2.1.5.3-3&4).
2.1.5.4 Dauw, D. F., Brown, C. A., Griethuysen, J. P., “Surface Topography Investigations by
Fractal Analysis of Spark-Eroded Electrically Conductive Ceramics,” Annals of the
CIRP, Vol. 39, No. 1, 1990, pp. 161-165.
x This paper discusses the relations between EDM conditions, workpiece material, microscopic
analysis, and fractal and conventional analysis of the machined surface. These machined
surfaces are studied using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and profilometry.
x The study suggests that the EDM theories which are reliable and applicable to metals cannot
be confirmed when EDM is applied to electrically conductive ceramics. The material
removal rates and machined surface roughness are not only dependent on the machining
parameters but also on the work material.
x It is possible to associate noticeable features on micrographs with parameters derived from
fractal and conventional analysis of profilometry data. The fractal analysis results in
parameters which appear to contain different information about the profile than the
conventional parameters.
39
2.2 Wire EDM

Wire EDM (WEDM) uses the same material removal principle as die-sinking EDM. WEDM
uses a metal wire as the tool electrode; it can generate two or three dimensional shapes on the
workpiece for making punch dies and other mechanical parts.
In a WEDM machine, the wire electrode is held vertically by two wire guides located separately
above and beneath the workpiece, with the wire traveling longitudinally during machining. The
workpiece is usually mounted on an x-y table*. A schematic view of a WEDM system is shown
in the Fig. 2.2-1. The trajectory of the relative movement between wire and workpiece in the x-y
coordinate space is controlled by a CNC servo system according to a preprogrammed cutting
passage. The CNC servo system also adjusts the machining gap size in real time, similar to the
diesinking EDM operation. The dielectric fluid is sprayed from above and beneath the workpiece
into the machining gap with two nozzles.
Fig. 2.2-1 A schematic view of a WEDM system**
The power generations in WED machines usually are transistor-controlled RC or RLC systems
that provide higher machining rate and a larger gap size to reduce wire rupture risk. In some
WED machines the machining gap is submerged into the dielectric fluid to avoid wire vibration
and, therefore, to obtain a better accuracy. The upper wire guide is also controlled by the CNC
system in many WED machines. During machining, the upper wire guide and the x-y table
simultaneously move along their own preprogrammed trajectories to produce a taper and/or twist
surface on the workpiece.
2.2.1 Equipment
2.2.1.1 Masuzawa, T., Wada, Y., “A double-wire system for accuracy improvement in WEDM,”
International Symposium for Electromachining XI, 1995, pp. 201-208.
x This paper proposes that eliminating wire lag and drum shape caused by bending and
vibration of the wire electrode will improve the precision of WEDM.
* Rajurkar, K.P., Wang, W.M., “Nontraditional Machining,” The CRC Handbook of Mechanical Engineering, Chapter 13, CRC press, 1998, pp. 29-34.
** Rajurkar, K.P., “Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes,” Handbook of Manufacturing and Automation, Chapter. 13, 1994, pp. 211-242..
40
Fig. 2.2.1.1-1 Principle of double-wire system and wire positions in various cutting
situations
x The bending can be reduced by adopting a double-wire system where two wire are bonded
together as shown in the Fig. 2.2.1.1-1. The figure also displays the wire position that can be
used of various cutting scenarios.
Fig. 2.2.1.1-2 Wire lag for cut length of 7mm
x Experiments show that double-wire system produces lesser wire lag. In Fig. 2.2.1.1-2 sample
‘a’ that used single-wire has the maximum lag compare to samples ‘b’ and ‘c’ which used
double-wire system.
2.2.1.2 Fengguo, C., Xiaoguang, F., “The Development Status and Analysis of Wire EDM in
China,” International Journal of Electrical Machining, No. 6, 2001, pp. 1-5.
x This paper summarizes China’s breakthrough progress in Wire EDM machines with respect
to the structure, technology and technique effectiveness.
x Miniature Wire EDM machine tool (minicut-110) used for desktop manufacturing was
successfully developed by Beijing Institute of Electro-Machining, which can meet the need
of making the general miniature and precision parts and dies, and the specification of which
is 100mm X 100mm X 120mm.
x Fig. 2.2.1.2-1 shows process mechanism of the self-spinning Wire EDM machine, a machine
tool that is very innovative and has broken some of the technological indexes. The wire
electrode spins by itself at a high speed while it is in a rectilinear motion, this changes the
chip removal process by removing the chip to the rear of the machined surface instead of
41
being removed to one end of the work-piece machined. Additionally, this process extends
the range of the work thickness to be machined.
Fig. 2.2.1.2-1 Self-spinning Wire EDM
2.2.1.3 Gisbert Ledvon - Charmilles Technologies, “Twin-Wire EDM,” Fabricating &

Metalworking Magazine, March 2003, pp.24-27. &
http://www.charmillesus.com/products/wire/tw/tw.html
x A Twin-Wire EDM is being developed to reduce the machining time up to 50% by
eliminating the manual wire changing process.
Fig. 2.2.1.3-1 Twin-Wire EDM developed by Charmillies Technologies
x Fig. 2.2.1.3-1 shows the Twin-Wire EDM equipment that uses an automatic wire EDM tool
changer that switches between larger and smaller wires for rough and finish machining
respectively.
Fig. 2.2.1.3-2 Pocketing using Single wire and Twin Wire EDM
42
x Fig. 2.2.1.3-2 illustrates the reduction in total machining time by using Twin Wire EDM
instead of single wire EDM. Moreover, usage of larger diameter wire for rough machining
eliminates the recast layer and slug formation.
2.2.1.4 “New Wire-EDM-Machine Series,” Metal Forming Magazine, March 2003, pp. 140. &
http://www.ona-electroerosion.com/eng/productos/hilo/ke.htm
x The ONA KE 500 is the first wire EDM unit allowing the operator to cut, in submerged
mode, up to a height of 400 mm, at an inclination of ± 28º, the whole way along the X-axis or
Y-axis.
Fig. 2.2.1.4-1 KE 500 Series Wire-EDM ONA America
x Fig. 2.2.1.4-1 shows the ONA KE 500 Series machine that has a work table capacity of 1200
X 950 X 400 mm.
x The system controls the cutting process to ensure optimal machine performance at each
stage. All of this ensures long machining times without operator intervention.
x Features include a user-friendly CNC to enhance operator-machine interface; an Ethernet
connection allowing the programmed machine to send messages to the user’s e-mail address
at any location by PC or cell phone and a new patented built-in automatic threading system to
handle a variety of wire types and diameters.
2.2.1.5 http://www.wzl.rwth-aachen.de/en/0_start/schneiderosion/, “Micro-machining by Wire-

EDM”.
x This web site reports an extensive research work concerning technology development for
Micro-Wire-EDM. The targets are minimization of surface roughness and thermal damage of
the rim zone, reduction in the producible geometric dimensions and improvement of the
machining accuracy. The investigations are accompanied by the production of specific parts
in order to rapidly transfer the results to practice and to create a wide application spectrum.
Micro-Wire EDM tests and production are carried out on a AGIECUT 270 SF+F HSS Wire-
EDM machine.
43
Fig. 2.2.1.5-1 Wire-cut micro parts for a medical application; material: TiAl6V4
x The Fig. 2.2.1.5-1 shows two ultra-precision machined and subsequently fine wire-cut (d =50
µm) parts for a foreseen application in surgery. A main difficulty in Wire-EDM of these parts
is the clamping because possible clamping area is extremely small and three different
contours have to be cut in different clamping positions. Adapted clamping devices based on
different clamping mechanisms had to be implemented in order to solve these problems.
2.2.2 TOOL
2.2.2.1 Obara, H., Abe, M., Ohsumi, “Control of Wire Breakage during Wire EDM,”
x A new method that divides the three gap monitoring signals (ignition delay time, discharge
voltage and radio frequency signal) into groups depending on discharge position to pre-
monitor wire breakage during wire EDM is proposed.
Fig. 2.2.2.1-1 Schematic diagram of detecting circuits
x Fig. 2.2.2.1-1 shows a schematic diagram of the detecting circuits. The discharge voltage Vg,
the ignition delay time Wd, the radio frequency signal RF, the total discharge current IT=IU+ID
and the difference of discharge current 'I=IU-TD are detected, where IU and ID are the upper
and lower discharge currents supplied to the wire respectively.
44
Fig. 2.2.2.1-2 Variation of discharge position just before the wire breakage
x The -'I/IT value is concentrated in the middle of the wire just before breakage so the location
wire break position is determined to be the middle discharge portion (Fig. 2.2.2.1-2).
x The method also reveals that discharge voltage is the best signal to use for pre-monitoring the
wire breakage. This signal identifies the increase in the short circuit pulses.
2.2.2.2 Han, F., Kunieda, M., Sendai, T., Imai, Y., “Simulation on Influence of Electrostatic
Force on Machining Characteristics in WEDM,” International Journal of Electrical
Machining, No. 7, 2002, pp. 31-36.
x This paper describes a simulation method to determine the effect of electrostatic force on the
wire vibration. It also confirms that the wire electrode can be resonated by the electrostatic
force, when the discharge frequency is the same as the characteristic frequency of the wire
electrode.
Fig. 2.2.2.2-1 Shape of the workpiece finished with wire resonance frequency
x When the wire was vibrated at resonance frequency the vibration patterns were copied to the
workpiece surface in both the experiment and simulation, indicating that the resonance of the
wire can decrease machining accuracy. This can be visualized from the Fig. 2.2.2.2-1.
x The study also found that if the voltage of the open circuit is set high, the wire collides with
the workpiece at a high frequency due to the electrostatic force, causing the wire to break.
x This method assumes a perfect-elastic collision and ignores the explosive forces due to
discharge.
45
2.2.2.3 Klocke, F., Lung, D., Nöthe, T., “Micro Contouring by EDM with Fine Wires”,
International Symposium for Electromachining XIII, Vol. II, May 2001, pp.767-779.
x This paper studies WEDM micro contouring of tool steel and cemented carbide using a wire
diameter of 50µm. By means of cutting typical contours like small teeth, sharp corners and
small radii, the specific process behavior and the resulting contour deviations are discussed.
x The main process parameter to be varied was the discharge energy. The pulse frequency has
been set at a low value to avoid any undesired impacts. Fig. 2.2.2.3-1 shows the selected
geometries and the main test conditions.
Fig. 2.2.2.3-1 Selected geometries and the main test conditions
x The minimum producible tooth width is limited by residual stresses caused by thermal action
at the rim zone. Depending on the discharge energy, the desired tooth width, the material
properties and its heat treatment, this stress formation can cause deformation or even break
the tooth. With low discharge energy, a tooth width of 20µm can be produced by a main cut.
x In sharp corner cutting operation, the precision is affected by different mechanisms. While
for bigger corner angles the wire lag has a high share of the total measure deviation, for
smaller corner angles, enhanced electric field strength and an uneven discharge distribution
which cause an excessive removal at the tip are the dominant factors.
x When cutting small radii, the uneven discharge distribution is responsible for a too small
removal at inner radii and a too high removal at outer radii. A variation for the open circuit
ratio during the main cut can partly yield an improvement of accuracy. By adapting this
technology the deviation can be reduced down to approx. 3 µm.
x By means of a trim cut with very low discharge energy carefully adapted machining
parameters it is possible to produce microstructures with a width of less than 10 µm and
accuracy within ± 2 µm.
2.2.2.4 http://www.intech-edm.com/pdf/wirebook.pdf
x This article is published by the Intech EDM company as a reference for selecting Wire for
WEDM. It reports the developments in the wire material.
46
x Copper was the original material first used in wire EDM. Although its conductivity rating is
excellent, its low tensile strength, high melting point and low vapor pressure rating severely
limited its potential. Today its practical use is confined to earlier machines with power
supplies designed for copper wire.
x Brass was the first logical alternative to copper when early EDM users were looking for
better performance. Brass EDM wire is a combination of copper and zinc, typically alloyed
in the range of 63–65% Cu and 35–37% Zn.
x Higher Zinc content increases the tensile strength of the wire. But, brass wires cannot be
efficiently fabricated using high concentrations. So coated wire were fabricated, which
typically have a core of brass or copper, for conductivity and tensile strength, and are
electroplated with a coating of pure or diffused zinc for enhanced spark formation and flush
characteristics.
x High precision work on wire EDM machines, requiring small inside radii, calls for wire
diameters in the range of .001–.004" (Fine wires). Since brass and coated wires are not
practical, due to their low load carrying capacity in these sizes, molybdenum and tungsten
wires are used.
x Fines wires have limited conductivity so cannot be used to machine thick workpieces. So, a
composite wire called MolyCarb was created that does offer significant advantages for small
diameter work, since it coats molybdenum wire with a mixture of graphite and molybdenum
oxide to improve its flushing characteristics.
2.2.3.1 Matsuo, T., Oshima, E., “Investigation on the Optimum Carbide Content and Machining
Condition for Wire EDM of Zirconia Ceramics,” Annals of CIRP, Vol. 41, 1992, pp.
231-234.
x This paper reports the experimental results of Wire EDM of Zirconia ceramics including
NbC or TiC. The machining rate and surface roughness were measured for various operating
conditions.
Fig. 2.2.3.1-1 Relationship between electrical conductivity and machining rate, surface
roughness
x As the carbide content rises, the electrical conductivity increases leading to higher machining
rate. The machining rate reaches a peak at about 200 S/cm and then drops. The optimum
47
carbide contents which give the maximum machining rates are by volume 28% with NbC and
30% with TiC. This is evident from the Fig. 2.2.3.1-1. It is also seen that as the carbide
content increases after the optimal point, surface roughness decreases.
x The study also shows that there exists optimum pulse duration, and the critical pulse duration
which gives maximum machining rate with increase in duty factor.
x The surface roughness increase with duty factor.
x A second cut with the same offset is recommended to obtain a better surface finish.
2.2.3.2 Spur, G., Appel, S., “Wire EDM cutting of PCD,” Industrial Diamond Review, April,
1997, pp. 124-130.
x Polycrystalline diamond (PCD) is synthetic composite cutting tool material produced by
sintering together carefully selected diamond particles under conditions of high temperature
and pressure. PCD can be machined reproducibly to a high surface quality using the wire
EDM. However, less electrical conductivity of PCD leads to lesser productivity of EDM
process.
x Fig. 2.2.3.2-1 illustrates that surface finish achieved on the fine-grained grades is superior to
that achieved on the coarser grades, but no such trend is evident with regard to cutting rates.
x This study determined that the type of wire material and the dielectric fluid influence the
outcome of machining.
x Deionized water as dielectric fluid produced a higher cutting rate than oil, but the higher
cutting rate resulted in poor surface finish (Fig. 2.2.3.2-2).
x Productivity is higher with water; however errors of geometry, such as subsurface undercut,
are substantial. This can be prevented by skilful position of the workpiece.
Fig. 2.2.3.2-1 Cutting rate and surface finish as a function of pulse frequency for various
PCD grades and WC
Fig. 2.2.3.2-2 Cutting rate and surface quality depending on the dielectric fluid
48
2.2.3.3 Wang, T., Kunieda, M., “Study On Dry WEDMed Surface,” International Symposium for
Electromachining XIII, 2001, pp. 505-512.
x Experiments were conducted to study the influence of various type of dielectric on output
parameters like actual cutting depth, straightness, surface roughness and material removal
rate.
x Dielectric media used in the study are water, atmosphere, compressed air and compressed
oxygen.
x The discharge gap was found to be 3, 7, and 14 Pm for compressed gases, atmosphere and
water respectively. It was found that the actual cutting depth in compressed gas is the
smallest, because high pressure gas flow moves the debris immediately from the gap.
x Dry-WEDM produces excellent straightness of the machined surface because the amplitude
of the wire electrode vibration is small due to small process reaction forces like electrostatic
force and force due to bubble collapsing. This is evident from the Fig. 2.2.3.3-1.
x Fig. 2.2.3.3-2 shows that the surface roughness of the water and compressed air nearly equal
and slightly lower that that in compressed oxygen. The size of craters on the WEDM
generated surface in compressed oxygen is considered slightly larger due to higher heat
generated by oxidation.
x Water has the highest material removal rate and the other dielectric media have equal but
smaller removal rates.
Fig. 2.2.3.3-1 Geometry of WEDMed surfaces measured parallel to wire electrode
Fig. 2.2.3.3-2 Results of surface roughness

