Textile – Fibre to Fabric Processing

P R Wadje, Non-member

This paper is an attempt to provide all basic information related to textile Industry – in the field of
manufacturing, purchasing, promoting, selling and so on. The study may also useful for intermediate level
employees engaged in different aspect of textile technology, consumers and home economists who need
sound guidance in the selection and care of textile products. This article covers comprehensive outline of
fibres and steps involved in conversion of fibre to variety of yarns, fabric manufacturing and wet processing
of fabric for value addition.

Keywords : Textile fibres; Combed yarns; Carded yarns; Rotor yarn; Warping; Sizing; Weaving; Colouringzation finishing

INTRODUCTION Weaving
Textile industry is one of the few basic industries, which is Weaving is the interlacing of warp and filling yarns
characterised as a necessary component of human life. One perpendicular to each other. There are practically an endless
may classify it as a more glamorous industry, but whatever it number of ways of interlacing warp and filling yarns. Each
is, it provides with the basic requirement called clothes. different way results a different fabric structure.
There are numerous kinds of fibres and other raw materials, Approximately 70% of the fabrics made in the world are
which are used to produce a cloth. This paper provides an woven fabrics. Figure 2 shows the diagram of woven fabrics.
insight about the basics of textiles and the terms that are
Braiding
used all around the world in context of textile industry.
Braiding is probably the simplest way of fabric formation. A
Regarding study of textile fabrics, meaning of the word
braided fabric is formed by diagonal interlacing of yarns.
textile must be made quite clear. The dictionary states that
Although there are two sets of yarns involved in the process,
the word is derived from the Latin word texere1 to weave, but
these are not termed as warps and fillings as in the case of
a wider meaning of weaving must be accepted since it is one
woven fabrics. Each set of yarns moves in an opposite
of the various ways to produce textile fabrics. The initial
direction. Braiding does not require shedding, filling
stage of textile manufacturing involves the production of the
raw material either by farmers who raise cotton, sheep,
silkworms, or flax or by chemists who produce fibre from
various basic substances by chemical processes. The fibre Polymer Plant animals
is spun into yarn, which is then converted into fabric in a
weaving or knitting mill. After dyeing and finishing, the woven Fibre spining
material is ready for delivery either directly to manufacturer
of textile products where they are finally stitched into
Fibre
clothes. The flow diagram of the fibre to fabric process is
shown in Figure 1.
Yarn spinning
Polymers2 are the resource for man-made fibres, which are
derived mostly from oil. Plant fibres and animal fibres
constitute the natural fibres. After the fabric is formed, it is Yarn
generally subjected to finishing and/or dyeing process, in
which the raw fabric properties are modified for the end use. Weaving, knitting,
METHODS OF FABRIC FORMING braiding, tufting
Non-woven
The most commonly used fabric forming methods are Fabric
weaving, braiding, knitting, felting, tufting and nonwoven
manufacturing. However, major method of fabric
construction is weaving.
P R Wadje is with the DKTE Society's Textile and Engineering
Institute, Ichalkaranji 416 115. Home furnishing Apparel Industrial use

This paper (modified) was received on March 25, 2009. Written

discussion on this paper will be entertained till October 31, 2009.
Figure 1 Material flow diagram for fibre to fabric process

