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Contents

Acknowledgements vi
Preface vii

1 Introduction: Discourse and Domination 1


2 Structures of Discourse and Structures of Power 27
3 Discourse, Power and Access 65
4 Critical Discourse Analysis 85
5 Discourse and Racism 102
6 Discourse and the Denial of Racism 120
7 Political Discourse and Political Cognition 155
8 War Rhetoric of a Little Ally: Political Implicatures and
Aznar’s Legitimization of the War in Iraq 185
9 Discourse and Manipulation 211
10 Contextualization in Parliamentary Discourse: Aznar, Iraq
and the Pragmatics of Lying 237

References 262
Further Reading 290
Name Index 297
Subject Index 303

v
1
Introduction: Discourse and
Domination

If we define Critical Discourse Studies (CDS) as a scholarly movement


specifically interested in theory formation and critical analysis of the
discursive reproduction of power abuse and social inequality, a detailed
examination of the concept of power is a central task of CDS.Yet, as is
the case for many fundamental notions of the social sciences, the notion
of power is as complex as it is fuzzy. Not surprisingly, a vast number of
books and articles have been dedicated to the analysis of this central
concept in many disciplines. It is therefore imperative that I focus on
those dimensions of power that are directly relevant to the study of
language use, discourse and communication.
However, my object of study, namely the ‘discursive reproduction of
power abuse and social inequality’, is hardly an unproblematic notion
itself, and hence also in need of detailed theoretical analysis. For exam-
ple, how do a specific intonation, a pronoun, a headline, a topic, a lexical
item, a metaphor, a colour or a camera angle, among a host of other semi-
otic properties of discourse, relate to something as abstract and general as
power relations in society? That is, we somehow need to relate typical
micro-level properties of text, talk, interaction and semiotic practices to
typical macro-level aspects of society such as groups or organizations and
their relationships of domination.
Moreover, CDS is not merely interested in any kind of power but it
specifically focuses on abuse of power, in other words, on forms of domina-
tion that result in social inequality and injustice. Such a normative notion
(abuse is bad) requires analysis in terms of other normative notions and crite-
ria of the social sciences, such as legitimacy, which in turn presuppose an
applied ethics and moral philosophy.Thus, in this book I often deal with the
discursive reproduction of racism, and a critical analysis of such discursive

1
2 Discourse and Power

practices presupposes that, at least from my point of view, racism is wrong


because racist practices are inconsistent with norms of social equality.
The general aim of CDS to study discursive power abuse also involves
differential access to social power, and I shall therefore pay special atten-
tion below to different kinds of access to public discourse as one of the
resources of social power.
In other words, we see that many CDS concepts need to be formu-
lated in terms of very fundamental notions of the social sciences. In this
book, I try to contribute to this debate about the foundations of CDS by
developing theoretical notions and applying these to concrete examples
of critical analysis. In this Introduction, I present these different contri-
butions within a coherent theoretical framework.

Critical Discourse Studies


Before presenting the theoretical framework for the study of the discur-
sive reproduction of power abuse, I first need to make the case for the
critical study of discourse in more general terms.
Although the label Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) has now generally
been adopted, I would like to propose to change it to Critical Discourse
Studies (CDS) for a number of obvious reasons. The main reason is that
CDS is not, as is very often assumed, especially in the social sciences, a
method of discourse analysis. There is no such method. CDS uses any
method that is relevant to the aims of its research projects and such meth-
ods are largely those used in discourse studies generally.
Indeed, and for the same reason, discourse analysis itself is not a method
but rather a domain of scholarly practice, a cross-discipline distributed
over all the humanities and social sciences. For the same reason, I prefer
to use the label Discourse Studies (DS) for that discipline.

Methods of (Critical) Discourse Studies


Both within Discourse Studies generally, and within CDS in particular,
we find the usual interplay of theory, methods of observation, description
or analysis, and their applications. So, there is no more ‘a’ (one) discourse
analysis, as a method, than there is a social analysis or a cognitive analy-
sis. Both DS and CDS have many different methods of study, depending
on the aims of the investigation, the nature of the data studied, the inter-
ests and the qualifications of the researcher and other parameters of the
research context.Thus, in both fields we may find such ways of studying
the structures and strategies of text and talk as:
Introduction: Discourse and Domination 3

• grammatical (phonological, syntactic, lexical, semantic) analysis;


• pragmatic analysis of speech acts and communicative acts;
• rhetorical analysis;
• stylistics;
• the analysis of specific (genre, etc.) structures: stories, news reports,
parliamentary debates, lectures, advertisements, etc.;
• conversation analysis of talk in interaction;
• semiotic analysis of sounds, images and other multimodal proper-
ties of discourse and interaction.

These different types of analysis (observation, description, etc.) may


combine and overlap in many ways, so that an investigation may focus on
the semantics of narrative, the rhetoric of political discourse, the prag-
matics of conversation, or the semiotics of style. Within each type of
research there are again many alternatives (sometimes also described as
‘methods’ or ‘approaches’), such as formal analysis or functional analysis,
which themselves may be quite different in the many theories, schools or
‘sects’ in each scholarly discipline. Most of the time such analyses will be
qualitative descriptions of the details of discourse structure but depend-
ing on the data such descriptions may be quantified, as is increasingly the
case in corpus linguistics, which provides new methods for CDS
research.
Despite all these differences, we may nevertheless call these approaches
ways of doing discourse analysis or description. Although it is not so
common to speak of ‘methods’ in this case, in the traditional sense, there
is no serious problem in describing these ‘ways of analysis’ in terms of
‘methods’.
Besides these different analytical approaches, research in discourse
studies has recourse to the usual methods of the social sciences, such as:

• participant observation;
• ethnographic methods;
• experiments.

Discourse is not only analysed as an autonomous ‘verbal’ object but


also as situated interaction, as a social practice, or as a type of communi-
cation in a social, cultural, historical or political situation. Instead of
analysing a conversation among neighbours, we may, for example, have
to do fieldwork in a neighbourhood, observe how people talk in cafés or
other public places, and describe many other relevant aspects of these
communicative events, such as temporal or spatial settings, special
4 Discourse and Power

circumstances, the participants and their communicative and social roles


and the various other activities being accomplished at the same time.
Whereas these different forms of observation and analysis are quite
typical of the social sciences, many types of psychology may engage in
controlled laboratory or field experiments in order to test specific
hypotheses. There is a vast amount of research on the many mental
parameters that influence discourse production and comprehension, and
often we are only able to know what these are, and how they operate, by
examining in an experiment how special experimental conditions
(circumstances, data, tasks, etc.) have special consequences for the way we
talk or understand discourse.
In sum, both discourse studies and critical discourse studies make use
of a vast amount of methods of observation, analysis and other strategies
to collect, examine or evaluate data, to test hypotheses, to develop theory
and to acquire knowledge.

Special analytical focus in CDS


It is important to notice, however, that despite this methodological
pluralism there are preferences and tendencies, given the special focus in
CDS on aspects of power abuse and hence more generally on the social
conditions and consequences of text and talk. First of all, CDS research
generally prefers methods that in no way infringe upon the rights of the
people it studies, and that are consistent with the interests of the social
groups in whose interests it engages in research in the first place. In other
words, CDS methods are chosen so as to contribute to the social
empowerment of dominated groups, especially in the domain of
discourse and communication.
Secondly, CDS methods specifically focus on the complex relations
between social structure and discourse structure, and how discourse
structures may vary or be influenced by social structure. For instance,
certain syntactic structures of sentences are obligatory (such as articles
preceding nouns in English), independent of the social situation of
discourse, and hence will not directly vary as a function of the power of
the speaker.Whether you are on the Left or on the Right, the grammar
of the language is the same for everyone. In other words, power abuse can
only manifest itself in language use where there is the possibility of vari-
ation or choice, such as calling the same person a terrorist or a freedom
fighter, depending on your position and ideology. Similarly, news reports
in the press always have headlines, whether or not they play a role in the
reproduction of ethnic prejudices. So, it is rather the form and meaning
Introduction: Discourse and Domination 5

of a headline than the structural property of a headline itself that may be


related to the social situation. Although such a perspective is generally
correct, there are cases where structures of domination not only influ-
ence options or variations of language use or discourse, but whole semi-
otic or discursive systems, genres and other social practices.
We may conclude that CDS will generally focus on those systems and
structures of talk or text that may depend on or vary as a function of rele-
vant social conditions of language use, or that may contribute to specific
social consequences of discourse, such as influencing the social beliefs
and actions of the recipients. More specifically, CDS prefers to focus on
those properties of discourse that are most typically associated with the
expression, confirmation, reproduction or challenge of the social power
of the speaker(s) or writer(s) as members of dominant groups.
Such properties may range from special intonation or visual and audi-
tory properties (colour, typography, image configurations, music), to
syntactic structures (such as actives and passives), lexical selection, the
semantics of presuppositions or person descriptions, rhetorical figures or
argumentative structures, on the one hand, to the selection of specific
speech acts, politeness moves or conversational strategies, on the other
hand.
Racist discourse, and more generally ideological discourse of ingroup
members, for instance, typically emphasize, in many discursive ways, the
positive characteristics of Our own group and its members, and the
(purported) negative characteristics of Others, the Outgroup. Authors
may do so by selecting special topics, the size or the colour of headlines,
the use of photographs or cartoons, by gestures or by choosing special
lexical items or metaphors, by arguments (and fallacies), storytelling,
and so on. We see that one general strategy involved in the discursive
reproduction of (for instance, racist or sexist) domination, namely
ingroup–outgroup polarization (ingroup praise vs. outgroup derogation)
may be realized in many ways and at many levels of discourse.
In such an analysis, polarized discourse structures play a crucial role in
the expression, construction, confirmation and hence the reproduction
of social inequality. Note though that such a relation between discourse
structures and social structures is not a simple correlational or causal rela-
tionship. Rather, we have to take into consideration a very complex
sociocognitive process, involving for instance the mental models or other
cognitive representations of the participants. We also have to take into
account how these are influenced by discourse structures, on the one
hand, and influence interaction (and hence future discourse), on the
other hand.
6 Discourse and Power

General aims of CDS


Despite the large diversity of methods being used in CDS, it has some
quite general aims most scholars in the field agree on. I already formu-
lated one of these aims above, namely the study of the discursive reproduction
of power abuse. In other words, CDS is specifically interested in the (crit-
ical) study of social issues, problems, social inequality, domination and
related phenomena, in general, and the role of discourse, language use or
communication in such phenomena, in particular. We may call this the
special domain of CDS: specific social phenomena, specific problems and
specific themes of research.
However, this is not all. The notion ‘critical’ also needs to be made
more explicit. Studying social issues or problems is a normal task of the
social sciences, but such mainstream studies are not inherently ‘critical’.
In other words, there is in CDS a normative aspect involved, a perspec-
tive, an attitude, a special way of doing socially relevant research.
It is not easy to define the precise properties of such a critical perspec-
tive or attitude, and the following is neither fully explicit nor exhaustive.
Discourse Studies more specifically may be defined as ‘critical’ if they
satisfy one or several of the following criteria, where ‘domination’ means
‘abuse of social power by a social group’:

• relations of domination are studied primarily from the perspective


of, and in the interest of the dominated group;
• the experiences of (members of) dominated groups are also used
as evidence to evaluate dominant discourse;
• it can be shown that the discursive actions of the dominant group
are illegitimate;
• viable alternatives to the dominant discourses can be formulated
that are consistent with the interests of the dominated groups.