49
2.2.3.4 Obara, H., Nakase, M., Ohsumi, T., Hatano, M., “Analysis of Explosive Load on Wire
Surface Generated by Discharge of Wire EDM,” International Journal of Electrical
Machining, No. 7, 2002, pp. 37-42.
x In this paper, the explosive load acting on a wire surface generated by discharges at the rough
cut and the finish cut of wire EDM is investigated. The hydrodynamic explosion process in
the water-filled gap from each discharge is numerically analyzed using the adiabatic bubble
expansion mode, and the impulsive load acting in the wire surface is calculated.
Fig. 2.2.3.4-1 Pressure distribution in case Fig. 2.2.3.4-2 Pressure distribution in case
of front discharge of side discharge
x The Fig. 2.2.3.4-1 & 2 illustrate the pressure distribution caused by a discharge in the front
and the side of the wire respectively. Pressure distribution and the force are obtained by the
integration of pressure distribution after 0.3 ms from the start of a discharge. It can be seen
that the discharge force is not always constant and it is not perpendicular to the wire surface.
x This paper concludes that the influence of the skimmed depth on the wire deflection at the
finish cut is explained by the numerically analyzed results.
2.2.4.1 Wang, W.M., Rajurkar, K.P., Huang H., “Monitoring and Control Strategy for wire
breakage in WEDM,” Transactions of NAMRI/SME, Vol. XIX, 1991, pp. 148-153.
Fig. 2.2.4.1-1 A voltage waveform of the wire rupture process

50
x A data acquisition system was developed to study the gap voltage wave forms. It was
determined that a rapid voltage drop, from the level higher than 35V to that lower than 10V,
can be accounted as a spark pulse. If the lasting time of a low voltage, less than 35V, is
longer than an off-time period, it can be accounted for a short circuit pulse (Fig. 2.2.4.1-1).
x After the breakage the free end of the wire contacts the workpiece to generate more short
circuits leading to damaged surface. To prevent this scenario a monitoring and control
strategy was developed.
Fig. 2.2.4.1-2 Block Diagram of the Sparking frequency monitor
x It was also found the wire always breaks when the sparking frequency is higher than 9.5
KHz. The wire breakage risk can be reduced by selecting longer pulse off-time. Fig. 2.2.4.1-2
shows the proposed sparking frequency monitor to record the sparking frequencies.
x Finally a control strategy was proposed that increases the pulse off-time whenever the
sparking frequency exceeds the critical value.
2.2.4.2 Rajurkar, K.P., Wang, W.M., McGeough, J.A., “WEDM Identification and Adaptive
Control for Variable-Height Components,” Annals of CIRP, Vol. 43, 1994, pp. 199-202.
x To avoid the wire rupture due to change in height of the workpiece, a height identification
model was proposed. The workpiece height in WEDM was estimated on-line by modeling
the transfer gain from the spark frequency to feed rate.
Fig. 2.2.4.2-1 On-line recorded identification data

51
x The nonlinear prediction model provided smoother identification data and was simpler than
linear model (Fig. 2.2.4.2-1).
x With this control system, the sparking frequency is controlled according to an on-line
identified workpiece height at the optimal value without the risk of wire rupture when cutting
a workpiece with variable height.
x The error of the workpiece height identification with the proposed system is 1mm, and the
response time is 1 second when workpiece height reduces in large steps.
2.2.4.3 Yan, M.T., Liao, Y.S., “Adaptive Control of WEDM process using the FUZZY Control
Strategy,” International Symposium for Electromachining XI, 1995, pp. 343-352.
x An adaptive control optimization system for the WEDM process based on the multi-variable
and 3-region fuzzy control strategy is introduced.
x The sparking frequency data is collected by a monitoring system which is fed into the fuzzy
controller to make decisions according to the situation.
x The schematic of the fuzzy control system is shown in the Fig. 2.2.4.3-1. The pulse-off time
and the wire feed rate are controlled using the following rules.
1. When the sparking frequency is in the safe region the parameters are set at optimal level.
2. When the sparking frequency is in the critical region the feed rate should be adjusted and
pulse off-time needs to be increased.
3. When the sparking frequency is in the dangerous region the pulse off-time is largely
increased and feed rate is decreased to prevent the wire breakage.
Fig. 2.2.4.3-1 Sparking frequency monitoring and fuzzy control system
x Experiments were conducted using roughing and finishing conditions and the system
demonstrated stable machining.
2.2.4.4 Rajurkar, K.P., Wang, W., Zhao, W.S., “WEDM-Adaptive Control with a Multiple Input
Model for Identification of Workpiece Height,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 46, 1997, pp.
147-150.
x The model proposed in this paper includes multiple inputs to estimate the height of the
workpiece compared to a previously existing single input model (Rajurkar, Annals of CIRP,
1994).
x The multiple inputs model is the relationship between the output value of average gap
voltage and input values of sparking frequency and cutting feed.
52
x This multiple inputs model avoids the disturbance caused by the instability of table feed
during workpiece height identification while single input model accounts only the
relationship between the spark frequency and machine table feed.
Fig. 2.2.4.4-1 On-line identified workpiece height
x This new model improves the stability and accuracy of workpiece height identification. The
identification error with the multiple inputs model is 56% lower than that with the single
input model when workpiece height changes in a large step (Fig. 2.2.4.4-1).
2.2.4.5 Hsue, W.J., Liao, Y.S., Lu, S.S., “A Study of Corner Control Strategy of Wire-EDM
based on Quantitative MRR analysis,” International Journal of Electrical Machining, No.
4, 1999, pp. 33-39.
x In this paper a corner control strategy using material removal rate (MRR) analysis was
developed to maintain the accuracy and straightness of the machined corner.
x The wire deflection and vibration are caused by machining load that is resulted from
discharge power. So this strategy maintains the wire straightness by reducing power before
wire arriving at the apex, this also preserves the kerf width after the wire passes the corner
apex.
x During the power suppression stage, the reference discharge power is reduced to a specific
value which is equal to the ratio of MRR at the corner apex to MRR in straight path cutting
multiplied by a corrected power.
2.2.4.6 Wu, J., Li, M.H., “The Identification of the Servo Control State in Wire Electrical
Discharge Machining Process,” International Symposium for Electromachining XIII,
2001, pp. 423-433.
x This paper reports a new digital monitor system developed to identify the pulse state in High
Speed-WEDM. The time ratios of normal discharge, short circuit and open circuit in
sampling intervals are calculated and recorded by the monitoring system.
x The special feature of the monitor system shown in the Fig. 2.2.4.6-1 is that the gap voltage
threshold can be adjusted online by the software to adapt the different power settings. This
function is realized by a digital resistor in the monitor.
x Experimental analysis shows that the normal discharge sequence composed of the time ratio
of normal discharge is a low order auto-regression model. When the gap size becomes small,
the order of the model becomes large. It means that the normal discharge pulses will have
stronger correlation when the gap size becomes smaller.
53
Fig. 2.2.4.6-1 HS-WEDM pulse state monitor system
2.2.5 Applications
2.2.5.1 “EDM for the Dental Profession,” EDM Today, March/April, 1999.
x Wire EDM is used to generate sub structures that can be further machined to final shape
using other machining techniques.
x Fig. 2.2.5.1-1 shows a wire cut Titanium sub structure blank (Tooth template) that is finished
by die sinking EDM using a graphite electrode that carries the replica of the natural tooth.
Fig. 2.2.5.1-1 Wire cut Titanium template
2.3 Micro EDM

Miniature parts require a machining process that can remove material at micro level. Micro EDM
can provide the machining needs for the micro parts. The material removal process is similar to
Macro and Wire EDM, the only difference is the power involved. The voltage and current used
in this process are several times lesser and because of that material removed per spark is in the
order of nanometer. The schematic of a micro EDM system is shown in the Fig 2.3-1.
54
Fig. 2.3-1 Schematic of Micro EDM system
2.3.1 Equipment
2.3.1.1 Sheu, D., Masuzawa, T., “Development of Large-Scale Production of Microholes by

