Lapping bores
By GEOMETER
A
s a process following machin-
ing, lapping is employed to
remove tool marks, correct
slight taper or ovality in the work,
bring it to required size, and
provide a smooth accurate surface.
Given reasonable care, success is
assured, for the process is a
leisurely one and-in common with
grinding-has the advantage of
being able to deal with hard
materials.
A common application of lapping is
to finish the cylinder bores of small
engines; and for such a purpose for
a one-off amateur job, absolute size
of the bore is of less importance than
its smoothness and geometrical ac-
curacy-for on the latter the success
of the model will depend,. in the good
steam or gas sealing achieved by the
piston.
A great variety of materials can be
used for laps. But for’workshop use
for small and medium sized bores,
materials like aluminium alloy, brass,
copper and mild steel are probably
best. Lead and white metal can be
used in special cases, generally when
bores are large. With these some
care is required to avoid burring or
other damage.
As with materials, so with abrasives ;
a considerable choice exists for special
purposes, though the general run of
work can be performed with ordinary
fine valve grinding (lapping) paste as
used for car a ndmotor-cycle engine
valves. This leaves a smooth, matt,
unpolished surface,. which can be
further smoothed with a liquid metal
polish-particularly the sludge to be
found in the bottom of the tin.
Parffin oil or thin lubricating oil
, may be used to incite the abrasive to
cut, and may be used after lapping to
help work out particles of the abrasive.
The same lap may be used for the
whole process, but it should be used
until the abrasive has ceased to cut,
then scrubbed and wiped thoroughly
before using for polishing otherwise
particles of abrasive may scratch the
surface-and abrasive left in the sur-
face of the component will naturally
result in wear.
Either the lap or the component
may be rotated when lapping in the
lathe. A part which is already securely
6 FEBRUARY 1958
blank bore the reduced end can be
omitted A4.
To avoid bell-mouthing in a bore
Bl, extra material can be left to
machine off afterwards B2. Pushing
through or jamming in a bore can
be avoided on a lap with a shoulder B3.
Abrasive may be held in a lap in a
spiral groove, hacksaw grooves or
drill dimples Cl, 2 and 3 ; or abrasive
may be supplied in use If the lap C4
has a central hole filled with grease,
a feed screw at the handle end, and
at the working end radial holes filled
with abrasive.
Again, a soft lap may be impreg-
nated with abrasive by distributing
this over a hard plate, and rolling
the lap in it with downward pressure
Dl. To facilitate applying sufficient
pressure, a roller can be used with the
lap, with a plate on both D2. q
0 B
0 C
set up can be lapped holding the lap
by hand, especially where such part
may be a bush difficult to hold other-
wise. The lap may then be somewhat
shorter than when it is itself run in the
lathe and the part applied to it. 4
In all cases, protection should be
afforded the lathe by covering the bed
m
and slides with newspapers or cloth,
and the chuck should be plugged with
rag from the back. Speed of rotation
should be moderate, and the lap
moved to and fro in the bore, or the
part slid forwards and backwards on
the lap.
For small laps adjustment can be
made through a wedge in a slit Al,
or by a conically-headed screw, along
with a slit A2. To work through a
bore, the end of a lap can be re-
duced as a guide, and the shank for
clearance A3, while to work in a
165 MODEL ENGINEER