These points clearly imply that scholars in CDS are not ‘neutral’, but
commit themselves to an engagement in favour of dominated groups in
society. They take position, and do so explicitly. Whereas much ‘neutral’
social research may well have an implicit social, political or ideological
position (or, indeed, deny taking such a position, which obviously is also
taking position), scholars in CDS recognize and reflect about their own
research commitments and position in society. They are not only scien-
tifically aware of their choice of topics and priorities of research, theo-
ries, methods or data, but also sociopolitically so. They do not merely
study social problems or forms of inequality because these are ‘interest-
Introduction: Discourse and Domination 7

ing’ things to study, but explicitly also with the aim of contributing to
specific social change in favour of the dominated groups.They self-crit-
ically examine whether the results of their research might benefit the
dominant position of powerful groups in society. In addition to taking
the perspective of dominated groups, CDS scholars may also attempt to
influence and cooperate with crucial ‘change agents’ or ‘dissidents’ of
dominant groups.
There has been a great deal of debate about whether sociopolitically
committed scholarly research is at all ‘scientific’. Accusations of ‘bias’
against critical research are routine occurrences, and themselves in need
of critical analysis – if only because not committing oneself politically is
also a political choice. However, as critical scholars we should take all
serious criticism seriously. It is crucial to emphasize that a critical and
socially committed perspective does not imply less rigorous research.
None of what has just been described about critical research in the social
sciences implies that the theories and methods of CDS should be less
scientific.
On the contrary, CDS scholars are aware that discourse studies of
social problems that may effectively benefit dominated groups and that
may contribute to the abandonment or change of illegitimate discursive
practices of the symbolic elites usually require research programmes,
theories and methods that are complex and multidisciplinary. It is one
thing to formally study, for instance, pronouns, argumentation structures
or the moves of conversational interaction, and quite another to do so,
equally rigorously, as part of a much more complex research programme
that shows how such structures may contribute to the reproduction of
racism or sexism in society.
As we have seen above, this will often mean relating discourse struc-
tures to cognitive structures on the one hand and social structures on the
other.This requires multidisciplinary theories and methods.
In other words, CDS specifically deals with complex social problems,
for which it needs to apply or to develop complex theories and methods
from several disciplines, and at the same time, it must satisfy the social
criteria mentioned above – such as being relevant for dominated groups.
This means that, on the whole, the criteria for CDS research are often
more demanding than those for other forms of discourse studies.
Notice also that we are not saying that all discourse studies should be
critical studies, only that critical studies are not less scientific because they
are critical. Critical studies should be theoretically and methodologically
adequate because otherwise they would be unable to contribute to their
sociopolitical goals. In sum, bad discourse analysis, also in CDS, does not
8 Discourse and Power

meet the very high criteria of CDS, namely to be able to contribute to


social change.
CDS scholars may well engage in theory development that as yet does
not have direct applications, but that may contribute to improve the
foundations of CDS research. If CDS scholars are especially interested in
the general topic of the discursive reproduction of power abuse in soci-
ety, they may have to examine, also in more general terms, the relation
between discourse and power, or what makes power abuse illegitimate.
It should also be stressed here that despite its general aims and princi-
ples of critical social research, CDS is not a homogeneous movement – as
is true for any social movement. Thus, I have chosen to focus CDS on
power abuse, that is, on domination, and on its consequences: social
inequality, and how these are reproduced by discourse. However, one may
opt for a broader aim, and include the study of power and the relations
between power and discourse, more generally – as is also the case in many
chapters in this book. Similarly, we may also count as one of the aims of
CDS the study of the relations between discourse and society. No doubt a
study of the relations between discourse and power, or between discourse
and society more generally, are at the basis of CDS, and presupposed by its
more specific research projects. However, I prefer to formulate more
specific aims for CDS, because otherwise CDS would collapse with or
even include sociolinguistics, the sociology of language, linguistic anthro-
pology, political science and related (sub)disciplines, with which CDS is
obviously related. The reason for my decision to focus on the normative
notions of power abuse and social inequality resides in the rationale of critical
research. Such research critically analyses what according to specific social
norms and values is wrong, illegitimate, misguided or bad. We do not pretend
to be able to study all social and political relations of power in society, but
focus on illegitimate power and want to know how and why such power,
and specifically its discursive dimension, is illegitimate.We want to exam-
ine the many ways in which discourse may be abused, for instance by a
systematic study of (and distinction between) discursive manipulation,
misinformation, lies, slurs, propaganda and other forms of discourse that are
aimed at illegitimately managing the minds and controlling the actions of
people with respect to the reproduction of power. I shall summarize this
complex aim with the two notions of discourse and domination. This is
already a vast task, a task which I hold to be the core task of CDS. As we
shall see below and in the rest of this book, this means that we need to
borrow or develop theoretical instruments of a more general nature, such
as those of power, social structure, social groups, ideology, context and
other general notions involved in the study of discursive domination.
Introduction: Discourse and Domination 9

Discourse and the Reproduction of Social Power


It is within such a broader perspective of the aims and foundations of
Critical Discourse Studies that I examine the complex relations between
discourse and power.
Although there are many concepts of power in philosophy and the
social sciences, in this book I essentially define social power in terms of
control, that is, of control of one group over other groups and their
members. Traditionally, control is defined as control over the actions of
others. If such control is also in the interest of those who exercise such
power, and against the interest of those who are controlled, we may speak
of power abuse. If the actions involved are communicative actions, that is,
discourse, we more specifically deal with control over the discourse of
others, which is one of the obvious ways discourse and power are related:
people are no longer free to speak or write when, where, to whom, about
what or how they want, but are partly or wholly controlled by powerful
others, such as the state, the police, the mass media or a business corpo-
ration interested in suppressing the freedom of (typically critical) text and
talk. Or conversely, they must speak or write as they are told to do.
Such control is pervasive in society. Few people have the total freedom
to say and write what they want, where and when they want and to
whom they want. There are social constraints of laws (e.g., against slan-
der or racist propaganda) or of norms of appropriateness. And most
people have jobs in which they are required to produce specific kinds of
talk or text. In that respect, discourse control seems to be the rule, rather
than the exception. To investigate the abuse of such discourse control,
thus, we need to formulate specific conditions, such as specific violations
of human or social rights, to be discussed below.
Control does not only apply to discourse as social practice, but also to
the minds of those who are being controlled, that is, their knowledge,
opinions, attitudes, ideologies as well as other personal or social represen-
tations. In general, mind control is indirect, an intended but only possi-
ble or probable consequence of discourse. Those who control discourse
may indirectly control the minds of people.And since people’s actions are
controlled by their minds (knowledge, attitudes, ideologies, norms,
values), mind control also means indirect action control. Such controlled
action may again be discursive, so that powerful discourse may, indirectly,
influence other discourses that may be in the interest of those in power.
With this summary we account for the fundamental process of the repro-
duction of power through discourse. Let me examine this process some-
what closer.
10 Discourse and Power

Context control: access


If discourse controls minds, and minds control action, it is crucial for
those in power to control discourse in the first place. How do they do
so? If communicative events not only consist of ‘verbal’ text and talk but
also of a context that influences discourse, then the first step of discourse
control is to control its contexts. For instance, powerful elites or organi-
zations may decide who may participate in some communicative event,
when, where and with what goals.
This means that we need to examine in detail the ways access to
discourse is being regulated by those in power, as it is typically the case
for one of the most influential forms of public discourse, namely that of
the mass media: who has access to the (production of) news or
programmes, and who controls such access? Who is capable of organiz-
ing press conferences that will be attended by many journalists? Whose
press releases are being read and used? Who is being interviewed and
cited? Whose actions are defined as news? Whose opinion articles or
letters to the editor are being published? Who may participate in a tele-
vision show? And more generally: whose definition of the social or polit-
ical situation is accepted and taken seriously?
In all these cases we are talking about active access, that is, participation
in control of the contents and forms of the media, and not about the
more or less ‘passive’ access of consumers (even when these consumers
may actively resist media messages through dispreferred interpretations).
Also, it should be emphasized that enhanced, global access to powerful
media may mean the obliteration of small, alternative media that have
fewer financial and technological resources. In other words, the very
notion of access needs to be further analysed because it has many dimen-
sions. In this book, I shall only deal with access as a form of active contri-
bution to, or participation in, the production of public discourse – for
instance the ways organizations or citizens have access to journalists and
are able to influence media coverage.

Discourse control
Once it is established how such parameters of the context and the
production of discourse are controlled, we may investigate how structures
of discourse itself are being controlled: What (from global topics to local
meanings) can or should be said, and How this can or should be formu-
lated (with which words, more or less detailed, precise, in which sentence
form, in which order, more or less foregrounded, etc.)? And which
Introduction: Discourse and Domination 11

speech acts or other communicative acts must or may be accomplished


by such discourse meanings and forms, and how are such acts organized
in social interaction?

