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Broiler
Nutrition
Guide
Broiler Nutrition Guide
This new and completely revised Broiler Nutrition Guide has been produced by Dr. Robert
Teeter, Professor at Oklahoma State University (OSU) and Dr. Chet Wiernusz, Nutritionist
in the Cobb-Vantress World Technical Support Group.
Data for the guide utilizes the extensive research on Cobb birds carried out over the last 20
years by Dr. Teeter’s group at OSU and various other research institutes. The format
therefore includes much explanatory material to allow better utilization of the data to match
the wide range of nutritional and growing strategies with varying environmental conditions for
broiler production worldwide.
2003
Broiler
Nutritional
Nutrition
Guide
Guide
Contents
Page
1. Broiler Nutrition 2
INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION OF OBJECTIVES 2
2. The Bird Environment and Growth Interface 3
COMPENSATORY GAIN 5
3. Interfacing Management, Environment, and Growth 6
MAINTENANCE 7
BMR AS A MAINTENANCE COMPONENT 8
MAINTENANCE ACTIVITY AND WASTE HEAT COST 9
MAINTENANCE EXACERBATION COSTS 9
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE & RELATIVE HUMIDITY COST 10
MAINTENANCE & IMMUNE CHALLENGE COST 10
TISSUE GAIN 11
MANAGEMENT 11
4. Quantifying the Production-Management Value 14
5. Optimizing the Performance Environment 16
NONPATHOGENIC STRESS 16
AIR QUALITY 16
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE 16
LIGHTING 18
FEED FORM 18
HYGIENE 19
6. Feed Conversion 20
7. Growth as Proportion of Mass Versus Yield 22
8. Nutrient and Energy Recommendations 23
BASIC NUTRIENT RELATIONSHIPS 23
ENERGY 23
REQUIREMENTS 24
PROTEIN NEEDS 25
9. Feeding for Yield and Lean Meat Production 26
OPTIMIZING THE NUTRITIONAL APPROACH 26
APPARENT CRUDE PROTEIN MAXIMUM 27
FEEDING REDUCED CRUDE PROTEIN RATIONS 28
SUMMARY BROILER CRUDE PROTEIN NEED 29
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
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10. Vitamin and Trace Elements 32
RECOMMENDED NUTRIENT LEVELS 32
FREE RANGE CHICKEN PRODUCTION 33
YELLOW SKINNED BIRDS 34
11. Feed Manufacture 35
RAW MATERIAL QUALITY 35
FEED HYGIENE 35
FAT QUALITY 36
PROTEIN QUALITY 36
MICRO NUTRIENT AND MEDICINAL INCLUSIONS 12. Feed 12.37
12. Feed Management 38
RAW MATERIALS QUALITY AND TESTING 38
FEED TESTING 38
SAMPLING 38
WHOLE WHEAT FEEDING 38
13. Physiological Stress 40
HEAT STRESS (HS) GENERAL CONCERNS 40
HS / THERMOBALANCE 40
HS / EVAPORATIVE COOLING 41
HS / HEAT PRODUCTION 41
HS / MANAGEMENT OPTIONS 41
HS / WATER MANAGEMENT 42
HS / OTHER CONSIDERATIONS 42
HS / HYGIENE 42
ASCITES 43
OXYGEN AS A NUTRIENT 43
ACTIVITY 44
BASAL METABOLIC RATE 44
TISSUE ACCRETION AND NEEDS 44
EXCEEDING MAINTENANCE
DIETARY SODIUM 45
BIRD ABILITY TO CONSUME OXYGEN 45
OTHER MEASURES 47
Broiler Nutrition Guide
1. Broiler Nutrition
Introduction and Definition of Objectives
Cobb broiler chickens are grown all over the world, under a broad range of agricultural
conditions, to produce numerous products. The agronomic conditions encountered by
producers include a diverse array of environmental, nutritional, mechanical and
immunological combinations. Due to these conditions, unique challenges may arise that
require nutritionist, veterinarians and facility managers working together to provide the
best possible production environment. Birds must be provided adequate housing,
hygiene, management, and nutrition to achieve their genetic potential and/or optimal
profitability. Despite the environmental challenges faced by some, successful broiler
production occurs every day throughout the world.
The purpose of this manual is to provide a guide containing the general specifications as
to the feeding and manufacture of broiler feeds that are applicable to a diverse array global
settings faced by producers. The tables of recommended nutrient levels are intended to
reflect the nutritional requirements of Cobb broilers under the most common as well as
some unique managerial and environmentally challenging production scenarios. The data
herein are directed towards interactivity between nutritional and managerial approaches for
optimizing bird performance. These recommendations are based upon a combination of
our own research, academic publications and practical experience of working with
customers around the world. We provide this guide as a supplement to your own skills in
feed manufacture and broiler management, to work in conjunction with your knowledge and
judgment to attain the best results possible. If the guide raises any questions and/or issues
that you wish to discuss, please contact Technical Services at Cobb-Vantress, Inc.
Broiler Nutrition Guide
BWT (g)
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Birds Age (days posthatch)
Figure 1. A plot of bird live body weight (BWT) vs. day of age illustrates a rapid growth
potential. Though growth appears slower in the early days, a day-old chick has the
potential to more than double its live body weight after just a few days of life. During this
time bird dependency upon its environment is greater than at any other point in the
production cycle.
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Feed Consumption (g)
14 28 42 49 55
Typical Bird Age (days)
70
60
50
40
30
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Feed Consumption (g)
Figure 3. As the bird matures, its rate of daily gain (ADG) rises to a near maximal
level and plateaus. These values are actual daily gain, not merely ending weight per
day of age. Beker & Teeter, OSU
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
Compensatory Gain
When growth is suppressed due to stress, it is possible for at least a partial recovery under
the right conditions. For example, high ambient temperature can subsequently reduce the
performance of poultry and livestock classes. However, if the stressors are alleviated, there
is potential for compensatory gain or catch-up growth. The birds referenced in Figure 4 were
raised under hot conditions from days 19 to 31. Taking a sub-sample of the birds and placing
them in a thermoneutral environment for days 31-49 enabled them to nearly reach the live
weight of their continually thermoneutral housed counterparts and exceed the performance
of the continually heat stressed group.
Days Posthatching
Figure 4. Male broilers reared under heat stress conditions have suppressed growth.
