Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
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Algeria
Studies in m o d e r n capitalism E t u d e s sur le capitalisme m o d e r n e
Essays by
PIERRE B O U R D I E U
Directeur
des E t u d e s en Sciences
Translated by R i c h a r d Nice
C a m b r i d g e University Press
Cambridge London New Y o r k Melbourne
O r i g i n a l F r e n c h version of E d i t i o n s de M i n u i t
O r i g i n a l F r e n c h version o f " T h e sense o f h o n o u r " a n d " T h e K a b y l e house"
© P i e r r e B o u r d i e u 1972
P r i n t e d in G r e a t B r i t a i n at the U n i v e r s i t y Press, C a m b r i d g e
Preface page
T h e disenchantment of the w o r l d 1
Introduction 1
1 Simple r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d cyclical time 8
2 C o n t r a d i c t o r y necessities and ambiguous conduct 30
3 Subjective hopes and objective chances 50
4 T h e economic conditions f o r t r a n s f o r m e d economic
dispositions 64
Conclusion 92
T h e sense of h o n o u r 95
T h e Kabyle house or the w o r l d reversed 133
Index
Preface
vii
viii Preface
P.B.
Paris
December 1976
F o r n o t h i n g i s m o r e c e r t a i n , t h a n t h a t d e s p a i r h a s a l m o s t t h e s a m e effect o n u s
w i t h e n j o y m e n t , a n d that we a r e no sooner w i t h the impossibility o f
satisfying a n y d e s i r e , t h a n the d e s i r e itself v a n i s h e s .
David Hume, Introduction to Treatise of Nature
Introduction
8
The disenchantment of the world 9
f
community compensated the owner and the meat was shared among the
6. T h e story is told of an aged K a b y l e w h o for the first time in his life r e a c h e d the s u m m i t
of a hill w h i c h m a r k e d the h o r i z o n of his village, a n d e x c l a i m e d : G o d , how great
y o u r w o r l d is." B e y o n d the h o r i z o n of the present begins the i m a g i n a r y w o r l d w h i c h
c a n n o t be connected with the u n i v e r s e of e x p e r i e n c e a n d w h i c h is therefore g o v e r n e d
by a quite different logic. T h i n g s that m i g h t a p p e a r a b s u r d or impossible if they w e r e
located in the field of e x p e r i e n c e can come about in other places remote in space a n d
time. T h i s is t r u e of the miracles of the saints; S i d i Y a h i a , w h o m a d e a s l a u g h t e r e d
ox stand u p , S i d i K a l i , w h o t u r n e d himself into a lion, S i d i M o u h o u b , w h o d i v i d e d a
f o u n t a i n to settle a dispute between two hostile clans, or Sidi M o u s s a , w h o caused olive
oil to g u s h f r o m a pillar. Different c r i t e r i a a p p l y to events o c c u r r i n g within the
h o r i z o n a n d to those in the l a n d of legends w h i c h begins at the b o u n d a r i e s of the
e v e r y d a y w o r l d . In the first case, the only guarantee is the evidence of one's senses,
o r short o f this, the authority o f someone k n o w n a n d trustworthy. T h e s e c o n d case
involves a u n i v e r s e in w h i c h , by definition, a n y t h i n g is possible; h e r e the c r i t e r i a a r e
m u c h less strict, a n d a n y affirmation c o n v e y e d by the general o p i n i o n will be
entertained.
7. J. D e s p a r m e t , reactions nationalitaires en Bulletin de la de
1933; see also " L a turcophilie en A l g e r i e " , ibid. 1916.
8. Desparmet, de la F r a n c e p a r les indigenes", ibid. 1910.
A l g e r i a 1960
30
The disenchantment of the world 31
C o n s c i o u s o f t h e e x c e s s o f m a n p o w e r a n d k n o w i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o b e a s little
i r r e p l a c e a b l e a s i t p o s s i b l e t o b e , m o s t l a b o u r e r s a n d office w o r k e r s h a v e n o o t h e r
c o n c e r n t h a n t o k e e p t h e i r j o b s , h o w e v e r d e t e s t a b l e t h e y m a y be. T h i s i s w h a t
emerges f r o m the litany of reasons given by some to explain the failure of their
s e a r c h for s o m e t h i n g better, a n d b y others t o e x p l a i n w h y they d o not b o t h e r
to search. I haven't looked anything because I wouldn't have
a n y t h i n g . I can't d o a n y t h i n g else; t o get w o r k , y o u n e e d e d u c a t i o n . W h e r e c a n
y o u find w o r k n o w a d a y s ? It's this j o b or n o t h i n g . O t h e r w i s e I starve." I haven't
got a t r a d e , that's w h a t my t r a d e is." F o r c e d a d h e r e n c e to a j o b to w h i c h no
statable r e a s o n attaches t h e m c a n only be understood in terms of the fear of
unemployment. Their whole attitude towards their jobs is contained in the
expression u s e d by a l a b o u r e r in course, I have to like it [my
A s t a r v i n g m a n w h o finds a b o n e says, is G i v e n the situation
of s t r u c t u r a l u n e m p l o y m e n t , the fact of h a v i n g a job, especially a r e g u l a r one,
r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g u n e m p l o y e d c a n n o t fail to be seen as a privilege.