Mind control
For each phase of the reproduction process we need detailed and sophis-
ticated social, cognitive and discursive analysis. Many of the relationships
just mentioned are as yet barely understood.We are beginning to under-
stand how discourse is being understood, but much less about how such
understanding leads to various forms of ‘changes of mind’: learning,
persuasion, manipulation or indoctrination.‘Mind control’ involves much
more than just understanding text or talk, but also personal and social
knowledge, previous experiences, personal opinions and social attitudes,
ideologies and norms or values, among other factors that play a role in
changing one’s mind.
Once we have insight into such complex cognitive representations
and processes, we might be able to show, for instance, how racist report-
ing about immigrants can lead to the formation or confirmation of prej-
udices and stereotypes, which in turn can lead to – or be controlled by
the formation of – racist ideologies, which themselves can be used to
produce new racist text or talk in other contexts, which finally can
contribute to the discursive reproduction of racism.We understand much
of this today in very general terms but, again, the details of such processes
of discursive influences on the minds or people are barely understood.
The study of media influence in terms of ‘mind control’ should take
place within a broader sociocognitive framework that relates the complex
structures of today’s (new) media landscape to the uses of these media,
and finally the many complex ways such uses may influence the minds
of people.True,‘mass’ media have given way to an enormous diversity of
alternative media, special ‘niche’ media, and especially the vast possibili-
ties of internet, cell phones and their more individual uses of news, enter-
tainment and other ‘content’. Readers and viewers may have become
more critical and independent.Yet, it remains to be seen, and needs much
more critical analysis, whether such diversity of technologies, media,
messages and opinions also means that citizens are better informed and
able to resist the sophisticated manipulation by messages that seemingly
address them more personally – but that might well implement dominant
ideologies that have not changed much. The illusion of freedom and
diversity may be one of the best ways to produce the ideological hege-
mony that will be in the interest of the dominant powers in society, not
12 Discourse and Power

least of the companies that produce the very technologies and media
contents that produce such an illusion.

Discourse Analysis as Social Analysis


Similar theoretical and empirical problems characterize the definition of
powerful groups or organizations; in other words, the very origin of the
cycle of the discursive reproduction of power. What characteristics do
groups of people need to have in order to be described as powerful?
This may intuitively be clear for governments, parliaments, state agen-
cies, the police, the mass media, the military and big business corpora-
tions, and it may be for some professionals such as doctors or professors,
or some social roles, such as parents. But although this may be the case
for the mass media as organizations and enterprises, does this also imply
that individual reporters are powerful? Most of them will probably deny
such an assertion, even if they do realize that they have the power to
influence the minds of hundreds of thousands, if not millions. Power in
this sense should not be defined as the power of a person, but rather as
that of a social position and as being organized as a constituent part of
the power of an organization. Therefore, we need to engage in much
more sophisticated social analysis so as to pinpoint who controls public
discourse, and how.
Similar examples may be given for another major field of ‘symbolic
power’, namely education. We know that teachers and textbooks influ-
ence the minds of students, and we can hardly deny that we expect them
to do so if we want our children to learn something. But it is very diffi-
cult to distinguish between learning that really serves the students in their
present and future lives, on the one hand, and the indoctrination of
ideologies of powerful groups or organizations in society, or the preven-
tion of students developing their critical potential, on the other hand.
Still, one would hardly focus on and blame one teacher or one preju-
diced passage in a textbook because the form of influence may be much
more diffuse, complex, global, contradictory, systematic and barely
noticed by all involved: indeed, from the Ministry of Education issuing a
curriculum, from the authors, teams and publishers who produce text-
books or the teacher committees that approve them, finally to the teach-
ers that teach them, all may be convinced that what these textbooks teach
is good for the kids.
These examples may be multiplied for all domains of society, that is,
for politics, the law, health care, the bureaucracies and state agencies and
corporate business, and from top to bottom, from the leading elites to
Introduction: Discourse and Domination 13

those who execute the policies, the guidelines and the plans decided
above.

Again: power and access


In sum, when we ‘do’ discourse analysis as social analysis we become
involved in vastly complex structures of organization, control and power,
of which public texts and talk may only be one of many other social
practices to be scrutinized. Moreover, such a critical study of complex
and powerful organizations has its own methodological problems, for
instance serious limitations of access. For instance, we can critically
analyse a public news report or an editorial, a textbook or classroom
interaction, the propaganda of a party, or the advertising of a company,
but seldom have access to the kind of discursive interaction at the top:
the cabinet meeting, the editorial meeting at a newspaper, the meetings
of the top of a political party or the deliberations at the board of a busi-
ness company.
In the practice of fieldwork, the general rule is that the higher up and
more influential the discourses, the less they are public and the less they
accessible for critical scrutiny – sometimes so by law, as is the case for
cabinet meetings.
For instance, in my own field of research on racism and the press, as
far as I know, no researcher has ever been able to get access to editorial
meetings of a newspaper. And everyone who has done fieldwork knows
that interviewing the elites is always vastly more difficult than getting to
talk to ordinary people in their own environment – people who are
often happy to talk, because usually no one asks their opinion or about
their experiences in the first place.
This is why we do have public data about the racism of political debates,
news reports, textbooks or party programmes, but not about how cabinet
ministers, party leaders, editors, board members or high- placed bureaucrats
speak and write, internally, about immigrants and minorities.

Power as control over public discourse


In this book, I show how critical social analysis is closely intertwined
with contextual discourse analysis. Traditionally, the social power of
groups (classes, organizations) was defined in terms of their preferential
access to, or control over, specific material resources, such as capital or
land, to symbolic resources such as knowledge, education or fame, or to
physical force.
14 Discourse and Power

Many forms of contemporary power, however, should be defined as


symbolic power, that is, in terms of the preferential access to, or control over,
public discourse, following the logic of reproduction sketched above.
Control of public discourse is control of the mind of the public, and
hence, indirectly, control of what the public wants and does. One needs
no coercion if one can persuade, seduce, indoctrinate or manipulate
people.
In these terms, then, the symbolic elites today, such as politicians, jour-
nalists, writers, professors, teachers, lawyers, bureaucrats and all others
who have special access to public discourse, or the business managers
who indirectly control such access, for instance as owners of mass media
empires, are those who should be defined as powerful by such a crite-
rion.
Symbolic power may be derived from other kinds of power. Thus,
politicians have access to public discourse because of their political
power, and professors because of their knowledge resources. If power is
defined in terms of the control of (the members of) one group over
others, then such forms of political, academic or corporate power really
become effective if they provide special access to the means of discourse
production, and hence to the management of the minds of the public.
Whereas classically power was defined in terms of class and the control
over the material means of production, today such power has largely been
replaced by the control of the minds of the masses, and such control
requires the control over public discourse in all its semiotic dimensions.
We should therefore go beyond the (usually correct, but too simple)
slogans of the popular critical literature about the power of politics or the
media in terms of ‘mind managers’ and examine in close detail what
exactly this means: how specific groups in society are able to control the
definition (that is, mental models) of, and the emotions about, public
events, general sociocultural knowledge and common sense, attitudes
about controversial issues or, most fundamentally, the basic ideologies,
norms and values that organize and control such social representations of
the public at large.

Re-analysing hegemony
We see how closely social analysis is related to discourse analysis and how
in various ways such a relationship also requires cognitive analysis.We see
how the classical notion of hegemony, as defined by Gramsci in his Prison
Notebooks, is given substance by a much more explicit analysis of the
processes involved, namely how ideologies are reproduced and how
Introduction: Discourse and Domination 15

people may act, out of their own free will, in the best interest of those in
power.
This account of the discursive and cognitive means of the reproduc-
tion of social power in society obviously should also go beyond the usual
macro-level analyses of sociology or political economy. Politics and the
media undoubtedly mutually influence and control each other, both
being in turn controlled by fundamental business interests, the market
and what is financially ‘viable’. Such macro analyses may be further
refined by an analysis of the relations and forms of control of classes,
groups or organizations.

The micro analysis of power


Discourse analysts, however, tend to study these general relationships at a
more local and micro level, such as the daily interaction routines in
which politicians and journalists are involved, how press releases are
manufactured and distributed, how press conferences are conducted, how
critical questions of journalists are strategically answered, and so on.
If those in power need to control their image in the mass media so as
to garner support and influence public moods and minds, then they need
to control the discursive and interactional details of the production of
public discourse – such as the timing, the detailed contents and style of
a press release, a business report or advertisement or the conversations
and interviews with journalists.Through a detailed analysis of such orga-
nizational discursive practices – aimed at controlling the production of
public discourse – we are able to show how social macro structures are
related to the structures of public discourse, and finally how these may
influence the minds of the public at large.
It should be stressed that such social processes of reproduction are not
deterministic. For example, despite many forms of influence by the state
or by powerful organizations, newspapers as organizations and journalists
as individuals may resist (up to a point) such pressure and formulate news
according to their own perspective and interests.
The same is true for the audience of news organizations. Of course,
people are influenced by the news they read or see, if only in order to
acquire and update knowledge about the world. But their comprehen-
sion of the news and the way they change their opinions or attitudes
depends on their own earlier attitudes or ideologies (shared with other
group members) as well as on their personal experiences. It is this
personal interpretation of the news, this mental model of events, which
is the basis of specific personal action of individuals.
16 Discourse and Power

In other words, the link between macro structures of societal power,


on the one hand, and individual agency, on the other, is very complex
and indirect, for the discursive reproduction of power we are examining
here.

Discourse, cognition and society . . .


The brief analysis of the discursive reproduction of power given above
establishes fundamental relationships of a triangle of concepts that organ-
ize most of my research, also in other publications: discourse, cognition
and society. In my view, any kind of CDS needs to pay attention to all
three dimensions, even when, occasionally, we may want to focus on one
or two of them.The general tendency in critical research is to directly link
society – and especially power and domination – with discourse, social
practices or other phenomena we study.
According to my theoretical framework, such a direct link does not
exist: there is no direct influence of social structure on text or talk.
Rather, social structures are observed, experienced, interpreted and
represented by social members, for instance as part of their everyday
interaction or communication. It is this (subjective) representation, these
mental models of specific events, this knowledge, these attitudes and
ideologies that finally influence people’s discourse and other social prac-
tices. In other words, personal and social cognition always mediates
between society or social situations and discourse. Hence, in CDS we
need to study social problems in terms of the discourse–cognition–
society triangle. None of its three dimensions can be really understood
without the other.