28 IE(I) Journal-TX

Figure 2 Woven fabrics
insertion, and beat up. Figure 3 shows the diagram of braded
fabrics.
Knitting
Knitting refers to interloping of one yarn system into vertical
columns and horizontal rows of loops called wales and
courses, respectively. There are two main types of knitting:
weft knitting and warp knitting.
Tufting
Tufting is the process of manufacturing some categories of
carpets and similar structures. In this process surface yarn
system of loops is 'sewn' or 'stitched' through a primary
backing fabric, usually a woven or nonwoven fabric. The
loops are arranged in vertical columns (rows) and horizontal
lines (stitches). Loops can be in the form of cut or uncut
loops (piles) or a combination of thereof. The fabric is
usually back-coated in a later process to secure tufted
loops. Orientation of tuffed loops is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 3 Braided fabrics
Vol 90, August 2009
Figure 4 Tuffed loop
Bonding
Bonding is the method of manufacturing nonwovens using
textile, paper, extrusion, or combination of these
technologies, to form and bond polymers, fibres, filaments,
yarns or combination sheets into a flexible, porous
structure. In fact, some nonwoven products are subjected to
both textile and paper industry. Figure 5 shows the bonding
of nonoven fabric.
FIBRES
Fibres are the basic raw material for any textile industry,
technically which is defined as a unit of matter,
characterized by flexibility, fineness and a high length to
width ratio. Different kinds of fibres are used in textile
industry as raw material. Some of these fibres were well
known and used earlier as well as even today, while some
others have acquired importance in recent years. The
factors affecting the development and utilization of these
fibres include their ability to be spun, their availability in
sufficient quantity, the cost or economy of production and
the desirability of their properties to consumers. The
detailed classification of fibres is as shown in Figure 6.
INTRODUCTION TO YARNS
Primitive people discovered that a succession of short fibres
could be twisted into a continuous yarn. This was probably
accomplished slowly and laboriously at first, but due to
greater strength for the articles produced from continuous
yarns, it led to the development of better process of twisting
and spinning. Different methods are till used in various
underdeveloped parts of the world as well as by persons
interested in reviving artistic handicraft. At the same time, it
was necessary to invent simple methods of disentangling,
Figure 5 Bonding of nonwoven fabric
29
 Textile fibres Table 1 Classification of yarns
Group Sub Group Example

Natural fibres Man-made fibres Continuous Flat CFY Tape

filament yarns (untextured) twisted
(CFY)
Animal Vegetable Mineral Regenerated Synthetic Inorganic
fibres fibres fibres fibres fibres fibres Textured yarns False twisted
Stuffer box
Glass Air jet
Hair Cellulosic Protein metals
Secretion Staple spun yarns Carded ring yarn
fibres fibres
Combed ring yarn
Polyamides worsted
Wool Silk Vegetable Animal polyesters
mohair fibres Seed Bast Leaf Fruit sources sources polyolefins woolen
fibres fibres fibres fibres
polyvinyls
Rotor spun
polyurethanes
Cotton Jute Sisal Coir Zein Casein
peanut
Compact ring yarn
Kapok hemp pine-
linen apple Air-jet spun
ramie
Friction spun

Pure Modified Misc

cellulosic
Viscose
polynosic
cupra
Figure 6 Detailed classification of fibre
separating, and arranging the fibres according to their
length, other than by just using the fingers. Thus, crude
methods of carding were invented to separate the fibres
according to their length of staple. Eventually, techniques
were refined. In time, long filament strands unwounded from
silk cocoons, and still later, filaments formed by chemical
synthesis were made into yarns. Now yarns are also made
by integrating the staple and filament fibres.
TYPE OF YARN
cellulosic Process Sequence in Weaving
Weaving process contains these steps warping, sizing and
Tricel/ Alginate final weaving. The flow diagram of weaving process is shown
dicel
in Figure 7.
Warping
This process is also known as beaming. A beam contains
large number of individual threads parallel to each other. The
resulting package is a warper's beam.
Sizing
It is the heart of weaving. In the sizing process, coating of a
starch based adhesive is applied to the sheet of yarn to
improve its weavability. Sizing increases yarn strength,
reduces hairiness, which minimize the abrasion that occur
between the warp thread and various parts of the loom.