40 A l g e r i a 1960
50
The disenchantment of the world 51
were realized that, like the effective solidarity it gives, the slim
advantages associated w i t h stability of employment are at the
mercy of accident, illness, a n d lay-offs, a n d that all that bourgeois
commentators (revolutionary or not) are quick to describe as signs
of embourgeoisement are first of all bulwarks raised against the
counter-attacks of poverty.
To those w h o have the of u n d e r g o i n g permanent
a n d " r a t i o n a l " e x p l o i t a t i o n a n d o f e n j o y i n g the corresponding
advantages also belongs the privilege of a t r u l y revolutionary
T h i s realistic a i m i n g at the f u t u r e is only
accessible to those w h o have the means to confront the present a n d
to look f o r ways of b e g i n n i n g to i m p l e m e n t t h e i r hopes, instead
of g i v i n g way to resigned surrender or to the magical impatience
of those w h o are too crushed by the present to be able to look to
a n y t h i n g other t h a n a Utopian f u t u r e (un an immediate,
magical negation of the present.
4 The economic conditions for
transformed economic dispositions
64
The disenchantment of the world 65
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The disenchantment of the world 77
sleep in separate rooms (only 14.6 per cent of the families still share
the same So one m i g h t expect to r e c o r d only statements
of b u t in fact o n l y 47 per cent of the respondents say
they are satisfied, w h i l e 38 per cent express various degrees of
discontent (the others r e m a i n i n g undecided).
Because r e h o u s i n g generally leads to the of large
families w h i c h the housing crisis forced to live together, w i t h the
family g r o u p t e n d i n g to be reduced to the couple, the n u m b e r of
employed persons per family In the o l d home, economic
e q u i l i b r i u m was usually based on a p l u r a l i t y of sources of income,
as against j o i n t expenditure, on both housing and f o o d . T h i s
balance is therefore endangered at the m o m e n t w h e n all types of
e x p e n d i t u r e , particularly those related to housing, increase
sharply. T h e average n u m b e r of persons in each family is 6.3: this
still very h i g h figure is m u c h lower t h a n that f o u n d in the survey
of the badly housed, 8.6. T h e difference looks even greater w h e n
it is borne in m i n d that the n u m b e r of c h i l d r e n is, officially, one
of the criteria d e t e r m i n i n g w h o should be T h e fall in
the average n u m b e r of persons is due to the fact that one section
of the w h i c h h a d been reconstituted u n d e r the
pressure of necessity has r e m a i n e d in the o l d d w e l l i n g w h i l e the
other section has come to live in the (municipal housing).
T h i s is c o n f i r m e d by the fact that the p r o p o r t i o n of nuclear
is m u c h greater in the rehoused sample in the sample
l i v i n g i n precarious
Seventy-seven per cent of the families contain one economically
5. An indication that u r b a n life a n d the life-style it imposes favour the progressive
disintegration of the e x t e n d e d family may be seen in the fact that average family size
is inversely related to the size of the city: 7.2 in 6.9 in C o n s t a n t i n e , a n d
5.2 in Algiers. T h i s is a c c o u n t e d for in part by a parallel decline in the average n u m b e r
of c h i l d r e n (Philippeville 4.06, C o n s t a n t i n e 3.08, A l g i e r s 2.95); but the fact r e m a i n s
that the ideal of the e x t e n d e d family is most distorted a n d most b u r d e n s o m e w h e r e
adaptation to u r b a n life is most developed.
6. Priority in r e h o u s i n g was given to those who w e r e badly housed but e a r n i n g a relatively
r e g u l a r a n d h i g h income. W e have seen that i n A l g e r i a the n u m b e r o f c h i l d r e n tends
to rise with income ( u p to a c e r t a i n threshold).
