Katerina Ierodiakonou

Panteio
University
of Athens

The Greek Concept oI Sympatheraand lts

ByzantineAppropriationin MichaelPsellos

The anthropologists of the nineteenthcentury who tried to give a

theoreticalaccountof magic arguedthat the common basisof the
differentvariantsof magicalbeliefsand ritesarethe so-called"laws
of sympathy":like produceslike; objectsthat havebeenin contact,
but since ceasedto be so. continue to act on each other at a
distancel a part is to the whole as an image is to the represenied
object. Although modem anthropologistsare sometimesskeptical
as to whether these really are the necessaryand sufficient criteria
for identifying all magical actions,it is generallyagreedthat the
belief in one versionor anotherof the laws of sympathyis as old as
human society. For it seemsthat humans have always had the
tendencyto assumemysteriousrelationsbetweenall beingswhich
inhabit the earth and the heavens.And it is exactly the belief in
thesesympatheticrelationsthat has providedpeoplefrom different
cultures,throughoutthe centuries,with the principlesfor their more
or less sophisticated theorieson astrology,alchemy,necromancy,
 'fhc Creek Conceptof .Syr?drr.,r-,a
and Its Byzrntinc 99
98 Katcn ir lcrodiakonou
Appnrpriationin MichaelPsellos

want to focus on how one panicularByzantinephilosopherof the

dream interpretation,augury, geomancy,and generally with the
eleventhcentury,Michael Psellos,usedthe notionof svmpatheiun
foundationsfor the developmcnl()f the oecultsciences.'
his attemptto accountfor the use and abuseof the occult sciences.
So Psellosis discussedhere as a representative of the Byzantine
The Byzantines,too, talkedabout sympathclicrelationswhen they
appropriationof the Greek concept of swputheio. It should be
discussedthe many branchesof the occult sciencespraciisedin
noted,though, that it is a separateissue to what degreehe was
Byzantium.They had inheritedthe idea liom the ancientGreeks,
influencedin this matterby earlierChristianrvriters,as well as the
and they used,in invoking it, the very term the ancientGreekshad
(ouFrc0tLcr).But was their understanding of the extent to which his interpretationhad a signilicant theoretical
used'.syntputheiu
the same as that of the ancients? This influenceon Byzantinethoughtafterhim.
Greekconceptof sympatheiu
is the topic of my paper.I want to examine,in particular'how the
kt us begin by examiningthe ancientbackgroundagainstwhich
Byzantine philosophersunderstandsynryatheiawhen they, too,
the Byzantinestalk about sympatheiu.In ancient Creek synrpatheict
refer to it in order to explain the nragicalbeliefsand practicesof
hasdifferenr,thoughobviouslyinterrelated, meanings:it is usedin
their contemporaries. I want to find out whethertheir use of this
or lvhelher medical writings, as for example in the Hippocraticcorpus (De
notion is thc same as that of their paganpredeccssors,
light of the diff'erent alirn.23.l\, to refer to the fact that when a pan of the humanbody
they had to adapt and to modify it in the
somehowsuffersanotherpart may be alfected.toot2it is also used
circumstances of their Christian culture. For Byzantine
to talk about the fact that people may sharethe feelingsof therr
philosopherswere in a difficult position.On the one hand' both
fellow-citizens,for instance in Aristotle's Polirics (1340a13);l
Churchand Stateauthoritiesrejectedmagic as a vile remnantof the
finally, it is used to refer to the supposedphenomenonthat all
pegantradition.On the other hand, magical beliefs and practices
beingson earthand in the heavensare inextricablylinked together.
still had a stronghold on all partsof the ByzantinepoPulation,both
That is to say, the ancientnotion of sympatheiaindicatesa close
the uneducatedand lower strataof society as wcll as personsof
connectionbetweenthingswhich are partsof somekind of a whole,
considerable education and high social status. Byzantine
eitherat the samelevel,as differentpartsof the body are in relation
philosopherswere meant. as philosophers,to develop theories
of the naturalorder of things; to the body as a whole,or at differentlevels,as the body and the
providing a rational understanding
soul are in relationto the living beingas a whole.Thus symputheru
they were, hence.supposedto somehowmake senseof the occult
could refer to the close connectionbetweendifferent partsof the
sciences,too, without violating Christian dogma. But could the
same body as a whole, but also to the close connectionbetween
Greek concept of sympatheia, or the particular way they
differenthumanbeingsas partsof mankindas a whole,or the close
appropriated it, give them sometheoreticalbackingin dealingwith
connectionbetweeneverythingin the world as a pan of the world
the dangerousissueof the occult sciences?
as a whole.or betweenthe body of the world and its soul as parlsof
the world. And it is this latteruse of the notion of sympatheie,lhe
The history of the use of the concept of s1-mputheiaby Christian
cosmic sympathein,which I want to mainly concentrateon in what
authorsstretchesback to the secondcentury A. D., almost to the
follows, since this is the most relevantto the explanationof the
beginningof Christianity.Early ChristianFatherslike, for instance'
occultsciences.
Athcnagoras,Clementof Alexandria,St Basil, Gregoryof Nyssa
and John Chrysostomall use the notion of s)'mPath?idiand we also
find it later in the writings, for instance,of John of Damascus'
Photios,Michael Psellosand NikephorosCregoras.In this paperI
I Hippocrates
Iattributed tol, I)e ulinrenn, ed. E. Littri. Oeuvres tnmplites
d' H ipyr rate, lX (P aris, | 116| I repr. Amsterdam, | 962). 9E- I 20.
'J. G. Frarer.7he GoldenBolrh, I (London, l9l3),51ff: M Mauss.A Gottal 'A.istotlc, P(rliri.a, cd. W. D. Ross,Arrrtot,/is polilica (Oxfbrd, 1957:repr. 1964).
Theor,-oJMa\iit, tr. R. Brain (Londonand Bosk , l9?2) llff.
t00 Katcrina lcrodiakonou
The notion of cosmic sympatheia was introduced by the Stoic
philosophersin the Hellenistic period.a Some scholars have
attributedthe full developmentof this notion to Posidoniusat the
end of the secondand the b€ginningof the first century8.C..5but
there is no doubt that even the early Stoics, and in panicular
Chrysippus,believedin a closeaffinity amongthe differentpansof
the universe:and for this closeaffinity they most probablyusedthe
tej;m sympatheia,oas well as the nouns synecheia (ouv6x€io) or
