Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Compiled by
S.Rengasamy
Madurai Institute of Social Sciences
Acknowledgements
http://christcollegemsw.blogspot.com/
http://Indian Social Study.com
http://www.scribd.com/vinitha_sukumar
Grace Mathew‟s “Case Work” form Encyclopedia of Social Work in India
S.Rengasamy. Social Case Work
Contents
(Click on each content to go to the relevant page)
Social Case Work –Syllabus #UGC / NET /JRF Syllabus
Social case work Richmond & Pearlman(Box)
Social Case work # Origin of Case work #Mary Richmond's Contribution to Social Case Work #What Social
Workers learned from Freudian psychology & Economic depression # Broadening the understanding–From
self to interaction with others
Causes of Human Problems as conceived by Social Case Workers # Lack of material resources #
Misconceptions about situations and relationships and lack of appropriate # Illness or health related
handicaps # Emotional distress resulting from stressful situations # Personality features or deficiencies
Definitions of Social Case Work
Objectives of Social Case Work
Nature & Characteristics of Case Work
Components/elements of case work:
Purpose & concern for the Client system # Expectation at three level # Accuracy of Empathy and clear
communication # Non Possessive warmth # Genuineness and acceptance #Authority
Principles and Techniques of case work (Box) Principles of Case work # I. Individualization # II. Purposeful
expression of feelings #III. Control emotional involvement #IV. Self determination # V. Acceptance #VI.
Non-Judgmental attitude #VII. Principle of Confidentiality # More Explanations on the Principles of Social
Casework
Stages
Components of Social Case Work # Social Case History (Box) #Social Diagnosis # Types of diagnosis
(Table) # Social Treatment # Objectives of social case work treatment (Box) #Methods of case work
treatment
Interviewing in Casework
Case Work process (Box) # Process of Social Case Work # Intake (First Interview) Rapport Building #
Psycho-Social study (Exploration / Investigation) # Psycho - Social diagnosis (Assessment) #Intervention /
Treatment (Problem-solving process) # Monitoring and Evaluation # Follow-up and Termination # Social
Case Work Process (Box)
Components of Case Work #Person # The problem # The place # The process #
Transference #Transference and counter transference (Diagram) # Relationship in Social Case Work
Similarities and differences between case work and counseling # Similarities between case work and
psychotherapy
Problem & Strength Perspective
Theories of Social Case Work #Psychodynamic theory # Ego psychology # Functional casework # Cognitive
theory #Social role theory # Behaviour modification theory # Communication theory# Crisis theory #
Family theory and Learning theory.
Qualities of Social Case Worker # Knowledge base of Social Case Work
Three Roles of the Case Worker # Clinical/behavioural change role
Role of the consultant/educator #The advocate/broker role
Recording in Social Work # Principles of Case Records
Casework Practice in India #Theory Building in Casework
Psychosocial Theory and Social Work Practice
Imran Ahmad Sajid # Peshawar University # Introduction # Meaning of Psychosocial # Psychosocial
theory # Client‟s context # Problem # Aim of Treatment # The Goal of Psychosocial Workers # Historical
Origin and Development #Mary Richmond # Knowledge from Psychology and Psychiatry # Ego Psychology
#Principles and Assumptions # Assumptions from Ego psychology # The Worker Client Relationship
#Obstacles in effective worker-client relationship # Approaches to Intervention # Psycho-social Study #
Initial Interviews # Additional Source of Information # Approaches to Intervention # Early Life History #
Psychosocial Assessment # Psychosocial Intervention # Recap
Behaviour & Behaviour Modification
References
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S.Rengasamy. Social Case Work
Syllabus
3. Case Work process – Study (Case recording, Interview, Collateral contact etc), Diagnosis,
Treatment, (methods & techniques), Follow –up and Termination
4. Approaches in social case work –Functional, Diagnostic, Directive, Non-directive and Eclectic.
Recording in case work –Importance and Methods
5. Application of social case work in family, educational institutions, community, industries and in
hospitals
Hope Hope
Opportunity Opportunity
Choice Choice
Social Case Work
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S.Rengasamy. Social Case Work
SOCIAL CASEWORK
Mary Richmond
Social casework, representing that part of social work which focused more on the individual, had a
vital non-poverty populations. Social work's prestige was raised through work in war-related activities
such as the Red Cross's Home Service. Caseworkers with the home service, led by Mary Richmond,
applied their skills to problems faced by service men and their families. Physicians, psychiatrists and
psychologists working with emotionally disturbed soldiers saw the social worker as a natural ally.
They began using caseworkers as specialists in social adjustment. Such vital activities were outside
the profession's traditional constituency of the poor and indigent and opened up new opportunities
for social work.
Pearlman
The second major event that marked social casework‟s ascendancy within social work was the
publication of Mary Richmond's Social Diagnosis. For several decades, Ms. Richmond had been
attempting to turn the practical but rough-hewn techniques and skills commonly known as casework
into a more systematic approach. After honing her ideas through workshops, lectures and articles,
Ms. Richmond put her ideas into a book which was the first definitive text on casework.