Moving the birds to an acceptable environment enables them to nearly catch the
continually thermoneutral housed birds. Qureshi, Daskarin and Teeter, OSU
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
The maintenance (M), tissues gain (TG) and management (MGT) terms are interactive and
multifaceted; however, this does not preclude their quantitative measure or producer
influence to enhance both the rate and efficiency of production. Terms are written as + to
reflect the fact that each is a variable and should be viewed with the potential to enhance or
hinder performance. Tissue gain is written after maintenance to reflect that maintenance
components will generally be satisfied prior to tissue accretion. As such, an elevation in bird
maintenance needs will divert nutrients away from growth, unless feed intake is also
enhanced. Management is included as a variable. Relative to the current production state
managerial decisions can have a positive or negative influence on both M and TG. As such,
certain aspects of management are quantifiable components that have influence upon both
the extent and efficiency M and TG. The quantitative values expressed in this writing, as in
Figure 5, are written relative to performance in a generally good production environment and
may be viewed as benchmarks of relative value differences between production scenarios.
Each term will be the focus of discussion at various segments throughout this manual.
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
30000
20000
10000
0
0 10000 20000
ME n Consumption (kcal)
Maintenance
A working definition of maintenance is the amount of energy and nutrient required to sustain
an animal with no net gain or loss of body tissues. Housed within the maintenance category
is basal metabolic rate (BMR; energy expended by a broiler at rest and performing no
thermal work due to environment), activity energy expended by the bird to attain sustenance,
inefficiency of consumed nutrient oxidation for satisfying maintenance needs (waste heat
production) and stress defined as any challenge necessitating extra energy expenditure to
maintain homeostasis. The maintenance value is the sum of its components and is thereby
influenced by each contributing factor. On average, in a good production environment,
maintenance is about 36% of MEn consumption.
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
30000
20000
10000
0
0 10000 20000
ME n Consumption (kcal)
Figure 6. The kcal needed to satisfy the maintenance fraction (yellow), lying within
overall kcal of MEn consumption (green), may be partitioned into the major classes of
BMR (black) and kcal expended for activity + waste heat associated with substrate
oxidation (red) expended in satisfying maintenance. Maintenance in a good growing
environment is about 52% BMR and 42% waste heat. This corresponds to 19 and 17 %
of overall MEn consumption, respectfully. Beker and Teeter, OSU
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
3000
2000
1000
0
0 1000 2000 3000
BWT (g)
Figure 7. Energy expended to satisfy bird BMR, increases in a curvilinear fashion with
live bird weight. This energy value may be impacted by numerous factors. Beker and
Teeter, OSU
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
TCHANGE (C)
Figure 8. Heat production (HP, kcal/day/kg) of 5 day old chicks, fed at maintenance,
increases under conditions of changing ambient temperature. Both decreasing and
increasing ambient temperature from TN (TCHANGE=0) results in elevated heat
production. Maintaining the environment at TN will improve FCR as less energy is
diverted from growth. In this example, a 5 C temperature change elevated maintenance
energy expenditure by 30% for the 5 day old chicks. This would divert nearly 11% of
consumed MEn to nonproductive purposes if feed consumption remained constant.
Beker and Teeter, OSU.
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
Though the energy and nutrient content of tissue may be directly measured, the efficiency
of nutrient conversion into tissue varies with the type of tissue being synthesized and the
substrate being employed. For example, energetic efficiency of converting digestible protein,
carbohydrate and lipid into de novo lipid is 45, 78 and 84%, respectively. Managerial
decisions regarding ration composition influence overall efficiency of substrate conversion to
tissue, as do the managerial decisions impacting activity exceeding maintenance. Tissue
gain is the purpose of poultry production; however, it is the component occurring virtually by
default after maintenance activity and waste metabolic heat have been removed.
Management
Managerial influences, under the proposed model, strongly impact both the M and TG
categories. As shown in Figure 5, maintenance energy expenditure accounts for approximately
36% of MEn consumption under good growing conditions. Data displayed in Figure 5 also
suggests that this amount may increase by 30% under conditions of AT stress to divert as
much as 10% energy from TG unless feed intake is elevated. However, if managerial input
through enhanced ventilation and/or evaporative cooling reduces the elevated AT rise then the
loss will be partially ameliorated. Ambient temperature is merely one aspect of the
managerial and maintenance interaction that impacts TG. Other managerial influences
may range from such simple factors as stocking density and feeder space to minimizing
waste heat production via control over dietary nutrient balance and/or lighting program.
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
2000
1000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
(in thousands)
ME n Consumption (kcal)
Figure 9. Approximately 66% of MEn consumption is available for live weight accretion
(black, g). Within the live mass, energy deposition occurs as lean + water (yellow),
protein (green) and lipid (red) components. Metabolizable energy not utilized for
accretion is largely used for maintenance and activity. Beker and Teeter, OSU
Various lighting programs have been applied to laying and breeding poultry to optimize
egg production. More recently such programs have also been applied to broiler rearing.
Light availability in duration and intensity have been observed to impact the efficiency of
production with reports of improved FCR, body weight gain and the lowered incidence of
metabolic disorders. The underlying mode of action may be reduced energy expenditure
for activity. When the lighting is reduced, birds are almost immediately observed to
reduce their activity, consume less oxygen and produce less heat. Conversely, when
birds under a state of BMR (usually measured in the dark), are exposed to light their
oxygen consumption rises by nearly 3% when feed is not present. The data presented in
Figure 10 displays the reduced heat production observed for a flock on a program of 12
hours light followed by 12 hours of dark. These differences were entirely eliminated when
a program of 23 hours of light with 1 hour of dark was utilized.
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The Figure 11 equation may also be rearranged to predict FCR for a field production scenario
under a presumed “near ideal” standardized environment. This will provide an FCR indicator
of combined differences existing between the field feed evaluation matrix and the generalized
stress consequence encountered, versus the standardized production environment.
Generally the predicted standardized FCR value will be lower than the observed field estimate.