EDM,” International Symposium for Electromachining XIII, Vol. II, 2001, pp. 747-758.
x New machining method with Twin-WEDG system and Tandem Micro-EDM system is
proposed (Fig. 2.3.1.1-1). Higher machining speeds of microelectrodes and microholes can
be realized with this system because rough machining, finishing of electrodes and microhole
machining are carried out simultaneously.
Fig. 2.3.1.1-1 Scheme of micro-EDM system for mass production of microholes
x The mechanism of mechanical pencil was adopted to supply electrodes automatically. New
mandrel is designed to supple electrode material by knocking the knock–lever driven by a
cam (Fig. 2.3.1.1-1).
x A prototype setup is shown in Fig. 2.3.1.1-2. The system combines Twin-WEDG, Tandem
micro-EDM and the electrode-material feed system. The main spindle is set horizontally. It
55
includes a V-shaped bearing, a mandrel that holds the electrode and a DC motor. The rotation
eccentricity of the spindle mechanism is smaller than 0.5µm.
Fig. 2.3.1.1-2 Setup of micro-EDM system
x The system includes 3 detecting circuits for 3 pulse generators of Twin-WEDG and micro
hole machining. If any one of discharge conditions becomes unusual, the main spindle will
be set back by the command from a computer.
x Experimental results show that Twin-WEDG reduces the total machining time for a ĭ40µm
microelectrode about half of that in a conventional system.
x Furthermore, after machining a through microhole, the worn length of the electrode will be
recovered by Twin-WEDG system instead of machining with a completely new electrode. At
the beginning of machining the next hole, only hole-making takes place because the part of
the electrode for this machining has already been fabricated.
x Automatic mass-production of high-quality microholes has been proved to be able to achieve
with this system. 400 microholes with a diameter of 50µm were successfully machined
automatically in a 50µm thick stainless steel plate. The difference between diameters at the
entrance and the exit was about 1-2 µm.
2.3.1.2 Masuzawa, T., Okajimam K., Taguchim T., Fujino, M., “EDM-lathe for
Micromachining,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 51, No. 1, 2002, pp. 355-358.
x A new type of micro-EDM machine operating similar to a turning lathe is proposed in this
paper to machine coaxial micro products (Fig. 2.3.1.2-1).
x EDG system is installed to fabricate on-the-machine complex microelectrode with sharp
edges and corners (Fig. 2.3.1.2-2). The disc electrode can have a large diameter and can be
fabricated precisely by WEDG.
x The EDM lathe is constructed with a WEDG head, a X-Y table, for the ME head and three
rotating spindles which are guided by V blocks and driven by DC motors.
x The possible applications of this machine are shown in Fig. 2.3.1.2-3.
56
Fig. 2.3.1.2-1 Entire process to produce a coaxial cavity with an over hang
Fig. 2.3.1.2-2 Advantage of EDG with disc electrode
Fig. 2.3.1.2-3 Possible applications

57
2.3.1.3 Fujino, M., Okamoto, N., Masuzawa, T., “Development of Multi-purpose
Microprocessing Machine,” International Symposium for Electromachining XI, 1995, pp.
613-620.
x This paper reports the development of a multipurpose processing machine, which enables
micro EDM, WEDG, micro drilling and micro-endmilling on a single machine.
x Fig. 2.3.1.3-1 shows the structure of the system. Four driving axes, X, Y, Z, and c, are
numerically controlled.
Fig. 2.3.1.3-1 Structure of the system
x The wire feed system of the wire used for WEDG is arranged outside the working tank. The
wire is steadily supplied to the wire guide inside the working tank. The travel speed of the
wire is set at 50mm/min and wire tensile is about 300gf.
x An R-C generator is adopted for the discharge circuit in order to obtain micro discharge. The
detection of mean current charged in a capacitor of the RC-generator is adopted as the
method to detect discharge conditions.
x Experimental machining proved the possibility of EDM, WEDG, drilling and end milling on
this system. Moreover, with this system, processing using micro drills and end mills
manufactured by means of WEDG can be automatically performed on the same machine of
tool making.
2.3.1.4 Furutani, K., Mohri, N., Higuchi, T., “Miniaturized Electrode Feed Devices Using
Piezoelectric Elements”, International Symposium for Electromachining XI, 1995, pp.
621-628.
x The requirements for the electrode feeding devices for machining micro holes are: 1) quick
response to pull back an electrode when a short circuit happens, 2) repeatable fine resolution
to adjust the gap length between and electrode and a workpiece, 3) ability to travel a long
distance, 4) small size, 5) applicability to an EDM system with multiple electrodes.
58
x To increase the machining speed of micro-EDM, one approach is to miniaturize electrode

feeding devices so that a number of electrode feeding devices can be arranged closely to
machine simultaneously. This paper introduces several types of miniaturized electrode
feeding devices by using piezoelectric elements (peizo).
x An electrode feeding device using Impact Drive Mechanism (IDM) is first introduced (Fig.
2.3.1.4-1). This device measures 48 × 70 × 86 mm and weighs 1 kg. The electrode is held
with a chuck. The peizo A is used for IDM. The piezo B is used for adjust gap length or
forced vibration of the electrode.
Fig. 2.3.1.4-1 Sectional view of electrode feeding device with Impact Drive Mechanism
x IDM utilizes friction and inertial force caused by rapid deformations of peizos. It consists of
a moved object, a weight, a peizo which connects the weight with one end of the moved
object. The moved object is pressed against the base to obtain friction. Downward movement
is illustrated in Fig 2.3.1.4-2. At the first step the piezo is extended. 2) While the piezo is
contracted with certain acceleration, the weight moves down while the friction between the
moved object and the base keeps the moved object still. 3) When the deformation of peizo
stops, the moved object gets momentum by stopping the weight. The IDM starts to move
downward. 4) After step 3) is completed, applied voltage to the piezo rises steeply so that it
extend rapidly. The weight moves upward and the moves objects moves downward by the
reactionary force, which is adjusted to be bigger than the friction. The IDM moves
downwards. 5) After step 4) is completed, a voltage of the piezo is fixed to the voltage for a
pause. The IDM runs against dynamic friction until it lose its kinetic energy. Repeating the
step 1) to 5), the IDM can move for an infinite distance. Upward movement is also obtained
by exchanging contraction and extension of the piezo.
59
Fig. 2.3.1.4-2 Mechanism of IDM movement
x Step like movement can be obtained with the IDM (Fig. 2.3.1.4-3).The feeding step can be
adjusted from several nanometers to several micrometers by controlling the voltage
amplitude.
Fig. 2.3.1.4-3 Examples of electrode feeding with IDM
x Experimental study proved that the machining time with IDM is shorter than that with
conventional electrode feeding device.
x Other structures of the electrode feeding device introduced in the paper utilizes impulsive
force or elliptical movement (Fig. 2.3.1.4-4, Fig. 2.3.1.4-5). The first one measures 8 X 9 X
28 mm and weighs 7.1 g, 1/10000 times as small as conventional one in volume. The second
measures 60 X 20 X 76 mm.
60
Fig. 2.3.1.4-4 Structure of electrode feeding device utilizing impulsive force
Fig. 2.3.1.4-5 Structure of electrode feeding device utilizing elliptical movement
x Direct drive devices using piezo are compared with conventional chucking methods (Table
2.3.1.4-1). A moving coil is small in scale and has high resolution. It is difficult to use
because it doesn’t have enough stroke. A chuck has larger holding force and is adjustable for
the diameter of the electrode. In the direct drive method, the wear length of the electrode can
be compensated by feeding the electrode. Therefore, the direct drive method is available for
thin wire electrode.
61
Table. 2.3.1.4-1 Comparison between electrode feeding devices
2.3.2 Process and Process characteristics
2.3.2.1 Tsai, Y.Y., Masuzawa, T., Fujino, M., “Investigations on Electrode Wear in Micro-
x Although Micro EDM can achieve excellent machined surface quality, the accuracy of
machining is affected by the electrode wear. The wear of electrode becomes large for thin
electrode or in the location of small curvature. This phenomenon is called “area effect”.
x In this paper, volumetric wear is divided into two portions: changes of the electrode length
and corner rounding. The relationships between volumetric wear ratio and material
characteristics, electrode diameter and circuit parameters such as capacitance, open circuit
voltage, resistance and inductance are investigated.
x Experiments were performed on a micro EDM including WEDG unit. Fig. 2.3.2.1-1 shows
the configuration of the equipment.
x It is concluded that materials with high melting point, boiling point and high thermal
conductivity are beneficial for electrode in micro EDM as an extension of conventional
EDM. Electrode wear increases when the diameter of the electrode is small. The main reason
is due to poor heat conduction and difficulty in maintaining good gap control.
x Volumetric wear ratio decreases with the decrease of discharge energy. Using low open
circuit voltage is not always effective because continuous arcs happen easily. It is
recommended to use small capacitance in micro EDM for micro hole machining to obtain
small discharge energy.
62
Fig. 2.3.2.1-1 Experimental configuration
x There are different inductances that minimize the volumetric wear ratio when different
capacitances are used. Larger inductances correspond to the minimum wear ratio at larger
capacitances. There is also a minimum volumetric wear ratio for different charge resistances.
With appropriate choice of the charging resistance and the inductance in discharge loop, the
tool wear can actually be reduced to 1% or less for machining stainless steel SUS304 when a
ĭ50µm tungsten tool-electrode was used.
2.3.2.2 Allen, D. M., Almond, H. J. A., Bhogal, J. S., Green, A. E., Logan, P. M., Huang, X. X.,
“Typical Metrology of Micro-Hole Arrays Made in Stainless Steel Foils by Two-stage
Micro-EDM,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 48, 1999, pp. 127-130.
x This paper investigates the fabrication of micro-holes with micro-EDM for ink jet printing
nozzles where hole diameters are smaller than 50µm. The smoothness of the bore, high
positioning accuracy and repeatability are the main parameters of interest.
x Two-stage micro-EDM, which involves two separate micro-EDM processes, is used to
fabricate electrodes and to manufacture the holes. Optical microscopy, scanning electron
microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and coordinate measuring machine
(CMM) were used for measurements.
x Tungsten electrodes were machined with WEDG to under 50µm in diameter. It is shown that
electrodes with better roundness and smaller taper could be obtained when machining with
low speed and in several smaller steps. The microelectrode tip appeared to be more prone to
the disturbance such as vibrations caused by dielectric flow than in proximity to the mandrel
due to the cantilever type arrangement.
x The surface quality of microelectrodes has been investigated with AFM. It reveals small
particles with diameters between 80-150nm on the machined surface and cracks with
maximum depth of 1.3µm and width of 1.5µm. The typical Ra for an electrode was 180 –
300 nm.
x The positional accuracy of the micro-EDM machine was assessed while simulating the
machining of an array of holes.
63
x Stainless steel foils from 100 –200µm have been used as workpiece. Aspect ratios of the
micro holes are 2 – 4 with 50µm in diameter. The edge profile obtained is excellent with
minimum corner radiusing estimated at 1- 2µm with pulse energies of approximately 10-8 J.
x To obtain the cross-section of such a small hole, micro holes were drilled into the joint line of
two edge-polished foils butted together with conductive cement. After dissolving the cement,
the machined surfaces were examined by SEM and AFM. The recorded Ra values of the
internal bores of the micro hole were 200 – 400nm.
x Metallurgical defects of the foil such as inclusion and cracks longer than the hole diameter
were also reveled which were suspected to be an integral part caused by the rolling process of
the foil (Fig. 2.3.2.2-1 & 2).
Fig. 2.3.2.2-1 Internal surface of a micro-hole Fig. 2.3.2.2-2 Defects inside micro-hole bore
2.3.2.3 Morgan, C., Shreve, S., Vallance, R.R., “Precision of Micro Shafts Machined with Wire
Electro-Discharge Grinding”, Proceedings of the 2003 ASPE Topical Meeting on
Machines and Processes for Micro-Scale and Meso0Scale Fabrication, Metrology and
Assembly, University of Florida, 2003.
x This paper presents an experimental study of the straightness error and surface roughness
developed during wire electro-discharge grinding (WEDG) (Fig. 2.3.2.3-1 and Fig. 2.3.2.3-2)
of a micro shaft.
Fig. 2.3.2.3-1 Wire Electro-Discharge Grinding