Much more than just another book, Social Diagnosis, gave to the new field of social work an anchor
in its quest for professionalism. In 1915, noted authority of professional education, Abraham Flexner,
had delivered a paper at the National Conference on Charities and Corrections declaring that social
work was not yet a profession. In his paper, Dr. Flexner was particularly critical of the new field's lack
of a technique which was "communicable through the educational process". Mary Richmond, through
Social Diagnosis, gave social work what Dr. Flexner said it was lacking and propelled casework
from one of a number of approaches used by charity workers into a major form of practice.
Definition
“Social Case work may be defined as the art of doing different things for and with
Objectives of Social
different CasebyWork:
people cooperating with them to achieve at one and the same time their
own and society‟s betterment.” Mary Richmond (1915)
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S.Rengasamy. Social Case Work
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S.Rengasamy. Social Case Work
Century before, even before the declaration of human rights Mary Richmond
asserted that poor have their own individuality and they have a right for self
determination
What Social Workers learned from Freudian psychology & Economic depression
Freudian psychology which emerged in the 1920s had a strong impact
on casework. The new psychoanalytical knowledge pertaining to
human behaviour was eagerly absorbed by caseworkers which was
found useful in understanding clients and their problems. During this
period of development, caseworkers focused their attention on
psychic forces within the individual. During the economic depression
of the 1930s casework had to consider the economic factors which
were causing distress to clients. There was also the realization that
economic distress could lead to emotional distress and breakdown.
One major outcome of the depression was the establishment of
governmental public assistance programs. It relieved the voluntary agencies from the tasks of
providing economic help which enabled the caseworkers to devote
more time in dealing with clients' interpersonal problems.
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S.Rengasamy. Social Case Work
focus from the self of the individual to his continuous interactions with his significant others
in social settings.
American casework did influence the use of casework in India as the first professional social
workers who did casework in the Indian setting were trained in the American schools of
social work. Casework was one of the courses taught
when the Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate School of
Social Work, currently known as the Tata
Institute of Social Sciences, was started in Bombay
in 1936, and it became a method of practice in
helping people with their problems of social
functioning. Some social welfare agencies employed
Tata Trust caseworkers particularly with the purpose of helping
their clients in a one-to-one relationship. Currently, the so-called
caseworkers attached to some welfare services are not trained social workers, and those
professionally trained social workers who use the method of casework considerably in their
work are not given the designation of caseworkers as they are likely to use other methods as
well.
Those people who seek social work help for their problems of living do so because their
normal coping methods are not effective in dealing with the particular problems. There are
reasons why individuals find their normal coping patterns ineffective in the face of some
problems. These reasons may be broadly divided into five categories.
1. Lack of material resources: Social work agencies do not have financial resources to give
assistance to people who seek material help. But, when, lack of money makes it difficult for
an individual to deal with a particular situation effectively, it is likely that he can obtain
financial help through the services of a caseworker, depending upon the nature of the
situation and the policy of the agency. For example, it is possible for an amputee who is poor
and who is a patient in a general hospital to get monetary help through the social work
department of the hospital for buying artificial limbs.
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Physical and mental illness and health related handicaps of various types make people
helpless or irrational in the face of difficulties. For instance, when in a family the father is ill,
the mother will have to bear extra burden and face problems alone for which she may require
outside help. The patient and his family may need help to accept the illness of the former and
to make realistic plans for the present and future.
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Queen (1932)
Social case work is the art “of adjusting personal relationship”.
Lee (1923)
Social case work is the art of changing human attitudes”
Taylor (1926)
Social case work is a process concerned with the understanding of individuals as
whole personalities and with the adjustments of these to socially healthy lives
Raynolds (1935)
Social case work is the processes of counseling with a client on a problemwhich are
essentially his own, involving some difficulty in his social relationship.
Raynods (1935)
Social case work is that form of social work which assists the individual which he
suggests to relate himself to his family, his natural group , his community
Klein (1938)
Social case work is a technical method in social work…. A way of adjusting to the
client to his personal problems.
Swift (1939)
Social case work is the art of assisting the individual in developing and making use of
his personal capacity to deal with problems which he faces in his life.
DeSchweiinitz (1939)
Case work means those processes involved in giving service, financial assistance, or
personal counsel to individuals by the representatives of social agencies, according to
polices established and with consideration of individual need.
Strode (1948)
Social case work is the process of assisting the individual to best possible social
adjustment through the use of social case study, social resources and knowledge from
relative fields of learning.
Towle (1947)
Social case work is one method ….by which certain social services are made available
in areas of unmet needs.
Bowers (1949)
Social case work is an art in which knowledge of the sciences of human relations and
skill in relationship are used to mobilize capacities in the individual and resources in
the community appropriate for better adjustment between the client and all or any part
of his total environment.