sy noche (<tts,toyil),7 symphyia (ou !r$ufa),8 sy mmone 1ouptrrovf),'
sympnoia (oi-rtrurvolc),ro syntrsnia (ouvrovicr)," and the
conesponding verbs and adjectives.According to the Stoics, there
is nothing particularly mysterious aboutsympatheia,and especially
about the relation between the things in the heavensand those on
eanh. ln Stoic physics the whole cosmos is presentedas a perfect
living body whoseparts,though,are imperfect.insofaras they are
not self-sufficientand autonomouslfor they cannot function by
themselvesand always dependon their being parts of this whole
and its other parts. What holds the system togetheris a certain
internaltension,a r6vog, createdin the universeby the so-called
pneuma (nttxf:'pa),rrwhich consistsof a mixture of fire and air and
permeatesthe entire world as its soul, sustainingeverything.Thus
the Stoicsthoughtof the world as a unified living organism,a ioon
(lrirov):rrjust as pneumapermeatesa humanbody and makesit as
o For an earfier use of the notion of sympatheb. cl Theophrastus.I)e.axrrr
pkntarum, ed. F. rNimmet, Theophntsti Eresii olera quae supersurttomnia (Pans,
1886irepr. 19fl), 2.19.4.
' K. Reinhardt, Kosmos und Sympathie: neue Unterstchungen iiber Pos.idonns
(Munich, 1926).
6 Stoicorunt vetetum
lragnenta, ed. H. von Amim (Leipzig, l9O3), ll. nos. 441,
4 '1 3 . 4 15, 532,5 34 . 5 46 , 91 2; Pos ir lonius F26
, Thc ileFF2lT E - K ; F 2 9 l
Theiler=F123E-K: F3?9Theiler=F106E-K; F400fTheiler.
1 Skticorum veterun
Jragmenta, ed. von Amirn, tl, nos. 389, 416. 439, 411, 447,
. 1 4 9 , 473,546.5 50 ,7 16 ,91L
3Suticorum velerunt
fragmrrt r, ed. von Amim, ll, 546, 550. 9l l.
' Stoicorun velerumfragrnentu.eA.von Amim. Il, 44l, 473. 550.
tuSkticorun veterum
Jragmerta. ed. von Amim. Il, -543,912.
" SttticorunrveterumJroSrrdntd,ed. von Amim, 11.543.
'1 E.g. Suticorumveterumfragnenta. ed. von Amim, II. 389, 416, 439. 441, 447.
546, 7f6, 9lf . On the different kinds of Jrv€il(r, cf. also Suticorun veu'rnnt
fragmenta, ed. von Amim, ll, 458, 459.
" Pfutarch, Conjugulitt lraecepta, ed. F. C. Babbitt, Phtarch's moralia. ll
(Cambridge, Mass., l92ll: repr. 1962), 34; Sertus Empiricus, Adversur
The Greek Conceptof Slrnparlr?laand Its Byzantine t 0l
Apprcpriation in Michael Psellos
its soul a living and organic whole, with each singlepart grown
togetherin closeconnectionwith all the rest,in the sameway the
whofe world is permeatedand given life by pneumu: this pneuma
the Stoicsidentifiedwith God who, in creatingthe world. becomes
its soul.
Hence, since everything in the world is permeatedby pneunn,
accordingto the Stoic view it makesperf'ectsenseto say that, if
somethingchangesin (hecosmicorder in one pan of the world, thrs
may resultin a changeof somethingelse in someotherpart of the
world, thoughthe two pansdo not seem,ar leastat first sight,to be
directly linked. And this holds, of course,also in the caseof the
relation between the heavens and the eanhl for the tensional
connectioncreatedby lhe p eunn among all partsof the universe
implies, in panicular,the sympatheticrelation betweenheavenly
and tenestrial things and, as a result, the connectionbetween
celestialand terrestrialphenomena. So, we may apply the analogy
of the living organismeven turther:just as a well-trainedmedical
doctor can diagnosediseasesaffecting bodily organsby studying
their symptomsrevealedin other parts of the body, it should be
possiblefor someonewho has acquiredthe relevantknowledgeto
interpretsigns or symptomsfbund in any one part of the world in
order to have a betterunderstanding of other pansof the universe.
This is, in fact,how the Stoicsjustifieddivinationand,in particular,
astrology.rrSince the eventsof a person'slife are connectecl, as a
result of the cosmic sltmputheh,with astral movement,a certain
constellationof the starscan indicatea certainevent in a person's
life. Or in the caseof dreams.the Stoicsclaimedthat while we are
dreamingthe human soul, which is in a sympatheticrelation to
m th?nrutid), cd. J. Mau and H. Mutschmimn,S(-rfi Fhtpirici opera, U-lll, 2d ed.
(Leipzig, l9 14 6 | ), 9.78-85.On the Stoic applicarionof rhe bioloSicolconceptof
ptrcunt.t to cosmology. cf. M. l-apidge, 'Stoic cosmology'. in J. Ris(. ed., Iie
.Srnics(Bcrkefcy, 1978). l6l-85. csp. 176; D. E. Hahm, Ire OriginsoI Sk'ic
Cormrrlosr(Ohio. 1977),163.
l{ On astmf<rgy.cf. A.-J. Festugiarc.1lr Ri|lkuion
l' Hernls Ttir dfr.rri,.I (Pafis,
1944),csp.89-l0l; A. A. Long, 'Aslrology: argumcnlspro and contra'. in J.
Barnes.J. Brunschwig, M. Burnyeat. M. Schofield. cds.. Sr-ienteand Spcculation.
Sudies in Hellenisti( Thenry anl Prauice (Cambridgc. 1982). 165,92; N. Denyer.
'The casc against divination: an cxamin{tion of Cicero's De (livi,|(niop',
PrcLeeditg! oI the Cambridge Phiktlogicol ,Sr(t?/! 3 I ( 1985). l- 10.
 Kalerina Ierodiakonou
t02
God, is to someextentliberatedfrom bodily restraintsand thus able
to sharesomethingof the foreknowledgeof that divinity which ts
rts source.
To sum up, what is imponantto keep in mind in connectionwith
the Stoicnotionof svnrpatheiais the fact that,sincethe entireworld
is permeatedby pneuma,everythingin it standsin a sympathetic
relation with everything else. This meansthat, accordingto the
Stoics,cosmicsympatheiais in principlea symmetricalrelation,in
the sensethata changein any pan of the universe'on eanh or in the
heavens,may resultin a changein any otherpart of the universe'on
earthor in the heavens.A changein the hcavensmay affect, or be a
sign of, what happenson earth.but also the other way round' what
happenson earth may affecl, or be a sign of, what happensin the
neavens.
The Platonistswere influenced by the Stoic notion of cosmic
sympatheiato such an extentthat it is only Possibleto fully grasp
their use of the notion againstits Stoic background.They also'
following in this Plato'sTimaeus,stressed the lact that the universe
is a unified whole,and they alsoassumedthatevenpansof it which
are separated by a large distance may affect each other in a
conspicuousway, while the interveningparts seem unaffected'
Plotinus, for instance,like Plato and the Stoics, thought of the
world as a living organism.r5Nevertheless'the Platonists'
understanding of cosmicsymparheiusignificantlydiffers in certain
respects from that of the Stoics. For their supreme God is
transcendent and not parl of the world, the way the Stoic God is