64
Fig. 2.3.2.3-2 Traveling Wire in WEDG
x 81 micro shafts with a nominal diameter of 50µm and length of 500, 1000, 1500µm were
fabricated with various machining conditions.
x Edges profiles of the shafts were measured with a 3D surface profilometer of sub-nanometer
resolution and analyzed numerically to determining straightness and Ra values.
x A statistical analysis reveals that surface roughness is independent of feed rate and aspect
ratio but is dependent on voltage and capacitance (i.e. discharge energy). Ra value down to
67 nm was achieved.
x Straightness ranged between 3.05 and 12.04µm. The statistical tests show that the
straightness is independent of voltage, capacitance, and feed rate. But as the aspect ratio
increases, straightness errors increase. An error model suggests the dependence of
straightness on machine/ process errors rather than process conditions during WEDG.
2.3.3 Applications
2.3.3.1 Yu, Z., Masuzawa, T., Fujino, M., “Micro-EDM for Three Dimensional Cavities –
Development of Uniform Wear Method,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 47, 1998, pp. 169-
172.
x In micro EDM, it is not practical to use a complex shape electrode to machine 3D cavities
because the electrode loses its geometric features due to large wear. In this paper, a new
method called Uniform Wear Method (UWM) is presented for 3D micro EDM using simple-
shaped electrodes.
x During a layer-by-layer machining (Fig. 2.3.3.1-1), when the electrode feed for each
machining layer and the section area of the electrode are small, the majority of machining
can be done by the bottom of the electrode.
x To implement the uniform wear, a to-and-fro scanning tool path must be used to machine the
inner part and the outline of the targeted area alternatively (Fig. 2.3.3.1-2). When the outline
is being machined, the electrode tip becomes rounded due to wear. This deformation can be
completely removed when machining the inner part of the layer because of the discharges
occur only on the bottom of the electrode. This restores the original end shape of the
electrode and a sharp corner reappears before the start of the next outline path.
65
Electrode
Fig. 2.3.3.1-1 Layer by layer machining Fig. 2.3.3.1-2 To-and-fro tool path
x When machining a 3D cavity, a simple electrode is controlled to move along the tool paths
according to the principle of UWM. With compensation of electrode wear, 3D micromolds of
different shapes can be machined (Fig. 2.3.3.1-3). This method has also been approved to be
applicable for normal size molds EDM (Fig. 2.3.3.1-4).
Fig. 2.3.3.1-3 Machining cross cavity Fig. 2.3.3.1-4 Machined spherical cavity
with inclined surface and the electrode
2.3.3.2 Reynaerts, D., Heeren, P.H., Brussel, H.V., “Microstructuring of Silicon by Micro
Electro-Discharge Machining (EDM) – Part I: Theory,” Sensors and Actuators A
(Physical), Vol. A60, 1997, pp. 212-218.
x This paper first presents an overview of EDM technology, the current state-of-art of micro
EDM, and a comparison of EDM with other micromachining technologies. The main
advantages of micro EDM over other micromachining technologies are its flexibility and
ability to machine complex 3D shapes (Table 2.3.3.2-1 and 2.3.3.2-2).
66
Table. 2.3.3.2-1 Micromachining technology comparison
Table. 2.3.3.2-2 Compatibility of machining technologies with different materials
x Silicon has a very low erosion resistance (0.0075 compared with steel 0.23x1012J2M-1kg-1).
The machining speed of silicon is almost double that of stainless steel and the electrode wear
was lower. Machining a hole with aspect ratio of 10 posed no problem. EDM of silicon in
deionized water yields better results than in oil-based dielectric in terms of machining speed,
accuracy and roughness.
x When machining monocrystalline silicon the polarity needs to be adjusted according to the
doping type of the silicon (Table 2.3.3.2-3). n-type silicon is slightly easier to machine than
p-type.
Table. 2.3.3.2-3 Adjustment of polarity according to the doping type of silicon

Silicon type Polarity
p Electrode -, silicon +
n Electrode +, silicon -
x When machining with silicon wafers with a resistance of up to 50ȍ, measurement to

overcome the peripheral resistance, such as plating silicon with a conductor, is not necessary
when using a modern generator capable of reaching high open circuit voltage higher than
200V. The main influence of the resistance of silicon wafer is on the machining speed, not on
the attainable accuracy.
x The roughness after machining is proportional to the machining speed. The effects of EDM
on the silicon are limited to a depth of 10 to 35µm. No inclusion of material from either
dielectric or electrode was found in electrical discharge machined silicon.
67
2.3.3.3 Heeren. P.H., Reynaerts, D., Brussel, H.V., Beuret, C., Larsson, O., Berthoulds, A.,
“Microstructuring of Silicon by Micro Electro-Discharge Machining (EDM) – Part II:
Applications,” Sensors and Actuators A (Physical), Vol. A61, 1997, pp. 379-386.
x In this paper, several examples are given of the possibilities of micro-EDM to machine
complex three-dimensional shapes of silicon.
x AGIE compact 1 die-sinking EDM machine was used to machine all microstructures.
Following modifications were made to the machine to enable the micro EDM of silicon
including installation of a micro generator, replacement of the oil-based dielectric circuit
with a separate dielectric circuit using deionized water, installation of a rotating clamping
device for small electrode improve flushing and stiffness of the electrode. Also, the electrode
was made to pass through a ceramic wire guide just above the workpiece to increase the
electrode stiffness and reduce vibration of the wire (Fig. 2.3.3.3-1).
Fig. 2.3.3.3-1 Basic set-up for machining silicon by EDM
x An on-the-machine electrode machining process with EDM was adopted to avoid the loss of
accuracy introduced by electrode transportation. Another tungsten wire was used as
sacrificial workpiece. The wear of the sacrificial wire was compensated by adjusting the
penetration of the electrode into the sacrificial wire.
x To test the attainable surface quality using EDM micro milling, a micro mirror was made
(Fig. 2.3.3.3-2). The best strategy yielded a roughness of the mirror surfaces of 0.014µm Ra
in the direction of the electrode movement and 0.127µm Ra in the direction perpendicular to
the electrode movement.
Fig. 2.3.3.3-2 Micro mirror

68
x Micro spur gear and bevel gear (Fig. 2.3.3.3-3) with involve-shaped teeth were successfully
machined with 350µm thick wafer.
Fig. 2.3.3.3-3 Top view and assembled bevel gear (ĭ 4.3 mm)
x Detail analysis was carried out to determine the influence of the EDM process on the
properties of the silicon material when machining an acceleration sensor. No heat-affected
zone or change in the surface structure was found. No recrystallization was found. And the
micro hardness was unchanged.
x Another application is a silicon microspring used to perform one-dimensional measurement
(Fig. 2.3.3.3-4). The spring was designed in AutoCAD and then exported as a DXF-file
(neutral format). The DXF-file was then imported into a postprocessor that translates the
DXF-file into an appropriate NC-file for the spark erosion machine. The leading time
between design and production can be kept to less than one hour.
Fig. 2.3.3.3-4 Finished spring (7mm long, 4mm wide) against the backdrop of Belgian coin
2.3.3.4 Yu, Z.Y., Rajurkar, K.P., Shen, H., “High Aspect Ratio and Complex Shaped Blind
Micro Holes by Micro EDM,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 51, No.1, 2002, pp. 359-362.
x This paper presents a new approach for effective self-flushing in Micro EDM using planetary
movement (Fig. 2.3.3.4-1).
Fig. 2.3.3.4-1 Scanning tool path

69
x To reduce the influence of gravity on debris removal, deep hole machining was carried out
horizontally. Planetary movement of workpiece along a circular path was realized by using
two micro stages placed on Y-Z plane. Deionized water was used as dielectric (Fig. 2.3.3.4-
2).
Fig. 2.3.3.4-2 Experimental setup for circular holes
x Through micro holes with aspect ratio of 18 have been successfully drilled with the
application of planetary movement (Fig. 2.3.3.4-3).
Fig. 2.3.3.4-3 Micro hole through 2.5mm plate
x The advantage of planetary movement was also demonstrated by drilling blind micro holes
with noncircular cross sections (Fig. 2.3.3.4-4).
70
Fig. 2.3.3.4-4 Triangular and square blind hole machined with planetary movement
x The process characteristics such as discharge gap, geometric characteristics of the hole,
machining speed and electrode wear ratio were analyzed under different machining
conditions. It is proved that planetary movement efficiently reduces tool wear and increases
machining speed by reducing debris concentration (Fig. 2.3.3.4-5).
Fig. 2.3.3.4-5 Comparison of Material Removal Rate (MRR) and Relative Electrode Wear
(REW) when drilling square blind micro hole
2.3.3.5 Langen, H.H., Masuzawa, T., Fujino, M., “Modular Method for Microparts Machining
and Assembly with Self Alignment,” Annals of CIRP, Vol. 44, 1995, pp. 173-176.
x In this paper, modular machining and assembly of 3D microparts with self-alignment is
developed.
x WEDG generated microparts and/or tools are temporarily fixed into a mini-worktable of a
Modular Machining Assembly (MMA) unit with high location accuracy for further assembly
and/or machining.
x A pin-plate module was fabricated with this method (Fig. 2.3.3.5-1). The outline of the pin is
first machined with WEDG. The taper of the lower part is to improve self-aligned insertion.
The pin is inserted into the hole machined with micro-EDM by applying ultrasonic vibration
to the mini-worktable. Then the pin is twisted to break the neck and upper part can be further
machined with micro-EDM/WEDG into desired shape.
71
Fig. 2.3.3.5-1 Fabrication process of a pin-plate module
x This module can be used as a workpiece, tool or assembly setup (Fig. 2.3.3.5-2).
Fig. 2.3.3.5-2 MMA unit
x To realize the self-alignment of the upper part of the assembly, Reverse Micro EDM
(RMEDM) is used to machine an appropriate cavity into a workpiece from its bottom with a
pin-plate module fixed into the MMA unit as tool electrode. To achieve sufficient removal of
debris and gas while still maintaining the desirable accuracy of the cavity, a small and a large
capacitor were switched alternately over the gap. Self-adjusted vibrojumping feed mode
which includes two backward jumps after every 25µm electrode feed was also adopted to
improve flushing.
x After the cavity is generated by RMEDM into a particular micropart, it can be assembled on
top of another part already fixed in the MMA unit by using ultrasonic vibration.
x A study on assembling characteristics of the pin-plate module concluded that breaking
strength of the module depends on insertion force, amplitude of vibration and Young’s
modulus of the materials. The finding can be used to choose different ultrasonic parameter
72
and materials of pin and plate to realize good “bond” of assemblies or temporary storage of
microparts in the MMA unit.
x A micropipe and macrocylinder combination was machined to demonstrate the possibility of
control breaking strength for assembling and temporary storage. (Fig. 2.3.3.5-3 and Fig.
2.3.3.5-4).
Fig. 2.3.3.5-3 Micro pipe and macro cylinder combination
RMEDM process
Fig. 2.3.3.5-4 Machining process of Micro pipe and macro cylinder combination
73
CHAPTER 3
3. Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

ECM consists basically of the electrochemical dissolution of the surface metal of a workpiece by
conversion of metal to its ions by means of an electric current. The whole process is
accomplished in an electrolytic cell by applying a positive (anodic) potential to the workpiece
and a negative (cathodic) potential to the tool used to shape the workpiece. ECM can be used for
shaping, finishing for improving the quality of the surface, deburring, radiusing and polishing.
Fig. 3-1 shows the various schematics for machining different geometries using ECM*.
Fig. 3-1 Schematics of electrochemical machining operations. (a) Die sinking, (b) Shaping of
blades, (c) Drilling, (d) Milling, (e) Turning, (f) Wire ECM, (g) Drilling of curvilinear holes,
(h) Deburring and radiusing, (i) Electropolishing
The rate of material removal in ECM is governed by Faraday’s law, since it is a function of
current, the primary variables that affect the current density and the material removal rate are:
Voltage, Feed rate, Electrolyte conductivity, Electrolyte composition, Electrolyte flow and
Workpiece material.
* Rajurkar, K.P., Kozak, J., Chatterjee, A., “Nonabrasive Finishing Method,” ASM Handbook, Surface Engineering, Vol. 5, 1994.
74
3a. ECM equipment:
Fig. 3-2 shows a schematic representation of the ECM system for finishing of a die or other
complex shapes. The major components include the workpiece, cathode tool, electrolyte, power
supply, and electrolyte circulating and purification system. A low voltage (8 to 30 V) is normally
applied across the electrodes. A small gap (0.2 to 1mm) is maintained between them, producing a
current density of the order of 10 to 100 A/cm2. The electrolyte is forced through the small gap
between the cathode tool and the anodic workpiece with velocities of 5 to 30 m/s. The electrolyte
movement flushes away the debris removed from the workpiece.
Fig. 3-2 Electrochemical machining equipment schematic. 1. tool electrode, 2. finishing

workpiece, 3. tank of electrolyte, 4. clamping system, 5. electrolyte supply system, 6. power
supply
A typical ECM machine consists of a table for mounting the workpiece and a platen mounted on
a ram or quill for mounting the tool. The workpiece is mounted on the table connected to the
positive side of the power supply. The tool is mounted on the platen with electrical connection to
the negative side of the power supply. The part to be machined is held on a fixed table and the
tool is head on a ram that moves either horizontally or vertically onto the workpiece. During the
finishing operations while ECM sinking, the tool is either stationary or is fed in the direction of
the workpiece. During deburring and machining of contours, however, the tool usually does not
move relative to the workpiece.
The corrosive nature of the electrolyte requires that any portion of the machine or tooling that
comes in contact with it must be made of a corrosion-resistant material. Workholding fixtures for
ECM are usually made from stainless steel, copper, or copper alloys.
Water-cooled power supplies are used on ECM equipment to convert alternating current
electrical power to the direct current voltages required. ECM machines are available that can
deliver currents from 50 to 10,000 amperes, with a voltage range of 4 to 30 V. Sufficient current
must be available to maintain a current density of 10 to 500 A/cm2 at the workpiece.
3b. Process capabilities

There are numerous parameters that influence the ECM process in terms of machining rate,
surface finish, and other end product physical characteristics. In particular, the metal removal
75
rate and the surface finish depend on current density, machining gap, feed rate, electrolyte
composition, temperature, and flow rate or pressure of the electrolyte. The design of an ECM
system for a specific application should take into account the range of values for these
parameters.
The only requirement of the workpiece material for ECM is that it should be electrically
conductive. Because the physical properties of the material of the material determine the
machining rate, alloys that contain more than one phase of the some material usually present no
problem for ECM. However, alloys with inclusions of different materials may be difficult to
machine by ECM, or the surface may be unacceptable because of the preferential erosion of one
of the materials. One of the benefits of ECM is the higher machining rates for difficult-to-
machine materials such as heat-resistant alloys and titanium alloys.
3c. Limitations:
One of the major limitations of the ECM is its inability to machine electrically nonconductive
materials. Usually, sharp corners or clear cuts cannot be obtained by ECM. The complexity of
the shape to be machined, the workpiece material, and the electrolyte limit the dimensional
accuracy and the surface finish that can be achieved by ECM. Etching of the constituents, grain-
boundary attack, and pitting due to electrochemical action may have drastic effects on the
mechanical properties of the material, particularly the fatigue strength.
The ECM process can be classified as macro and micro ECM according to the equipment used
and the applications. The following section discusses these topics individually in details.
3.1 Macro ECM

Electrochemical machining (ECM) is based on a controlled anodic electrochemical dissolution
process of the workpiece (anode) with the tool (cathode) in an electrolytic cell, during an
electrolysis process as shown in Fig 3.1-1.
Fig. 3.1-1 Principle of Electrochemical Machining*
* Benedict, G.E., “Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes,” Marcel Dekker, 1987.