For example, under standardized conditions a cumulative FCR of 1.61 was obtained for broilers
reared to 2.36 kg on a diet with 3250 kcal of MEn/kg ration. Conversely, under an applied field
application with the same caloric density and different environment, broilers were observed to
have an FCR of 1.84. If the formulization matrixes are similar then, from a nutritional vantage,
the FCR discrepancy reflects environmental differences. By employing the caloric density
equation from figure 11 the costs may be further quantified as caloric value. In this case an
effective dietary caloric density difference of 362 kcal MEn/kg exists. Further examination may
assist the producer by identifying areas whereby managerial input may enhance the production
environment and pay dividends. By examining performance measures in this manner, decisions
impacting production costs and output benefit, may be evaluated as a nutritional equivalence.
FCR
Body
Weight (g)
Caloric Density
(kcal MEn/kg diet)
Figure 11. Dietary caloric density (kcal MEn/kg diet), under defined conditions, may be
expressed as the combination of body weight (g) and feed conversion, this may be
utilized to build a data base of seasonal, managerial, feed milling and nutritional
influences for decision making. McKinney and Teeter, OSU
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
Nonpathogenic Stress
A nonpathogenic stressor is defined as any environmentally based insult necessitating
physiological response to sustain homeostasis. Such stresses may include ambient
temperature, the gaseous atmosphere (ammonia, relative humidity, oxygen at a minimum),
feed and water availability, noise, lighting and interactions of these with other variables.
Air Quality
Air naturally contains nitrogen (78.1%), oxygen (20.9%), argon (0.93%), carbon dioxide
(0.03%) and various trace elements (0.01%) at sea level. However, in the normal production
processes concentrations of these components vary considerably. Though poultry have the
ability to contend with a broad range of gaseous conditions they are particularly susceptible
to low oxygen content, by-products of heating systems and gaseous production products
originating from the litter. As altitude increases oxygen becomes a limiting nutrient for all
livestock classes. Birds exposed to poor air quality can exhibit reduced performance.
A study exposed day-old chicks to various atmospheric oxygen concentrations (8.60, 12.60,
16.60, 20.60%) for 8 hours simulating inappropriate transport stress. Study results indicated
that short term oxygen deprivation impacts both subsequent growth rate and ascites risk.
Mean growth rate declined incrementally as atmospheric oxygen declined. Contrasting the
two lowest oxygen levels with the two highest resulted in reduced (P=.03) 42 day growth
rates (by 7 points). Ascites incidence significantly rose (P=.055) from 2.48 to 4.5% at 42
days of age.
Ambient Temperature
Since homeothermy is only achieved after chicks generally reach a week of age, stress
consequences for the first week differ from later periods. Any time ambient temperature
exceeds the birds TN zone; heat production, and consequently oxygen consumption, are
elevated. This occurs because the bird must expend energy to generate heat, if cold, or to
dissipate heat if too hot. Young broilers are most susceptible to cold stress as they have a
higher surface area per unit weight. Increased susceptibility to heat stress occurs in older
birds because the surface area available for heat dissipation is reduced. The projected
thermoneutral midpoint temperature, for full fed broilers, declines from a 32.2 C at hatching
to approximately 22 C for a 2.5 Kg bird. These numbers are influenced by a variety of factors
including body composition, altitude, ventilation rate (air velocity), ration consumption and
composition as well as relative humidity.
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
Any time the bird is exposed to ambient temperature deviations from the thermoneutral
zone, management and housing alterations should be considered. Failure to do so will
force the bird to adjust, and such adjustments are usually at the expense of feed
conversion and/or growth rate. Figure 13 illustrates the caloric cost on bird maintenance
needs that can be associated with ambient temperature deviations from the birds zone of
thermoneutrality.
32 TN Temperature
30 Linear (TN Temperature)
28
26
24
22
20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Body Weight (kg)
Figure 12. Estimated thermoneutral ambient temperatures (TN) for birds to 2.5 kg
body weight housed at 40-70% relative humidity under minimized stress conditions.
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
Figure 13.
Maintentance HP @ TN Maintentance HP @ TN
Maintentance HP @ TN + 2.5C Maintentance HP @ TN - 2.5C
Maintentance HP @ TN + 5C Maintentance HP @ TN - 5C
300
200
100
0
7 14 21 35 42 7 14 21 35 42
Age (Days) Age (Days)
Figure 13. Caloric expenditure of male-full fed-broilers and birds maintained at body
weight homeostasis while housed at their projected TN midpoint, note that exposing
birds to either a 2.5 and 5 C AT change, elevates maintenance energy cost, diverting
energy away from production. Beker and Teeter OSU.
Lighting
Lighting programs have been reported to impact growth rate, feed conversion and ascites
susceptibility. When considering a lighting program it is important to provide ample time,
during lighting periods, to enable the flock to react. For example, changing lighting in
increments that are too short would not allow enough time for all birds to consume feed and
water. Lighting impacts feed efficiency, when sufficient time is allowed for adequate feed
consumption, primarily by reducing maintenance energy needs.
Feed Form
Broiler rations must be fortified with the correct amounts of energy and nutrients. The
physical form of the diet, however, must also be considered and should not be viewed disjoint
from nutrient specifications as both impact ration value. Diet physical form can vary from
mash to pelleted or extruded forms. In some cases these products may be mixed with
various amounts of whole grain just prior to feeding. Beneficial aspects of further processing
rations include both managerial and bird benefits. On the management side feed handling
characteristics are improved. On the bird side, improvements in growth rate and/or feed
conversion have been noted. Though many companies further process their feeds, what is
actually delivered to the bird may well be a varying mixture of fines, pellets and/or crumbles.
Only the physical form of the ration placed in front of the bird for consumption will have the
opportunity to impact performance. A decline in the integrity of the processed form
proportion almost always occurs in the handling-transport-storage-delivery processes.
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
If pellet or crumble durability is low, then the amount of fines increases and the further
processing value decreases. Figure 14 displays the potential impact of pellet quality on the
energy sparing value as caloric density. This relationship may be applied to assign value to
further processing itself and / or the overall consequence of feed handling. In those situations
whereby a producer may desire to slow growth by reducing dietary caloric density of the diet,
physical form of the ration offered should also be considered as an option.
Hygiene
Independent of pathological disease, the bird is impacted by its hygienic environment.
Though it would be simpler to view broilers as independently functioning entities, they
compete with numerous microorganisms found within the body and immediate environment.