immanent.tn addition.on their view there is a sharp distinction
between the material and the immaterial world' of which the
material world is a living image. Hence, the Platonistsstrongly
opposedthe Stoics' doctrineof a direct comminglingof the Divine
with matter; they claimed that the Divine rather employs in the
formation of the world certain incorporealpowers.
operu.3 vols
" Pfotinus.Enn?ades.ed. P. Henry and H -R. Schwyzet.Pktini
(l.eiden. l95l-73), 4.4.3213?t 4.5 ?-3. For a discussionof Plotinus' use of lhe
notion of x)'rrpdtr.i(r. cf. C. M. Curtler. 'Symputhy in Plotinus'. Inte Itiotttl
Phiktsophitttl Quarteltr' 24 (1984). 395-406
The Greek Concepl of.t:''r,pdlr.i4 and lts Byzantine 103
Apprupriation in Michael Psellos
As a point of depanurethe Platonistsusedthe passagefrom Plalo's
Tinneus (4la-b) conceming the harmonious order that the
Demiurgeimposeson matter,which as suchmovesinegularly.God
createsthe world as a highly rational mat€rialliving being in the
image of the Divine Intellect,which is an intelligible immaterial
living being. The materialworld is held together,and its order is
maintained,by a rational soul of its own, the world soul, which,
illuminatedby the Divine Intellect,guidesthe life of the sensible
world. The world soul as a wholeoperatesin eachand everypart of
the body of the world, and in this senseextendsthroughoutthe
world; but, being immaterial,it is not dispersedthroughoutthe
body of the world, as the Stoic pneuma is. Such a Platonistic
reinterpretationof the Stoic doctrine of cosmic sympatheia is first
found in the writings of Philo, in which the organizationof the
world is said to be due to God throughGod's L,ogosor Reason.'n
Later. Plotinusand the Neoplatonistsintroducea rvhole seriesof
divine beingsanddaemons,who form the link betweenGod and the
sensibleworldl they hold everythingtogetherin its ordainedorder
andthey havethe powerto careand watchover the eternalcohesion
of reality,includingthe v isiblecosmos.'7
That is to say, the Platonistsmodified the notion of cosmtc
sympatheieby placing the sourceof all power that permeatesthe
universein the immaterial intelligible sphereas opposedto the
sensibleworld, which is constitutedby both the sublunaryand the
celestialworld, i.e. by both the earth and the heavens.They thus
expfained cosmic symputheio nol in terms of something like the
Stoicpneunn, but ratherin virtue of a non-physicallinkage,some
kind of analogy (crvotro'y(cr),or more specifically some kind of
likenessor similarity (opot6rly'6poiootE).'" both between the
immaterialintellisible world and the material sensibleworld, as
'" E.g. Philo, De opilickt mundi, etl. L. Cohn. Prilorir Ale.rantlrini oPeru qude
supersunt.| (Bcrlin, 1896rrepr. 1962). ll7; Philo.De specialibusleRibus.ed.L.
Cohn. Prrilonir Aletandrini opere quuc supe^unt, V (Berlin. 19061rcV. 1962).
l.l6: 1.329.
l'8.g. Procfus,In Platonis'limoeumconmentdria,ed. E. Diehl,3 vols. (Leipzig.
1903-.G6;rcpr. Amsterdam, 1965).3.162; 208: 241; Proclus,ln Ploronis rern
publit'an commentalii, cd. W. Krull, 2 vols. (Leipzig. 1899-lml; rcPr.
Amslerdam.1965).2.258.
'' E.g. Plotinus,f,''arades.ed. Henry afldSchwyzer,3.3.6.24-38:4.5.1.34-8.
l04 Katerina lcrodiakonou
well as between different pans of the mat€rial world that are
equally affectedby the intelligibleworld, for instancethroughthe
world soul. And it is in this latter sense of sympatheia that,
somethingspatially isolatedin the sensibleworld cannot fail to
affect even a remote counter?an.Hence, the Platonistsseem to
have regardedsome sympatheticrelations as asymmetricaland
some as symmetrical. The sympatheticrelations between the
int€lligibleand the sensibleworld are asymmetrical,sinceit is only
the sensibleworld which is affectedby the intelligibleworld, and
not the other way round. On the other hand, the sympathetic
relationsbetweenthe different parts of the sensibleworld, which
are similarly affectedby the world soul, are clearly symmelrical;
and this is why the sympatheticrelationbetweenthe earthand the
heavensguaranteesthat celestialphenomenamay indicate what
happenson earth,while terrestrialphenomenamay reliably provide
us with a better grasp of what happens in the heavens.The
Platonists,therelbre, like the Stoics, thought of divination as
possibleand explainableon the basisof the conceptof sympatheia.
God through the Divine lntellect and a descendingchain of
immaterialpowersengineerseventsin the sensibleworld that are
meantas signs about what he has in mind; it is, then, up to us to
noticeand interpretthesesignsin order to find out what the future
may bring.
This is not, however.the only way Platonistsused the notion of
cosmic sympatheic; for they also extensively used it to justify
magic. Even Philo (De migr. Abrah. 178-9)re and Plotinus
(Enneudes4.4.40'4.9.3),who show no particularinterestin magic,
referred to cosmic sympatheia when they discussed magical
practices.li)
And it is this very samenotionthat we find in the works
of later Neoplatonists,like for instance in Proclus' De arre
hieratica, as the main explanationof the magical beliefs and
fe Phifo Judaeus,De rriRratione Abruhami,
ed. P. Wcndland. Prilottis Aletandnnt
operaquee supersunt.II (Berlin and Reimcr. 1897;repr.De Cruyter, 1962),268-
314.
s E. R. Dodds, 'Theurgy and its relation to Neoplatonism'.
Jourrd of Roman
Studies17 (1947r,55-69; J. Dillon, 'Plotinusand the ChaldaeanOracles',in his
The Great Tra<liriott,F-u h.'r Studies h the Devektpmentof Platonism and Ea r
Clti.rtfunirl (Aldersho(, 1997), l3l -40.
The Greek Concept of S)'r?dtr,r?r',a
and lts Byzantinc r05
Appropriation in Michael Psellos
practices of the Chaldaeans.:'But what exactly is the later
Neoplatonicuse of the notion of symparheiain connectionwith
magic?
As has rightly been pointed out,zrone can distinguishin the so-
called Chaldaean Oracles, a philosophical and a magical aspect.
The philosophicalaspectconsistsof a cosmology in which the
variouspansof the universeare in closecohesionand govemedby
a system of powers with a strict hierarchy.At the apex of the
hierarchy we have a triad of beings: the Father from whom the
whole world has emanatedin manifold gradations,the Paternal
Intellect who has organizedthe world rationally.and the Divine
Power also called Hecate.Furtherdown in the hierarchythereare
various orders of angels and daemons,including good daemons