76
During the anodic dissolution process a direct current with high density and low voltage is
passed between a workpiece and a preshaped tool (the cathode). At the anodic workpiece
surface, metal is dissolved into metallic ions by the deplating reaction, and thus the tool shape is
copied into the workpiece. The electrolyte is forced to flow through the interelectrode gap with
high velocity, usually more than 5 m/s, to intensify the mass/charge transfer through the sub
layer near anode and to remove the sludge (dissolution products e.g. hydroxide of metal), heat
and gas bubbles generated in the gap. In typical manufacturing operations, the tool is fed toward
the workpiece while maintaining a small gap.
3.1.1 Process and Process characteristics
3.1.1.1 Rajurkar, K.P., Kozak, J., Wei, B., “Modeling and Analysis of Pulse Electrochemical
Machining (PECM),” Transactions of ASME, Vol. 116, 1994, pp. 316-323.
x This paper presents mathematical models for the PECM process which take into
consideration the non-steady physical phenomena in the gap between the electrodes,
including the conjugate fields of electrolyte flow velocities, pressure, temperature, gas
concentrations, current densities and anodic material removal rates.
x The principles underlying higher dimensional accuracy and simpler tool design attainable
with optimum pulse parameters are modeled into a theoretical mathematical model.
x Description of the quasi-steady state, interelectrode gap size estimation with and without tool
feeding during pulse on time, distributions of the electrolyte conductivity and current density
and distributions of the volumetric gas concentration and temperature were discussed in this
paper.
x The validity of the proposed model was verified by comparing it with the experimental
results.
3.1.1.2 Rajurkar, K.P., Kozak, J., Wei B., “Study of Pulse Electrochemical Machining
Characteristics,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 42, No. 1, 1993, pp. 231-234.
x A detailed PECM gap process model considering inhomogeneity of the electrolyte flow has
been developed and experimental work related to the effect of pulsed current on anodic
electrochemical behavior has been studied.
x A system of models describing the PECM process during a single pulse has been developed
based on Lagrange’s co-ordinate system, which has been further simplified by Euler’s co-
ordinate system.
x A special PECM cell along with a transistorized generator (Rapid Power Tech Inc. USA) and
a computer-based data acquisition system (ISC-16 card with EGAA software, RC
Electronics, USA) was used to obtain the effective volumetric equivalent (Kv) and to acquire
the true data for the model verification.
x Experiments were conducted for a group of pulses instead of a single pulse to obtain
significant amount of anodic metal removal. The experimental results on current changes
during a pulse on time and the peak current profiles during a group of pulses were compared
with the proposed model. A fair agreement between the experimental results and the results
from the proposed model was found.
77
Fig. 3.1.1.2-1 PECM with group pulses Fig. 3.1.1.2-2 Interelectrode gap
(a) voltage pulses (b) tool and workpiece
positions, t1 - machining time t2 – tool feed
time
Fig. 3.1.1.2-3 Experimental setup
Fig. 3.1.1.2-4 Comparison of experimental Fig. 3.1.1.2-5 Comparison of peak current

and theoretical current pulses profiles
78
3.1.1.3 Hardisty, H., Mileham, A.R., Shirvani, H., “A Finite Element Simulation of the
Electrochemical Machining Process,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 42, No. 1, 1993, pp. 201-
204.
x This paper describes a computer package based on the Finite Element Method (FEM), which
simulates the Electrochemical Machining process. The FEM is used to determine the two-
dimensional potential and flux distributions in the electrolyte, in order to estimate surface
erosions for a finite time-setup. Algorithms have been developed which automatically change
the FE mesh, to simulate moving boundaries for tool movement and workpiece erosion. The
complex flux distributions produced in the electrolyte have yielded considerable insight into
the erosion process for too shapes used in practice.
x The continuous erosion process has been simulated as a series of time-steps at each of which
the complete potential and flux distribution in the electrolyte is calculated. Algorithms,
external to the FE package, have been developed which determine those elements, if any,
which must be eroded during a time-step.
x The computer model was validated by comparing predictions with predictions from one-
dimensional ECM theory. Three characteristic cases were analyzed: (a) Tool stationary (Fig
3.1.1.3-1). (b) Tool moving-small initial gap (Fig 3.1.1-10) (c) Tool moving- large initial gap
(Fig 3.1.1.3-2). In all cases, the agreement between theory and computer predictions were
observed.
Fig. 3.1.1.3-1 Computer prediction of Fig. 3.1.1.3-2 Computer prediction of

erosion with stationary tool erosion with moving tool and initial gap of
0.05 mm
x In addition to the one-dimensional validation tests described here, further research was
carried out in which industrial ECM processes have been simulated with a realistic model.
Fig. 3.1.1.3-4 shows the final screen of a simulation in which a surface was eroded by a
stepped tool until equilibrium was attained. The workpiece profile developed compares well
with the shape produced by an actual ECM operation in which similar conditions were used.
79
Fig. 3.1.1.3-3 Computer prediction of erosion with moving tool and initial gap of 0.08
mm
Fig. 3.1.1.3-4 Example of 2-D Erosion showing the effect of a stepped tool
3.1.1.4 Rajurkar, K.P., Wei B., Chatterjee, A., “Simulation and Experimental Investigation of
Smoothing by Electrochemical Machining,” Transactions of the NAMRI/SME, Vol.
XXIII, 1995, pp. 175-180.
x A computer-based approach was developed to model and analyze the smoothing process
during ECM. A program was developed to simulate the generation of surface profiles with
time during ECM. Experimental verification of this computer model was performed.
Experimental results of the effect of voltage, interelectrode gap, electrolyte pressure and
initial surface roughness on the final workpiece surface quality were studied.
x A mathematical model was developed for the smoothing process of the heterogeneous
structure of alloys with a random surface profile. Analysis of voltage, feed rate, initial
80
surface roughness, and structure of workpiece material and evolution of surface roughness
was also performed. A 2-D model as shown in Fig. 3.1.1.4-1 was considered.
Fig. 3.1.1.4-1 Typical workpiece surface profile
x A computer simulation model was built for the electrochemical surface smoothing of a
heterogeneous material and compared with results from machining a homogeneous material.
The simulations are shown in Fig. 3.1.1.4-2 & 3.
Fig. 3.1.1.4-2 Computer Simulation of a Fig. 3.1.1.4-3 Computer Simulation of a

Homogeneous material Heterogeneous material
x Experiments were conducted to verify the computer model and the influence of various
parameters on final surface roughness were studied. The computer model and the
experimental results followed the same trend but there were some differences in the actual
values. This difference could be attributed to the effect of secondary and tertiary current
distributions.
3.1.1.5 Ruszaj, A., Zybura-Skrabalak, M., Chuchro, M., Novak, A., “The influence of process
parameters on technological indicators of the electrochemical machining process with
non-profiled electrode,” Proceedings of the 1993 ASME Winter Annual Meeting, Vol.
64, 1993, pp. 713-718.
x This paper deals with the applications and advantages of using a non-profiled electrode with
a working surface greater than the machined surface. Best results were obtained when a non-
profiled electrode shaped like a spherical cup (Fig 3.1.1.5-1) is displaced over the machined
surface along a properly designed track. The technological indicators that have been studied
in this paper are metal removal rate ‘Vw’, thickness of material excess removed ‘a’, surface
81
roughness parameter ‘Ra’ and shape error on the border line between successive electrode
passes ‘ ' ’.
Fig. 3.1.1.5-1 Scheme of shaped-surface electrochemical machining with a nonprofiled electrode
x A theoretical model has been developed for all the indicators and experiments were
conducted on a machine tool type EDCA 25. Results were obtained for 3 different
interelectrode gap thicknesses. The non-profiled electrode was made of Copper M1 and the
workpiece was made of hardened steel NC6. Water solution of NaNO3, concentration 1.135
g/cm3 was used. Cross feed per electrode pass was equal to 5 mm. In order to calculate a, '
and Vw values profilograms representing a cross section of the machined material in a
direction perpendicular to the electrode displacement were made as shown in Fig. 3.1.1.5-2.
Fig. 3.1.1.5-2 Profilograms representing a cross section of the machined material

used for calculating a, ' and Vw values
x From the experimental and theoretical results, the spherical cup electrode was found to be a
universal electrode capable of machining flat and shaped workpieces. It was possible to
remove excess material thickness a = 0.1 – 2.0 mm at metal removal rate Vw,max = 27 – 45
mm3/min. Because of the low metal removal rates, it was concluded that electrochemical
machining using non-profiled universal electrode should be used only for finishing
operations.
3.1.2.1 Rajurkar, K.P., Wei, B., Schnacker, C.L., “Monitoring and Control of Electrochemical
Machining,” Transactions of the ASME, Vol. 115, 1993, pp. 216-223.
x This paper presents a preliminary research on dimensional control and process stability
control in ECM. An ECM dimensional control model has been proposed using the state space
approach that accounts for the dynamic nature of the ECM inter-electrode gap process. A
82
Stochastic methodology of Data Dependent Systems (DDS) was applied to ECM electric
signal analysis for developing an indicator, which predicts the onset of random sparks or
short-circuits.
x A review of the ECM process control and stability control was performed and future research
was proposed. Modeling of ECM dynamics for the process control was performed and a
suitable feedback method namely the state feedback was chosen to achieve the closed loop
pole locations. Feed rate and voltage have been chosen as the input parameters for the control
system. Time response curves for unit step input were studied as shown in Fig 3.1.2.1-1 & 2.
Fig. 3.1.2.1-1 Simulated time response of the Fig. 3.1.2.1-2 Simulated time response of the
current to a ramp input ram position to a ramp input
x In conclusion, the modeled ECM system was found to be a fairly accurate model of the
actual process and will serve as a good simulation model to try various control strategies.
x Analysis of the sparkout situation in ECM was studied. To study this, an artificial arc was
simulated. A typical current spike associated with a spark is shown in Fig. 3.1.2.1-3. It was
found that there is a frequency shift and change in bandwidth with the changes in feed rate
and applied voltage. This information is used as an indicator for the onset of sparking in
ECM.
Fig. 3.1.2.1-3 ECM sparkout
3.1.2.2 Rajurkar, K.P., Kozak, J., Wei, B., McGeough, J.A., “Modeling and Monitoring
Interelectrode gap in Pulse Electrochemical Machining,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 44, No.
1, 1995, pp. 177-180.
83
x This paper presents with an interelectrode gap model for estimating machining parameters
for the minimum gap size under the limit of electrolyte boiling. An on-line monitoring
strategy based on a linear correlation found experimentally between pulse current signal
variance and gap was also proposed.
x The PECM process is encountered with Joule Heating when rectangular voltage pulses are
applied across a small interelectrode gap with a short pulse on time and a pulse off time long
enough to ensure flushing of the electrolyte. Using balance energy equations, a model has
been developed to determine the minimum gap size considering electrolyte boiling as the
limit. This mathematical model eliminated the expensive “trial and error” methods.
x The on-line monitoring strategy was designed based on the dispersion of high frequency
voltage surge to estimate the gap size. The pulse voltage and current signals are used as
indicators of real-time gap changes at the gap. The acquired current signals have been
modeled and analyzed using the Data Dependent System (DDS) methodology and variance
analysis.
Fig. 3.1.2.2-1 PECM data acquisition system
x DDS modeling procedure consists of fitting autoregressive moving average (ARMA) models
of increasing order until there is no further significant reduction in the residual sum of
squares as indicated by F-test. The DDS autospectrum analysis reveals that both frequency
(damping ratio) and magnitude (filtered current J) change with gap size as shown in Fig.
3.1.2.2-2 & 3.
Fig. 3.1.2.2-2 Correlation between damping Fig. 3.1.2.2-3 Correlation between variance
ratio and gap size of J and gap size
84
3.1.3 Applications
3.1.3.1 Zhou, C.D., Taylor, E.J., Sun, J.J., Gebhart, L.E., Stortz, E.C., Renz, R.P.,
“Electrochemical Machining of Hard Passive Alloys with pulse reverse current,”
Transactions of NAMRI/ISME, Vol. XXV, 1997, pp. 147-152. &
Taylor, E.J., Sun, J.J., Gebhart, L.E., Inman, M.E., Renz, R.P., “The Applications of CM-
ECM technology to Metal Surface Finishing,” Transactions of NAMRI/ISME, Vol.
XXVIII, 2000, pp. 245-250.
x One of the recent developments in ECM polishing is the Charge Modulated ECM process. It
is an effective surface finishing process for hard, passive materials such as nickel-base alloys,
titanium and aluminum casting alloys.
ta
tr
tc
Fig. 3.1.3.1-1 Schematic of an idealized charge modulated electric field
x The charge-modulated electric field consists of an anodic period, a cathodic period (reverse
current) and a relaxation period that can be randomly combined during the ECM process
where the period of modulation (T) is the sum of ta+tc+tr. The parameters such as frequency
of modulated waveform, duty cycle and peak voltage or current are additional parameters
available to control the CM-ECM process. The combinations of these parameters strongly
influence the mass transport rates, current distribution, hydrodynamic condition, etc. in the
interelectrode gap.
Fig. 3.1.3.1-2 A 3-axis batch mode ECM Fig. 3.1.3.1-3 A 3-axis batch mode ECM
positioning system designed and built by surface finishing set-up designed and built by
Faraday Tech Inc Faraday Tech Inc
85
x CM-ECM was performed on Inconnel 718 production parts to perform polishing operation
and casting aluminum wheels to perform deburring operation. A solution of 340g/L NaNO3
was used under a constant flow rate of 3 L/min at 22 psi maintained at 95 qF. A Mitutoyo
surface profilometer, Model MST-212 was used to measure surface roughness.
Fig. 3.1.3.1-4 Before (left) and after (right) polishing of Inconnel 718 part
Fig. 3.1.3.1-5 Before (left) and after (right) deburring of casting aluminum wheel
x In conclusion, CM-ECM process for polishing operations