Specific microbial affects may be either beneficial (vitamin synthesis, toxin destruction etc.)
or detrimental (toxin production, infection, nutrient destruction, immunological based energy
wasting). Birds reared in germ free environments have been reported to have as much as
a 15% overall elevation of energetic efficiency. Reducing the birds’ microbial load has the
potential to enhance growth rate, feed conversion, dressing percentage and elevate breast
yield as well as reduce consequence any physiologic stress where improved energetic
efficiency is a potential therapeutic (heat stress, ascites). Under practical conditions, caloric
value of nonpathogenic hygiene management ranges from 50 to 200 Kcal/kg diet.
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
6. Feed Conversion
Feed conversion, the compilation of feed consumption divided by live bird weight, is an
important aspect of overall performance. For this calculation the initial weight of the chick is
usually ignored, while more precise measures would subtract that mass and report feed per
unit gain (Figure 15). Nonetheless, the feed to body weight ratio is influenced by a plethora
of interacting components. Major determinants of FCR include bird age-body size,
environment, appetite, management and ration form-composition among others (Figure 16).
As birds age their feed conversion ratio increases due to increasing maintenance cost, and
the increasing proportion of gain accrued as lipid. Therefore, younger birds will have a better
FCR than older, and the FCR for “starter, grower and finisher” periods will be significantly
influenced by bird ages. Since FCR is a weight ratio, unadjusted for water content, birds
synthesizing lean will have a better FCR, as lean mass is 75.4% water and lipid mass is just
9%. Birds accruing lipid, however, will still have a positive FCR as it represents mass
accretion for a feed input. Important aspects of ration composition relate to the efficiency of
substrate utilization for tissue synthesis and the composition of tissues being synthesized.
Though feed and energetic efficiency are correlated, the fact that water and mass, in lieu of
energy, are included in the determinations can make the values less meaningful.
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
Figure 15.
Figure 15. Cumulative and Daily The relationship between
FCR Versus MEn Consumption feed conversion, expressed
FCR on a daily basis (yellow)
3.0 and on a cumulative
basis (green) versus
2.8
energy consumption.
2.6 Note as the bird matures
2.4 that the amount of feed
2.2 required to achieve a
2.0 unit of gain increases
1.8 markedly for the daily
1.6 value and in a buffered
fashion for the
1.4 cumulative value. These
1.2 values are interactively
1.0 impacted by managerial
and ration composition
0 10000 20000 decisions. Beker and
ME n Consumption (kcal) Teeter, OSU.
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
Energy
Bird energy needs may be expressed in numerous ways. Historically, the metabolizable
energy (ME) system has been the most widely developed and applied. As a result, bird
nutrient requirements are usually qualified as pertaining to a diet of stated MEn or in a
ratio to MEn. As the ME system does not account for heat losses, any variability in heat
production will result in varying nutrient/energy ratios at the cellular level. Ideally, a
coupling of bird energy expenditure with indispensable requirement would guide the
formulization process. However, with the current system nutritionist are forced to rely on
production system feedback as their benchmark for environmental and managerial
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
Aside from direct energy expenditures, nutrients in excess of that utilized for lean accretion
will be converted to lipid. Substrate use for lipid synthesis varies and can have a direct
impact upon feed conversion, carcass composition, dressing percentage and apparent
breast yield. For example, estimates suggest that it will take 3.1 g dietary protein, 2.3 g
dietary carbohydrate and 1.2 g dietary lipid to synthesize just 1 gram of body fat. This makes
the pattern of dispensable nutrients used as energy sources have a significant influence
upon final carcass composition and feed conversion.
Requirements
Though nutrient requirements are traditionally expressed in phases, this is more a matter of
milling and feed handling constraints than of truly segmented nutrient needs. For example,
the protein requirement for a ration containing 3,200 kcal MEn/kg, is 23% for a 1-21 day old
chick, 20% for 21-42 days and 18% for 42 to 56 days (NRC, 1994). Bird nutrient needs do
not change abruptly on these specified days, but rather they change continuously over time.
Therefore, the time frame can have a significant influence on the estimated requirement. As
many companies feed at periods differing from classical recommendations, alternative
expressions of requirements are needed. However, cautions are warranted: if producers
initially feed exactly at the bird’s requirement, before long they are feeding above the bird’s
need and expensive nutrients are wasted. Conversely, if birds are fed below their nutrient
requirement till they “grow into” the ration, then rations are deficient for a period of time
(Figure 17) and performance can wane. In either case, neither feed nor energetic efficiency
is optimized.
Theoretical Nutrient
Broiler Age
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
Protein Needs
Considerable information exists regarding protein requirements. Data suggests that once
the dietary protein requirement-amino acid needs are reached, that minimal additional
enhancement in carcass protein occurs with further fortification. In addition, it is observed
that a reduction in dietary protein (within reason and with indispensable amino acids
maintained) has minimal impact on overall growth and final carcass protein yield. Exceptions
to these general tendencies include the subtle enhancement of breast yield with fortification
of some indispensable amino acids and the enhancement of bird appetite and with subtle
dietary protein reduction. Therein lies a portion of the art of nutrition, with the greater
appetite one may attain a larger bird with a subtle protein deficiency. Conversely, fortification
of some amino acids in a ration that has satisfied the “protein requirement” may result in
greater yield of desired parts. For companies simply monitoring live body weight, the
motivation to feed reduced protein diets is clear. However, specific amino acid fortification
within an adequate protein level may potentially result in better breast yield. Indeed, the
company feeding the reduced protein level, depending upon feed intake, may get as much
breast (on gram basis), but at a reduced percentage as the birds contain more carcass fat.
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
For optimization of lean mass, all indispensable as well dispensable nutrients plus energy
must be at the accretion location simultaneously. Any deficiency of nutrients required in the
synthesis-maintenance of lean tissues will result in a reduced final lean mass. This also
dictates a reduced proportion of lean mass if lipid synthesis is maintained or elevated.
Fortunately, the combined ration-bird metabolic characteristic does not necessitate that we
continuously monitor all 40+ nutrients. In most situations it is sufficient to identify the 3-4 rate
limiting nutrients in each nutrient category for monitoring. Insuring that the rate limiting
nutrients are contained along with sufficient energy supply will create the opportunity for
efficient lean accretion.