ADJUSTING
0
F all mechanical production
processes, lapping is per-
haps the most fundamental
and therefore the most important.
Nowadays, of course, with modern
equipment, m u c h c a n b e d o n e
without it, so that it may be only
occasionally that we are thrown
back on lapping, for some special
or unusual job.
How were the first surface plates
produced ? They were made, if not
by scraping, then by lapping-match-
ing three surfaces (in pairs) through a
fine abrasive. And how will lenses
be produced in the future ? The
method will be by lapping-because
of the geometrical precision required.
Geometrical precision is what lap-
ping essentially provides, though it
has great merits, too, in its slowness
and its capacity to deal with the
hardest materials. Because of the
slowness, it is difficult suddenly to
make a bad mistake in lapping, as
can easily be made in turning. Frac-
tions of a thou can be removed
without difficulty-in making gauges,
for example; and components and
tools that have been hardened and
cannot be touched by other means
(except grinding) can still be lapped.
For model engineers, the process is
particularly advantageous for finishing
the bores of cylinders when they have
been bored as accurately as possible
on the lathe. It is true that they could
be reamed. But large reamers are
27 APRIL 1961
LAPPING
bores and shafts
expensive tools; whereas lapping, at
very small cost, can make a better
job than the best of reamers.
A great many materials can be used
for laps, and all the softer metals
and alloys found in a workshop.
Depending on the type of lap, lead,
copper, brass, aluminium alloy, cast
iron and mild steel are all smtable.
For most purposes, we need look no
further than the last four.
Similarly, there is a large variety
of special lapping compounds, but
two are sufficient for general use; the
fine grade compound used by garages
for grinding in (lapping) valves, and
the sludge to be found in the bottom
of Brasso tins. The one can be used
for stock removal, the other for
finishing.
For lapping a bore on the lathe, it
is usually better to run the lap in the
chuck, A, and hold the cylinder than
I thin oil help to speed and regulate
0 D
to run it in the chuck and hold the
lap. With the lap chucked, abrasive
is kept away from the chuck, and it is
possible to plug the chuck with rag
for additional security. If possible,
this should be done when, for any
reason, the set-up must be reversed
and a cylinder lapped in the chuck.
by GEOMETER
While the cylinder is still gripped,
the chuck can be removed and plugged
from the back. The bed of the lathe
should always be well covered with
several sheets of newspaper.
The lap should be turned almost
to size, and then smoothed by filing
and tapered at the end for the cylinder
to push on. With abrasive smeared on
the lap, it may be too large, so that
further filing is necessary to get the
initial fit. Back gear may be used for
a start, followed by normal drive
as the bore enlarges. Paraffin and
cutting; and final smoothing can be
done with thin oil.
Since a lap wears in use, adjustment
is usually necessary. On a cylinder
lap, B, it can be done by slitting with
a hacksaw and fitting two screws, one
Y to expand the lap, the other Z to
keep it parallel. A short lap for a
blind bore, C, can be adjusted by a
single screw. Such a lap, used in a
drilling machine, is extremely useful
for sizing the inner end of a bore which
cannot be reached by a reamer owing
to the taper.
Other laps can be made and
adjusted as at D. A short bush (1)
can be slit and used on a rod; a small
lap can be drilled, slit, and then
expanded by a taper pin (2), or slit
and expanded by a flat wedge (3).
A shaft lap can be made by drilling
and reaming a single piece of flat
stock, E, and drilling and slitting for
a bolt. For a crankpin, a lap can be
made by bolting up two pieces of
flat stock and drilling and reaming, F.
A very simple type consists of a
half bush on a bar. El
MODEL ENGINEER
 Lapping shafts
% - - -3
--