. . . and history and culture


That these three dimensions are necessary does not mean that they are
sufficient. There are at least two more dimensions that are fundamen-
tal in CDS research: history and culture – although I take these both as
part of the social dimension. That is, most of the issues dealt with in
this chapter and this book, such as racism, the mass media, politics or
education, have an important historical dimension whose analysis will
contribute to our more complete understanding of contemporary
social problems. Racism is not an invention of today but has a history
of centuries. On the other hand, there are also vast social changes of
the last decades, such as those of class, gender and ethnicity, and many
contemporary societies in Europe, North America and Australia have
Introduction: Discourse and Domination 17

undergone sometimes dramatic changes when compared to how they


were only 50 years ago. CDS should examine these changes, also in the
discursive reproduction of power, and on the other hand show
whether and how fundamental power relations may precisely not have
changed.
Finally, the same is true for culture. All we have said here also should
be qualified culturally. Discourses and the ways they reproduce power are
different in different cultures, and so are the social structures and the
social cognitions that are involved in such a reproduction process. Due to
increasing globalization, some discourse genres may have become quite
uniform, as is the case for much international news and even some forms
of entertainment.Yet, also the members of different cultures may under-
stand and use such discourses in different ways, consistent with their own
culturally shared knowledge and attitudes. The same is true for the
production of discourse and its social conditions, which also may be
different in different societies and cultures. This means that also CDS
should always make sure it examines the discursive reproduction of
power against the cultural background of the participants – and increas-
ingly how discourse is being influenced by the cross-cultural experiences
of many contemporary societies.

From Power to Power Abuse: Domination


It is a common misunderstanding that power is inherently ‘bad’ and that
the analysis of discourse and power is by definition ‘critical’ analysis.This
is, however, a rather limited conception of power and of CDS. Power
obviously and trivially can be used for many neutral or positive ends, as
when parents and teachers educate children, the media inform us, politi-
cians govern us, the police protect us and doctors cure us – each with
their own special resources.
This is not merely a disclaimer to introduce a limiting ‘but . . .’. On the
contrary, society would not function if there was no order, no control, no
checks and balances, without the many legitimate relationships of power.
In that sense, much social analysis involves analysis of power and related
notions.
CDS presupposes insight into social structures in general and into
power relations in particular. Only then are we able to examine power
abuse, how such abuse may hurt people and how social inequality may be
produced and reproduced in everyday life. Only then are we able to
understand how power is unequally distributed in society.
18 Discourse and Power

The illegitimate uses of power

CDS is interested in the critical analysis of power abuse of politicians


rather than in their legitimate exercise of power, in how the media mis-
informs rather than informs them, or in how professionals and scholars
abuse their knowledge to harass students, clients or other citizens rather
than to educate or cure them. I call such forms of power abuse domina-
tion, a notion that implies the negative dimension of ‘abuse’ and also the
dimension of inequities, injustice and inequality, that is, all forms of ille-
gitimate actions and situations.
Domination covers equally the various kinds of communicative power
abuse that are of special interest to critical discourse analysts, such as
manipulation, indoctrination, or disinformation. Other, non-discursive,
examples of domination readily come to mind, and everyday experi-
ences, stories and news reports are full of them: sexual harassment of
women by men, parental violence, political corruption, harassment and
violence by the police, terrorism and counter-terrorism, wars, and so on.
I just mention these to emphasize that CDS is able to study only a small
(but important) part of all forms of domination and inequality.
In order to contribute to a well-founded practice of critical discourse
study, we therefore should be much more explicit about the definition of
abuse. How do we distinguish between the use and the abuse of language,
discourse or communication, of news and argumentation, of parliamen-
tary debates and laws, of scholarly studies or of professional reports,
among a vast number of other genres and communicative practices?
Thus, we may expect the mass media to inform us about civil unrest,
but when exactly does such ‘information’ about ‘riots’ slip into prejudiced
text about black youths or the Third World, or class ideologies about the
poor? Or when does a research project about immigration or the every-
day lives of minorities lapse into confirming stereotypes, e.g., about drug
abuse or violence, and ignore the ways these minorities are daily discrim-
inated against by the authorities, the police and the symbolic elites?
In sum, the study of the obvious ways discourse is being abused, as in
explicit racist propaganda or pseudo-science, needs to be complemented
by much more subtle analyses of everyday practices in which ‘good’ and
‘bad’ may go together in text and talk.
So when exactly do we start to speak of ‘abuse’ when describing such
everyday discursive practices? We have begun to describe such abuse in
terms of legitimacy: abuse of power is illegitimate use of power. Such an
analysis soon leads us to the foundations of social and political analysis.
Power abuse, thus, means the violation of fundamental norms and values
Introduction: Discourse and Domination 19

in the interest of those in power and against the interests of others. Power
abuse means the violation of the social and civil rights of people. In the
area of discourse and communication, this may mean the right to be
(well) taught and educated, to be well informed, and so on.
The normative notion of legitimacy is, however, very complex, and its
adequate analysis relevant for the very foundations of CDS. If we want
to analyse and criticize domination, and if domination is defined as ille-
gitimate, we need to be very explicit about the norms, criteria or stan-
dards of legitimacy. Crucially, then, the question is: who defines what is
legitimate in the first place? A well-known answer in liberal democracies
is that such is the task of democratically elected representatives, such as
those of a parliament, a city council, etc. However, we know from history
that there have been many racist, sexist and classist laws and regulations
so that laws, as such, do not guarantee legitimacy as soon as we apply
other norms and criteria. This is even the case for the formulation of
international human rights – which we also know to have changed
historically. In other words, as is the case for all our norms, values and
knowledge, the standards of legitimacy are relative and change histori-
cally and vary cross-culturally – even when we claim each time that they
are ‘universal’.
If we have legitimate power use and illegitimate power abuse, we must
accept that we may also have legitimate forms of inequality that are
produced by them.This is not only the case in the obvious differences of
political power but also wherever else power resources are not distributed
equally – beginning with the material ones, such as money. Relevant for
us is that this is also true for non-material, symbolic resources of power,
such as knowledge and the access to public discourse. We thus find
‘normal’ inequalities as the differences of power between professors and
students, professionals and their clients, experts and lay persons or jour-
nalists and their audience. The crucial question in CDS is therefore
which of such power differences are legitimate by today’s standards of
justice and equity, or on the basis of international human rights, and
which represent cases of illegitimate power abuse. When are the power
resources of the journalist, such as special knowledge and information as
well as direct access to the mass media, used legitimately, e.g., to inform
the citizens, and when is such power abused of to misinform, to manip-
ulate or harm citizens.
We see that much of the definition of the (il)legitimacy of text and
talk is framed in terms of the negative mental consequences of discursive
domination – disinformation, manipulation, stereotypes and prejudices,
lack of knowledge and indoctrination – and how these may mean or lead
20 Discourse and Power

to social inequality, for example, because such mental consequences in


turn can influence (illegitimate) social interaction, such as discrimination.
Although we can accept the general definition of discursive domina-
tion in terms of its negative social consequences for the recipients, spec-
ifying the precise norms and values that make such negative
consequences explicit is very hard and of course depends on one’s
perspective.
It is not difficult to formulate why racist reporting is ‘bad’, for instance
because it helps form and confirm racist stereotypes and ideologies,
which in turn are the basis of racist discrimination – which by definition
is against the best interests of those who are discriminated against and
violates their fundamental rights. This is also why racist reporting or
political propaganda is prohibited by law in many countries.

An example: racist reporting


But what if a newspaper covers, for instance, looting by black youth
during a ‘riot’, as we have seen on several occasions in the UK or the
USA, and as I analysed in my book Racism and the Press? Obviously,
covering criminal actions of members of minority groups is, as such, not
racist nor otherwise an infringement of their civil rights, even when such
‘negative’ reporting may confirm ethnic prejudices among many white
people. So, one needs to engage in a detailed analysis of text and context
in order to be justified to conclude that such reporting is racist. For
instance, such coverage becomes more or less racist if the following
conditions hold:

• if only the negative actions of black youths are represented, and not
those of other youths or, indeed, of the police;
• if the negative actions of black youths are emphasized (by hyper-
boles, metaphors) and those of the police de-emphasized (e.g., by
euphemisms);
• if the actions are specifically framed in ‘ethnic’ or ‘racial’ terms,
instead of actions of, say, youths, or poor people, men or another,
more relevant category;
• if riots, looting or violence are focused on as events without social
causes, for instance as a consequence of frequent police harass-
ment, or within a broader pattern of poverty and discrimination;
• if the newspapers systematically engage in this kind of racist cover-
age, and hence seem to have a policy of negative reporting about
minorities;
Introduction: Discourse and Domination 21

• if only or predominantly ‘white’ sources are used that tend to


blame black youth and exonerate the police.

We see that the norms that are violated here are not controversial. On
the contrary, they are part and parcel of the professional norms of
adequate reporting which require balanced representations of events,
explaining them in terms of social causes and contexts, and a watchdog
function against abuse of power of agencies or forces of the state.
Journalists know and should know the possible consequences of racist
reporting about minority communities and hence should be very careful
to respect the general norms of professional reporting. They need not
close their eyes to minority misdeeds, nor apply self-censorship, but only
apply their own professional norms consequently when covering the
Others.

Legitimate partiality
Even the example of racist reporting of ‘riots’ is still relatively straight-
forward because we can apply general norms and values of professional
reporting to evaluate such reporting critically. However, there are many
other examples of more or less ‘bad’ or partisan reporting that do not
violate existing norms, and that do not have negative social conse-
quences, for instance when a leftist newspaper highlights the positive
qualities of a leftist candidate in elections and the negative qualities of the
right-wing candidate. Such obvious bias may be motivated when most of
the press is conservative and represents left-wing candidates (more) nega-
tively.
Similarly, the press may want to represent negatively politicians that
are corrupt, industries that pollute or discriminate, and so on, and such
coverage may be ‘biased’ against such parties, but obviously the conse-
quences are no doubt for the public good.
Thus, we can conclude that for each discursive practice we need to
examine carefully the specific context, norms and values that define
adequate practice. However, as a general rule of thumb, we can speak of
illegitimate use of discursive power, that is, of domination, if such
discourse or its possible consequences systematically violate the human
or civil rights of people. More specifically, such is the case if such
discourse promotes forms of social inequality, as when it is favouring the
interests of dominant groups, and against the best interests of non-domi-
nant groups, precisely because the latter do not have the same access to
public discourse.
22 Discourse and Power

For each discourse genre or discursive practice, we then need to spec-


ify its particulars.We have given the example of news in the press, but of
course we need to develop such criteria for all types of public discourse,
such as parliamentary debates, political propaganda, advertising, corporate
discourses, textbooks and classroom interaction, legal discourse, scientific
discourse, or bureaucratic discourse.