Hollis (1954)
“Social Case work is a method employed by social worker to help individuals find
solution to problems of social adjustment which they are unable to handle in
satisfactory way by their own efforts.”
Gordon Hamilton (1956)
“Social case work (which is both a tool and area of work) consists of those processes
which develop personality through adjustment consciously affected, individual by
individual between man and his social environment.”
Gordon Hamilton
In social case work the client is stimulated to participate in the study of his situation, to
share plans, to make an effective effort to solve his problems, using his own resources
and whatever community resources are available and appropriate.
Perlman (1957)
“Social Case work is a process used by certain human welfare agencies to help
individuals to cope more effectively with their problems in social functioning.”
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Safrad
“Social Case Work is a method employed by a social worker to help individual, find a
solution of their problem of social adjustment which they are unable to handle in a
satisfactory way by their own effort.”
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be a person of genuineness being real, honest in their approach and never go beyond
her/his limit.
Authority
Case worker must have a capacity to handle any situation, being resourceful and helpful
Having knowledge, attitude, experience and a position to identify and solve internal
problem of client
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upon her/his intelligence, so the mode of helping (Technique) must be according to the
Intellectual level, socio-economic situation and ego strength, ones capacity and resource.
II. Purposeful expression of feelings
Case worker must give the chance to the client to express her/his feelings freely, especially
her/his negative feelings because maximum time feelings are negative in nature. The case
worker listen purposefully clients feelings neither praising nor condemning. Don‟t point out
any one as good or bad because of one‟s psycho-social problems.
III. Control emotional involvement
Without feeling any one‟s emotion with sensitivity, it‟s impossible to find-out her/his
problem & get a solution of that problem.
Emotion comes from 3 ways as
- Sensitivity
-Understanding
-Response
IV. Self determination
Self determination we means let the client to take her/his own decision in own way, give
chance her/him to decide, what is right or wrong for them.
V. Acceptance
A case worker must be accept an individual as a person of “worth & dignity”, not treat as a
problem and always accept ones positive feelings and negative feelings
VI. Non-Judgmental attitude
A case worker mustn‟t have the right to judge any one as guilty or innocent.
VII. Principle of Confidentiality
Case work relationship has a principle to take the problems of the client in confidence and
keep it as secret.
More Explanations on the Principles of Social Casework
1. A worker should believe in social reality.
Every individual has his own different problems because every personality is unique
Problems do exit and there is no stigma attached to a problem and or any maladjusted
person and a social worker does not believe in social isolation for the physically,
mentally, emotionally and socially sick person.
Every problem can, therefore, be solved provided we create conditions for an individual
who help to make an adjustment with his social environment.
2. The personality of the client is to be respected.
3. Worker should build up purposeful relationship with the client.
4. Worker should always have belief in the ability of the human beings to change and grow.
5. Worker should not involve himself emotionally with the client. There should not be any
over-identification with the client.
6. Worker has to accept and appreciate the individual differences and prejudices of the
client.
7. In the process of helping, it should be observed that the client is as active as the worker,
since the formers‟ participation in the treatment is very necessary. The client should be
helped to help himself.
8. Worker has also to look to the interest of the family, community and the agency and as
such he has to help the client to adjust with the family and the community by releasing
the immediate resources available in the community, taking family as a primary
institution. The worker has to consider the client as part of the family, community and
society with mutual responsibility.
9. In order to establish rapport with the client, worker should be sincere and sympathetic
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Social Treatment
Social treatment in case work is the sum total of all activities and services directed towards
helping the client with a problem. The focus is
to relieve the immediate problem and if feasible Objectives of Case Work Treatment
modify any basic difficulties which precipitated 1. To prevent social breakdown
2. To conserve client‟s strength
it. Strictly speaking, everything that has been 3. To restore social functioning
discussed so far is part of treatment. 4. To provide positive reinforcements
5. To create opportunities for growth and
Generally, two types of efforts are required for development
social adjustment – environmental modification 6. To compensate psychological damage
and or change in behaviour modification. Early 7. To increase capacity of self direction
case work treatment was placed on modification 8. To increase his social contribution
through the environment. Later on the
development of ego psychology helped social case workers to use intensive and direct
treatment techniques.
Methods of social case work treatment
Administration of Indirect Treatment (Environmental Direct Treatment
Practical Services Manipulation)
Providing help to the Environmental manipulation means In this the case worker
client to choose and use changing the social conditions of the exerts influence directly
the social resources client so that he/she may be relieved on the client. It is used
afforded by the from excessive stresses and strains. when the client needs
community. Money, For example attempts to change the direction because of his
medical care, legal aid, attitude of the parents, teachers, ignorance, anxiety and
helping to get job or spouse, employer, friends and relatives, weakness of his ego
admission in educational training and employment for livelihood, strength.
institutions, aged homes, group experience in accordance with the Direct treatment is given
foster homes, needs of the client. through counseling,
recreational facilities are Environmental modification is therapeutic interviewing,
such type of services that undertaken by the case worker only clarification and
any person in problem when environmental pressures upon the interpretation leading to
may need in order to client are beyond the client‟s control but an insight.
resolve a given problem can be modified by the case worker
in his daily living
The interviews in all these process are every important and unless the interviews are
conducted properly, it is not possible to expect results. The case worker has, therefore, not
only to understand the theory of interview but also have sufficient training and experience in
interviewing, if he/she wants to be successful in providing service to the client.