1 WORKSHOP i#
E HINTS AND
By GEOMETER

T
/ HE lapping of shafts can be to and fro diagonal markings are
produced A2, initially showing up
Both should be drilled smoothly or
bored to a rather free fit on the shaft,
performed in a similar man-
ner to the lapping of bores. faults in the finish, until the surface to leave clearance for the abrasive.
They achieve the same ends: tne has been worked down. The bush type can be used with pliers,
Using emerycloth by hand, care is and to prevent spinning through the
correction of slight over-all in- necessary to avoid rounding the end lap gripping, a screwed-in peg may be
accuracies, improvement of surface of a shaft A3, and this is true also of necessary to abut to the jaws of the
I finish and the attainment of size the lapping process. A solution when pliers. The clamp-type lap can be
within very small limits. If any- difficulties are anticipated and a used by hand and adjusted as re-
thing, the process is simpler than square end is important, is to leave quired.
in bores, for the whole of a shaft a small portion there by slightly For shafts of substantial size a lap
may be freely observed, while recessing the shaft A4, this surplus Cl can be made from two pieces of
checking along its length to a high being removed afterwards. wood joined by a leather hinge and
degree of accuracy demands no
more than an ordinary micrometer.
As turned on a lathe, most shafts
can be relied upon to exhibit faults
against a high standard of criticism.
Unless the rate of feed has been slow,
there will almost certainly be visible
a fine spiral on the surface. If the
tool tip has been rounded and
broadened to eliminate this, there may
well be small chatter marks; or,
alternatively, there may be smooth
0 C