The counter-argument:The inability to control the consequences


Another complication in such a theory of discursive domination is that
it is not just formulated in terms of discourse structures, that is, structures
that authors can (more or less) control, and hence for which they are
(more or less) accountable, especially also in terms of the (mental) conse-
quences of such structures. Politicians and journalists routinely defend
themselves against accusations of prejudiced talk or text by saying that
they have no control over how people read, understand or interpret their
discourses.
Such a defence is not entirely without ground, because there is no
causal relation between discourse and its interpretation: we know from
the psychology of discourse comprehension that discourses themselves
are only one factor in a complex set of conditions that influence under-
standing and interpretation, such as the context of reading, the given
knowledge and ideologies of the readers, their personal biography and
current experiences, their current intentions and goals, their current role
and status, and so on.
Yet, despite such individual and contextual variations, this does not
mean that discourses themselves are irrelevant in the processes of social
influence. There is general insight into the ways knowledge, prejudice
and ideologies are acquired, also through discourse. Hence, especially,
professional authors and organizations should have insight into the possi-
ble or likely consequences of their discourses on the social representa-
tions of the recipients.
There is little doubt, for instance, that repeated emphasis and focus on
the deviant or criminal characteristics of minorities creates and confirms
socially shared racist attitudes in society, and not just the opinions of some
bigoted individuals.
There is also little doubt that most of our ideologies are formed
discursively. In this sense, then, the lack of direct control of the minds of
recipients is no excuse for discursive malpractice, given professional
knowledge about the likely tendencies of the overall influence of such
practices on the minds and actions of recipients. Indeed, the same elite
Introduction: Discourse and Domination 23

groups and organizations perfectly well know what effects their ‘infor-
mation’, their advertising and their propaganda have on the public –
otherwise they would not engage in public communication in the first
place.

The Practical Relevance of Critical Discourse Studies


What has been said above applies primarily to CDS research. Such
research, we hope, produces useful insights into how discourse plays a
role in the reproduction of domination and how such power abuse leads
to social inequality. Crucial though for CDS is that such insights also
should have practical relevance for dominated groups. Although there
have been many examples of practical ‘applications’ of CDS research, this
dimension of CDS is most in need of further development and self-crit-
ical analysis. So let me briefly formulate some of the options.

Mediation and consultancy


If a politician, journalist or professor claims not to know (or have known)
the possibly negative social consequences of their discourses, there is
obviously a mediating role for critical discourse analysts.They can show,
in detail, how topics, headlines and leads of news discourse, or abstracts
and conclusions of scholarly articles, or slogans in political discourse can
be used and abused to ‘define the situation’, that is, how these discourse
structures may be used to build the upper level (macro) structures of
mental models of events. As critical analysts, we can show how specific
lexical items or metaphors are used to construe the details of events or
the characteristics of people in such mental models – or indeed how
mental models tend to be generalized to prejudices or other commonly
held social attitudes.
CDS can and should intervene in the discursive education of profes-
sionals, so as to show how the public discourses of the elites may influ-
ence the minds of the citizens, and how such influence plays a role in the
reproduction of social structure.To be aware of the consequences of one’s
discourse (and of any public action) is one of the conditions of account-
ability, as is also the case for our knowledge about the effects of chemi-
cal products on the environment. In such a case the excuse ‘We didn’t
know!’ (or the German variant, used as an excuse after World War II: Wir
haben es nicht gewusst!) is no longer valid, as is also the case for the criti-
cal evaluation of polluting practices.
24 Discourse and Power

Teaching, obviously
Teaching CDS is also relevant for citizens more generally because they
can learn to be more aware of the goals of the discursive elites and how
public discourses may misinform, manipulate or otherwise harm them.
That is, the main social and practical goal of CDS is to develop strategies
of discursive dissent and resistance.

Professional advice, codes of conduct


In order to be able to reach such goals, we need to investigate in detail
which discourse properties, which discourse genres, and in what
communicative contexts, are likely to have which sociocognitive conse-
quences on the formation of knowledge, attitudes and ideologies. Such
investigation requires the cooperation of discourse analysts with linguists,
psychologists and social scientists, each examining some of the compo-
nents of the complex discursively based reproduction process of social
inequality.
Although teaching CDS is crucial as a form of resistance against
discursive domination, it is not sufficient. Few newspapers have changed
their practices of racist reporting as a consequence of CDS analyses.The
same is true for most critical studies.Yet, as we have seen for the successes
of the feminist and ecological movements, resistance may have effects
even on the most powerful.
The long road traditionally has been the one through the institutions,
that is, by educating journalists and other professionals with the basic
results of our insights.That is, in the university our aims are clear: to teach
students how to critically analyse text and talk, how to teach that to
others and how to develop new theories to improve such analyses.
More direct forms of resistance that have been successful in other
domains may also be effective for CDS, for instance in the area of racist
or sexist reporting or by providing critical expert testimony to interna-
tional bodies who do have at least some power, such as the United
Nations or the Council of Europe – both have repeatedly taken action
against racism.
For instance, if we are able to show how such racism is reproduced by
the mass media, we may at the same time formulate concrete recommen-
dations which may take the form of voluntary professional codes, as they
exist in many areas. Such codes can formulate criteria for the diversity of
newsrooms, news gathering, news topics and news sources, among other
recommendations – that is, the enforcement of general professional
Introduction: Discourse and Domination 25

norms and values.They can explicitly suggest the elimination of all irrel-
evant references to the ethnic background of news actors, especially in
negative (crime, etc.) news.The same is true, and has been suggested, for
the coverage of the Third World or of Islam – in the same way that has
repeatedly been proposed for the media coverage of gender.

Racism is bad for business


Besides teaching, research and political action involving influential inter-
national organizations, another important strategy of CDS resistance
affects the core of neoliberal ideologies and practices: profits.We should
argue and show that racist or sexist discourse, or a lack of diversity in
general, is bad for business. In the increasingly multicultural society of the
USA, Europe or Australia, in which many non-European people have
become citizens and consumers, it is obviously hardly wise to antagonize
these potential customers by racist policies, reporting, teaching, or other
discursive practices. If such citizens have the choice between a racist and
a non-racist newspaper or TV programme, school or business, we can
imagine what most of them will choose, especially if they themselves
have become explicitly aware of racism.
Diversity in the newsroom may not be enough. Minority journalists,
if recruited at all, are selected for the similarity of their values with those
of the owner or chief editor of newspapers, or because such journalists
soon adapt to their colleagues in order to maintain their job or liveable
working conditions. In that case, it is the diversity of the buyers of news-
papers that is a very powerful incentive to change editorial policies. More
generally, businesses will tend to discriminate less when their manage-
ment understands that both for in recruitment of qualified personnel as
well as in satisfying their clients, such racism is bad for business.

Alliances and cooperation


CDS research is especially efficient through its strategic alliances with
those organizations, NGOs, minority groups or institutions that are
engaged in the struggle against all forms of social inequality in general,
and against discursive discrimination in particular, such as racism,
sexism and classism in politics, the media, education and research. This
may not be the whole field of operation of CDS, but large enough for
a vast amount of research projects and forms of cooperation and social
action.
26 Discourse and Power

What to Do?
Summarizing, the practical relevance of CDS can be found especially in
the critical education of students as future professionals, in its role in
preparing expertise for powerful international organizations as well as for
grass-roots organizations, and by showing to corporate enterprises that
any form of discursive discrimination ultimately will be bad for business.
CDS scholars can critically analyse textbooks and propose new ones
to publishers and education authorities. They can offer to teach courses
of non-racist news writing to journalists. They can intervene in work-
shops on non-racist interaction with clients in many businesses. And so
on and so on.
It should finally be repeated again that such important practical goals
of CDS can only be realized if based on a vast amount of detailed
research into the crucial discursive practices in society, and especially in
politics, the media, education and research, that is, on the symbolic or
discursive elites and their daily practices and products. The articles
collected in this book are intended as contributions to that collective
research effort.
Name Index

Abelson, R. P., 167 Ben-Tovim, G., 73


Abercrombie, N., 33 Berger, C. R., 35, 42, 28
Adelswärd,V., 50 Bergsdorf,W., 53
Agger, B., 85, 94 Bergvall,V. L., 99
Ahmed, N. M, 223 Berman, P., 76
Akman,V., 238 Bernecker, S., 244
Albert, E. M., 91 Bernstein, B., 31, 98
Alexander, J. C., 88 Billig, M., 122, 174
Allman,T. D., 252 Birnbaum, N., 85
Allport, G.W., 45 Blair, R., 52
Altheide, D., 33, 56 Blondin, D., 115
Anderson, D. A., 71 Boden, D., 237
Anderson, M. H., 57 Boden, D., 99
Antaki, C., 127 Bolland, J., 169
Apple, M.W., 36, 98 Borch, F. L., 191
Argyle, M., 166, 238 Boskin, J., 135
Arkin, R. M., 123 Bouquet, P., 238
Aronowitz, S., 98 Bourdieu, P., 32, 62, 98–100
Aronsson, K., 50 Bower, G. H., 100
Atkinson, J. M., 43, 50, 53, 70 Boyd-Barrett, O., 33
Atkinson, P., 99 Boyle, F. A., 252
Atlas, J. D., 189 Bradac, J. J., 44, 47, 51, 98
Atwood, E., 58 Braham, P., 33
Atwood, L. E., 57 Brazil, D., 49
Auer, P., 238 Brenneis, D., 44
Aufderheide, P., 76 Brewer, M. B., 122
Augoustinos, M., 222 Britton, B. K., 100, 162, 217
Brooke, M. E., 42
Bachem, R., 95 Brown, J. D., 36
Back, L., 178 Brown, P., 41, 52, 122, 240
Bagdikian, B. H., 36 Brown, R., 33, 52, 103
Ballard, H. B., 32 Bruhn Jensen, K., 55
Barenghi, R., 252 Budesheim,T. L., 169
Barker, A. J., 96 Bullion, S. J., 57
Barker, M., 45, 127 Burton, F., 36, 98
Barlow,W., 111 Burton, J., 49
Barnes, J. A., 246 Bybee, C. R., 36
Barrett, M., 33
Bauman, R., 28 Cacioppo, J.T., 36
Bavelas, J. B., 44 Caldas-Coulthard, C. R., 87
Bayley, P., 24, 44 Calhoun, C., 85
Becker, J., 32 Cameron, D., 93
Beckman, H. B., 38 Candlin, C., 49
Benet, J., 61 Cantrill, J. G., 28
Bennett, R., 61 Carbó,T., 176, 96, 96