Formulating diets to supply specified levels of the most common rate limiting amino acids
(lysine, methionine, threonine, arginine, tryptophan), within a fixed level of dietary crude
protein, is usually sufficient to maintain generalized lean accretion. The critical amino acids
are determined by feed ingredient composition and amino acid bioavailability. In typical
grain-soybean based diets the bird may, assuming adequacy of the housing environment,
deposit lean tissue in response to increasing the levels of lysine. Others have suggested
that an increase in the levels of sulphur amino acids (methionine and cystine) is correlated
to a reduction in fat deposition. However, these are not disjoint processes and should not be
viewed as such. In order to obtain maximum meat yield with minimum carcass fat levels both
lysine and sulphur amino acid levels must be simultaneously optimized. Other essential
amino acids, along with the substrates utilized for lipogenesis (protein, lipid, carbohydrate,
dispensable amino acid) also play a role in this highly interactive area. It is important to
remember that, although fat can be regarded as a waste product, a minimum level of carcass
fat is required to prevent the meat becoming dry and tasteless when cooked.
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
EQUATION 1: Predictive equation for cumulative protein intake based upon day of age.
Limitations of this approach are failure of the production environment to produce a growth
curve match to the one utilized. In most feeding situations this would result in an
overestimation of protein need.
Highest crude protein need with satisfactory indispensable amino acids
= 1.97747 + 1.60348*day + 0.55084*day2 - 2.51236*10-3*day3;
As an example, the total protein consumption for 15 and 35 day old birds
would be about 141 and 625 grams, respectively.
One may also utilize this equation to estimate the quantity of protein needed for any
production interval as follows: Where B (dayb) is the day farthest along the growth curve
and A (daya) is the earliest day. Similar to equation 1, accuracy here is determined by the
production growth curve matching the standard. With this assumption, the approach
enables determination of maximal protein need with respect to the desired time interval
(Equation 2).
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EQUATION 3: Alternatively, bird protein need may also be related to body weight.
The advantage here is that the necessity for the production growth curve to match the
standard is reduced.
Prediction of cumulative protein consumption need (g) based on body weight (g).
= -15.8598 + 0.28746*BWT + 3.9642*10-5*BWT2 - 1.736*10-9*BWT3
As an example, the total protein consumed for birds weighing between 508 or 814
grams would be 140 or 626 grams, respectively.
EQUATION 4: Alternatively, bird protein need may also be determined for a body weight
differential. In the following example, the first body weight is bwta and the second bwtb.
Similar to the cumulative equation above, the advantage for the technique is the reduced
necessity for the production and standard growth curves to match.
Dbwta = Initial body weight (g)
Dbwtb = Final body weight (g)
Protein consumption for body weight interval.
= (-15.8598 + 0.28746*Dbwtb + 3.9642*10-5*Dbwtb2 - 1.736*10-9*Dbwtb3)
-(-15.8598 + 0.28746*Dbwta + 3.9642*10-5*Dbwtb2 - 1.736*10-9*Dbwta3)
As an example, the total protein consumed for birds weighing between 508 and 1814
grams would be 486 grams.
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
One may also utilize this equation to estimate the quantity of protein needed for any
production interval as follows: Where B (dayb) is the day farthest along the growth curve
and A (daya) is the earliest day. Similar to equation 5, accuracy is determined by the
production growth curve matching the standard. With this assumption, the approach enables
determination of maximal protein need with respect to the desired time interval (Equation 6).
EQUATION 7: Alternatively, reduced bird protein need may also be related to body weight.
The advantage here is that the necessity for the production growth curve to match the
standard is reduced.
Reduced cumulative protein consumption need based on body weight (g)
= -16.73268 + 0.25588*BWT + 4.001*10-5*BWT2 -1.21809*10-9*BWT3
As an example, the total protein consumed for birds weighing 508 or 814 grams would be
about 123 or 572 grams, respectively.
EQUATION 8: Alternatively, reduced bird protein need may also be determined for a body
weight differential. In the following example, the first body weight is bwta and the second bwtb.
Similar to the cumulative equation above, the advantage for the technique is the reduced
necessity for the production and standard growth curves to match.
Dbwta = Initial body weight (g)
Dbwtb = Final body weight (g)
Protein consumption for body weight interval
=(-16.73268 + 0.25588*Dbwtb + 4.001*10-5*Dbwtb2 -1.21809*10-9*Dbwtb3
-(-16.73268 + 0.25588*Dbwta + 4.001*10-5*Dbwta2 -1.21809*10-9*Dbwta3)
As an example, the total protein consumed for birds weighing between 508 and 1814
grams would be about 449 grams.
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Companies must use sound decision making in the utilization of recommended dietary
guidelines, as ultimately the optimal ration form will be determined by the environment-
managerial decision-nutrition interface. The calorific value of such managerial effects as
lighting program, feed form, hygiene level, ambient temperature and feedstuff matrix
assignment will each impact the final result. Indeed, the quantitative value placed upon
feedstuff energy value is also a variable that makes recommendations qualitative. The MEn
value for a given feedstuff can range considerably from one source to another. Despite these
constraints, however, coupling the principles expressed in these writings with end product
(bird carcass composition) feedback should provide the poultry producer with sufficient
information to make sound decisions and enable successful poultry performance within the
regional constraints encountered.
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1
Successful production has been observed with these values, however numerous factors
such as feed processing, bird stress, feedstuffs used among others impact the required level.
Optimum profitability should also be considered.
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\ Feed Hygiene
Feed may be contaminated by a number of disease organisms, but those of primary
concern are Salmonella and Campylobacter because of their importance to human
health concerns. It is widely recognized that feed plays an important role in the spread
of such organisms throughout the chicken industry. To achieve the objective of
minimally contaminated broiler feed, a number of important steps must be taken. All
incoming raw materials should be selected on the basis of routine bacteriological
monitoring. This involves regular sampling based on the volume and frequency with
which each material is purchased. Storage warehouses and dock discharge facilities
should be periodically inspected to ensure that adequate attention is paid to vermin
control. The construction and management of the feed mill should be designed to
ensure that there is no possibility of cross contamination from untreated materials.