Interviewing in Casework
By interviewing, we mean a meeting or conference (may be formal or informal) between two
or more persons for specific purpose. It is an art which is used in every situation for better
understanding and better relationships between the interviewer and the interview.
Interviewing is the foundation on which theory and practice of social case work is based
because without interview, the worker cannot get all the possible information about the client
nor can the client gain any confidence in the worker. The purpose of an interview is,
therefore, three-fold
1. To obtain knowledge of the situation.
2. To understand another person.
3. To make the person understand you.
Note: the word client used here means any person who is seeking help or is being offered
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specialized service.
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1. The stage of the problem at which the person, through whom, and the reasons because
of which, comes to this agency.
2. The nature of request and its relation to his problem, and the cause of his problem, as
I the client see.
3. Does the request relate directly to his needs/ problems?
4. His adjustment to his social functions in job, family, etc.
5. The state of his physical and mental health.
6. His appearance including dress, etc. in his first meeting.
7. His personal and social resources including material and financial position.
8. Appropriateness and intensity of feelings.
9. Nature of defense mechanisms he frequently uses.
10. Level of motivation, how quickly he wants to get rid of his problems.
11. Nature of family, its status, values, relationship pattern within the family, etc.
12. Reactions to the worker and seeking help from the agency and sex of caseworker who
will be suitable to help the person.
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available.
Process of making diagnosis
Shifting the relevant from irrelevant data
Organizing the facts and getting them into relatedness
Grasping the way in which the factors fit together
Preparing the meaning as a whole.
Types of diagnosis
1. Clinical 2. Etiological 3. Dynamic
The person is described by Tries to Proper evaluation of the client‟s current
the nature of the illness. delineate the problem as he is experiencing it now.
E.g. schizophrenia, causes and Role of psychological, biological, social
psychopath, typhoid, etc. development of and environmental factors in the causation
Used in medical practice. presenting of the problem.
Use is minimum in case difficulty. No attempt to dig life history.
work practice. - Importance History of the Case worker and client engage in
in medical and psychiatry. person. appropriate corrective action or treatment.
Limitation These developments may lead to
doesn‟t look into modifications in the goals for treatment
present.
Data for Diagnosis 1. Interviews 2. Checklist and Inventories 3. Direct Observation
Steps in Diagnosis
1. The worker begins to focus on problematic behaviors. Both functional and dysfunctional
behaviors in the client‟s environment are surveyed. The client‟s personal strength as well as of
his environment are evaluated.
2. He specifies the target behaviors. Break down complex behaviors into clear and precise
component parts.
3. Baseline data are collected to specify those events that appear to be currently controlling
the problematic behaviors.
4. The collected information is summarized in an attempt to anticipate any major problem in
treatment and as a way of beginning to establish objectives for treatment.
5. Selecting priorities for treatment is the final step of the diagnosis
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Person Problem
Place Process
I. Person:
The person‟s behaviour has this purpose and meaning: to gain satisfactions, to avoid
or dissolve frustration and to maintain his balance-in-movement.
Whether a person‟s behaviour is or is not effective in promoting his well-being
depends in large part upon the functioning of his personality structure.
The structure and functioning of personality are the products of inherited and
constitutional equipment in continuous interaction with the physical, psychological and
social environment the person experiences.
A person at any stage of his life – not only is a product of nature and nurture but is
also and always in process of being in the present and becoming in the future.
The person‟s „being and becoming‟ behaviour is both shaped and judged by the
PERSON
expectations he and his culture have invested in the social role he carries and the
major
The person who comes as a client to a social agency is always under stress.
To understand human behavior and individual difference, Grace Mathew has given the
following propositions:
1. An individual‟s behaviour is conditioned by his/her environment and his/her experiences.
Behaviour refers to reacting, feeling, thinking, etc. the conditions and influences
surrounding the person constitutes the environment.
2. For human growth and development it is essential that certain basic needs should be
met. (Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs)
3. Emotional needs are real and they cannot be met or removed through intellectual
reasoning.
4. Behaviour is purposeful and is in response to the individual‟s physical and emotional
needs.
5. Other people‟s behaviour can be understood only in terms of ones own emotional and
intellectual comprehension.
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II. Problem:
The problems within the purview of social casework are those which vitally affect or are
affected by a person‟s social functioning.
The multifaceted and dynamic nature of the client‟s problem makes necessary the
selection by caseworker and client some part of it as the unit for work. The choice of
problem depends on (1) whether the problem is the client‟s problem (2) leadership
given by case worker depends upon the professional knowledge and judgment and (3)
agency‟s function e.g. hospital, etc.