7. On the other h a n d , although the average n u m b e r of c h i l d r e n has fallen slighdy (3.29
p e r family instead of 3.83) because of the separation of couples previously living in
the same h o u s e h o l d , r e h o u s i n g a n d the a c c o m p a n y i n g i m p r o v e m e n t i n hygiene a n d
comfort have led to a decline in the infant mortality rate (as is s h o w n by c o m p a r i n g
the n u m b e r of c h i l d r e n w h o , a c c o r d i n g to the fertility tables, ought to h a v e been b o r n
after r e h o u s i n g with the actual n u m b e r of births). T h i s short-term increase in fertility
coincides, in the most privileged families, with the a p p e a r a n c e of a tendency towards
i n c r e a s e d birth control, one d i m e n s i o n of a total disposition w h i c h finds the conditions
for its realization in the new d w e l l i n g a n d the new life-style now possible.
78 A l g e r i a 1960
active person a n d 14.5 per cent two, a n d the average f o r the whole
sample is this compares w i t h 1.67 f o r the badly housed
families, 20 per cent of w h i c h contain three or m o r e active persons
(as against only 3 per cent here). T h i s tends to c o n f i r m that the
r e d u c t i o n of the domestic g r o u p m a i n l y results f r o m the family
h a v i n g shed a certain n u m b e r of adults w h o previously lived w i t h
it (generally the father, mother, or brothers of husband or wife).
T h i s p h e n o m e n o n has i m p o r t a n t consequences: in the o l d
d w e l l i n g , a very l o w r e n t was met by several adults of w o r k i n g
age, whereas now the considerably h i g h e r housing costs t e n d to
be s u p p o r t e d by a single wage packet. T h e whole of the o l d
e q u i l i b r i u m , based on p l u r a l i t y of incomes a n d j o i n t expenditure,
is jeopardized at the very m o m e n t w h e n expenses of all sorts are
increased.
In the badly housed sample (inhabitants of the Algiers Casbah
or the shanty the average n u m b e r of economically active
persons per family was relatively h i g h , especially in those cate-
gories where the wages of the head of the family are lowest, so that
they can only live by c o m b i n i n g several small wages (retired people,
labourers, tradesmen a n d craftsmen, and, to a lesser extent, service
staff). By f o r c i n g several heads of families to share the same
d w e l l i n g a n d necessitating the survival of the o l d solidarities, w h i c h
u r b a n life a n d the logic of the money economy had u n d e r m i n e d ,
the housing shortage has the paradoxical effect of enabling an
unexpected type of adaptation to take place: the real u n i t is not
the couple (le menage) but the (la and a
g r o u p i n g of individuals or couples p o o l i n g a n u m b e r of small
wages lives incomparably less badly t h a n each couple w o u l d on a
single wage. G r o u p solidarity provides each i n d i v i d u a l or couple
w i t h guarantees against material a n d psychological destitution: the
i r r e g u l a r i t y of t h e i r earnings is offset by f a m i l y m u t u a l aid and
confidence-based credit w h i c h ensure a m i n i m u m of regularity in
c o n s u m p t i o n despite the uncertainty of incomes a n d the absence
of r a t i o n a l calculation. T h u s , the a i d of pooled wages a n d
family allowances, 48 per cent of the families receive an income
of m o r e than 70,000 francs a m o n t h , a n d 72 per cent of t h e m m o r e
t h a n 50,000 francs. T h e i r expenses are relatively low (especially
w h e n compared to what they w i l l be in their new the r e n t
is generally fairly small; the shopkeepers in the o l d quarters of the
The disenchantment of the world 79
92
The disenchantment of the world 93
95
96 A l g e r i a 1960
I f I h a v e a c t e d w e l l , p r a i s e b e t o G o d (so m u c h t h e b e t t e r ) ,
If I have e r r e d , G o d forgive me.
it is the nature of the riposte that gives the challenge (or insult)
its m e a n i n g a n d even its status as a challenge or insult, as opposed
to mere aggression.