Feed processing lines should be discrete and the flow of product should always run to
minimize final product contamination. The mill facilities must be clean. Subjecting the
mixed raw materials to high temperatures by using specialized milling equipment such
as expanders, extruders and conditioners contributes significantly to a reduction in
bacterial contamination. The degree of bacterial kill is dependent on a combination of
temperature, moisture and time. Total bacterial elimination is achievable, but it may be
at the expense of important macro and micro nutrient availability. Recontamination of
heat treated feed must be prevented. The critical mill area is post pelleting. The hot
pellets should be cooled as rapidly as possible by blowing only clean, filtered, cold air
through the stream of product. Condensation in this area should be eliminated, since
it provides an environment that will allow bacteria to survive and multiply. Organic
acids and for maldehyde can be used to help control the growth of bacteria and
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molds in both raw materials and finished feed. They are an important tool in the mill hygiene
programs, but the critical areas for bacteria contamination control are heating and cooling.
Feed delivery vehicles are also an important link in the chain of bio-security. It is an
advantage to use vehicles specifically dedicated to the delivery of feed, rather than general-
purpose haulers or farm vehicles. All vehicles must be regularly and thoroughly cleaned,
both inside and outside, including in particular the discharge system.
Fat Quality
Neo-natal chicks are not capable of digesting saturated fats properly, so the fat in the starter
feed should be largely unsaturated (e.g., soybean oil). The ability of chickens to metabolize
fats improves as they develop, so the grower and finisher diets can be formulated to include
increasing amounts of saturated fat (e.g., palm oil, and tallow).
Fats, particularly long chain unsaturated fats, are damaged by heating and oxidation. Fat
blends often include waste products from commercial frying operations and the by-products
from chemical processes, such as distillation residues from oil refining. Fats such as these
will reduce growth rate and may have an adverse effect on the health of the birds as well as
their carcass quality. The use of anti-oxidants in the fat and feed can have an important
mitigating effect on fat quality.
Protein Quality
Soybean meal is the major protein source used in broiler feed and it can, and does vary
considerably in nutrient content. The causes of this variation are diverse: the soybean crop
nutrient profile may vary in quality from year to year and area to area; products with the same
nominal specification will vary in their nutrient content depending on the manufacturing
conditions used to cook the meal and extract the oil. Cooking is an especially important
process because it is necessary to heat the beans to destroy an anti-nutritive factor called
Trypsin Inhibitor (TI). TI lowers the digestibility of the total protein fraction of the feed and
impairs the growth rate of the chickens. Under cooking leads to poor protein digestion due
to the TI, whereas over cooking causes both the protein and fat in the meal to be extensively
denatured and potentially reduces their digestibility. Regular monitoring of either TI or urease
activity is very important. Samples of every new intake of each soybean product should be
subject to colorimetric comparison with previous batches and random samples should be
sent for chemical analysis. Acceptable urease values, using the colorimetric test, fall
between 0.05-0.20.
Fishmeal can be included in broiler starter diets to provide a good source of digestible amino
acids. Fishmeal also contributes Omega-3 PUFAs, organic selenium and other valuable
nutrients, but as with soybean meal, either over or under cooking will reduce its nutritional
value. Regular quality control is very important. The levels of available lysine, salt, minerals
and oil stability should all be monitored.
Cereals not only contribute a large proportion of the energy to a broiler ration, but they
also provide approximately 30% of the crude protein. A change in the level of crude protein
in feed wheat from 11.5% to 10.5% can reduce the crude protein level in the finished feed
by up to 2-3% points. The quality of cereals clearly needs to be regularly monitored. In the
case of feed wheat, starch and available starch levels will change with conditions during
growing and harvest. Although not directly correlated to energy or protein availability, the
higher levels of non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) often found in wheat indicate that the
energy values may be reduced. The use of xylanase enzymes to break down the non-starch
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molecules is now common practice in all major wheat using countries. Periodic assessment
of the nutritional value of wheat should be undertaken, as wheat variety, harvest conditions
and xylanase enzyme activity can vary, leading to differences in available levels of protein
and energy.
Micro-nutrient and Medicinal Inclusions
The importance of controlling and monitoring the use of feed additives, particularly vitamins
and anticoccidials is all too frequently understated. Vitamins and trace elements are involved
in all the metabolic processes of the body and, while deficiency symptoms are rarely seen
today, sub-optimal performance caused by a marginal deficiency in just one of these
nutrients is not uncommon. Anticoccidials and other medicinal products must be
incorporated in feed at the correct levels to ensure their efficacy.
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such as cocciostats are fed at the correct levels. The successful use of controlled feeding
techniques requires a significant management input. The birds should be regularly weighed
and adjustments to the feeding program may be necessary. Feeding to meet daily nutrient
requirements can be a useful technique and has been shown to have benefits, but it relies
on the nutrient levels in the finished feed meeting their expected values.
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Heavier birds generally have more of a problem with heat stress since they have less surface
area for heat dissipation per unit weight. In temperate regions hot weather may cause heat
stress (acute heat exposure) when a period of high temperatures coincides with a flock
nearing slaughter age. These conditions are sporadic and unpredictable, making
therapeutics difficult. In hot regions of the world the problem is more of chronic exposure to
high mean diurnal temperature. In such situations the birds will somewhat adapt to the high
temperature in which they are kept, though performance is generally less.
Studies indicate that birds exposed to heat stress retain the potential for enhanced growth
rate. If feed intake is elevated during the stress bout, or once the ambient temperature has
fallen, bird growth rate will increase. Several management options are available to elevate
feed consumption during heat stress, but to do so without impacting heat dissipation
capacity, potentially elevates mortality. This is important because it demonstrates that
successful manipulation of energy consumption will improve growth rate, but it also
demonstrates that increased energy consumption can be devastating during survival limiting
heat stress. Producers need to decide how much emphasis to place on growth during the
stress event. Allowing, or encouraging growth to slow during the highest temperature period
of the day may be desirable if survivability becomes an issue. During the cooler portions of
the day compensatory growth may help to offset losses.
HS/Thermobalance:
Physiologically, the heat stress dilemma is an issue of energy balance. Thermobalance is a
composite of heat production and its dissipation. Of the two heat dissipation routes
(evaporative and nonevaporative), the potential for nonevaporative heat loss is reduced as
ambient temperature increases above TN. Consequently, for the heat stressed broiler to
avoid overheating it must increasingly rely on respiration rate mediated evaporative cooling
and/or reduced feed consumption. Nonevaporative cooling is the most energetically efficient
means to dissipate heat and its optimization will enhance feed conversion efficiency. By
optimizing ventilation the poultry manager can enhance nonevaporative cooling and thereby
aid heat dissipation most efficiently. In summer stress periods ventilation is critical during
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the day, however, it also has a marked impact during the evening hours by removing waste
heat as quickly as possible and ensuring maximal time for compensatory growth.