Problems in any part of a human being‟s living tend to have chain reactions. …..>
cause > effect > cause..
Any problem which a person encounters has both an objective and subjective
Problem
significance – quality and intensity of our feelings.
Not only do the external (objective) and internal (subjective) aspects of the problem
co-exist, but either may be the cause of the other.
Whatever the nature of the problem the person brings to social agency; it is always
accompanied and often complicated by the problem of being a client.
Problems can be categorized as follows (Grace Mathew):
1. Problems related to illness and disabilities
2. Problems due to lack of material resources.
3. School related problems.
4. Problems related to institutionalization.
5. Behaviour problems.
6. Problems of marital discord.
7. Problem situations needing a follow-up service.
8. Needs related to rehabilitation of people.
9. Clients caught up in social problems like gambling, prostitution, alcoholism, drug
addiction and unmarried motherhood.
III. Place:
The social agency is an organization fashioned to express the will of a society or of some
group in that society as to social welfare – community decides the need of the agency.
Each social agency develops a program by which to meet the particular areas of need
with which it sets out to deal. It depends on factors like money, knowledge and
competence of the agency staff, the interest, resources available and support of the
community.
The social agency has a structure by which it organizes and delegates its responsibilities
and tasks, and governing policies and procedures Hierarchy – roles and responsibilities
clear, designated and delegated – collaboration procedures and policies, understand the
usefulness. by which it stabilizes and systematizes its operations. – among workers –
The social agency is a living, adaptable organism susceptible to being understood and
Place
changed, much as other living organisms. – Past, present and future – not static and
fixed.
Every staff member in an agency speaks and acts for some part of the agency‟s function,
and the case worker represents the agency in its individualized problem solving help. –
Case worker not an independent professional practitioner – case worker speaks and acts
for the agency – psychologically identified with its purpose and policies
The case worker while representing his agency is first and foremost a representative of
his profession. – must know and be committed with feeling to the philosophy that guides
the practice of the social work profession.
Agency – Private e.g. funding agencies and Public e.g. family welfare orgs.
Primary e.g. NGO and Secondary e.g. Hospitals, schools, etc.
Based on functions – child welfare, family welfare, education, specialization based.
Also differs based on Source of support, Professional authority, Clientele they serve,
Services they offer, Goals of the agency, etc.
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IV. Process:
* In order to understand what the case work process must include in its problem-solving
help, it is necessary to take stock first of the kinds of blockings which occur in people‟s
normal problem-solving efforts. The six are:
1. If necessary tangible means and resources are not available to the person.
2. Out of ignorance or misapprehension about the facts of the problem or the facts of
existing ways of meeting it.
3. If the person is depleted or drained of emotional or physical energy.
4. Some problems arouse high feelings in a person – emotions so strong that they
overpower his reason and defy his conscious controls.
5. Problem may lie within the person; he may have become subject to, or victim of,
emotions that chronically, over a long time, have governed his thinking and action.
6. Haven‟t developed systematic habits or orderly method of things and planning.
The intent of the case work process is to engage the person himself both in working
on and coping with the one or several problems that confront him and to do so by
Process
such means as may stand him in good stead as he goes forward in living
The means are
1. The provision of a therapeutic relationship
2. The provision of a systematic and flexible way and
3. Provision of such opportunities and aids.
All competent problem-solving, as contrasted with trail-and-error method, contains
three essential operations. Urgent pressures will often dislodge their sequence, but
any conscious effort to move from quandary (difficulty) to solution must involve
these modes of action:
1. Study (fact-finding)
2. Diagnosis (thinking about and organizing facts into a meaningful goal-pointed
explanation) and
3. Treatment (implementation of conclusions as to what and how of action upon the
problem).
Finally, for the solution or mitigation of many problems there must exist certain
material means or accessible opportunities which are available to the needful person
and which he can be helped to use. Kinds of resources that a person may need are
money, medical care, nursery schools, scholarships, foster homes, recreation
facilities, etc.
and responses which were experienced or developed in relationship with earlier objects
(mainly persons) in the individual‟s life.”
Unconscious attitudes and associated feelings transferred from the past onto the present
relationship, usually irrational.
For instance, one could mistrust somebody who resembles an ex-spouse in manners,
voice, or external appearance; or be overly compliant to someone who resembles a
childhood friend. Transference may be positive (love, liking, etc) or negative (irrational,
hostile feelings.
Can be tackled by clarification (clarifying reality), interpretation, spacing the interview, etc.
Counter – transference:
- Social worker also has unconscious tendency to transfer on the client.
- The job of the case worker to recognize his feelings and must control them.
Types of Transference:
Positive: E.g. Parents have shown to be friendly and helpful, the client will transfer a
desire to help, friendship, guidance, emotional support and interest.
Negative: E.g. Parents not shown interest and indifferent, the client will have feelings of
unfriendliness, suspicion and distrust.