areas separated by shallow rings or

slightly tom sections.
This is, perhaps, not surprising,
since many factors influence the result
and tax the ingenuity and skill of
the machinist-for example, the con-
struction and condition of the lathe,
tool angles, shape and setting, rate
of feed, material being worked,
coolant or lubricant used.
Given, however, that a reasonable
standard of turning is possible,
finishing can be a separate process.
Finishing machining while the shaft
is still oversize, it can be smoothed
and reduced to dimension by suitably
filing-though this demands some
care. A smooth finish calls for a
Swiss tile, used with even strokes,
and kept clean to avoid tearing the
surface.
For a smooth finish, emerycloth
may be used in varying grades down A turned-down shaft between flanges bored to take strips of lead-held in
to very fine-and in a worn condition A5 may cause difficulty with a mach- place by a small nail or screw. Grip-
for polishing. Used by hand, pressed ined finish as it requires two cuts ping the lap to the shaft shapes it
to the work with the fingers, emery- and right-and-left-hand tools. Thus fairly well, and it may then be fed
cloth tends to follow the contour of a separate finishing operation is then with abrasive. An adaptation C2 can
the work and polish without correcting virtually essential, and when per- be made to take a bush lap Bl with
inaccuracies. Best results are obtained formed by lappmg the lap must a bolt instead of a leather hinge.
using a strip of emerycloth with a necessarily be a split or half type. A half-lap for use on a shaft A5 can
file as a rigid backing. Materials for laps for shafts can be half of a bush mounted by a
Keeping the emerycloth in one be the same as those for bores, and countersunk screw on a bar for use,
spot, or moving slowly, the result is the shape either as a split bush B1 or as at D, two-handed-an alternative
a ringed finish AI ; but moving rapidly a type of clamp for adjustment B2. to the type at Cl.
13 FEBRUARY 1958 197 MODEL ENGINEER
 LAPPING ENDS
.I
and
0
A
EDGES
B
ECAUSE of its ability to reduce
surfaces by extremely small
dimensions, even when they
are hard, and at the same time to
bring them to a high standard
of accuracy, lapping is an indis-
pensable process in various forms
of tool and gauge making. Con-
trary to what might at first be
thought, many of the principles
of this are straightforward, and
the methods and equipment of a
very simple kind and universally
applicable.
The basic principle of lapping is,
perhaps, the rubbing or mating
together of two surfaces with abrasive
between them--or one of which is
impregnated with abrasive to reduce
the other. There is no “ machine
control ” over the surfaces other than
simple pressure, and the sliding or
other movements required for abra-
‘tion. This is all right where the
surface of the work is large, since it
can exercise control over the lap; but
if the surface is small it naturally
follows there is no proper guide or
control, and unless some means are
provided, lapping is impracticable.
In the case of a round component
whose length is to be reduced while
keeping the ends square--of which
an end gauge is the best example-
the problem of lap control and
guidance is always solved through a
guide with a flat end machined at the
same setting as the bore. Thus, as at
A, the guide of any suitable material
is drilled and bored in the chuck for
the gauge to slide through; then the
end is faced at the same setting.
The components or gauge-it may
be a piece of silver-steel rod hardened
at the ends-is pushed through and
held with the guide to the lap, a
piece of flat cast iron or aluminium
supplied with abrasive. By simple
hand work but taking one’s time, the
gauge can thus be lapped to length,
ends square with the axis.
In this manner, should it be desired,
20 FEBRUARY 1958 227
By GEOMETER
numbers of gauges can be produced
to check lengths or diameters (from
calliper settings) during machining on
lathe!, or to adjust height gauges for
marking off or inspection work on
surface plates. With a micrometer
of limited dimension, gauges can be
made, as at B, so that length X plus
length Y will give length Z to reason-
able accuracy. Alternatively, with
capacity to measure length Z, and
making two gauges exactly alike, X
and Y, any error in Z can be halved.
When the component or gauge is a
piece of thin plate whose width is to
be reduced by lapping the edge, a
problem similar to that with the end
gauge arises in connection with lap
control and guidance. The solution
is to clamp a piece of material which
is square, or has a square side, to
the side of the plate. The narrow
edge of the plate is thus made merely
an extension of the larger surface
over which the lap works, and from
which it gets its guidance.
Alternatively, a piece of square
material may be clamped each side of
the plate; and by assembling on a
surface plate, as at C, with a piece of
suitable shimstock under the square
material, the plate edge can be left
projecting for more speedy reduction
--that is when there is a dimension of,
say, more than 0.001 in. to remove.
Flat ends on a gauge prevent its
use in a bore Dl; the difficulty is
overcome through rounded ends D2.
In preparation for lapping, the ends
can be turned and filed to radius,
using a simple drilled plate gauge.
Then to produce a suitable lap, a
steel ball E1 is pressed or hammered
into blocks of lead E2. With the
gauge running in the chuck, the lap
supplied with abrasive is wobbled
about on the end E3.
Following ordinary machining, a
facing fault Fl on a component can
often be corrected on a lapping
principle-first rubbing on a smooth
file, then on a sheet of emerycloth on
a surface plate or by lapping on a
block F2. q
MODEL ENGINEER
*
LAPPING FLAT
SURFACES
By. Geometer
I
N any workshop where metal-
work of a light, precise nature
is undertaken, metal blocks
with flat surfaces can be put to
various uses-independent of the
surface plate ordinarily used for
marking-off, setting-up and testing.
Flat parallel blocks may be used
a s gauges or for packing w h e n
setting up on the lathe, and for
protecting machined faces on com-
ponents when these have to be
gripped in what could otherwise
be a damaging manner.
Blocks with flat surfaces may also
be used as supports (or types of small
anvil) when centre-punching parts-
to prevent distortion, tipping or the
undersurfaces being marked. Fed
with abrasive, flat-surface blocks are
normally used as laps for precise
surfacing-or if covered with emery-
cloth can be used in a similar manner
27 FEBRUARY 1958