improves surface finishing quality and material removal efficiency.
provides a stable ECM polishing process to control surface roughness below 0.25 mm.
further reduces the surface roughness and micro pits by using a reverse period instead of
an “off” time in the case of pulse ECM.
x CM-ECM process for deburring operations
improves deburred surface finishing quality and burr removal efficiency.
provides a focused current distribution to remove burrs without machining the adjacent
areas around the burrs.
reduces electrolyte flow rate for removing sludge’s.
3.1.3.2 Masuzawa, T., Kimura, M., “Electrochemical Surface Finishing of Tungsten Carbide
Alloy,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 40, No. 1, 1991, pp. 199-202.
x This paper deals with an experimental study on finishing the surface of tungsten carbide
alloy. A special design of the pulse train for alternate polarity was suggested for realizing a
uniform distribution of Tungsten Carbide and for suppressing the dissolution of the tool
electrode. The effectiveness was confirmed by applying the pulse on an EDM generated
surface.
x In the application for finishing with high precision, the duty cycle of the pulse train must be
very small, typically less than 0.1. The special designs of current pulse trains used are shown
in Fig. 3.1.3.2-1. Selection of electrode material is also important in the case of bipolar and
86
combination pulses as the electrode becomes positive to the electrolyte during the negative
cycles of the pulse. Hence the reaction at the electrode surface depends on the type of
electrode material.
Fig. 3.1.3.2-1 Current waveforms for ECM finishing
x The equipment used for the study was made of an acrylic dissolution cell as shown in Fig.
3.1.3.2-2. The workpiece and electrode are fixed in the cell, facing the surfaces, which the
electrolyte flows. A NaNO3 solution with concentration 40% by weight was used. A solenoid
valve inserted between the cell and the pump controlled the flow.
Fig. 3.1.3.2-2 Experimental Setup
x The effects of the pulse designs were compared and it was found that a reduced negative
pulse duration in combination pulses provides better surface quality and reduced tool
electrode wear. Table 3.1.3.2-1 & 2 show the several pulse duration combinations for bipolar
and combination pulses.
87
Table. 3.1.3.2-1 Surface Quality with Table. 3.1.3.2-2 Surface Quality with
bipolar pulses combination pulses
x Comparison of the various electrode materials used concluded that graphite proved to be the
best electrode with zero electrode wear when using bipolar and combination pulses. Fig.
3.1.3.2-3 shows the SEM pictures of a graphite electrode using bipolar pulses and
combination pulses.
(a) with bipolar pulse (b) with combination pulse

Fig. 3.1.3.2-3 Finished surfaces with graphite electrode
3.1.3.3 Risko, D.G., Extrude Hone ECM Group, “Electrochemical Machining- Innovative
Solutions for Higher Productivity,” Advanced Machining Technology III Conference,
Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Paper No. MR90-244, 1990. &
Risko, D.G., Extrude Hone ECM Group with contributions from ECX, Surftran, Cation
and Chemtool, “Chemtool Deburring and Surface Finishing with the electrolytic
process,”.
x Electrochemical Deburring (ECD) is the selective removal of burrs from the workpiece
material by electrochemical dissolution. Fig. 3.1.3.3-1 shows the factors influencing the
ECM process.
88
Fig. 3.1.3.3-1 Factors influencing the ECM Process
x Different factors including the electrochemical properties of the workpiece and the tool
influence the machining process, accuracy and surface finish of the final product.
x The ECM has a CNC control and the power supply ranges from 200 to 40,000 amperes. The
voltage varies between 7 and 25V DC. The other units in the ECM system are ‘Machine
Supply Circuit’ (for pumping electrolyte), ‘Parameters regulating Unit’ (keeps electrolyte
machining characteristics constant), ‘Metal Hydroxide Removal’ (removes dissolved
precipitate), ‘Sludge Reduction Unit’ (reduces the volume of metal hydroxide). Fig. 3.1.3.3-2
illustrates the schematic of ECM electrolytic system.
Fig. 3.1.3.3-2 ECM Electrolytic System
x The cycle time for the ECD process is very small and can process typically 12,000 parts per
day. At a voltage of 18V, current of 150A, NaNo3 at 25qC, 8.0pH and 1.5bar, the average
thickness of burr and deburring cycle time can be plotted as shown in Fig. 3.1.3.3-3.
Fig. 3.1.3.3-3 Relation between time and material removal for typical edge finishing application
89
x Some of the applications of the ECD process are:

120mm projectile cones made from H-13 steel are produced electrochemically. The
exterior requirements are achieved in a 2.5min cycle with the cathode advancing towards
the workpiece parallel to the axis of the cone. The interior intersections are deburred and
radiused in 1.5mins with fixed position cathode.
Fig. 3.1.3.3-4 Cone with electrolytic formed edges
Gun barrels rifling can be produced electrochemically with a stationary electrode

spanning the length or a small cathode moving the length of the barrel at a fast rate. Both
constant twist and gain twist rifling can be formed with no tool wear.
Fig. 3.1.3.3-5 Electrolytically formed rifling Fig. 3.1.3.3-6 10 Diesel Injector Fuel
Chamber
Volume Machining: Electrolytic volumetric machining is a precise process of material

removal by controlling the process parameters to predetermined values. A cathode is
made to a required shape based on the geometry to be machined and the precise volume
requirement is programmed into the machine control as process parameters.
Jet-engine blades designed to self-seat are manufactured with abrasive particles bonded
to the blade tip. The excellent repeatability and fast metal removal rate results in a high
quality, productive operation. This operation uses low electrolyte flow and a large gap.
Fig. 3.1.3.3-7 Turbine blade with tip machined electrolytically

90
3.1.3.4 Risko, D.G., Extrude Hone ECM Group, “Electrolytic Deburring: Deburring and
radiusing in Seconds,” Select Automatic Deburring, Society of Manufacturing Engineers,
Paper No. MR93-131, 1993. &
Risko, D.G., Extrude Hone ECM Group, “High-reliability Deburring with ECD,”
International Manufacturing Technology Conference, Society of Manufacturing
Engineers, Paper No. MR90-409, 1990.
Fig. 3.1.3.4-1 Electrochemical Deburring
x Electrochemical Deburring process has a very fast cycle time (typically 20 sec) and is widely
used for deburring the radii on the leading edge of turbine blades, intersecting holes on the
stainless steel valves and critical areas on the engine crank shafts.
x Typical deburring applications include intersecting holes radiused for the valve body. The
deburring process forms a minimum 0.005inch radius and blend cross holes intersecting with
the upper counter bore.
Fig. 3.1.3.4-2 Cut Away View of EC Deburred Valve
x In special machining application of the ECM deburring process, the complex radius forming
is electrochemically machining blended radii on the dovetail attachment feature of the jet
engine blade.
91
Fig. 3.1.3.4-3 Electrochemical radiusing of blade dovetail
x Profiles of irregular shape on a small component can be manufactured in high volumes using
the electrolytic process. Eight workpieces of ratchet can be manufactured simultaneously. A
multi part carrier is used for loading and unloading purpose per three minute cycle. The
ratchet is shown in the Fig. 3.1.3.4-4 and the loading carrier is shown in the Fig. 3.1.3.4-5.
Fig. 3.1.3.4-4 Ratchet contour Fig. 3.1.3.4-5 Eight component tool with
manual loading carrier
3.1.3.5 Lilly, B., Brevick, J., Chen, C., “The Effect of Pulsed Electrochemical Machining on the
Fatigue Life of H-13 Steel,” Transactions of NAMRI/SME, Vol. XXV, 1997, pp. 153-
158.
x Pulse Electrochemical Machining (PECM) has been proposed as a viable method for
removing EDM recast layers, which are caused due to the thermal nature of the EDM
process. This layer can cause reduced thermal and mechanical fatigue life and reduction in
impact strength, leading to premature die failure. This paper reports on experiments that
determined the effect of PECM in improving the fatigue life of H-13 tool steel by removing
the EDM generated surface damage.
x Crucible NuDie XL premium quality AISI H13 tool steel was used in this project. 32
specimens were subjected to EDM treatment but only 16 were subjected to the PECM
process to analyze the difference between the specimens. The specimens that were processed
by PECM showed better fatigue life as shown in Fig. 3.1.3.5-2.
x Examination of the fracture surfaces of the specimens following failure was conducted and in
each case the crack initiation began on either of the shorter edges of the specimen, with the
crack growing across the section.
92
Fig. 3.1.3.5-1 EDM damaged layers
Fig. 3.1.3.5-2 S-N diagram showing EDM vs. PECM fatigue life
3.1.3.6 Rajurkar, K.P., Kozak, J., Wei, B., “Pulse Electrochemical Machining (PECM) of Ti-
6Al-4V Alloy,” Transactions of NAMRI/SME, Vol. XXII, 1994, pp. 141-147.
x Titanium alloys are generally regarded as mechanically difficult-to-machine materials. The
main problems with machining titanium alloys are short too lives and low attainable material
removal rates. PECM is capable of machining any electrically-conductive material with high
stock removal rates regardless of their mechanical and thermal properties, such as hardness,
elasticity and thermal conductivity. PECM eliminates pitting and surface roughness caused
while using ECM to machine Titanium alloys.
x This paper studies pulsed current effects on the dimensional accuracy, surface quality and
metal removal rates in titanium alloy dissolution process. The correlations between the
pitting and current waveforms and effects of the pulse parameters on the pitting generation
are also studied.
x The experimental results were studied for the effect of pulse parameters on surface quality
and it was found that the dissolution process reflected by the current variation can be divided
into 3 stages - passivating dominant stage, activating dominant stage and quasi-stable stage.
This led to the study of surface quality at different pulse on times and it was found out that
better surface quality is achieved at short pulse on times.
x The effect of pulse parameters on shaping accuracy was analyzed from the experimental
results and it was found that there was no significant effect on the machinability index, Kv,
when the pulse parameters were altered. However short pulse increases the ' Vav/ ' S which
leads to an improved dimensional accuracy.
93
Fig. 3.1.3.6-1 Schematic view of PECM copying process with a stepped tool
x A mathematical model describing the copying process was developed to gain better insight.
In conclusion, PECM performed at short pulse on times improves surface finish and
dimensional accuracy in titanium alloys.
3.2 Micro ECM