who help the human soul to ascendtowardsthe Fatherand bad
daemonswho are responsible for all evils.And it is at this point that
the magical aspectof the Oracles becomescrucially relevant. For
the Oracles also contain rules and instructions for rituals which. if
performedin the right way, summon up good daemonsand ward
off bad daemons.Hence,the magical or theurgicalaspectof the
Oracleshas a preeminentlypracticalpurpose;it clearlyis supposed
to enablehumanbeingsto controlthe daemons'powers.
The later Neoplatonists,who recognizedin the cosmologyof the
Oracles beliefs that are very close to their own, used the notion of
sympatheiain order to explainhow the manipulationof daemonsrs
possiblein magic and theurgy.For they believedthat thereis some
likenessor similaritythat allowsnot only daemonsto havean effect
on human beings,but most importantlyhuman beingsto have an
effect on daemons.ln fact, someNeoplatoniststhoughtthat human
beingsand daemonssharein materiality,even if not to ihe same
degree,and this is mainly the reasonwhy certainkinds of daemons,
for instance the terrestrial and subterrestial.can more easilv be
'' Pf<rclus,De ane hieratica l=De socrifi<io et nagial, ed. L Bidez. CMAG. \l
(Brussels.1928).148-5l.
tt J. M. Duffy, 'Reactionsof two Byzanrinc intcllcctuals to lhe theory and praciice
of magic; Michael Psellosand Michael llalikos', in H. Maguire, ed., Blu tine
MdSic(Washinglon.D. C., 1995),83-9?.
106 Kuterina lcrod ialtonou
enslavedby the magicians'rituals.rrThat is to say, the notion of
sympatheiu between different pans of the sensible world is
presented hereas a symmetricalrelationhavinga functionthatSoes
beyondthat of divination.For it allows human beingsto influence
the behaviourof daemons,either in order to use the help of the
gooddaemonsfor the ascentof the soul or in orderto neutralizethe
activitiesof the bad daemons.This asain is an ideanot to be found
in Stoicism.
To sum up, the N€oplatonistsadjustedthe notion of .t),t,p.lth?iato
ft their metaphysical doctrines. Cosmic .r.vntpalheiais for them
some kind of likeness or similarity between the immaterial
intelligible world and the material sensible world. as well as
betweenthe differentpartsof the sensibleworld that are similarly
affectedby the world soul. lt is on the basisof this notion that they
regardeddivinationas possible.But they also addedto it a further
aspect;for they recognizedthat cosmic svntPatheiacan be used not
only to predictwhat happensin the future,but also to explain how
human beings can manipulate the daemons who are the
intermediaries betweenthem andthe Divine.
We should now turn to Psellos' use of the notion of cosmic
symputheia.The challengefor him, as for all Christianthinkers,is
how to use this notion in order to understandthe world and the
relations between its parts without coming into conflict with
standardChristian dogma. Psellos believesthat there is cosmlc
sympatheiaand it is God himself who establishes it; he even says
that all parts of the world are closely connectedin accordancewith
an ineffable(daalroE) sympatheiathat remindsus ofthe unity ofa
living organism.2a The Christian God, though, is not pan of the
world; rather, he createdthe world and, in particular, he createdthe
human beings in his image (xcr'eix6vc rtal opo{tllotv). The
human soul constitutesthe divine element in us, which aspires,
whenfreedfrom the restraintsof our body, to be in touchwith God,
rr On the nature of daemons and lheir different kinds. cf. H. Lewy. Chaldoean
Orades and Theurgy(Paris,1956;rev.cd. l9?8).
(Leipzi8, 1985) op. 37.
" Michael Psellos. oraktrid minora, ed. A. Liltlewood
366-8: rci nrilg ro p6Ql xoO rovrdE opovoei rqog iiltr1)'<r xorq trupto0€rov
rigqqrov xct oir0q awurtr0€i 6E ivos !,qbol'roi x6opou ruYl/rvowoE
Thc Creek Concept of S'rft/)arr?r(rand Its Byzantine t07
Approprialionin MichaelPrellos
and finally to ascendafterdeathto heaven.Hence,thereis no doubt
that the Platonists'notion of cosmic sympatheidlits much better
than the Stoic view with what the Christiansare preparedto say
aboul the sympatheticrelationsin the world. There is somekind of
likenessor similarity, even if not directly betweenGod and the
creation, certainly belween God's Son and human beings. ln
addition,theremay also be some kind of likenessor similarity rn
the way things in the sensibleworld are affectedby God's power;
for sinceall pansof the rvorldarecloselyconnected,whenone pan
is affectedby God's powerotherpartsare similarlyaffected.so that
an event in one part of the world can be used to predict another
eventin anotherpartof it.
But does Pselfos also endorse the function of cosmic sl,mpathem
which the later Neoplatonistsused in connectionwith Chaldaean
magic? When Psellosin his writings discussesthe cosmological
theoriesand magicalpracticesof the Chaldaeans, he as a malterof
coursealso refersto the notion of J-ynpdrheiaI for he is well aware
of the fact that this is the way philosophersbefore him justified
such beliefsand practices.25 However,the fact that he refersto the
notion of r.yn?(.trc,rir
in this contextdoesnot meanthat he himself
in his othertreatisesusescosmicsympatheiethe way it was usedrn
connectionwith Chaldaeanmagic. lf we carefully read Psellos'
remarksaboul the Chaldaeans. what seemsto be the main reason
for his strongdisapprovalof the Chaldaeantraditionis the practices
which involve inducing daemons,by using hymns, sacrifices,
perfumesor statues,in order to servethe purposesof the magicran
and to breakthe naturalorderof things.rn As Pselloshimselfsays,it
is indeedmonstrousto claim that one could changethe order of
things, sinceGod himself arrangedthem in the best possibleway
(Sathas,V,57).ri Hence.what Psellosfinds reallyoffensivein the
" Michael Pscllos, Phiknophi<tt mirrtra. ll. ed. J. Duffy (Stuttgart and Lcipzig,
1992),op. 39. 148.8; l2: op. 41, 152.15:l8; Michael Psellos,I/reolo3ita,ed. P.
Cautier(l-eipzig,f989), 123A.53i57; cf. MichaelPsellos,Priktsophiurnrinora,l,
cd. D. O'Mcar.r(Leipzig, 1989),L l |9-20.
:" P*llos. Philosophico ninoru,l, cd. O'Mcara, 3.137-47; Pscllos. Epistukr 181,
cd. K. Sathas,M.o..r,{rrlxt) Btlll@qir.q.V (Paris, 1876),474. 478.
r7 TrpatdbeE
i11;rrr! ld tlv t<i-rv 6)'<ov tdlrv ptr<raoreiv trrcly€).l,ro0or tf.1
roi' OEoOneovoi{r rerolfvorv xn}rdE...
108 Katerina Ierodiakonou The Creek Conceptof Synt/rarieraand lls Byzantine t09
Appmpriation in Michael Pselk)s