for work of a slightly lower standard
following maching operations.
In this connection can be mentioned
as examples the port face and slide
valve of a steam engine. Both these
faces may be machined in the lathe,
and the tool marks left will be circles
and arcs of circles. Depending on the
lathe and machining, the surfaces may
not be completely flat or smooth.
But, if following machining, the
surfaces are rubbed on an emery-
surfaced block, the machining imper-
fections are removed, and good results
ensue with no steam leakage. Of
course, greater precision would follow
from lapping, but in most cases this
is n o t necessary.
Such an emerycloth-covered block
can be as at A, with a flat smooth
top surface, and a plate each side for
securing the cloth and preventing it
rucking in use. The corners over
which the cloth passes should be
slightly rounded to help in drawing it
0 D
” 1’
261
tight when fitting. This is done by
fixing one end of it first. holding the
block in the vice and pulling at the
other end on the projecting piece X,
while fixing with the plate and nuts.
Following this the surplus can be cut
off if the block is to stand flat on the
bench.
Flat-surfaced blocks for use on the
bench can be produced by machining
as accurately as possible in the lathe,
following, if necessary, by careful
cross-filing to remove the larger
machining marks, and then rubbing
on a sheet of emerycloth on the
surface plate.
The greatest precision arrives, how-
ever, from a lapping process in which
three blocks are worked on until
uniformly flat. Two blocks will not
necessarily ensure precision as they
might incorporate complementary
errors, as at Bl, where one surface is
convex, the other concave. But a
third block, whether its surface is
concave or convex, must inevitably be
at variance with one of the other two
when matched, as at B2 or B3. Hence
a set of three blocks can be trued and
kept true on one another.
If you possess flat-surfaced blocks,
lapping operations can often be
effectively performed on tools and
simple gauges. An example of this
work is maintaining the scriber jaw
of a vernier height gauge in good
condition for marking off. This jaw,
as at C, is a piece of hardened steel
clamped on the gauge jaw so that its
flat underside is a prolongation of that
jaw, and can be located reading from
the vernier scale of the gauge.
The end of the scriber jaw is angled
to a sharp edge-and this is the edge
to grind and lap to restore sharpness
otherwise an error will be introduced.
Setting up is done by clamping the
scriber jaw to the square side of a
block, and when lapping only the
angled end of the jaw, not the block,
is rubbed on the abrasive.
Lapping a flat surface in the lathe
can be done with a revolving lap, as
at D. The work can be clamped to
the faceplate, and the round lap,
which can be of cast iron or aluminium
alloy, is pushed up by a point from
the toolslide and traversed over the
rotating work by cross feed.
MODEL ENGINEER
 LAPPING
EXTERNAL THREADS
By GEOMETER
G
IVEN acquaintance with the
principles involved, the lap-
ping of external threads of
the V-type involves little more
difficulty than the lapping of con-
ventional bores, shafts, ends, edges
and flat surfaces.
The lapping may be local to correct
errors where there is a tight place on
the thread, or it may be performed
over the entire length to smooth the
whole profile and bed it to a nut for
this to work easily and without shake.
Faults in any of the elements of the
thread can be dealt with separately
as required-on the top radius, the
root radius, or the flanks.
In general, the lapping process can
be applied where a shortish thread is
just too tight for the mating part or
where a long thread is not uniform
SOLDERED
6 MARCH 1958
throughout; where no die is available
for correction or where time and
trouble would be required to set up
the part accurately in a lathe; where
use of a die or lathe would not be
appropriate because the thread is
hard; and particularly where a thread
needs to be well finished such as if it
is on the feedscrew of a simple
measuring device or tool.
When a tap corresponding to the
pitch and diameter of the thread is
available, it can be employed for a
lap of the split-nut variety to correct
and smooth the whole of a thread
profile. A piece of brass or aluminium
alloy is drilled and tapped, drilled
for a bolt, then split, as at A.
Initially, if too tight, it can be
opened with a wedge; or alternatively,
it can be made longer, provided with
a second bolt, and cut right through
0 D
0 E
293
to clamp on-which, incidentally’
simplifies cleaning. Use of the lap
can be by hand or it can be held by
hand while the part with the thread
is rotated in the lathe-when it is
advantageous if the lathe can be
reversed. Cleaned of abrasive and
applied dry, the lap finally serves as
a very good gauge for checking uni-
formity of the thread, end to end.
A lap more speedy to use on work
in the lathe can be made from a steel
or brass nut with a good thread shape.
A piece of material is soldered on for
a handle, then the nut is cut through
to leave rather less than half attached,
as at B. This lap can be dropped on
the thread where required, lifted off,
applied again-and a “ tight ” area
lapped down with the minimum of
effort. It can also be started off the
extreme running-on end of the thread
for this to be lapped equally with
portions further back.
A lap of the same type, but engaging
only a single “ groove ” of the thread,
can be made from flat strip material
filed approximately to thread angle
and pressed on with both hands after
the manner of a file, edgewise, and in
line with the lead of the thread, as at
C. Abrasive can be applied with a
brush to the thread-and for the lap
to run off the end of a right-hand one,
the lathe must rotate backwards.
The same type of lap can be used
for correcting the flanks of threads
without touching the root radius,
merely by ensuring the bottom is
flattened, as at Dl, where contact is
on the sloping sides.
On the same principle, using a
strip of suitable thickness material
rounded at the edge, and bolted
between two thicker pieces to provide
stability, as at D2, the root radius
only of a thread can be lapped, as
at D3.
Another method of doing this is
to draw a wire of appropriate dia-
meter into the abrasive-brushed thread,
as at E, the wire preferably having a
handle each end for manipulation
without danger to fingers.
For correcting the top diameter
radius of a thread, laps can be blocks
of lead into which the thread has been
carefully forced in a vice, as at F. q
MODEL ENGINEER