Uses of Transference (3 stages):
1. Understanding the transference – his behaviour, unconscious need of the client.
2. Utilizing the transference – integrate past and present experiences and earlier
relationships.
3. Interpreting the transference – careful analysis of his unconscious defenses. 22
S.Rengasamy. Social Case Work
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Psycho
Social
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Theories of Casework
Apart from the basic values, principles and techniques of casework discussed earlier, there
are several theoretical formulations explaining human behaviour, specifying indicators for
intervention and identifying helping procedures. Behavioral sciences have contributed a good
deal of knowledge to casework but much of this is on causative factors. Strategies of
intervention are rather limited. Consequently, social diagnosis becomes more elaborate than
treatment. Since for every causative factor there is no corresponding remedial procedure,
devoting undue amount of time for diagnosis does not serve any useful purpose. Besides, for
a wide range of problems, help can be rendered without knowing the causes in depth. Some
experts in casework, therefore, recommend that instead of the traditional analysis of
developmental features of the problem, an assessment of the conditions which currently
sustain the problem may be carried out.
At present, there are about fifty or more theories in casework many of which are
characterised by the limitation mentioned earlier, that they focus more on explanations of
behaviour than on procedures of changing behaviour. A few of these theories can be listed
here:
Psychodynamic theory,
Ego psychology,
Functional casework,
Cognitive theory,
Social role theory,
Behaviour modification theory,
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Communication theory,
Crisis theory,
Family theory, and
Learning theory.
These are not theories in the strict sense of the word; these are only conceptual frameworks or
systems of thought. The exponent of each theory puts forth arguments in favour of his or her
particular theory. But there is no evidence in practice that one is more effective than the
other. At the same time, none has been proved useless at an empirical level. Though
supporters of particular theories are inclined to emphasize the divergence between theories,
there are aspects common to many theories. There is no single personality theory which
explains all types of human behaviour. Similarly, there is no unitary practice theory in
casework, and therefore it is necessary to adopt an eclectic approach. Eclecticism means the
use of the best of knowledge gathered from a number of different theoretical orientations.
'Informed eclecticism' entails in-depth knowledge of the theoretical approaches from which
one selects principles and procedures of action. Taking bits and pieces from many theories
and using them casually without any definite purpose is not informed eclecticism. The utility
of a theory or theoretical prescription can be assessed in terms of the kind of problems it is
concerned with, the type of clients to whom it can be applied and, most pertinently, in term of
its effectiveness in producing results. Professional skill is required on the part of the
caseworker to assess every client and to select a suitable procedure based on empirical
evidence. The core of eclecticism is that it aims at choosing a procedure suitable for the client
rather than fitting the client to a procedure in hand. The choice of a particular conceptual
stance is the end product of an intellectual and emotional process and it is likely to be
influenced by the particular personality make up of the caseworker.
An eclectic approach does make heavy demands on the caseworker in that he needs to have
substantial knowledge and practical skills. He should analyze and evaluate. Most importantly,
he should have the tolerance and flexibility to have his own attitudes altered to be willing to
try new procedures. All these would imply that casework practitioners should involve
themselves in an ongoing process of education. Refresher courses, seminars, workshops and
such other programs are methods for providing continuing education to social workers.
teaching and writing. In her written work, she has tried to integrate relevant concepts from
Indian philosophy with casework.8 (iv) A fourth method has been to compile all theories
together and to make comparison between theories, (v) There are a few who have built up
theory based on research findings. Though this is an important and essential method, this has
been used infrequently. Therefore, this mode has to be developed and fostered to strengthen
the theoretical base of casework.
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are brought into play in the person-to-person contact between the caseworker and the client.
Acceptance of feelings, empathy, encouragement for expression of feelings, assurance,
clarification of ideas and situations, and giving of advice and information are some of the
techniques used in casework. These techniques of communication may sound to be rather
commonplace, but they are called techniques for the specific reason that they have to be
applied consciously and deliberately by the social worker for certain objectives. For example,
empathising as a technique is to be differentiated from the quality of sympathy. A person‟s
distress may evoke feelings of sympathy in an observer without any mental effort on the part
of the latter. On the other hand, an imaginative effort and an awareness of one's own feelings
are necessary for the exercise of empathy. A social worker cannot always rely on his own
feelings of sympathy to be a competent professional helper. Even in situations where
sympathy is not evoked, the social worker has to use empathy to be of help to the client.
Empathising and related techniques help towards developing a one-to-one relationship. In a
positive relationship, marked by an emotionally non-threatening atmosphere, the client feels
accepted despite his shortcomings and, as a result, the inner pressure to defend himself is
considerably reduced In such an emotional atmosphere the client is inclined to look at
himself, at others and at situations more objectively. An objective perception, separated from
subjective feelings, is the first step towards change of behaviour.