very similar to magical praclices.For instance,he talks in his

Chaldaeantradition is the attemptto influenceand manipulatethe
Chronogruphia(6.6-5-7)abourthe remarkableicon of Christ,which
courseof things, to interferewith divine providenceand change
was commonly refened to as the "Antiphonetes",and which the
fate.
EmpressZoe consultedin difficult moments!as if it were alive;
and the Neoplatonists believethat when the coloursof the icon becamevivid, she interpretedit as a
Besides,whereasthe Chaldaeans
all daemons' according to good sign, but when the colourstumed pale,the forecastwas bad.
there are good and bad daemons,
beings, should
thereftrre' not try to Similarly, Psellos talks about the icon of the Virgin Mary of
Christianfaith,arebad.r8Human
with them Blachernai,which the peopleof Conslantinople often usedas a way
manipulatethem, even if they can' becausedealing
to predict the future (Orat. hag. 4); when they asked the icon
always brings misfortunesThat is to say, as a Christian,Psellos
specificquestionsabouttheir everydayaffairs.they believedthat,if
cannot acceptthat the sympatheticrelationsbetweenlhe pafls of the
the Virgin's garmentmoved,the answerwas positive.if it did not
world are such that human beings may control the powers of the
move,the answerwas negative.r'
daemons for their own benefit. ln tact, this is why Psellos
repeatedlyrefusesto give us detailedinformationabout magical
But what exactlydifferentiatesthesecasesfrom magicalpractices,
practices;for he claims to be afraid that, if we follow them, they
It is only in so that Psellos can present them as perfectly onhodox an<l
could harm us, and then he may be held responsible.2e
rcspectabfe? How can he claim, as he actually does (Orat. min.
casesof trying to avoid the daemons'malevolentinfluence,for
7. 156-80),that he is not actingas a magicianwhenhe finds himself
instance in exorcisms, that Christians are allowed to have
engagedin such practices?According to Psellos,practiceswhich
somethingto do with them,as Pselloshimself admits in his life of
only are meantto bring human beingscloser to God, or to assist
St Auxentioslrobut theseare clearly casesof antipatheia' of driving
them in making forecastsand in determining favourable and
the daemonsaway,ratherthanof sympatheia.
unfavourablecircumstancesfor particular actions, have nothing
objectionable.For such practicesdo not aim at commanding
What aboutcases.however,in which Psellosgives the impresston
daemons to produce good or bad effects, and thus at interfering
of using the Greek concept of sympotheia to justify magical
with divine providence;they simply help us, always with God's
practices?After all, Psellos is the writer of a treatise on the
propertiesof stones(Phil. min. I op. 34), in which he not only assistance, to learn his will and adjust our lives accordingly.So,
there is nothing unonhodoxin believing that cenain stoneshave
describesthe external appearanceof precious stones,but also gives
sympatheticpowers of healing. or there is nothing wrong in
an accountof their powersof healing'which very much soundlike
attempting to predict future events by paying attention ro the
magical powers. For instance,he claims that g(t/.Iftlres helps
changesof an icon. Furlhermore,there is nothing reprehensible
humansforgetbad thingsand remembergood things(39-42)' while
aboutperformingliturgiesfor victory in war, usingincense,fasting,
topaion ctres cases of mania (99-104) and snrrlon.)x those
or praying;all such practicesare supposedto make our soul clean
suffering from melancholy(79-82). Moreover, Psellosseemsto
and pure in orderto be readyto acceptGod's will.
approveof certain ways of veneratingthe icons, which are again

r* E.g.Psellos,P,irilosolhicu
Therefore, it may be that Psellos does not use the notion of
Minora,ll. cd. Dufty, op.38. l4-5.8-l0 Psellosseems
views on the issue of the daemons' corPoreality:cf Michael
svmpatheiothe way the Neoplatonists did in order to justify magic
to hJld inconsistent
Psellos,Mltqorologie, ed. J Bidez CMAG' Vl (Brussels. 1928)' 6l and Psellos, and theurgy,but he follows both the Stoicsand the Platonistswhen
Dtmonologie, ed. Bidez, ibid., | 19. he uses it to explain divination. For he seemsto understandthe
n Psellos,Prilx(,/rri.'d mittoru,I, cd O'Meara. 1.125-551 Psellos.LTirrda 187,
ed. Sathas,M.dd(rttxl B$1@0ix4.v '475
s Michaef Pselfos,Oratknes hagiogruphicae, ed. E A. fisher (Stuttgart, 1994), '' On the icon of Virgin Mary of Blachcmai. ci E. Papaioannou .Thc ..usual
m i r a c l e "a n da n u n u s r l ailm a g e ',JOB5 t( 2 0 0 1 ) , 1 7 7 8 8 .
o D . 1A . 505-ll.
 The Greek Concept of.t)rrpdrheia and Its Byzantine l
I t0 Katerina lerodii*onou
Appropriation in Michael Psellos