A textile yarn is an assembly of substantial length and Weaving

relatively small cross section of fibres and or filaments with A woven cloth consists of two sets of yarns namely warp and
or without twist. Yarns can be classified in two major weft. The yarns that are placed lengthwise or parallel to the
categories as shown in Table 1. selvedge of the cloth are called warp yarn and the yarns that
WEAVING PREPARATION run crosswise are called weft yarns. Each thread in the weft
is called a pick3.
Introduction to Weaving
BASIC MOTIONS IN WEAVING
The technique of fabric forming probably became known to
mankind before spinning. Primitive people may have Every loom requires three primary motion to produce woven
observed the interlaced grasses and twigs in the nests of fabric.
birds and thus discovered the way to make clothing for Shedding
themselves, baskets and nets, thatch like huts and fences
This process refers to separate the warp threads into two
using such materials as grass, leaves, twig, branches etc.
layers. One layer is raised and other lowered.
Spinning developed later when people discovered that the
raw material could be improved before they were woven. In
course of time, rude looms were made, which were crudely
Cone/cheese warping Sizing [weaver's Weaving [cloth
simple and hand operated. The modern looms used in the beam] roller beam]
[Warper's beam]
textile industry today essentially performs the same [Warper's beam] [Weavers' beam]
operations as the simple hand operated loom. (but in much
sophisticated manner). Figure 7 Flow diagram weaving process

30 IE(I) Journal-TX
Picking
This process refers to insert a weft thread across the warp
ends through the shed.
Beat-up
This process referes to push the weft thread that has been
inserted across the warp ends upto the cloth fell.
Besides the three main basic motions in weaving, there are
other two subsidiary motions necessary for continuous
weaving which are termed as secondary motion.
Take Up
This is the motion to pull the cloth forward after the beat-up
of weft, maintaining the same pick density and spacing
throughout weaving of a cloth and winding the woven cloth on
to a roller.
Let-off
This motion allow the warp to unwind from the warp beam
during weaving and also maintain an average constant
tension of warp as it weaves down.
In order to produce a good quality of cloth and to prevent
damages, it is necessary to have some stop motions
provided on the loom. which are termed as auxiliary
motions.
Warp Protector
This motion protect the warp threads by stopping the loom
when the shuttle fails to reach, the selvedge side and box
properly into either the shuttle box during picking.
Warp Stop
This auxiling motion to able to stop the loom when a warp
thread breaks or get excessively loosened.
Weft Stop
This motion able to stop the loom when a weft breaks or the
weft runs out of the pirn (weft package).
Temple
This motion holds the cloth firmly at the fell to assist the
formation of a uniform width cloth.
TYPES OF LOOM
Weaving of yarn into a fabric is performed on a weaving
machine which has also been called a loom. Looms can be
classified in two categories. Shuttle loom and Shuttleless
loom.
Shuttle Loom
l Circular loom.
In shuttle looms, winding of weft yarn on pirns and picking
and checking of shuttle, which carries the pirns, are
common feature, which limits the speed of the looms.
Disadvantages of shuttle loom are as follows.
Smaller weft package, that require frequent replenishment.
Limited scope for increase in speed and performance.
Noise and performance.
Space and workers required for weft pirn winding.
Complicated mechanism on Multi-colour loom.
Shuttleless Loom
Shuttleless looms can be classified in six major groups.
Four classification of the some in shown in Figure 8.
Projectile Weaving
This machine contains a bullet like shuttle, which is 90 mm
long and weighs 40 g, technically termed as gripper
projectile, which draws the weft thread into the warp shed
from a large, stationary cross-wound package always from
the same side5.
Features of Projectile Weaving Machine
l The gripper projectile are made from fine steel, 90 mm
long, 14 mm wide and 6 mm thickness, weighs 40 g.
l The weft is drawn directly from a large, stationary
cross wound package, where as weft winding is
absent.
l During its flights through the shed, the projectile runs
in a rake like steel guide, so that warp threads are
touched neither by the projectile nor weft threads.
l Weft insertion rate ranges from 900 m/min to
1500 m/min.
Shuttleles loom
Projectile Rapier Flued Multi Circular Triaxial
weaving jet phase weaving weaving
weaving
Water Air-jet

These are mainly four types of shuttle looms.

l Hand loom,
Single Multi-jet
l Non-automatic power looms, jet (relay)
l Automatic power loom, Figure 8 Classification of shuttleless loom