297
298 Name Index

Carlen, P., 36, 98 Dovidio, J. F., 103, 127, 45


Carmines, E. G., 103 Downing, J., 33, 37, 58, 60, 75, 92, 173, 174
Caute, D., 224 Dretske, F. I., 244
Chafe,W., 254 Drew, P., 50, 70, 99, 237
Chaffee, S. H., 53 Duin, A. H., 92
Chaiken, S., 172 Duranti, A., 237
Chibnall, S., 7, 51 Duszak, A., 99
Chilton, P. A., 95, 176, 238 Dyer, G., 61
Chomsky, N., 66, 191, 223
Chouliaraki, L., 212 Eagly, A. H., 172
Christopher, P., 191 Eakins, B.W., 44
Cicourel, A.V., 42, 87, 243 Eakins, R. G., 44
Clair, R. P., 99 Ebel, M., 59
Clark, H. H., 160 Edelman, M., 47, 53
Clarke, J., 59 Edwards, D., 241
Clegg, S. R., 65, 213 Ehlich, K., 96, 99
Cody, M. J., 127 Elliott, P., 61
Cohen, S., 56, 61 Entin, E., 44
Coleman, H., 47, 49 Erickson, B., 44
Collins, R., 36, 94 Erickson, F., 49
Conley, J. M., 98 Ervin-Tripp, S., 43, 44
Converse, P. E., 174 Essed, P. J. M., 45, 72, 73, 76, 89, 103, 127,
Cook-Gumperz, J., 43 130
Corrigan, P., 33 Etzioni-Halevy, E., 216
Coulthard, R. M., 87, 99 Evered, C., 49
Crigler, A. N., 159, 167 Ewing, M. F., 167
Critcher, C., 59
Culley, J. D., 61 Fairclough, N. L., 87, 238
Curran, J., 36, 94 Falbo,T., 44
Falk, R. A., 191
D’Souza, D., 97 Fascell, D. B., 57
Daalder, I. H., 191 Fay, B., 85
Dahl, R. A., 28 Fedler, F., 74
Danet, B., 51, 98 Ferguson, C., 43
Daniels, A. K., 61 Fernandez, J. P., 77
Dates, J. L., 111 Ferree, M. M., 99
Davies, B., 99 Ferro, M., 62
Davis, H., 33, 61, 94 Fetzer, A., 237
Davis, K., 98 Fiala, P., 59
Day, N., 212 Fielding, G., 49
de Cillia, R., 109 Fisher, S., 47, 98, 99
Debnam, G., 28 Fishman, M., 33, 44, 55, 91
Delamont, S., 99 Fiske, S. R., 34, 66
Derian, J. D., 95 Fiske, S.T., 173, 181
Di Luzio, A., 238 Fivush, R., 219, 241
Di Pietro, R. J., 51 Fletcher, C. R., 162
Dillard, J. P., 21, 91 Ford, M., 52
Dines, G., 96 Forgas, J. P., 238
Dinstein,Y., 191 Fossà, G., 252
Dittmar, N., 45 Foucault, M., 100
Doherty, F., 225 Fowler, R., 59, 85, 87, 94, 95
Domhoff, G.W., 32, 37 Fox, C. J., 95
Donald, J., Hall, S., 33 Fox, D. R., 85
Dorfman, A., 96 Frankel, R. M., 38
Name Index 299

Fraser, C., 240, 41 Hariman, R., 71


Freeman, S. H., 47 Harris, S., 50
Furnham, A., 166, 238 Hart, R. P., 53
Fussell, S. R., 165 Hartmann, P., 59, 60, 74, 75, 96, 111, 135
Hedebro, G., 32
Gabriel, J., 73 Heller, M. S., 47
Gaertner, S. L., 45, 103, 127 Helmreich,W. B., 45
Galbraith, J. K., 28 Hemphill, M. R., 51
Galician, M. L., 71 Henley, N., 28, 44, 94
Galtung, J., 36, 55 Heritage, J., 43, 99, 237
Gamble, A., 37 Herman, E. S., 66
Gamson,W. A., 95, 179 Hermann, M. G., 158
Gans, H., 33, 36, 55, 91 Hill, S., 33
Garcia Negroni, M. M., 96 Hobson, D., 33
Gareau, F. H., 191, 225 Hodge, B., 59, 85, 87, 94,
Garnham, A., 162 Holly,W., 96
Garnham, N., 36, 94 Houston, M., 91
Gazdar, G., 189 Hudson, K., 53
Geif, E. B., 43 Hujanen,T., 74
Geisler, D., 50 Humez, J. M. M., 96
Ghadessy, M., 237 Hurwitz, J., 116
Giddens, A., 100 Husband, C., 59, 60, 74, 75, 96, 111, 135
Giesen, B., 88 Hymes, D., 85
Giles, H., 28, 45, 238
Gilman, A., 52 Ibáñez,T., 85
Giroux, H., 92, 99 Íñiguez, L., 85
Glasgow University Media Group, 61, 94, Irvine, J.T., 91
Glasser,T. L., 100 Iyengar, S., 158
Gleason,Y. B., 43
Goffman, E., 61, 122 Jaffe, J., 44
Golding, P., 33 Jäger, S., 109, 111
Goldman, S. R., 217 Jansson, L., 50
Goodwin, C., 165, 237, 240, 90 Jaworski, A., 99
Graber, D. A., 71 Jaynes, G. D., 73
Graesser, A. C., 100, 162, 217 Jefferson, G. A., 43
Graham, J. A., 166, 238 Jefferson,T., 59
Gramsci, 8, 100 Jenkins, R., 77
Granberg, D., 167 Johnson, B. C., 44
Graves, M. F., 92 Johnson, K. A., 75
Greenberg, B. S., 61, 223 Johnson-Laird, P. N., 162, 240, 242
Greenberg, J., 45 Jonsson, L., 90
Grice, H. P., 189, 215 Judd, C. M., 173, 174
Gruber, H. 109 Just, M. R., 167
Guespin, L., 53, 96
Gumperz, J. J., 45, 238 Kalin, R., 47
Gutiérrez, F., 59, 61, 74, 96 Katz, E., 100
Katz, P. A., 103
Habermas, J., 100, 215 Kelly, J.W., 52
Hall, E. J., 99 Kennedy, S., 45
Hall, S., 33, 59 Kinder, D. R., 179, 183
Halliday, F., 223 King, J., 61
Halloran, J. D., 61 Kinloch, G. C., 33
Hamilton, D., 59 Kintsch,W., 27, 36, 66, 100, 162, 165, 168,
Hargreaves, A. G., 116 217, 240–42, 244
300 Name Index

Kirkland, S., 45 Marable, M., 73


Klapper, J.T., 100 Martín Rojo, L., 91, 92, 176, 201, 212
Klaus, G., 95 Martindale, C., 74
Klein, G., 115, 62 Mattelart, A., 32, 96
Klein,W., 45 Maynard, D.W., 51
Knorr-Cetina, K., 243, 42, 87 Mazingo, S. L., 61, 74
Kochman,T., 45, 74 McClintock, M., 225
Kotthoff, H., 93 McCullogh, C., 61
Kramarae, C., 28, 38, 44, 91 McGraw, K. M., 158, 167
Kraus, S. R., 159 McGraw, M., 158, 167
Krauss, R. M., 165 McGuire,W. J., 158
Kress, G., 59, 85, 87, 94, McHoul, A.W., 62
Krosnick, J. A., 174 McKechnie, P., 52
Kuhn, A., 33 McLaughlin, M. L., 43, 127
Kuklinski, J. H., 169 McPhee, R. D., 52
Mead, R., 50
Labov,W., 44 Mehan, H., 49
Lakoff, G., 95 Menéndez, S. M., 96
Lakoff, R.T., 98 Mercer, N., 99
Lau, R. R., 158, 169, 173, 181 Merelman, R. M., 155
Lauren, P. G., 116, 132, 96 Merten, K., 59
Lavandera, B. R., 96 Messaris, P., 212
Law, I., 73 Mey, J., 8, 28
Lazar, M., 238 Meyer, M., 238
Leaman, J., 116 Meyers, R. A., 28
Leckie-Tarry, H., 237 Milburn, M. A., 174
Leet-Pellegrini, H., 44, 91 Miles, R., 127, 134
Leimdorfer, F., 99 Millar, F. E., 44
Lein, L., 44 Miller, G. A., 242
Levinson, S. C., 52, 122, 189 Miller, G. R., 36
Levy, M. R., 55 Miller, H.T., 95
Lewis, M., 246 Miller, S. H., 52
Liebes,T., 100 Milliband, R., 28
Lind, A. A., 44, 98 Mills, C.W., 28, 32
Lind, E. A., 51 Milner, D., 62
Lindegren-Lerman, C., 53, 91 Milner, J.W., 71
Lindsay, J. M., 191 Mishler, E. G., 48
Linell, P., 50, 90 Mitten, R., 109
Link, J., 111 Morrow, D. G., 162
Locher, M., 246 Moscovici, S., 222
Lodge, M. K., 158, 167 Mueller, C., 31
López Ocón, M., 96 Mulac, A., 47
Lorimer, R., 36 Mumby, D. K., 99
Lowe, A., 33 Munch, R., 88
Luis, C. R., 96 Murdock, D., 36
Luke,T.W., 213 Murdock, G., 33, 61
Lukes, S., 65, 88 Murphy, S. M., 57
Luskin, R. C., 169 Murray, N., 128
Lyman, S., 127, 133
Natal, M., 44
Mankekar, D. R., 57 Neisser, U., 219, 241
Mannes, S., 162 Neuman.,W. R.,167
Manning, D. J., 33 Newhouse, J., 191
Manstead,T., 61 Ng, S. H., 42, 98
Name Index 301

Nichols, J., 254 Riggle, E. D. 169


Nimmo, D. D., 53, 95 Riley, P., 52
Nowak, P. 109 Roberts, B., 59
Nye, J. S., 191 Roberts, C., 237
Roberts, K. H., 52
O’Barr,W. M., 28, 44, 51, 70, 98 Robinson, J. P., 55
O’Connor, M. C., 44 Rodin, D., 191
O’Keefe, D. J., 212 Roen, D. H., 92
O’Shaughnessy, N. J., 252 Rogers, L. E., 44
Oakhill, J., 162 Roloff, M. E., 35, 36
Olson, J. M., 103 Roseman, I., 167
Omi, M., 103 Rosenberg, J., 44
Osler, A., 99 Rosenblum, M., 58
Ottati,V. C., 159 Rossiter, J. R., 61
Owsley, H. H., 44 Ruge, M. H., 36, 55