N the case of contours, which
may be of regular or irregular
outline, laps may be required
to perform two main functions-
to correct errors in parts of the
profile left from previous machining
or grinding, or to smooth and
polish the whole profile when it’ is
sufficiently exact, but lacking in
finish.
In the case of correction of local
errors, it is essential for laps to be in
" rigid ” material and accurately made,
to contact the work only at the
required places; since if there is all-
over contact, correction of the original
errors will inevitably introduce others.
Such laps may be of brass, cast iron,
aluminium alloy, etc.
In the opposite case, where all-
over smoothing and polishing is the
object, it is convenient for laps to be
in material which is more or less
readily deformable to the profile
under pressure, or light working. For
laps of this type, lead, wood, leather,
felt, etc., may be used, the choice
13 MA R CH 1958
LAPPING
CONTOURS
By GEOMETER
being governed largely by the size of
the component and profile.
If component and profile are small,
it may be convenient to use lead, as
the component can be squeezed
between blocks to impart the profile;
and if the work is larger, the same
general method can be used with wood
roughly shaped; and when size would
involve too much work, means can be
devised of holding felt-more readily
deformable still.
An instance of an important profile
in error is a thread chaser whose
thread form is shallow. A chaser is,
of course, often used to clean up and
finish threads screwcut in the lathe at
diameters for which dies are not
practicable. With use, as at A, t h e
proflle commonly reduces in depth to
X, whereas correct depth is Y. As a
RACE l
MEMBER
@EE 325
//
LAP
result, the top diameter of a thread is
reduced in pushing the chaser down to
the core diameter at which a nut will
run on. The thread has a shallow,
dumpy appearance, and use of a
micrometer shows its top diameter to
be undersize-a cause for complaint
if the work is to be inspected.
Other than a correct chaser, the
remedy is to lap the faulty one using
a piece of rod on which the thread
profile has been correctly screwcut or
produced with a die. Application of
the chaser can be from a rest as in
normal use, or set up like a tool.
Initially lapping with the chaser at
the centre line leaves a small area
of negative rake Z; and as this could
impede use, a further operation should
follow with the chaser above centre or
tilted at an angle, for positive rake Zl .
In sizes about 1 in. dia., laps should
run at about 350 r.p.m., turning down
on to the chaser in the normal direction
for work, while abrasive compound is
applied with a small brush. At the
finish, the top surface of the lap can
be lightly ground to sharpen the form
at the edges.
Circular grooves, like the race-ways ,
of bearings, may be smoothed and
polished with laps of lead, wood and
felt. For a thrust race member, a
wood lap can be in a holder, as at B,
machined to a simple gauge and used
in a pillar drill, the race member(s)
being located on a spigot on the
machine table. The same effect is
obtained in a lathe, running a lap in
the chuck and holding the race
member to it, as at C.
A piece of tube faced and chamfered
(or rod drilled up) may be used as a
lap for a spherical component, and
with wear will automatically accom-
modate itself to the work.
A fixed felt lap for a revolving
contour, as at D, can rest firmly,
tacked in ‘places, in the step of a
holder of two pieces of wood, roughly
shaped to contour; and for a contour
as in the cavity of a die or mould, a
lap in metal or wood must be suitably
shaped and revolved.
MODEL ENGINEER
q
 I
Lapping tapers
and seatings
B By Geometer
ECAUSE of the manner in which
tapered and conical surfaces
fit together, lapping to im-
prove the finish or fitting is often
not so straightforward as for other
parts.
When two tapers or cones, external
and internal, of corresponding angles
are brought together, the two com-
ponents are inevitably in a close
endwise relationship. Thus; any
relative movement is constrained to
the oscillating or rotational variety-
and when lapping it is virtually the
same, with the result that a definite
ring pattern is set up on the surfaces,
quite different from the multi-direc-
function of bringing the surfaces into
ultimate gas-tight contact.
Using a fine grade abrasive bearing
lightly on the valves while employing
an oscillating action and frequently
changing position, the ring pattern
can be kept to a mmimum. But should
considerable lappmg be necessary,
definite rings and deformation of the
surfaces will occur-which must be
regarded as very undesirable.
The same is true-only the defects
may be more apparent-in the case
of taper plug cocks, on which ringing
will permit seepage of thin fluids, or
dribbling under pressure, to say
nothing of, the unpleasant effort
required to operate them. In the case
of components like hubs and axle
shafts, ringing reduces the surface
area in contact and the ability to
For support at the open end, a plug
is soldered in, so material must be
steel or brass. Springiness, good
“ feel ” and small endwise movements
are gained during use.
Lapped in, a poppet valve and
seating should be as at D, angles in
agreement. Both surfaces should have
a great matt appearance, and that
on the valve should be low down or
central. A screwdriver or suction cup
can be used for the work with a light
spring under the valve head.
Typical valve and seating defects
appear at E and F. With a faulty