briefly, becauseI think that it gives us a good senseof how he

notion of symPatheiaas the main explanation behind the facr that
understands the notion of sympatheia and its use in the
we are able to have,becauseof our affinity to the Divine' a better
of the divine symbols.
interpretation
understanding of the world and of Gotl's will by interpretingthe
4'-34:
divine signsand symbols(ouv0i1pcro, orl ppo)'tr: Orat' hag
To start with, it is interestingto note that the Greek term which
37). For Lstance,in the caseof the icon of the Virgin Mary' Psellos
see Pselfos uses here to denote a letter of the alphabet ts stoicheion
claims that it is our closerelationto Virgin Mary that helpsus (morx€iov), and not gr(mma (ySdlrpd) which he also uses in his
so that we can predict lhe
things which cannototherwisebe seen'
enough, he uses in writings.raIn Byzantinetimesthe aermstoicheionretainsits ancient
futuie (Orat. hae. 4.32-82)', and interestingly
(Orat' hag' 4'68) and another meaning, according to which it refers to the four elements,earth,
this context both the term s.v-ntpatheia
(oixetoors) (Orul' hug' water, air and fire, as the basic constituentsof everythingin the
Stoic term, namely the lerm oikeiosis
and to interpretGod's world. lt also retainsthe sensewhich we find in early Christian
4.66).rrBut to noticethe cosmicsymPatheiu
way involves, accordingto Psellos' times,when it refersto the astralbodiesand the powersbelievedto
signs and symbolsin the right
f ie behindthem.Most imponantly,it seemsthat the aermstoicheion
no manipulationof the naturalcourseof things,and thusno magtc'
acquiresat this time another sense,for it seems to refer to a
daemon, and in panicular a daemon attached to some concrete
There are indeed many writings by Psellos in which he refers
in connecttonwttn objectl fbr instance,a daemon attachedto a statue which thus
directlyor indirectlyto the notionof s-vmpatheia
exhibits supematuralforces,i.e. it becomesa talisman.Iike the
the inierpretationof Cod's signs and symbols' Among such
Hippodromemonumentson the basisof which future events,and
rvritings ihere is a small treatise,which Psellosdevotesto the
especiallydisasters,could be predicted.This is, after all, how we
interpietation of the twenty-four letters of the alphabet' though ln
nowadays understand the term stoicheion in modem Greek.r5
this casehe doesnot exPlicitlyusethe term ouprdoetc The title of
( Hence,just talking about stoicheiamost probably brought to the
the treatise is Interpretation of the twenly-four /etrers Epprlveict
mind of a Byzantinein that period someconnectionwith daemons
n€QI rtDv eitootteoodporv ororlelurv) and has been edited by
and magical practices.Does this mean, however, that Psellos
John Duffy as opusculum36 of Psellos' Philosophic'aminora l''fhe
as presentshis interpretation of the lettersof the alphabetas implying
idea behind thii text is that the lettersof the alphabet'as well
(ouppoltxor5: 63, 129' 5 I 5)' in magical relationsbetween lettersand the world?
their order and shape,are symbols
the sensethat they hide ineffable messages (cur6ppqrcddppqrct
In the proemiumof the treatise,Psellostwice boaststo be the first
pqvtrp<rtcr:292-7. cf.631624) which provide us, if we manageto
of the world andof God's to interpret the letters of the alphabet as divine symbols
unravelthem,with a betterunderstanding (xcrvdv/rix<rrvot6prlocprv: l4-l'7, 49-50). He also claims at the
will. Since modem scholars have not paid any attentionto this
want to discussPsellos' text,at least end to havewritten it in just one night, as if he were,we could say,
in what follows I
treatise,rr
in a stateof divine inspiration(63742). But what is exactly the
achievement which he regardsds innovativeand God inspired?Is it