HS/Evaporative Cooling:
Evaporative cooling usually becomes the principle heat dissipation route during heat stress.
Though the bird can dramatically increase evaporative cooling by increasing respiration rate,
the efficiency of this process is variable. As the relative humidity rises, both the extent and
ease with which the bird can support evaporative cooling declines. These relationships must
be considered for optimal management of ventilation and in-house evaporative coolers such
as foggers and cooling cells.
HS/Heat Production:
Broiler heat production averages approximately 45% of MEn consumption. Ambient
temperatures at, or below, the thermoneutral zone, have no adverse heat production
consequence other than wasted nutrients. Under heat stress conditions however, bird heat
production has consequences. Birds lower heat production by consuming less feed and
slowing growth rate. Feed conversion efficiency also deteriorates as feed consumption
declines. Management decisions must keep these factors in mind.
HS/Management Options:
In order to achieve consistent performance it is important to maintain feed consumption and
nutrient intake. The importance of adequate poultry housing can not be overemphasized
and should be the focal point of an effective heat stress management program. The greatest
proportion of economic loss associated with heat stress is usually the result of lowered feed
intake, though mortality can be excessive. While the heat stressed bird increases its growth
rate as feed consumption increases, and the potential for a near normal growth rate is still
present, elevating feed consumption without impacting heat dissipation capacity can
increase mortality. Caution must therefore be utilized in management decisions directed
towards manipulating feed and energy intake, and in fact, they should be coupled with heat
dissipation management.
Several options exist for enhancing feed and energy consumption of heat stressed broilers.
It is important to utilize lighting to the fullest extent possible without limiting time for
consumption due to lighting program. Continuous lighting or 23 hours light:1 dark should be
considered. Anything that draws the birds’ attention to the feed, such as running automatic
feeders or physically shaking feeders will elevate consumption. Feed forms as pelleted and
extruded products enhance the feed density and generally elicit a greater consumption
during heat stress. Other avenues of enhancing density, such as improved feed digestibility
and increasing nutrient density help to maintain consumption. Fat addition to the diet
increases nutrient density and enhances growth under high ambient temperature conditions.
Using more fat not only improves palatability but reduces heat production per calorie
consumed. However, with fat and with the other techniques discussed, it is critical to realize
that if successful, heat production will likely become elevated. This is also true for the
inclusion of fat as it tends to enhance consumption more than it’s heat increment reduction.
Dietary caloric value may also be increased with pellet quality.
In hot conditions it may be beneficial to feed the birds only during the coolest part of the day
and night. Removing feed and fasting chicks reduces the birds’ heat load. Under acute high
ambient temperature-relative humidity stress this management tool can increase survival.
However, at least 3 hours is required for the feed to clear the digestive tract and reduce
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metabolism so one must plan ahead as removing feed after the onset of heat stress is of little
value. Fasting birds for 3 hours prior to heat stress initiation, coupled with a 6 hour heat
stress period, can increases the time without feed to 9 hours. This does reduce time
available for consumption and fasting, during cool time periods will reduce growth rate.
Consequently, this management avenue should be used only when mortality risk is high. It
is important to provide enough feeder space so that birds do not become overexcited and
bruise or scratch themselves during the early re-feeding phase. When properly applied,
evidence suggests that compensatory gain during the evening hours will offset reduced
gains during the day.
HS/Water Management:
Water consumption by the heat stressed bird is a critical consideration as over 80% of their
heat production is dissipated via evaporative cooling. A supply of cool water must be
available at all times. Reducing water temperature from 30.0°C to 12.4°C has been shown
to lower body temperature by as much as 0.5°C with minimal impact upon water intake. If
the litter can tolerate added urinary output, encouraging water consumption by adding
NaHCO3, NaCl or KCl may have benefits as evaporative heat dissipation extent and
calories dissipated per breath are correlated with water intake. Birds in positive water
balance are better able to maintain body temperature homeostasis and performance.
HS/Other Considerations:
Since feed consumption declines with heat stress, nutrient fortification should be considered.
The levels of supplemental vitamins and minerals in the feed should be adjusted to offset the
reduction in feed intake. Withdrawing the finisher period vitamin premix from heat stressed
broilers results in a greater performance reduction than withdrawing such premixes when
birds are housed within a thermoneutral environment.
Lowering the dietary protein, while maintaining essential amino acid fortification levels,
has been observed to improve bird growth rate and survivability. Indeed, such an
approach is one of the few observed to simultaneously improve both growth rate and
survivability. The crude protein levels must be adequate for anticipated growth, but they
should not be increased in line with the calculated decline in feed intake. Instead, the birds’
requirements for the essential amino acids lysine, methionine, arginine and threonine
should be met by forcing increased levels of synthetic amino acids into the feed
formulation. This will have the effect of satisfying the birds’ requirement for these nutrients
without increasing their heat burden.
HS/Hygiene:
Optimizing the bird’s hygienic environment has the potential to improve heat stress
performance since the gastrointestinal tract represents a significant source of metabolic
heat. Lowered heat production, with reduced microbial loads, occurs due to reduced
gastrointestinal tract mass and reduced immune challenge. Such broilers have been
observed to produce less heat (~7%; Table 1) and consume less oxygen per calorie of
metabolizable energy consumed.
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Ascites
Ascites is commonly known to poultry producers as waterbelly, altitude disease or avian
edema. Ascites is the result of a physiologic syndrome of multiple causes and generally
attributable to insufficient oxygen consumption. Historically, ascites was viewed as being a
high altitude disease with its occurrence being more common in countries where regions
containing poultry production exceeded 1,500m. However, combinations of disease, toxins
and/or insufficient management and/or nutrition can either interfere with chick ability to
consume oxygen or elevate its requirement to the point that ascites can occur at virtually all
altitudes. When oxygen consumption falls below metabolic need, compensatory physiologic-
cardiovascular alterations are made. These changes, however, are the triggers that send
this syndrome down a progressive path. Proper nutritional and environmental management
can do much to avoid the ascites issue.