When ECM is applied on the micro-machining range, it is called electrochemical micro
machining (ECMM). Different process variables have to be optimally controlled to achieve high
precision machining.
Fig. 3.2-1 Scheme of an Electrochemical Cell
Attempts are being made to achieve a satisfactory control of ECMM to achieve a high anodic
dissolution with high precision machining. ECMM refers to the applications of ECM in the
processing of thin films and in the fabrication of microstructures (Fig. 3.2-2).
Fig. 3.2-2 Cu Microstructures using ECMM

94
1. In ECMM, the performance criteria depend on the ability of the system to provide desired
mass transport effect, and the knowledge of this effect is a prerequisite for the
development of EMM processes. A simple description of mass transport in anodic
dissolution process is described in this paper.
2. ECMM similar to ECM process removes material based on controlled anodic dissolution
process of the workpiece (anode), with the tool as the cathode in an electrolyte cell.
3. Slots, micro holes and complex shapes are needed to be machined, especially in the
electronic and computer industries. ECMM is one of the precision machining techniques,
which provides superior properties in some applications.
4. Comparable to the predominantly used chemical etching, the ECMM process offers better
control and flexibility, requires very little monitoring and control and has minimum safety
and environmental concerns.
5. The waste treatment and disposal costs often surpass actual etching processing costs. The
ever-increasing cost of incineration and the imposition of land filling restrictions are the
main reasons behind the need for developing alternative processes. The electrochemical
metal removal is an alternative to wet etching processes
3.2.1 Equipment
3.2.1.1 Bhattacharyya, B., Doloi, B., Sridhar, P.S., “Electrochemical micro-machining: new
possibilities for micro-manufacturing,” Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol.
113, 2001, pp. 301-305.
x This paper highlights different activities to develop the ECMM system set-up including a set-
up for the process containing mechanical and electrical components possible to machine
micro holes.
x Power supply voltage in the order of 4-10V is needed in ECMM.
x The most common electrolytes used in ECMM are NaClO3, NaNO3 and NaCl with different
concentrations. To reduce concentration of dissolved particles, the additive chemicals such as
NaHSO4 can be used, which doesn’t affect the process adversely.
x Electrode material: Mostly platinum, tungsten, titanium and copper alloys are used as
electrode material. Electrode material should have good thermal and electrical conductivity,
corrosion resistance and stiff to withstand electrolyte pressure without vibration.
x The mechanical system consists of main machine body, tool-feeding device, work holding
platform, machining chamber and table on which machining chamber rests.
x Tool feeding System: A stepper motor may be used where tool movement per pulse should
be as small as 5-20 um. The precision movement can be achieved by precision screw, which
is coupled with the motor. Also tool vibration is advantageous for better micro machining, so
the tool be can moved back and forward by providing appropriate command signal to stepper
motor with the help of a microprocessor unit.
x 220 V single phase AC power supply is converted to a low voltage pulse AC power supply
by a step down transformer and a silicon controlled rectifier unit and a pulse generating
modules is utilized to provide the required pulse nature of the power supply.
95
Fig. 3.2.1.1-1 Block diagram of the various System Components of the ECMM set up
3.2.2.1 Schuster, R., Kirchner, V., Allongue, P., Ertl, G., “Electrochemical Micromachining,”
Science Magazine, Vol. 289, July 2000, pp. 98-101.
x The application of ultrasonic pulse is based on the finite time constant for double layer
charging which varies linearly with the local separation between the electrodes.
x The nanosecond pulse confines the electrochemical reaction to the proximity of the tool
electrode thus making possible to machine three dimensional cavities of conducting material
with sub micrometer precision.
x During the pulse ECMM process the dissolution rate of the material far exceeds the re-
deposition rate of the material during the pause of the pulse.
x The experimental study reveals that there is a linear correlation between time constant,
specific electrolyte resistance and spatial resolution.
x It was found that lowering the electrolyte concentration and shortening the pulse duration
increases the precision of the machined cavity.
3.2.2.2 DeSilva, A.K.M., Altena, H.S.J., McGeough, J.A., “Precision ECM by Process
Characteristic Modeling,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 49, No. 1, 2000, pp. 151-155.
x The precision in the ECMM process can be achieved by having a gap size as small as
possible, factors like stiffness of the machines, electrolyte boiling, process instability and tool
positioning errors limit the minimum gap size.
x The mathematical modeling has been done by using the characteristic relations.
Fig. 3.2.2.2-1 ECM modeling by characteristic relations
x The efficiency for different pulse duration time has been found to increase with the increase
in the current density.
96
x The efficiency for different electrolyte concentration has also been found to increase with the
increase in the current density.
Fig. 3.2.2.2-2 Efficiency vs. current density Fig. 3.2.2.2-3 Efficiency vs. current density
for various pulse-on times using 250g/l for various for various NaNO3 electrolyte
NaNO3 electrolyte concentrations, pulse-on times 10ms
x It has been found that the final surface finish is determined by the efficiency and an increase
in the efficiency leads to a better surface finish.
3.2.2.3 Kozak, J., Rajurkar, K.P., Makkar, Y., “Study of Pulse Electrochemical Micro
Machining”, Transactions of NAMRI/SME, Vol. XXXI, 2003, pp. 363-370.
x A new ECMM system was designed to realize the micro machining using electrochemical
process (Fig. 3.2.2.3-1).
x This set up uses a 3-axis drive table with a travel resolution of 6Pm.
x Small power (4 watt) magnetic drive pump, with the nylon casing is used for supplying the
electrolyte during machining.
x Oscilloscope was used to record, measure and verify the accuracy of input power signals.
x Electrode: Tungsten cylindrical tool electrode.
Fig. 3.2.2.3-1 Schematic Diagram for ECMM Process

97
x The investigation used a frequency of 1MHz, pulse on time of 0.2 Psec, the machining of the
material with the above parameters has limited the machining resolution to 20Pm range.
x The investigation has shown that the as the voltage increases the side gap and the frontal gap
increases, which are the measure of the accuracy of the machined slot.
x As the feed rate of the tool is increased from 21mm/min to 63mm/min, the accuracy of the
machined slot has been found to improve.
0.2
60
Gap in mm
50 0.15
gap in mm
40
X1000
30 0.1
20 0.05
10
0 0
0 50 100 0 5 10 15
Vf mm/min Voltage (V)
Side gap Frontal gap Side Gap Front al gap
Fig. 3.2.2.3-2 Effect of feed rate on side and Fig. 3.2.2.3-3 Effect of voltage on side and
frontal gap frontal gap
x It has been found that the value of the ratio of the side gap to the base level for the
experimental and theoretical value has been same for the voltage of less than 1.5V and is
different for a voltage of more than 1.5V, therefore a more accurate model needs to be
developed for the higher voltage to predict the accuracy.
6.00
Side gap ratio to the base level
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 to the1.50
Voltage ratio base level2.00 2.50
Theoratical Experimental
Fig. 3.2.2.3-4 Comparison of theoretical and experimental values
3.2.3 Mask ECMM
3.2.3.1 Datta, M., Shenoy, R.V., Romankiw, L.T., “Recent Advances in the Study of
Electrochemical micromachining,” Journal of Manufacturing and Engineering, ASME,
Vol. 64, 1993, pp. 675-692.
98
x Through-mask electrochemical micromachining process involves careful implementation of a