Packard,V., 61 Saarni, C., 246


Paldán, L., 32 Sabsay, S., 48
Palmer, M.T., 91 Sacks, H., 43
Palmer, N., 223 Said, E.W., 131, 58, 99
Pardo, M. L., 96, 98 Saint-Martin, M., 99
Parkinson, M. G., 50 Salmon, C.T., 100
Pasierbsky, F., 96 Sanders, K. R., 53, 95
Passeron, J. C., 32, 62, 99 Sanders, L. M., 179, 183
Pêcheux, M., 53, 96 Sarangi, S., 237
Peffley, M., 116 Saville-Troike, M., 28
Pelias, M. H., 50 Scannell, P., 36, 94
Pelikan, J. 109 Schäffner, C., 176
Peplau, L. A., 44 Schatzman, L., 31
Percy, L., 61 Schegloff, E. A., 43, 239
Perloff, R. M., 159 Scherer, K. R., 28, 238
Pettigrew, A. M., 38, 47 Scherzer, J., 28
Petty, R. E., 36 Schiller, H. L., 32
Pfau, M., 21, 91 Schlenker, B. R., 122
Pfeffer, J., 47 Schlesinger, P., 36, 94
Phizacklea, A., 134 Schramm,W., 58
Platt, M., 48 Schulz, M., 28
Porter, L.W., 52 Scott, M., 127, 133
Potter, J., 109, 241 Scotton, C. M., 44
Powell, L.W., 174 Sears, D. O., 158, 169
Powesland, P. F., 45 Seibold, D. R., 28
Preiswerk, R., 115, 62 Seidel, G., 45, 53, 93
Prilleltensky, I., 85 Seliktar, O., 175
Pyszczynski,T., 45 Shapiro, M. J., 53, 95
Shavitt, S. 169
Radtke, I., 51, 98 Shohat, E., 97
Ragan, S. L., 47 Shore, B., 220
Raiter, A. G., 96 Shultz, J., 49
Rasmussen, D. M., 85 Shuy, R.W., 50, 98
Rayko, D., 47 Sidel, M., 223, 223
Reeves, F., 60, 179 Sierra, M.T., 96
Reiss, M., 127 Sinclair, J. McH., 49
Remlinger, K. A., 99 Singh, R., 85
Richstad, J., 57 Slobin, D. I., 52
302 Name Index

Smelser, N. J., 88 66, 72, 74–7, 79, 83, 84, 87, 89–93,
Smith, D. E., 99 95–100, 103, 104, 106, 109, 111, 115, 116,
Smith, P. M., 45 120, 121, 123, 125, 132, 135, 136, 138,
Smith, R. A., 173, 181 148, 162, 165, 166, 168, 173, 176, 179,
Smitherman-Donaldson, G., 45, 59, 74 181, 186, 211, 213, 214, 217, 220, 221,
Sniderman, P. M., 103 222, 226, 227, 228, 237, 239, 239, 240,
Snow, C., 43 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 247, 248, 251
Solomos, J., 73, 116, 178 Van Leeuwen,T., 212
Sparks, C., 36, 94 Van Oostendorp, H., 16, 100, 162, 217, 241,
Spender, D., 44 242
Sperber, D., 166 Van Zoonen, L., 91
Stam, R., 97 von Stutterheim, C., 45
Steiner, J., 247
Stoll, E. A., 49 Walker, A. G., 50
Stothard, P., 252 Walker, I., 222
Stott, M., 61 Walton, P., 33, 61, 94
Strage, A., 43 Waltzer, M., 191
Strauss, A., 31 Wearden, S.T., 36
Stredder, K., 73 Weaver, C. A., 162
Street, R., 44, 47 Wellman, D.T., 103
Strong, P. M., 49 Werner, F., 44
West, C., 44, 48, 98
Tajfel, H., 5, 124 Wetherell, M., 109
Tannen, D., 94 White, D. M., 28
Tardy, C. H., 51 Wilkinson, L. C., 49
Taylor, D. A., 103 Williams, J., 91
Taylor, S. E., 34, 66 Williams, R. M., 73
Tedeschi, J.T., 127 Willis, P., 33, 9, 101
Ter Wal, J., 97 Wilson, C. C., 59, 61, 74, 96
Tetlock, P. E., 103, 159, 181 Wilson, D., 166
Therborn, G., 28 Wilson, P. S., 191
Thomas, J., 85 Winant, H., 103
Thomas,W. I., 240 Wodak, R., 213, 70, 85, 87, 90, 92, 93, 98,
Thomason, R., 238 98, 98, 99, 93, 94, 109, 213, 221, 238
Thorne, B., 28, 44, 94 Wolff, J., 33
Todd, A. D., 47, 48, 98, 99 Wortham, S. 246
Tolmach Lakoff, R., 61 Wrong, D. H., 28, 65, 88
Tompkins, P. K., 52 Wyer, R. S. J., 159, 169
Treichler, P., 38
Trew,T., 59, 85, 87, 94, Young, J., 56, 61
Trömel-Plötz, S., 44 Young, M., 36
Troyna, B., 59 Young, R. A., 238
Tuchman, 36, 55, 61, 74, 56
Tulving, E., 219, 241 Zaller, J. R., 174
Turkel, G., 85 Zanna, M. P. 103
Turner, B. S., 33 Zimmerman, D. H., 44, 237
Turow, J., 55, 56 Zimmerman, H. D., 95
Žižek, S., 95
UNESCO, 57, 96 Zoppi, C., 38
Zoppi-Fontana, M., 96
Van Dijk,T.A., 27, 34, 36, 45, 46, 55–7, 59–62, Zwaan, R. A., 100, 162, 16, 217, 241, 242
Subject Index

abuse of power see power abuse CDS, 238–9


academic discourse, and racism, 76 and professional advice, 24
access, 10, 65ff. civil rights, 19
and court trial, 70–1 class, and discourse, 51
and discourse, 67ff. classroom talk, 49
and gender, 93–4 clinical interviews, 48
and media, 94–5 codes of conduct, 24
and planning, 68 cognition
and political discourse, 95–6 and discourse, 155–84
and power, 13, 31ff. and manipulation, 217ff.
and setting, 69 power, 66
patterns, 68ff.
cognitive interface, 105
scope of, 69–70
common ground, 160–1, 170
to news media, 36
to public discourse, 89–91 common sense, 161
advertising, 61 communication, interethnic, 45
and gender, 61 communicative events, control of, 69
anthropological linguistics, 237 communicative power abuse, 18
anti-racism, 107 community, knowledge, 244
anti-semitism, and discourse, 96–8 comprehension, discourse, 162
appropriateness, 241 consensus, 208–9
argumentation, consultancy, 23
and racism, 110 context, 237–56
parliamentary discourse, 117–118 and racism, 107–8
artificial intelligence, 238 control, 10
asymmetry, in conversation, 48 definition of, 90
attitudes, 160, 171 of political discourse, 176–8
audience control, 69–70 relevance of, 237–8
Aznar, José María, 185–210, 237–56 theory of, 239ff.
context model, 164–9, 188, 220, 237–57
bias, 21 as participant construct, 241
Blair,Tony, 195, 197, 200, 204, 207, 228, contextual analysis, 248
231–56 contextualization, 237–56
blaming the victim, 127 control, 9
British House of Commons, 231–56
and power, 29
bureaucratic discourse, 98
audience, 69–70
Bush, George H., 148
Bush, George W., 185, 193, 195, 200–8, 228, context, 10
238, 252–4 definition of, 9
business, and racism, 25, 77 discourse, 10–11
mind, 11–12, 30, 91–2
CDA, tenets of, 86 of communicative events, 69
CDA see Critical Discourse Analysis of discourse, 31ff.
Critical Discourse Analysis, theoretical of public discourse, 89–91
framework of, 87ff. power as, 88–9

303
304 Subject Index

conversation and ethnocentrism, 96–8


analysis, 237, 239 and gender inequality, 93–4
and gender, 44 and ideology, 35–7
and power, 43 and legitimacy, 8
and racism, 108–10, 132–5 and manipulation, 211–36
asymmetry in, 48 and polarization, 46
dentist–patient, 49 and power, 27ff., 42–62
in organizations, 52 and racism, 96–8, 102ff., 120–54
parent–children, 43–4 and reproduction of social power, 9ff.
conversational maxims, 215 and social structure, 4
corporate discourse, 99 bureaucratic, 98
corporate racism, 77 comprehension, 162
Cortes (Spanish Parliament), 185, 191, 200, control, 10–11, 31ff.
238, 243, 247–50, 256 corporate, 99
court trial, and access, 70–1 definition of, 104
courtroom, discourse in, 50–1 doctor–patient, 47
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), 1, 2, 85ff.; educational, 98–9
see also Critical Discourse Studies ethics, 216
definition of, 85ff. genres, and power, 37–9
Critical Discourse Studies in courtroom, 50–1
aims of, 6 legal, 50–1
definition of, 1 media, 54–61
methods of, 2–4
medical, 98
practical relevance of, 23ff.
organizational, 52
critical linguistics, 85
parliamentary, 144–52, 237–56
critical research, criteria of, 86
political, 53
culture, 16–17
processing, 162ff.
Daily Telegraph, 138ff. production conditions of, 32, 162
defence and offence, 143–4 racism, 72–84
defining the situation, 240 racist, 5
denial of racism, 120–54 schemas, 91, 105
act-denial, 125 structural analysis of, 104–5
and defence, 124 structures, 227ff.
control-denial, 125–6 types, and power, 39
functions of, 128–32 written, 54
in the press, 139–40 discrimination, 103
goal-denial, 125–6 and discourse, 45
in parliamentary discourse, 148–51 discursive domination, 19
intention-denial, 125–6 dissent, 37
transfer move, 124 diversity, 25
types of, 124–8 doctor–patient discourse, 47, 49
denials, subtle, 141–2 dominance, 66
dentist–patient conversation, 49 dominant ideology, 34
dialogue, institutional, 46–7 domination, 1ff., 6, 8, 17ff., 214, 212
directives, 52 definition of, 18
disclaimers, 109–10, 123, 133, 204 see also power abuse
discourse analysis, as social analysis, 12ff.
discourse educational discourse, 98–9
and access, 67ff. elites, 90
and class, 51 and anti-racism, 107
and control, 9 and racism, 106–7
and discrimination, 45 symbolic, 14, 32, 36–8
and domination, 1ff. episode, 238
Subject Index 305