r: In thc sympathetic rclations betwcen humans and thc divine Psellos secms lo
the use of
,"eui rrt"'virgitt Mary and thc Chtistiitn Saints as intermcdiariesi cf
foi the Viigin Mary (Prclbs, orationes hagiograpii<ae' ed Fisher' ! E.g. Pselfos.Or.ri,.rneshagiographicae, ed. Fisher. lB.l99; Psell<>s,Phiktophic
",i-",rnc
4.73)and for St Auxentios(ibid , 1A.sfi)). Min(,r.i, f, ed. O'Mcara, 32.87i 36.445; Psellos.Theobgica. ed. Gautier. I 74.142
and in particularof P-scllos'claim.lhalhis
" ttre only discussionof this treatisc. papcr by John
r5 F. Domseiff. l)(tr A lphabet in Mrsti( und Mdfie (Lcipzig and Berlin, 1922), l
'1-
work is the first on lhe subject. can bc found in u unpublished l7: C. Blum, 'The mcaningof orotl€iov and its derivativesin the Byzantineage',
A treaiise on the Creek alPhabcl by
Dutfy, "'The child of one night's labor": t:tenos Jahrbuch 44 (1946),315-25: R. Ctrcnficld. Trdditions of Belief itt llte
(prescntedat the Byzantine Siudies conference' Brookline' MA'
Michael Psellos' ByzantineDuemonokt8) (Amsterdam, 1988), 190-95.
Novembcr8-10, l99l ).
l t2 Katerinalcruliakonou
really true that nobody before him iried to interpret the lettersof the
alphabetas symbolsof the Divine?
In ancienttexts as well as in the works of Christian Fatherswe
sometimesdo find isolatedinterpretations of individualletters.For
instance,Plutarch's treatise De E apud Delphos gives seven
possible interpreiationsof the letter "Elrrtrov which is found tn
Delphic inscriptions.'o Since in Plutarch'stime the diphthong'EI'
was used as the name of "ErpLtrov,this particular letter acquired a
symbolic character,not only becauseit refersto the number[ive,
but also becauseit refersto the conditionalparticle'if' as well as to
the secondpersonsingularof the verb 'to be'; accordingto one of
theseinterpretations, 'ErpLtrovis the secondvowel, and since the
Sun is the secondplanet and Apollo is identified with the Sun'
"Erp ov is a symbol of Apollo. Also, in the scholiaon Dionysius
Thrax (321.37)thereis some discussionof the letter @t1tc' whicn
is saidto ponray with its circularshapethe universe,havingan axis
in the middle as the division betweenthe heavensand the earlh.
Then in John's Apoc'alypse(1.8; 21.6; 22.13), famously enough.
God presentshimself as the A),'Qa and the Opeyc ol everything.
And in one of John Chrysostom's hontilies (in Epist. acl Hebr.: PG
63, 77) the letterAl'Oc is said to be the foundationof the alphabet
just like Christ is the foundationof Christianity.Furlhermore,there
are also passages in which ancientphilosophersusedthe lettersof
the alphabetas an examplefor understanding the constitutionand
division of reality, like for instance when Plato and Aristotle
comparethe letterswith the basicelemenls.rt Finally. it shouldbe
added that both ancient philosophers, starting from the
Pythagoreans, and Christianthinkerswere very much intriguedby
the symbolic meaningof numbers,for which letterswere used,as
well as by the unravelingof the real meaningof namesin termsof
the letters from which they are composed,an issue notoriously
discussedin Plato'sCratvlus.
to Plutarch,D. E apud Delphos, ed. W. Sieveking. Ptutaft'hi moralia lll (Leipzig'
19291rclt. 1972\. l -24.
11Plato. Tirnaeus,ed. J. Bumet, PLtto is oper1, IV (Oxford, l9O2; repr' 1968).
48c: Pfato, Philebus. ed. J. Bnfie| Plat(tnis opera, ll (Oxford. l90l; rcpr'
1967)l8bff.; Pfato, ?r eaetetus,e,J.l. B\Jnet, Pl|bnis oPera, I (Oxford. 1900; rcPr'
1967),202eff;Aristotlc,Metcorolovi(a,ed lnd tr. P Louis (Paris,1982).l04lbff.
The Greek Concept of Synpatheia lts Byzantine l
Approprialion in Michael Psellos ^nd
Moving next to the magicaltradition,thereis no doubt that letters,
as well as numbersand names,play an imponant role in magical
beliefs and practices.For they are said to be the symbols which God
has sown in the world in order to keeo awake in us the desire for the
First Being.rsThe magicianwho knows thes€"vocal imagesof the
divine"re should use them in their original form without, for
instance,translatingthem into anotherlanguage,so thathe manages
through them to communicatewith the daemons.''And there are
indeed many instancesof the use of magical lettersboth in the
Greek magical papyri from the secondto the fifth century A. D., and
among Delatte's AnecdotaAtheniensia which may be as late as the
sixteenthcentury,but mostprobablypresenta much earliermagical
tradition.For example,vowels are often usedin a cenainorder for
all kinds of incantations.o'ktters are written in magicalrecipesfor
curing diseases,like for instanceinsomnia,'ror the bite of a wild
dog,arand even for identifying a thief.{ In addition, there is a
treatiseby the alchemistZosimuson the interpretation of the letter
Qtrryo, which he takes to be the symbol for the planet Satum,
althoughhe adds that it also has an inexplicable(av€epilvsutov)
incorporealmeaning.
So, why does Psellosclaim that he is the first to write on the
symbolicmeaningof letters,when thereis plenty of interestbefore
him in the subject?It is true that in his treatiseon the interpretatlon
of lettersPsellospresentsthe symbolicmeaningof everysingleone
of the twenty-fourlettersof the alphabetin a systematicway, which
is far moresoohisticated thanthe scattered remarksof his
" Chaklaeun Oracles , ed., tr.. and comm. R. Majercik (Leidcn. 1989),108.1:
Procfus,/rr Platonis 'l inaeum comnentaria,ed. Diehl. I 2ll.l; lamblichus,D?
mlst.'/iis, ed. E. des Places.J.rmrlique. lzs nrtsta'restt tXypte \Pans, 1966), I l2
42.r5,r8.
]u Damaskios,/n Plilebrrrn,ed. and tr- L.G. Wcstcrink(Amstcrdam.
t959).24.
$ ChuldaeanOraclcs, cd. Majercik, | 50.
't E.g. Pupyri Croetrte Magkve, Die griuhischen Zauheryupy , ed. K.
P r a e z i d a nezt a 1 . , 2 v o l s . ( Le i p zi g , 1 9 2 8 - 3 1 ,2 d cd . 1 9 7 3 - 1 9 7 4 )I,. l l - 1 9 .2 6 ; II,
l 6 6 e :t V . 4 9 3 .
" A. Defatre.Anec&,ktAtheniensiu.| (Liage and Paris, 1927), 142.9-11,550.5-
1 2 .5 5 1 .t 0 - t 3 .
'' Del^tte.AnecdotaAthe iensa.l.l4|.|3-2l.
* Delatte.Ane.'doktAtheniensia,l,(./.l9.l4-15,
610.16-19.
 The Greek Conceptof S!r?dr!.i., and Ils Byzantine 5
4 Kalerina lerodiakonou
Appropriation in Michael Psellos