procedure, which includes production of a master art work, surface preparation, choice of
proper photoresist and imaging.
x Rate of the anodic reaction, which depends on the ability of the system to remove the
reaction products as they are formed and to supply fresh electrolyte for the anode surface and
operating conditions determine the machining performance, which is measured in terms of
dissolution rate, shape control and surface finish of the workpiece.
x The limiting current density has been found to increase with an increase in the electrolyte
flow in the channel. The limiting current density is, therefore, controlled by the convective
mass transport.
x It has been found that for an aspect ratio of greater than 0.5, the maximum vertical
displacement of the metal surface is at the center and the shape of the evolving cavity can be
fit by an ellipse. The etch factor is independent of the spacing to the opening ratio and
decrease as the cavity evolves.
Fig. 3.2.3.1-1 Shape evolution during through mask ECMM
3.2.3.2 Shenoy, R.V., Datta, M., Romankiw, L.T., “Investigation of Island Formation during
Through-Mask Electrochemical Micromachining,” Journal of Electrochemical Society,
Vol. 143, No. 7, July 1996, pp. 2305-2309.
x In applications involving ECMM of metal films covered with a insulating substrate, non-
uniformities in the current distribution may lead to non-uniform metal removal rate and may
subsequently cause loss of electrical contact.
x The results indicate that the problem of island formation is likely for a combination of small
aspect ratio and small metal thickness ratio. For a given combination of photoresist
parameters, a critical ratio can be defined, which is the thickness ratio required for the
maximum vertical displacement to move to the center of the feature and avoid the formation
of island of unetched metal film.
x During the dissolution of large surfaces in through-mask ECMM process non-uniform
current distribution may cause island formation. Due to a faster rate of dissolution at the
edges, an island of unetched material may be formed which looses contact with rest of the
metallic surface. The formation of the islands can be avoided by using dummy photoresist
artwork (Fig. 3.2.3.2-1).
x It has been successfully demonstrated that during the incorporation of the dummy photoresist
artwork, the size of the dummy should match the undercut so that the dummy artwork can be
removed upon the completion of the metal removal process.
99
Fig. 3.2.3.2-1 Incorporation of a dummy photoresist to avoid island formation
3.2.3.3 Datta, M., “Microfabrication by electrochemical metal removal,” Journal of Research and
Development, Vol. 42, No. 5, Sep. 1998, pp. 655-669.
x Maskless material removal involves highly localized material removal induced by
impingement of a fine electrolytic jet.
x In ECMM, the performance criteria are dependent on the ability of the system to provide
desired mass-transport rates, current distribution and surface film properties at the active
surface.
Fig. 3.2.3.3-1 Relationship between ECMM performance and processing parameters
x The basic set up for one sided ECMM involves a driving mechanism in three directions,
an electrolyte delivery system in form of multi nozzle assembly, which also acts as
cathode, an electrolyte reservoir and electrolyte pumping and filtration system.
Fig. 3.2.3.3-2 Schematic diagram of an experimental tool for one sided ECMM
x Design of ECMM tools requires careful attention of desired current distribution and mass
transport conditions. Care should also be taken about electrolyte delivery system. Some
applicable systems include channel flow, electrolyte jet, slotted jet and multi-nozzle systems.
100
x The fabrication of V-shaped nozzle using through mask EMM involves a metallic foil
laminated on both sides by a photoresist. The photoresist on one side is then exposed and
developed to define initial pattern, consisting an array of circular openings. This
manufactures flat-bottomed, V- shaped nozzle on the sample. The photoresist is then stripped
and the sample is inspected for entry and exit holes. The final nozzle shape is determined by
factors like, dissolution time, undercutting, etch factor and dissolution conditions.
3.2.4 Applications
3.2.4.1 Neagu, C.R., Gardeniers, J.G.E., Elwenspoek, M., Kelly, J.J., “An Electrochemical
Microactuator: Principle and First Results,” Journal of MicroElectroMechanical Systems,
Vol. 5, No. 1, March 1996, pp. 2-9.
x The gas that is generated during the electrolysis of an electrolyte solution is used to deflect
the membrane of the actuator. It has three stages:
The electrolysis stage: O2 is generated and the pressure builds up in the actuator deflecting
the membrane.
The passive stage: the circuit is open and the pressure is maintained
The pressure reduction stage: electrodes are short circuited in and the electrolysis reaction
is reversed.
Fig. 3.2.4.1-1 Schematic representation of electrochemical actuator
x The advantage of this actuator is that it can maintain relatively high pressure with low energy
consumption. Power is required only for the pressure build up and only for changing the
states.
x It has been seen that for small deflections, the relationship between pressure and deflection is
linear. The tensile stress caused by stretching of the membrane in large deflections is the
cause of non linearity.
x It has been concluded from the investigation that a pressure of 20mbar can be maintained by
supplying a power of 7PW for a duration of 100 seconds, this causes a deflection of flat
membrane over 1.25 Pm.
x The study of the electrochemical micro actuator acknowledges that the main issue in the
performance of the actuator is to prevent the loss of gas, when the membrane has been
deflected and the pressure is being maintained.
101
4. References
2.1.1.1 Mohri, N., Takezawa, H., Satio, N., “On-the-Machine Measurement in EDM Process by
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102
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Laser,” International Journal of Electrical Machining, No. 3, 1998, pp. 47-52.
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2.1.5.4 Dauw, D. F., Brown, C. A., Griethuysen, J. P., “Surface Topography Investigations by
Fractal Analysis of Spark-Eroded Electrically Conductive Ceramics,” Annals of the
CIRP, Vol. 39, No. 1, 1990, pp. 161-165.
2.2.1.1 Masuzawa, T., Wada, Y., “A double-wire system for accuracy improvement in WEDM,”
International Symposium for Electromachining XI, 1995, pp. 201-208.
2.2.1.2 Fengguo, C., Xiaoguang, F., “The Development Status and Analysis of Wire EDM in
China,” International Journal of Electrical Machining, No. 6, 2001, pp. 1-5.
2.2.1.3 Gisbert Ledvon - Charmilles Technologies, “Twin-Wire EDM,” Fabricating &
Metalworking Magazine, March 2003, pp.24-27. &
http://www.charmillesus.com/products/wire/tw/tw.html
2.2.1.4 “New Wire-EDM-Machine Series,” Metal Forming Magazine, March 2003, pp. 140. &
http://www.ona-electroerosion.com/eng/productos/hilo/ke.htm
2.2.1.5 http://www.wzl.rwth-aachen.de/en/0_start/schneiderosion/, “Micro-machining by Wire-
EDM”.
2.2.2.1 Obara, H., Abe, M., Ohsumi, “Control of Wire Breakage during Wire EDM,”
2.2.2.2 Han, F., Kunieda, M., Sendai, T., Imai, Y., “Simulation on Influence of Electrostatic
Force on Machining Characteristics in WEDM,” International Journal of Electrical
Machining, No. 7, 2002, pp. 31-36.
2.2.2.3 Klocke, F., Lung, D., Nöthe, T., “Micro Contouring by EDM with Fine Wires”,
International Symposium for Electromachining XIII, Vol. II, May 2001, pp.767-779.
2.2.2.4 http://www.intech-edm.com/pdf/wirebook.pdf
2.2.3.1 Matsuo, T., Oshima, E., “Investigation on the Optimum Carbide Content and Machining
Condition for Wire EDM of Zirconia Ceramics,” Annals of CIRP, Vol. 41, 1992, pp.
231-234.
2.2.3.2 Spur, G., Appel, S., “Wire EDM cutting of PCD,” Industrial Diamond Review, April,
1997, pp. 124-130.
2.2.3.3 Wang, T., Kunieda, M., “Study On Dry WEDMed Surface,” International Symposium for
Electromachining XIII, 2001, pp. 505-512.
2.2.3.4 Obara, H., Nakase, M., Ohsumi, T., Hatano, M., “Analysis of Explosive Load on Wire
Surface Generated by Discharge of Wire EDM,” International Journal of Electrical
Machining, No. 7, 2002, pp. 37-42.
103
2.2.4.1 Wang, W.M., Rajurkar, K.P., Huang H., “Monitoring and Control Strategy for wire
breakage in WEDM,” Transactions of NAMRI/SME, Vol. XIX, 1991, pp. 148-153.
2.2.4.2 Rajurkar, K.P., Wang, W.M., McGeough, J.A., “WEDM Identification and Adaptive
Control for Variable-Height Components,” Annals of CIRP, Vol. 43, 1994, pp. 199-202.
2.2.4.3 Yan, M.T., Liao, Y.S., “Adaptive Control of WEDM process using the FUZZY Control
Strategy,” International Symposium for Electromachining XI, 1995, pp. 343-352.
2.2.4.4 Rajurkar, K.P., Wang, W., Zhao, W.S., “WEDM-Adaptive Control with a Multiple Input
Model for Identification of Workpiece Height,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 46, 1997, pp.
147-150.
2.2.4.5 Hsue, W.J., Liao, Y.S., Lu, S.S., “A Study of Corner Control Strategy of Wire-EDM
based on Quantitative MRR analysis,” International Journal of Electrical Machining, No.
4, 1999, pp. 33-39.
2.2.4.6 Wu, J., Li, M.H., “The Identification of the Servo Control State in Wire Electrical
Discharge Machining Process,” International Symposium for Electromachining XIII,
2001, pp. 423-433.
2.2.5.1 “EDM for the Dental Profession,” EDM Today, March/April, 1999.
2.3.1.1 Sheu, D., Masuzawa, T., “Development of Large-Scale Production of Microholes by
2.3.1.2 Masuzawa, T., Okajimam K., Taguchim T., Fujino, M., “EDM-lathe for
Micromachining,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 51, No. 1, 2002, pp. 355-358.
2.3.1.3 Fujino, M., Okamoto, N., Masuzawa, T., “Development of Multi-purpose
Microprocessing Machine,” International Symposium for Electromachining XI, 1995, pp.
613-620.
2.3.1.4 Furutani, K., Mohri, N., Higuchi, T., “Miniaturized Electrode Feed Devices Using
Piezoelectric Elements”, International Symposium for Electromachining XI, 1995, pp.
621-628.
2.3.2.1 Tsai, Y.Y., Masuzawa, T., Fujino, M., “Investigations on Electrode Wear in Micro-
2.3.2.2 Allen, D. M., Almond, H. J. A., Bhogal, J. S., Green, A. E., Logan, P. M., Huang, X. X.,
“Typical Metrology of Micro-Hole Arrays Made in Stainless Steel Foils by Two-stage
Micro-EDM,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 48, 1999, pp. 127-130.
2.3.2.3 Morgan, C., Shreve, S., Vallance, R.R., “Precision of Micro Shafts Machined with Wire
Electro-Discharge Grinding”, Proceedings of the 2003 ASPE Topical Meeting on
Machines and Processes for Micro-Scale and Meso0Scale Fabrication, Metrology and
Assembly, University of Florida, 2003.
2.3.3.1 Yu, Z., Masuzawa, T., Fujino, M., “Micro-EDM for Three Dimensional Cavities –
Development of Uniform Wear Method,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 47, 1998, pp. 169-
172.
2.3.3.2 Reynaerts, D., Heeren, P.H., Brussel, H.V., “Microstructuring of Silicon by Micro
Electro-Discharge Machining (EDM) – Part I: Theory,” Sensors and Actuators A
(Physical), Vol. A60, 1997, pp. 212-218.
2.3.3.3 Heeren. P.H., Reynaerts, D., Brussel, H.V., Beuret, C., Larsson, O., Berthoulds, A.,
“Microstructuring of Silicon by Micro Electro-Discharge Machining (EDM) – Part II:
Applications,” Sensors and Actuators A (Physical), Vol. A61, 1997, pp. 379-386.
104
2.3.3.4 Yu, Z.Y., Rajurkar, K.P., Shen, H., “High Aspect Ratio and Complex Shaped Blind
Micro Holes by Micro EDM,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 51, No.1, 2002, pp. 359-362.
2.3.3.5 Langen, H.H., Masuzawa, T., Fujino, M., “Modular Method for Microparts Machining
and Assembly with Self Alignment,” Annals of CIRP, Vol. 44, 1995, pp. 173-176.
3.1.1.1 Rajurkar, K.P., Kozak, J., Wei, B., “Modeling and Analysis of Pulse Electrochemical
Machining (PECM),” Transactions of ASME, Vol. 116, 1994, pp. 316-323.
3.1.1.2 Rajurkar, K.P., Kozak, J., Wei B., “Study of Pulse Electrochemical Machining
Characteristics,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 42, No. 1, 1993, pp. 231-234.
3.1.1.3 Hardisty, H., Mileham, A.R., Shirvani, H., “A Finite Element Simulation of the
Electrochemical Machining Process,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 42, No. 1, 1993, pp. 201-
204.
3.1.1.4 Rajurkar, K.P., Wei B., Chatterjee, A., “Simulation and Experimental Investigation of
Smoothing by Electrochemical Machining,” Transactions of the NAMRI/SME, Vol.
XXIII, 1995, pp. 175-180.
3.1.1.5 Ruszaj, A., Zybura-Skrabalak, M., Chuchro, M., Novak, A., “The influence of process
parameters on technological indicators of the electrochemical machining process with
non-profiled electrode,” Proceedings of the 1993 ASME Winter Annual Meeting, Vol.
64, 1993, pp. 713-718.
3.1.2.1 Rajurkar, K.P., Wei, B., Schnacker, C.L., “Monitoring and Control of Electrochemical
Machining,” Transactions of the ASME, Vol. 115, 1993, pp. 216-223.
3.1.2.2 Rajurkar, K.P., Kozak, J., Wei, B., McGeough, J.A., “Modeling and Monitoring
Interelectrode gap in Pulse Electrochemical Machining,” Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 44, No.
1, 1995, pp. 177-180.
3.1.3.1 Zhou, C.D., Taylor, E.J., Sun, J.J., Gebhart, L.E., Stortz, E.C., Renz, R.P.,
“Electrochemical Machining of Hard Passive Alloys with pulse reverse current,”
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6Al-4V Alloy,” Transactions of NAMRI/SME, Vol. XXII, 1994, pp. 141-147.
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1

A REPORT ON TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT

Association for Manufacturing Technology (AMT)

K. P. Rajurkar, Distinguished Professor of Engineering

Center for Nontraditional Manufacturing Research

AMT – The Association for Manufacturing Technology

Printed in the United States of America

Chapter 1 of this report provides a brief introduction to the nontraditional manufacturing

Title Page No.

Fig. No. Title Page No.

Fig. No. Title Page No.

Fig. No. Title Page No.

Fig. No. Title Page No.

Fig. No. Title Page No.

Fig. No. Title Page No.

1. Introduction to Nontraditional manufacturing processes

2. Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)

2a. EDM Equipment:

Fig. 2-2 A schematic diagram of an EDM relaxation power**

2b. EDM classification:

2c. Process characteristics:

Table. 2-1 Process characteristics of different EDM processes

2d. Applications, Process Capabilities, and Limitations:

2.1 Macro EDM

Fig. 2.1-1 Schematic of die-sinking EDM system*

Fig. 2.1-2 Schematic of EDM milling system

Fig. 2.1.1.1-1 On-the-machine 3D measurement system

Fig. 2.1.1.2-1 Linear Motor Head

Fig. 2.1.1.2-2 Block diagrams of two servo system

Fig. 2.1.1.3-1 Relationship between tool Fig. 2.1.1.3-2 Relationship between

Fig. 2.1.1.4-1 Sectional view of the mechanism

Fig. 2.1.1.4-2 Principle of the electrode direct drive device

Fig. 2.1.2.1-1 Simulation Algorithm

Fig. 2.1.2.1-2 Principle of reverse simulation

Fig. 2.1.2.2-1 Shape changes of edge portion of cylindrical copper electrode

Fig. 2.1.2.3-1 Tool Wear Compensation

Fig. 2.1.2.3-2 Schematic overview of combined wear compensation

Fig. 2.1.2.4-1 Structure of CVD-carbon

Table. 2.1.2.4-1 Physical properties of CVD-carbon and graphite

Fig. 2.1.2.5-1 Grooving with a spinning electrode

2.1.3 Process and Process Characteristics

Fig. 2.1.3.2-1 Principle of Multi-spark EDM

Table. 2.1.3.2-1 Comparison of machining characteristics

x Advantages of Multi-spark EDM are follows (Table 2.1.3.2-1):

Fig. 2.1.3.3-1 Principle of EDM in gas

Fig. 2.1.3.5-1 Experimental Set-up

Fig. 2.1.3.6-1 Example of coolant tunnel with straight holes

x Fig. 2.1.3.6-2 is an example of a traditional coolant tunnel of an injection mold. The

Fig. 2.1.3.6-2 Example of curved tunnel

Fig. 2.1.3.7-1 Energy distribution in EDM process

x Fig.2.1.3.7-2 shows a flowchart for determining the energy distribution in an electrode.

Fig. 2.1.3.7-2 Flowchart for determining energy distribution

Fig. 2.1.4.3-1 Structure of the adaptive fuzzy logic controller

2.1.5 Surface Integrity

Fig. 2.1.5.1-1 Principle of Laser Surface modification

2.2 Wire EDM

Fig. 2.2-1 A schematic view of a WEDM system**

Fig. 2.2.1.1-2 Wire lag for cut length of 7mm

Fig. 2.2.1.2-1 Self-spinning Wire EDM

2.2.1.3 Gisbert Ledvon - Charmilles Technologies, “Twin-Wire EDM,” Fabricating &

Fig. 2.2.1.3-1 Twin-Wire EDM developed by Charmillies Technologies

Fig. 2.2.1.4-1 KE 500 Series Wire-EDM ONA America

Gun barrels rifling can be produced electrochemically with a stationary electrode

Volume Machining: Electrolytic volumetric machining is a precise process of material