T h e Kabyles h a d an attitude towards the black peoples w h i c h
illustrates these analyses perfectly. A n y o n e w h o responded to
abuse f r o m a N e g r o , a m a n of lower status a n d bereft of h o n o u r ,
or w h o fought w i t h h i m , w o u l d have dishonoured A folk
tale of the D j u r d j u r a r e g i o n tells how, in the course of a war
between two tribes, one side set Negroes u p o n its opponents, w h o
immediately l a i d d o w n their weapons. B u t the defeated tribe
preserved its h o n o u r whereas the victors were d i s h o n o u r e d in their
victory. It is sometimes also said that, to escape b l o o d vengeance
plural one only h a d to j o i n up w i t h a black
B u t this was such dishonourable conduct that one w o u l d
do so even to save his life. A local t r a d i t i o n nonetheless has it that
an ancestor of the N e g r o butchers of ou Mechedal, the A t h
Chabane, was a Kabyle w h o t u r n e d butcher in o r d e r to escape
b l o o d vengeance a n d whose descendants c o u l d therefore only
m a r r y blacks
T h e rules of h o n o u r also used to govern fighting. Solidarity
r e q u i r e d every m a n to protect a k i n s m a n against a non-kinsman,
an against a m a n f r o m another faction fellow villager,
albeit f r o m a rival faction, against an outsider, a n d a fellow tribes-
m a n against a member of another tribe. B u t h o n o u r forbade
several m e n to fight against a single m a n ; a n d so countless devices
a n d pretexts had to be used in o r d e r to renew the q u a r r e l on one's
o w n behalf. T h u s the slightest q u a r r e l always threatened to w i d e n
in scope. T h e wars between the factions - political a n d m a r t i a l
leagues w h i c h were mobilized as soon as an incident arose or the
h o n o u r of the g r o u p was attacked in the h o n o u r of one of its
members - took the f o r m of a strictly regulated game, an o r d e r e d
c o m p e t i t i o n , w h i c h , far f r o m threatening social order, tended to
safeguard it by allowing the spirit of emulation, the p o i n t of
6. Of a m a n who takes thought for his h o n o u r , the Kabyles say: " H e is a Negro."
N e g r o e s do not have a n d do not n e e d any h o n o u r . T h e y w e r e kept out of public
though they m i g h t take part in some collective w o r k , they were not entitled to speak
in the assembly in some places they were not even allowed to attend. A tribe
w h i c h listened to the opinions of a N e g r o w o u l d have c o v e r e d itself with s h a m e in the
eyes of other tribes. K e p t outside the c o m m u n i t y or m a i n t a i n e d as clients of great
families, they c a r r i e d on occupations which were c o n s i d e r e d to be d e g r a d i n g , s u c h as
butcher, skin m e r c h a n t , or travelling musician Hichem).
The sense of honour
Choice 1 Choice 2
L a c k of riposte:
Attack on dishonour
self-esteem: Exchange
Challenge Riposte as challenge
potential
phase)
dishonour
(passive phase)
Refusal to riposte:
snub
Choice 1 Choice 2
Lack of counter-gift:
Self-esteem
dishonour
called into
Exchange
Gift question: Counter-gift continues
potential (active phase)
dishonour
phase) Refusal of gift or
refusal to make
counter-gift:
snub
as the camel's, so that when his words left his heart they w o u l d
have a l o n g way to go before they reached his tongue, and he w o u l d
have time to reflect." Such was the importance attached to the
promise a n d the pledge. m a n of says a
proverb, "is no man." He forgets, and he forgets himself
another saying is: eats his moustache." He forgets his
ancestors a n d the respect he owes t h e m a n d the respect he owes
himself in order to be w o r t h y of t h e m (the Issers).
A m a n w i t h o u t self-respect
is a m a n w h o exposes his i n n e r self, w i t h all its
passions a n d weaknesses. T h e wise man, by contrast, is one w h o
can keep his secret, w h o shows prudence a n d discretion at all times
(amresrur, amahruz w h o jealously keeps the Constant
watchfulness over oneself is necessary if one is to obey the
fundamental precept of the social code w h i c h forbids m a k i n g an
e x h i b i t i o n of oneself, and demands that, as far as possible, the
innermost personality, w i t h its uniqueness a n d i n d i v i d u a l i t y ,
should be kept u n d e r a veil of modesty a n d discretion. the
Devil says T Only the Devil begins w i t h The
assembly is the assembly; only the Jew is alone." A l l
these sayings express the same imperative: one w h i c h demands
the sacrifice a n d negation of the i n n e r self a n d is enacted b o t h
in the self-effacement r e q u i r e d by solidarity a n d m u t u a l help a n d
in the discretion a n d modesty of seemliness. T h e m a n incapable
of self-mastery, w h o shows impatience or anger, speaks recklessly
or laughs w i t h o u t reason, is precipitate or u n c o n t r o l l e d , acts
w i t h o u t t h i n k i n g , throws his weight about, shouts, vociferates
(elhamaq), in short, gives way to his first impulse, is a m a n
u n f a i t h f u l to himself, f a l l i n g short of the ideals of d i g n i t y ,
distinction, a n d modesty, virtues w h i c h are all summed up in one
w o r d , elhachma. By contrast, the m a n of h o n o u r is essentially loyal
to himself, concerned to live up to a certain ideal self-image.