namesand formulae,possiblyimplying by this a contrastwith the

predecessors. For he strongly believes that this comprehensive
significancein magic of a preciseuse of lettersand names(Orat.
exegesisof the alphabetmay revealto us the structureof the whole
i.e. hug. 4.19-82). Hcnce,the sole motivationbehind Psellos'treatise
world and our position in it, sincethereis cosmicsympQtheiu'
down to the seemsratherto be his wish to constructa systematicexegesisof the
some kind of affinity between God and his creation.
letters symbollze alphabet,which is in accordancewith his metaphysicalviews,
lettersof the alphabet.For instance,the firsl three
overridesthe scatteredinterpretationsof the previousthinkersand
in Psellos' view the Trinity; Al.Qct, which he connectswith the
cancelsthe paradoxicalinterpretations Sivento lettersin magic. In
verb ouv<rl,e(Qetv, "encomPasses"everything in itself, Brlrcr,
other words, Psellos tries, on the basis of his belief in the
which he connectswith the verb pcriveLv,"proceeds"from itself
sympatheticrelationbetweenthe lettersand everythingelse in the
and doesnot turn back to someotherprinciple,and fdppc, which
world, to give a reasonable of their hiddenmeanings;
interpretation
he connects with the adjective 16vtpo5, "is productive of'
and this interpretation does not serve any purpose other than to
everything in the world. A6)''rcr symbolizes the division. the of the world and
providehumanbeingswith a betterunderstanding
6rcipeorE,of the world, which has as a result the wonder, the
God'swill.
6ui.'q!rE, human beings feel towards the world, and this is the
reasonwhy they start their unendinginquiry, their lfttlotg. Thus.
But what kind of understandingdo we get through Psellos'
Psellosmanagesto give us an interpretation of the next threeletters,
"EqLtrov interpretationof thc lettersof the alphabet'lThe cosmic sympathen
A6lrcr, and Zilttt, and of their particular order. And he
betweenGod and his creationis often characterized by Pselloswith
continuesin the same way by relating the rest of the lettersfrom
an adjective,which is very commonin the Neoplatonicand magical
'Hrc to Qptyc with the differentmodesof humanenquiry'starting
tradition, namely it is called "ineffable" (<ipptltog).'" lt is not
from our atlemptsto acquireknowledgeof the sensibleworld and
ineffable,though,in the sensethat it is shamefulor forbiddento be
moving to our difficulties in grasping the intelligible reality.
spoken of; rather, it is ineffable in the sensethat it cannot be
Moreover,Psellosin this treatiseinterpretsnot only the lettersand
expressed,since it cannot be fully grasped.For the true extent of
their order,but also their shape;for instance,the circular shapeof
our relationto the Divine is not somethingwe can fully understand,
the letter 'Oprxpov symbolizeson his view the pure intellect,
since there is so little we can know about God. Nevertheless,
because the pure intellectalwaystums to itself.
becauseof Cod's sympatheticrelation to the world, we can
understandsomethingabout his will, if we carefullyread his signs
This brief descriptionof the contentsof Psellos'treatiseshows' I
and symbols. So, learning,among other things, to interpretthe
hope,that his exegesisof thc lettersof the alphabetis not supposed
lettersof the alphabetmay help us in Psellos' view to acquirea
to be usedfor magicalpurposes.For thereis cerlainlyno hint that,
betterunderstanding of God.
by knowing the symbolicmeaningof the letters,humanbeingsmay
influencethe orderof the universe.Even in his life of St Auxentios could have
We shouldnot, of course,expectthat this understanding
in rvhich there are many descriptionsof attemptsto drive away
the certaintyof demonstrativeknowledge.The signs and symbols
daemons,Psellosis carefulnot to make any referenceto the useof
Cod sends us, including the letters of the alphabet.are mere
lettersor names,at least not in the way theseare uscd in magical
practices.lsAlso, when he talks about the icon of Virgin Mary of
Blachernaiand how peopleask for its help, he makessureto point
out that in veneratingthe icon it is not imponant to use certain
6 Pseffos,Odrti.)nes hulliogruphicoc, cd. Fishc., 4.67; Michael Pselloti Orutoria
'
tl There is a passage, ninora. e<1.A. Litllewood (Leipzig, 1985), 31 167; Phikrophictt minora l. etl.
howevcr.in which Pscllosclearlysayr thnl cvcn lhc ullerance
O'Meara, 3.I l9; Michael Psclhs, I'heob1littt.l. ed. P Gautier (f-cipzig l989),
of the name of Cod has lhc powcr to drive away daemons (Psellos, ora,ir,,|t'r-
t t1 . 1 4 .
hagiographiute, ed. F isher, I 8.238-9; cf. also ibid.. I A.7 I 6-7)
I t6 Karerina lcrodialonou The Greck Conccpt ol .5_yrnl.rr,,t"l(,
and hs Byz.antine |1
Apprupriationin MichaeI Psclbs

indications,they are dtrrQdoetg, as Psellosoften repeats."'In fact, popular beliel!. I hope, therefbre. to have shown that his
thereare two occasionsin which he alludesto the literal senseof of this notion is worthy of seriousconsideration.'
appropriation
the Greek noun 6p$crotg as a "mirror image": in his interpretation
of the threefirst lettersof the alphabet,Psellospointsout that,since
we cannot experienceCod's light in all its glory, it is at least
importantto see its reflectionin water (Pfiil. rrin. I 36.130-6);and
in his accountof the miracle of the icon of the Virgin Mary of
Blachemai,he againsaysthat, sincewe cannotseethe Sun,just as
we cannothave knowledgeof the Divine, it is at leastimportantto
seethe Sun's reflectionin vlater(Orut. has. 4.49-53). This means,
of course,that our interpretations of God's signsand symbolsnot
only fail to give us certainknowledge,they alwaysrun the risk of
not being correct.To avoid falsebeliefs,Psellosoften stresses that
we haveto be very vigilant in readingGod's symbols.For instance,
again in his accountof the miracleof the icon of the Virgin Mary,
he goes to great length to show that even the way questionsare
posed to the icon considerablyinfluencesour interpretationsof
God'swilf (Orat.hag.4.6l1ff.\.

But, then, who is really in a good positionto interpretGod's signs

and symbols?In the proemiumof his exegesisof the lettersof the
alphabet,Psellosdrawsa sharpdistinctionbetweenon the one hand
the sophists,who have always somethingto say about everything
without gettinginvolved in seriousthought,and on the other hand
the philosophers,who work hard to avoid false beliefs and to
acquire at least some true understandingof the world and irs
Crearor(Phil. min. | 36.1O-14). Psellosobviouslythinks of himself
as a philosopherwhen he presentshis systematicinterpretalionof
the lettersof the alphabet,and in generalwhenhe arduouslytriesto
graspthe hidden meaningsof things in the sensibleworld on the
basis of their sympatheticrelation to the Divine. I do think that
Psellos considershimself a philosopherin a long philosophical
tradition, when he appropriatesthe Greek concept of cosmlc
sympatheiain sucha way as to reconcileChristiandogmawith

n7Michael Ps€llos,De omniJu a doctrilo, ed. L. G. Westerink (Nijmcgen, 1948).

25.6; Pseflos,O/drrbres hagiogrophiute, ed Fisher. 4.679: 687: 698: 703: Psellos. ' I would like to thankJohn Duffy and PavlosKalligasfor thcir hclpful comments
The!,lopica,etl. G^utier, | 62.64: 76. | 29191.51: 54. on an earlier version of this oaoer.