Besides these techniques of communication, there is another procedure, that of environmental
change. The caseworker makes efforts to deal with the client's environmental difficulties by
securing for him material resources. Social work agencies do not have the financial resources
to provide economic assistance to clients; but the social worker, with his knowledge of the
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larger community, is often able to locate the resources and services available outside the
agency and thus put the client in touch with these.
Three Roles of the Case Worker
The caseworker has three major roles:
Clinical/behavioural change role;
Role of the consultant/educator; and
The broker/ advocate role.
Some aspects of these roles have already been referred to in the previous paragraphs.
Clinical/behavioural change role
In the clinical/behavioural change role, the caseworker focuses his attention on those aspects
of the client's behaviour which cause stress to himself or others. As an educator, the
caseworker may impart information, transmit knowledge, give advice, correct perception or
explain situational factors which are hidden from the client's view.
Role of the consultant/educator
The caseworker may be required to give consultation to other social workers and
professionals from other disciplines and to provide social work practice instruction to
students of social work.
The advocate/broker role
The advocate/broker role is of two types. The first aspect, that is, the caseworker's
commitment to the individual client or family as regards locating resources and services for
meeting urgent material needs has been mentioned earlier. The second aspect of this role is
with reference to groups of clients who have the same kind of problem or handicap. Here the
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caseworker's task is to help them to organize themselves around their problem and to activate
them for collective action to find solutions to their common problem A For example, a
caseworker may have a number of mentally retarded children in his case load who do not
derive any benefit from the educational and other services provided for normal children. He
may help the parents of these retarded children to organize themselves in order to get
specialised services for their retarded children. Here the caseworker goes beyond the case-by-
case approach to the application of community organization methods for helping clients'
groups. Since many of the casework clients are from the lower socio-economic levels who
are plagued by problems of poor housing, unemployment, and inadequacy of medical and
educational services, the advocacy role becomes important. Traditionally, the caseworker has
been delivering the person-centered services. In addition to this task, the caseworker of today
has to be involved in system-centered activities or activities related to the impact of various
social systems on the lives of many clients. In addition to this task, the caseworker of today
has to be involved in system-centered activities or activities related to the impact of various
social systems on the lives of many clients. It implies that only a part of casework service is
confined to the office and the rest is community-based. The caseworker must know the
community he serves, its demographic characteristics, its power structure and problems. He
must be able to identify the needs of the community and work with the community to develop
resources.
One aspect of casework is prevention of problems. The focus in prevention is on the
influence of environmental systems in the causation of human problems. This aspect of
casework is compatible with the idea of system-oriented activity mentioned earlier arid the
major goal is making individuals and families resistant to problems. The family and school
are important social systems through which preventive efforts can be carried out. Sex
education, particularly for adolescents, premarital counseling and family life education are
programs geared to prevention which are within the field of operation of caseworkers. The
clientele here are not people characterized by problems for which they seek help but are
people who are being helped to prevent the development of certain problems.
Programs geared to crisis intervention have secondary benefits in terms of prevention. Even
though the primary goal is to provide instant social work services, at the time of a crisis,
prompt intervention prevents the problems from deteriorating. Furthermore, casework help is
given in such a way that it fosters the development of patterns of coping which will stand the
client in good stead in future crises.
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In order to understand the case situations of Indian clients, it is useful to refer to the
classification of factors (a classification which has been mentioned earlier) which lie beyond
people's abilities for problem solving. Most of the casework clientele belong to the lower
socio-economic levels. They bring problems which fall within the five-factor range, and
generally they bring more than one problem. Most have the common difficulty, namely, lack
of material resources, coupled with other predicaments. Caseworkers are often overwhelmed
by the prevalence of large scale poverty among their clientele. Never during the brief span of
the history of casework have caseworkers claimed that they had remedies for large scale
poverty and economic distress. While working with a poor person what the caseworker can
offer is a humane and understanding relationship and advocacy on his behalf to get the
necessary materials for the fulfillment of his basic needs. Caseworkers in cities, particularly
in Bombay, do succeed in
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Some authors have used practice base and have presented concepts in their own thinking.
G.B. Banerjee, one of the pioneers of professional social work in India, has contributed
considerably to Indian social work through her pooling material resources on behalf of
individual clients. But when there are many poverty stricken clients, the caseworker's success
in finding economic resources diminishes. There is a point of view, therefore that all social
work efforts should be geared to system-change rather than to individuals. Such a stance
cannot be accepted by the caseworker whose first commitment is to the individual.
Caseworkers also deal with situations other than those created by economic needs.
Furthermore, efforts by social workers alone cannot bring about changes within the social,
political and economic structures of the Indian society. Social workers, nevertheless, have a
responsibility as regards the advocacy role and to support the argument and social action in
favour of system-change.
Casework which is the oldest method in professional social work has been the centre of many
controversies. The main controversy has been around the question whether it is an effective
way of dealing with human problems. There have been arguments for and against casework,
without arriving at any conclusion. Casework is not the method suitable for all human
problems, but for certain problems no better method is available. Until a better and more
effective way is evolved, this method, embodying a personalized service, is going to stay.