Oxygen as a Nutrient:
All tissues are supported by an obligatory oxygen driven metabolism. Oxygen is required for
growth, maintenance and activity. Figure 18 partitions the cumulative oxygen consumption
profile for a growing broiler, under reasonable growing conditions, into its gross components.
The production of a 3.4 Kg broiler necessitates that the bird consume approximately 2,500
liters of oxygen during the production period. Of this 19% is utilized to support BMR, 36%
for a combined BMR, activity and waste energy associated with converting consumed MEn
into maintenance needs.
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An evaluation of the 3 distinguishable expenditures for oxygen merit discussion as they offer
potential interaction via management and nutrition:
Activity:
The activity components associated with maintenance, tissue gain and social behavior
warrant discussion. Ideally, for optimized utilization efficiency of both energy and oxygen, the
bird would have enough activity to acquire needed sustenance followed by reduced
locomotion expenditures. From a managerial perspective, proper administration of lighting
cycles and intensity has the potential to lower bird activity. Reduced day length and/or
lighting intensity is well documented to lower bird activity (see previous discussion). Fasted
birds housed under conditions of BMR elevate their oxygen consumption when the lights
come on. Reducing lighting intervals within the day provides broiler producers’ a means of
limiting activity that results in energy + oxygen expenditure. Consequently, it is of little
surprise that lighting program application enhances FCR and lowers mortality incidence.
Ration composition also influences bird oxygen need, especially when environmental
conditions fail to provide a reasonable growing condition. The combination of poor housing
environment and excess dietary crude protein can elevate ascites incidence. When dietary
protein is utilized as a source of energy, exceeding needs for lean tissue accretion, energetic
efficiency is lowered and more oxygen consumption is needed. As shown in Table 7, the
influence of caloric density and calorie protein ratio, though not as significant as altitude,
contribute to worsening the cardiovascular challenge. This is evidenced by blood hematocrit,
right ventricular mass and ascites heart ratio. Such occurrence is the result of the metabolic
efficiency for converting dietary protein MEn into lipid being just 45%. This is in contrast to
higher efficiencies for carbohydrate(78%) and lipid (84%). An additional consideration for
lipid is that it generally places the bird in a higher growth plane, further exacerbating oxygen
need. Lipid consumption will thereby not only elevate carcass fat but also oxygen need.
Therefore, a reasonable ration to minimize ascites is similar to one for minimizing mortality
due to heat stress perturbation, where added heat production via lipid and protein
exacerbate environmental consequence. Ultimately, the producer will need to decide
the ration composition warranted to cope with the specific environmental risk level
(determined by altitude, AT, brooder efficiency, ventilation, environmental toxins, etc).
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O2 (%)
17 38.25a 0.42a 23.14a
20.6 32.62b 0.40b 21.56b
CD (kcal/kg)
2880
3200 35.25 0.40b 22.47
35.62 0.42a 22.23
CPR
113
140 36.26a 0.42a 22.81a
34.61b 0.40b 21.88b
Table 7. Altitude, caloric density (CD) and calorie-protein ratio (CPR) effects on
hematocrit (HCT), right ventricular mass (RV) and ascites heart ratio (AHR=RV/total
heart weight (g)/100) of chicks reared to 2 weeks of age. Vanhooser, Swartzlander,
Beker & Teeter, OSU
Dietary Sodium
Excessive consumption of sodium, via the diet or from drinking water, places additional
stress upon the cardiovascular system. The combination of sodium source and
bioavailability can make sodium delivery to the bird uncertain. Often times, nutritionist
attempt to error on the side of feeding excessive sodium amounts so as to avoid the
possibility of deficiency. In the case of ascites, this approach can needlessly elevate ascites
risk. The bottom line is that serum sodium should not be allowed to exceed 155 meq. In
situations where ascites is a significant concern, attaining serum samples and testing for
serum sodium can provide information to see if Na is being over fortified.
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Broiler Nutrition Guide
ascites development. Other criteria such as ascites score, right ventricular mass and ascites
heart ratio do not appear to change as early as hematocrit (Table 8). Nonetheless, diligence
is recommended for oxygen concentrations falling below ~19.4%. This corresponds to an
altitude of ~610 m or 2,000 feet. It is important to keep in mind that other environmental
factors such as ammonia, ambient temperature, stocking density, poor ration balance and
insufficient ventilation rate would be expected to impact such results. Unfortunately, these
factors result in physiologic adjustments occurring at lower altitudes.
HCT (%) 48.92 ± 0.46a 42.24 ± 0.46b 35.77 ± 0.57c 32.60 ± 0.40d 31.88 ± 0.98d
Ascore 3.00 ± 0.39a 2.23 ± 0.19b 0.67 ± 0.14c 0.38 ± 0.14c 0.25 ± 0.14c
RV (g) 0.79 ± 0.04a 0.82 ± 0.04a 0.46 ± 0.03b 0.38 ± 0.03b 0.34 ± 0.08b
AHR 52.36 ± 2.00a 43.37 ± 2.00b 24.00 ± 1.74c 22.91 ± 1.74c 20.99 ± 4.25c
a-d
Means in a row with unlike superscript differ
Hematocrit (HCT), ascites score (Ascore), right ventricular (RV) mass and ascites heart
ratio (AHR=RV/total heart weight (g)/100) of broiler chicks reared to 14 days of age at
varying atmospheric oxygen concentration. Vanhooser, Beker & Teeter, OSU
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Guide
Other Measures:
Once practical environmental and dietary management of ascites has been addressed, as
with heat stress survivability, one may choose to therapeutically slow growth. Slowing
growth reduces the overall need for birds to consume oxygen, thereby enabling the
growth-maintenance-bird ability to consume oxygen balance to normalize. Growth may be
slowed via utilization of feed restriction, reduced caloric density rations, mash diets and
lighting program.
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Notes
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Cobb-Vantress Inc.
PO Box 1030, Siloam Springs, Arkansas 72761
Tel: +1 479 524 3166 Fax: +1 479 524 3043
Email: info@cobb-vantress.com
Cobb Europe
Midden Engweg 13, 3882 TS Putten, The Netherlands
Tel: +31 341 36 08 80 Fax: +31 341 36 05 24
Email: info@cobb-europe.com
Website: www.cobb-vantress.com
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