CD A
transmit torque-with or without keys.
Ideally, of course, tapers should be
machined as accurately as possible,
to avoid lapping in many instances,
and to keep it to the minimum in
others. But not infrequently, a
CLEAR TOUCHING situation which is not ideal arises,
as at A, where fitting tapers are of
different angles.
Only if the error in angle is quite
small can lapping correct it, using a
fine grade abrasive, smearing it
initially in the touching area (finally
all over) and employing throughout
an oscillating movement. With any
considerable error, which, in practice,
can be quite small, the effect in lapping
is often for the abrasive to be speedily
crushed in the touching area while
TOUCHING CLEAR remaining active in the clear areas-
the reverse from what is required.
IG And the harder the parts are pushed
together, the more likely this is.
In such an instance, if the shaft

0 C
cannot be adjusted (by careful filing
in a lathe, for example) a relieved lap
is helpful in the early stages, as at B.
It can be turned in the lathe and the
touching area kept adjusted by filing
0 F

according to how lapping proceeds at

tional or haphazard pattern produced
in other varieties of lapping.
In some instances, this ring pattern
need not be condemned, though it
is never desirable. For components
like poppet valves with true faces
mating to true seatings, lapping
.. (ordinarily called grinding-m) has the
,
20 MARCH 19.58
the clear area. Lapping should be
by hand with the lathe stopped, and
the fitting shaft frequently tried, and
then itself finally lapped in.
When exceptional finish is necessary
-and to avoid jamming a taper lap
-a split type can be employed, as at
C. This is turned with a reduced
diameter each end, and has a hole
drilled with crosswise saw-cuts made
full length, which leave four “ blades.”
353
seating El the valve nevertheless
shows a continuous seating. A good
seating E2 is marked all round by a
faulty valve, while a faulty seating
and faulty valve may be misleadingly
well marked.
A seating may be pocketed Fl or a
valve acquire an overlap F2 from use
or excessive lapping. q
MODEL ENGINEER