episodic memory, 159ff. and textbooks, 36–7


manipulation of, 219 dominant, 34
epistemology, 244 media, 56
ETA, 185, 205–7, 221 professional, 56
ethics, of discourse, 216 social cognition, 34
ethnic minorities, and the press, 58–61; see illegitimate
also racism and the press communication, 215
ethnic prejudice, 106 discursive practice, 7, 8
ethnocentricism, use of power, 18f.
and discourse, 96–8 immigrants, in The Sun, 78ff.
in news, 58–61 immigrants, language learning, 45
and textbooks, 61–2, 115 implication vs. implicature, 189
euphemism, 126 implicatures, political, 188–90
excuse, of racism, 127 impression management, 122–3
indoctrination, 12
face keeping, 122 industrial conflict, and news, 61
fallacies, in parliamentary discourse, 118 influence, of society on discourse, 16
firm-but-fair move, 147–8 ingroup–outgroup polarization, 5, 200f.
First World, and news, 57 institutional dialogue, 46–7
forms of address, 52, 249–50 institutional texts, 54
Frankfurt School, 85 institutions, power, 40
freedom of the press, 57 interaction, 105; see also conversation
Front National, 149 doctor–patient, 49
interactional sociolinguistics, 237
gender interethnic communication, 45
and access, 93–4 internationalism, 207
and advertising, 61 interruptions, 48
and conversation, 44 and power, 44
and power, 39 interviews,
and power, 90 clinical, 48
inequality, 93–4 job, 47
global meaning, 105 intonation, 104
group power, 12, 31–2, 40, 60 Iraq, 185–210, 231ff.
Gulf War, 194–5
job interviews, 47
headlines, and racism, 112 journalism education, 24
hegemony, 14–15 journalists, 55–6
hierarchy, and power, 52 judges, power of, 70–1
history, 16–17 justification, of racism, 127
Honeyford affair, 139ff.
honorary titles, 249–50 K-device, 244ff.
House of Commons (British Parliament), Khomeiny, 158
166, 176, 183, 247 knowledge, 170ff., 243ff.
Hussein, Saddam , 185, 187, 198, 193–5, community, 244
199, 201–2 and lies, 251
hyperbole, 208 management, 248
manipulation of, 221
ideological power, 32 Kuwait, 194, 201, 202
ideological practices, 34
ideologies, manipulation of, 221 language learning, and immigrants, 45
ideology, 12, 33–5, 103, 160, 173–5 language, political, 53
and discourse, 35–7 language see discourse
and news media, 36 Le Pen, Jean-Marie 149
and power, 30 legal discourse, 50–1
306 Subject Index

legitimacy, 19, 215, 246 nationalism, in parliamentary discourse, 117,


and power, 40–1 145–6
legitimation, 187 negative other-presentation, 46, 200ff.
vs. persuasion, 235 New International Information Order,
lexicon, 105 57
lies, and knowledge, 251 news, 54–61
local meaning, 105, 181 and First World, 57
lying, 237ff., 245 and ideology, 36
and industrial conflict, 61
macro vs. micro analysis, 15 and racism, 111–14
macro vs. micro see micro vs. macro and strikes, 61
Mail,The, 139ff. ethnocentric, 58–61
manipulation, 8, 19, 66 minorities and, 56
and cognition, 217ff. organizations, 15
and discourse, 226–31 production, 55
and episodic memory, 219 schema, 57
and persuasion, 213 topics, 60
and society, 213ff. values, 35–6
of ideologies, 221 newsroom, diversity in, 25
of knowledge, 221 newsworthiness, 55
media non-verbal structures, 104
and access, 36, 94–5 norms, 225
and power, 51–61 number game, 208
and racism, 74–6, 111–14
discourse, 54–61 opinions, 171
portrayal see news oratory, political, 53
power, 51–61 organizational
professionals, 55 discourse, 52
radical, 37 narrative, 52–3
mediation, 23 power, 60
medical discourse, 98
medical power, 49 parent–children, conversation, 43–4
memory, theory of, 159ff. parliamentary debate, 144–52, 186–8,
mental consequences of power abuse, 19 237–56; see also parliamentary
mental control, 30 discourse
mental model, 220, 161ff., 240ff. contextual analysis of, 248–56
and power, 66 in Spain, 248–56
preferred, 92 parliamentary discourse,
micro analysis of power, 15 and argumentation, 117–18
micro vs. macro and nationalism, 117
analysis, 15 and racism, 116–18, 144–52
contexts, 242 fallacies in, 118
approach to power, 41–2 topoi in, 117
mind control, 11–12, 91–2 participant construct, 241
mind managers, 14 patterns of access, 68ff.
minorities, and news, 56 peace, 203–7
minority journalists, 25 persuasion, 212–13
mitigation, 142–3 and power, 38
racism, 126 planning,
models, mental see mental model and access, 68
and power, 38
narrative, polarization, 223–4, 233
in organizations, 52–3 and discourse, 46
racism and, 110 ingroup–outgroup,187, 200f.
Subject Index 307

political cognition, 158–9, 169ff. scope of, 30, 40


and political discourse, 155–84 social, 29
political discourse, 53, 175-83, 186–8 symbolic, 12, 32, 33
and access, 95–6 theory of, 28-31
and context, 176–8 types of, 88-89
and political cognition, 155–84 powerful vs. powerless speech, 47, 51
and racism, 72–3 practices, ideological, 34
structures of, 178–9 preferred mental model, 66, 92
political implicature, 185–210, 251 preferred models, 66
political language, 53 prejudice, 59, 103
political oratory, 53 press bias, 21
political roles, 250 press,
positive self-presentation, 46, 122, 138–9, and ethnic minorities, 58–61
187, 195, 196–200, 233 and racism, 13, 20–1, 58–61, 135–44
power abuse, 1–9, 17ff., 66, 212 bias, 21
and access, 13, 31ff. 65ff. freedom of, 57
and advertising, 61 procedurally consequential, 239
and cognition, 66 processing, discourse, 162ff.
and control, 29 production condition of discourse, 32
and conversation, 43 production, discourse, 162
and discourse, 27ff., 37–9, 42–62 professional discourse, and power, 98–9
and discourse genres, 37–9 public discourse, 13–14, 89–91
and discourse schemas, 91 access to, 89–91
and discourse types, 39
and genres, 90 racial slurs, 45
and ideology, 30 racism
and interruptions, 44 and academic discourse, 76
and legitimacy, 40–1 and argumentation, 110
and media discourse, 54–61 and business, 77
and mental models, 66 and context, 107–8
and news, 54–61 and conversation, 108–10, 132–5
and persuasion, 38 and discourse, 72–84, 96–8, 102ff.,
and planning, 38 120–54
and professional discourse, 98–9 and elites, 106–7
and social cognition, 66 and headlines, 112
and speech acts, 37, 90 and Margaret Thatcher, 80, 83, 84
and status, 52 and media discourse, 74–6, 111–14
and topics, 91 and media, 111–14
as control, 88–9 and narrative, 110
definition of, 65–6 and news, 111–14
dimensions of, 39ff. and parliamentary discourse, 116–18,
group, 29, 31, 32, 40, 60 144–52
illegitimate use of, 18f. and political racism, 72–3
institutions, 40 and the press, 13, 58–61, 135–44
legal, 70–1 and research, 76
macro approach to, 41 and stories, 110, 132–3
media, 58, 60 and style, 133
medical, 49 and textbooks, 61–2, 114–16
micro approach to, 42 and topics, 112, 132
of judges, 70–1 corporate, 77
organizational, 60 definition of, 103
power, 27ff. denial of, 120–54
professional, 47 racist discourse, 5
resources, 19, 29–30 racist ideology, 103
308 Subject Index

racist reporting, 20–1, 24; see also racism and stereotypes, in textbooks, 115
the press Stokes, Sir John, 157ff.
racist talk, 44–6; see also conversation, and stories, and racism, 110, 132–3
discourse strikes, and news, 61
radical media, 37, 58 style,
relevance, 249, 238 and racism, 133
reproduction of social power, 9ff. political discourse, 182
research, and racism, 76 Sun,The, 139ff.
resolution 144 symbolic elites, 14, 32, 36, 37, 38
reversal, of accusation of racism, 128, 151–2 symbolic power, 12, 14, 32, 33
rhetoric, 105 syntax, 104
rhetoric, political discourse, 182 systemic linguistics, 237
rhetoric, war, 185–210
rhetorical question, 252 talk,
Rushdie, Salman, 77, 158 classroom, 49
courtroom, 98
schemas, talk, racist, 44–6; see also discourse; racism
discourse, 105 teaching CDS, 24
political discourse, 179 terrorism, 205f.
scope, textbooks, 12, 61–2
of access, 69–70 and ideology, 36–7
power, 40 and racism, 114–16
scripts, knowledge, 160 and stereotypes, 115
security, 203–7 and Third World, 62, 115
security council, 194, 234 texts, institutional, 54
self-disclosure, 52 topics of conversation, 109
semantic memory, 159ff. Third World,
setting, and access, 69 and news, 57
short-term memory, manipulation, 217–19 in textbooks, 62, 115
situation, 238 topics
defining the, 191ff., 240 of conversation, racist, 109
discourse analysis as, 12ff. and power, 91
and power, 66 and racism, 112, 132
ideology as, 34 news, 60
manipulating, 221 of political discourse, 179
social topoi, 198–9
inequality, 8 in parliamentary discourse, 117
influence on discourse, 16 triangle, discourse–cognition–society, 16, 213
power, 29 turn-taking, 43
problems, 6, 7
representations, 222 UNESCO, 57
structure, 4, 16
social–political functions of racism denial, values, 225
128–32 verbal derogation, 45
society, and manipulation, 213ff. violation of human rights, 19
sounds, 104
speech acts, 105 war rhetoric, 185–210
and power, 37, 90 written discourse, 54
speech style, 45
state terrorism, 225 Zapatero, José Luís Rodríguez, 254ff.

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