Meaning of Psychosocial
The term “Psychosocial,” 1st used in 1899, means,
“Pertaining to mind and society”.
“Relating Social Conditions to Mental Health”. Merriam Webster Dictionary.
The term “psychosocial” is the combination of two words, “psycho” means “psychological”
and “social” means “relating to society, or the way in which people in groups behave and
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Each person and each family is unique and must be studied and listened to separately.
Knowledge from Psychology and Psychiatry
Psychology and psychiatry prevailed over social workers during WW-I up till 1950s.
During 1920‟s the sociological basis of social work was partially obscured by new ideas
of personality development, and emotional experiences etc.
Freud‟s thinking were particularly influencing.
Inner “weakness” was too often blamed for miseries or crises that were primarily social in
origin. Family and socioeconomic influence was downplayed.
Ego Psychology
All approaches in ego psychology broaden the psychosocial casework horizon. Particularly
defense mechanism of Anna Freud, Erikson‟s psychosocial developmental stages, Client
Centered therapy of Roger, and cognitive therapy are more important.
Ego Psychology:
Principles and Assumptions
1. People of all ages have the capacity to grow, learn, adapt and-at least to some degree-
modify their social and physical environment.
2. Psychological systems do not stand alone, but constantly interact with biological and social
systems.
3. People‟s behaviour develops within the context of many open systems interacting in
mutually causative ways. Change in one system inevitably creates changes in other systems.
4. Family system provides most significant context for personality growth and development.
Problems of fit among family members are mutual.
5. Families are also subjected to stresses that come from larger systems, including poverty,
racism, etc. the daily lives of many clients are pervaded by these forces.
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When the client is referred by some referring agency e.g. parents, school, court etc-in that
case the client‟s willingness to engage in work may be impeded.
Approaches to Intervention
The approaches to intervention include;
Psychosocial Study
Psychosocial Assessment
Psychosocial Intervention
1. Psycho-social Study
Gathering The Facts vs. Interpreting Facts
The primary emphasis in psychosocial casework is placed on understanding the client‟s
dilemmas and what has contributed to them. This understanding is called psychosocial
study.
It requires observation and gathering of accurate facts that are arranged in orderly
manner.
Often the bulk of data is obtained in early interviews.
Initial Interviews
Facts gathering begins as the worker elicits from clients their perception of problems, what
they think led up to it, how they have attempted to remedy it, what they believe might help
now, and what other people, agencies or systems are involved.
Additional Source of Information
Observations of the client‟s nonverbal behaviours and demeanour and the dynamic of the
client-worker relationships, usually prove useful. The goal is fact gathering, not
interpretation.
The psychosocial study of children requires collateral interviews with parents, teachers,
and other concerned.
Approaches to Intervention
Early Life History
Many problems in living emerge during the developmental phases of the individual and
family life cycle. Therefore early life history is also obtained for psychosocial study.
Psychosocial Assessment
Psychosocial assessment begins by thinking critically about the facts gather in
psychosocial study. The worker‟s task, now, is to conceptualize how the multiple
symptoms are interacting.
Assessment simultaneously addresses and formulates hypotheses about two major matters;
1. How and why a problem exists, and
2. Who and what is accessible to change.
Only after determining where we can enter the constellation of multiple systems, and
which system or systems are probably most amenable to change, can effective treatment
strategies be designed.
Assessment identifies points of access and evaluates the capacity, motivation, and
opportunity for change-of individual, the family, the social networks, and communities.
Psychosocial Intervention
Psychosocial treatment often uses a blend of individual, couple, family and environmental
modalities.
In work with symptomatic children, family members are often the most important
resources for change.
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Recap
Individual and his environment are intertwined. Changes in one bring changes in others. A
problem is the disequilibrium between individual and his environment. The worker‟s goal is
to work collaboratively with the client and find an optimal fit between individual and his
physical and social surroundings.
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3. Social Modeling:
This is based on the work of Albert Bandura, who thinks that most learning is a result of copying or
imitating what others do, i.e. vicarious learning. The social modeling theory emphasizes the
importance of external reinforcers, and allows learning to occur independently of reinforcement.
References
1. M. Richmond, Social Diagnosis, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1917.
2. The short history of American Casework presented here is based on an article by H.H.
Perlman. M.H. Perlman, "Social Casework" in H.K. Lurie (ed), Encyclopedia of Social
Work, National Association of Social Workers, New York, 1965.
3. H. H. Perlman, Social Casework: A Problem-solving Process, The University of Chicago
Press, Chicago, 1957.
4. J. Fischer, Effective Casework Practice, an eclectic approach, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1978.
7. Francis Turner, "Some Considerations on the Place of Theory" in Turner Francis (ed.),
Social Work Treatment, The Free Press, New York, 1974.
8. G.B. Banerjee, Papers on Social Work, An Indian Perspective, Tata Institute of Social
Sciences, Bombay, 1972.
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