Prudent, level-headed, restrained in his language, he always j
weighs the pros a n d cons as opposed to he w h o
flits, the m a n or achettah, he w h o dances); he pledges his
w o r d f r a n k l y and does not evade his responsibilities w i t h a
"perhaps", " w h o a reply that is fitting only for w o m e n .
He is the m a n w h o keeps his w o r d , to others a n d to himself, of
w h o m others say "he is a m a n a n d a w o r d " (argaz
The sense of honour 113
L a c k of riposte Dishonour
(failure of (social death)
Exile
NIF
Sacred of the left h a n d Sacred of the r i g h t h a n d
Female, femininity Male, virility
Woman, bearer of maleficent and M a n , b e a r e r of beneficent a n d
impure powers protective potency
L e f t , twisted Right, straight
Vulnerability Protection
Nakedness Enclosure, clothing
Inside Outside
T h e preserve of women: house, garden T h e preserve of assembly,
Closed, secret w o r l d o f i n t i m a t e life: mosque, fields, market
food, sexuality O p e n w o r l d o f p u b l i c life, o f social
a n d political exchanges
Nature Culture
W e t , w a t e r , etc. D r y , fire, etc.
T h e ethos of honour
T h e system of h o n o u r values is enacted rather t h a n t h o u g h t , a n d
the g r a m m a r of h o n o u r can i n f o r m actions w i t h o u t having to be
f o r m u l a t e d . T h u s , w h e n they spontaneously a p p r e h e n d a par-
ticular l i n e of conduct as d e g r a d i n g or ridiculous, the Kabyles are
in the same position as someone w h o notices a language mistake
w i t h o u t b e i n g able to state the syntactic system that has been
violated. Because the norms are r o o t e d in the category system of
the m y t h i c world-view, n o t h i n g is h a r d e r or, perhaps, m o r e
irrelevant t h a n the attempt to distinguish between the area directly
a n d clearly grasped by consciousness the area b u r i e d in the
unconscious. A single example will make the p o i n t . T h e m a n of
h o n o u r is the m a n w h o faces up w h o confronts others by
l o o k i n g t h e m in the face; qabel also means to receive someone as
a guest a n d to receive h i m w e l l , to do h i m h o n o u r . A p o p u l a r
etymology w h i c h , t r u e or not, is certainly significant finds the same
r o o t in the w o r d (masculine w h i c h designates the
the f e m i n i n e of the n o u n aqbayli, a Kabyle,
designates the Kabyle w o m a n , the Kabyle language, a n d also, so
to speak, the essence of the Kabyle, in other words Kabyle h o n o u r
a n d p r i d e . B u t qabel is also to face the east (elqibla) a n d the f u t u r e
(qabel). In the Kabyle m y t h i c o - r i t u a l system, the east stands in a
r e l a t i o n of h o m o l o g y w i t h the h i g h , the f u t u r e , day, the male, good,
the r i g h t - h a n d , the d r y , etc., a n d is opposed to the west a n d so
to the l o w , the past, n i g h t , the female, evil, the left-hand, the wet,
etc. A l l i n f o r m a n t s spontaneously give as the essential character-
istic of the m a n of h o n o u r the fact that he faces others, qabel; it
34. See A. Textes dans Algeria, accepts
this etymology.
The sense of honour 129
133
A l g e r i a 1960
Back door
Rifle
Wood
Lamp
Stable dishes
Kanun o
Net of green
Water
fodder Jars of grain
pitchers
Chests
(bench)
Threshold
43. F o r an analysis of the theoretical implications of the fact that the transformational rules
w h i c h p e r m i t the passage f r o m one space to the other c a n be related back to movements
of the body, see B o u r d i e u , Outline of a of Practice, pp.
44. In certain regions of the y o u n g bride, a n d a boy c i r c u m c i s e d at the time of
the same celebration, must cross paths on the threshold.
45. explains why the threshold is direcdy or associated with the rites
i n t e n d e d to b r i n g about a reversal of the course of events by c a r r y i n g out a reversal
of the basic oppositions: the rites to obtain r a i n or fine weather, for instance, or those
p e r f o r m e d on the threshold at the t u r n i n g points of the year (e.g. the night before
the first day of the solar year, w h e n c h a r m s a r e b u r i e d at the threshold).
152 A l g e r i a 1960
WEST
east,
spring
left autumn,
right
EAST
F i g . 2 . T h e d u a l space orientation o f the house
155
Index
0 521 22090 4