I
 Left-Fig. I . A pro-
tected lapping plate

Below-Fig. 2. A simple
type of circular l a p

ASICALLY, lapping consists of applying a

suitable abrasive-impregnated tool to the
work in such a manner as to cut a true and uni-
form surface.
Laps can be made of such materials as lead,
copper, soft brass and cast-iron, and are usually
lubricated by paraffin oil, extra light machine
oil or soda water. Commonly used compounds
are emery flour and jewellers’ rouge.
The type of lap to be used largely depends
on the condition of the surface of the work.
If a rough ground finish is left, then the normal
procedure is to start with a lap of soft material
such as copper ; this is fast cutting and quickly
removes the ridges and high spots. For finishing,
the lap should be of cast-iron, and with the use of
a fine compound correctly applied, a very high
finish can be attained.

Lapping Flat Surfaces

For small work such as that with which the
average model engineer is concerned, a lapping
plate of 6 in. by 8 in. should be ample. This is
made as shown in Fig. 1. One side is planed
or surface-ground, and has grooves cut into it
which run at 90 deg. to each other. These
grooves accelerate the cutting and allow more
pressure to be applied to the work. The opposite
side is for fine finishing and is scraped flat with a
scraper finely sharpened on an oil stone.

Loading the Plate
The lapping plate is loaded by covering a
brass or copper rod with a mixture of light oil
and the selected emery flour, and rolling this
carefully over the lapping surface. If a cloth
damped with paraffin is gently rubbed over the
plate, bright spots will probably show up; if
so, the loading process should be repeated until
the plate is of a uniform grey colour. A light
smear of oil is next applied to the plate and the
work is rubbed lightly and slowly, and with a
circular motion. The pressure and speed can
be increased if no sticking or skidding is felt.
After a time, more lubricant will be required, and
649
THE MODEL ENGINEER
it will be readily apparent when the compound
ceases to cut, as bright spots will appear on the
plate. Before reloading, wipe off the old com-
pound with a paraffin cloth, as it is false
economy to apply fresh compound on top
of o!d. The usual reminder should come here
-be careful where you put the cleaning cloth,
as emery can be an enemy if it gets into the
wrong places.
OCTOBER 26, 1950
but one which takes longer to make, is shown in
Fig. 3, adjustment being effected by sliding the
cylinder lap up or down the taper mandrel.
Wear on the lap depends on the material and
the way the abrasive is distributed. Obviously a
soft lap will wear down quicker than a hard one,
although even wear on the lap will have no ill
effects on the work. S
I would suggest in conclusion, that before using

ADJUSTING NUTS LAP TAPER MANDREL S

ler
be

be
un
ou
COI
of

th;
lot
SECTION AA. ou
A -4
WlI
Fig. 3. An adjustable lap sq’
sin
ler
i_ sui
tm
The lapping plate produces high precision a new lap, the size be stamped on it in a suitable +rj
work, and with care its life will be long. So position, and that safe storage can be arranged
COI
when not in use, it should be cleaned and pro- simply by making a wooden stand similar to that
tected from damage. shown in Fig. 4. tht
the
Circular Lapping As
thr
This is usually done
on a lathe or drilling ral
ter
machine. For external of
work, there is on the cai
market a very good ad-
justable lap, but for those up
WI
who prefer to make their
own tools a simple lap tre
can be made by drilling
and boring a suitable
piece of material and
slitting as shown in the
sketch Fig. 2. This lap
is held in a lathe driving
dog, a dimple being pro-
vided to suit the screw,
which is used for adjust-
ment.
Internal Laps
Internal laps can be
made to a variety of
designs, the simplest
type being a length of
turned bar with a slit in
one end to cause the two
halves to spring out-
wards. This type of lap
needs some degree of
skill in use and is not Fig. 4. Suggested stand for laps
recommended for ama-
teurs. A better type,
650