Vol 90, August 2009 31

 l Sulzer projectile weaving machine available in two- Tip Transfer Dewas System
four colour versions with working width of 190 cm to
The end of weft is directly transferred from one side of the
390 cm.
rapier to the other side at the time of proper shed opening.
l The upgraded version of machine is P7200 where as
Air-jet Weaving
the model P7100 is with central microprocessor
control. Weft Insertion by means of airjet has made a major break
through in the early 70s and its importance is increasing
l On P7200 model, weft insertion rate is 1500 mpm
further being of its ability to weave a wide range of fabrics at
(3.92 m x 400 rpm)
a very high weft insertion rate of about 2000 m/min. The
Rapier Weaving width restriction7 is about 150 cm for a single jet with
confuser can be overcomed by a relay jet principle.
Rapier weaving machine produces versatile range of fabrics
from outerwear fabrics to sophisticated label weaves6. Different systems of air-jet weaving are as follows
Rapier looms are classified as shown in Figure 9.
(a) Single nozzle with confuser type guide.
Single Rapier
(b) Multiple nozzle with guide.
The weft is inserted during rapier insertion, and the weft put
(c) Multiple nozzle with profile reed.
in the shed during rapier insertion.
The most commonly used air jet weaving process is the
Advantage
multiple nozzle with profile read.
Problem of weft transfer does not arise and normal range of
Water Jet Weaving
fabric can be woven.
Water jet weaving machine has limitation, since only
Disadvantage
hydrophobic (water-insensitive) yarns can be woven8. But
One movement of rapier is wasted. these machines have been successful in the filament area
as it is a low cost machine with low level of energy
Loom speed is very slow. The maximum weft insertion rate
consumption, characterised with simple maintenance
is 400 m/min.
feature.
Double Rapier
Multi-phase Weaving
(i) These looms work on bilateral principle of rapier
Within the last decade, Sulzer textile has developed a new
insertion. Two rapiers are used for insertion of a full
multi-phase weaving machine called M8300 multi linear
pick in each shed. Both the rapiers enter
shed. M8300 is a multiphase air-jet weaving machine in
simultaneously in the same shed from opposite
which four picks are inserted simultaneously. It has a filling
ends-one from the giver end with a weft thread and
insertion rate9 of over 5000 m/min. Figure 10 shows the
other from the taker end in empty condition.
filling insertion rate for different weaving processes10.
(ii) The weft is transferred from the giver to the taker.
Single phase air-jet loom having 190 cm width typically
Weft Insertion Principle weaves 23 m of fabric/h. However, M8300 multi-phase loom
Loop Transfer Gabler System produces 69 m of fabric for the same width during the same
time.
The weft is taken by the giver rapier from supply package in
loop form. Triaxial Weaving
In this machine, two warp and one weft yarn systems are
interwoven at an angle of 60o. The two warp yarn systems
Rapier loom are taken from series of (six) rotating warp beam located

M8300 multi-phase
Number of Weft insertion Rigidity of rapier machine, 1995
rapier Principle Air-jet weaving
machine, 1980s
Shuttle weaving
machine, 1860s
Hand loom
Single Double Biphase Twin
4000 years ago in
Egypt
Gabler Dewas Rigid Flexible 200 2000 5000
Filling insertion rate, m/min
Figure 9 Classification of rapier loom Figure 10 Major breakthroughs in filling insertion rates

32 IE(I) Journal-TX
above the weaving machine. The result is interlacing of warp Different sequences in fabric wet processing briefly discuss
yarn at an angle of 60o. After leaving the warp beams, the as follows.
warp ends are separated into two layers and brought
vertically down into interlacing zone. Grey Stitching

The weft is inserted by two rigid rapier with tip transfer at the
centre of shed.
Development of equipment to produce biaxially woven fabric
is done by Barbar Colman Company, USA.
Circular Weaving
Same surface stitched together to make it continuous.
Shearing and Cropping
This process is employed to remove the unevenness
present on the surface of the fabric so as to attain even
surface for further processing.

Circular weaving machines are not frequent in the textile Singeing

industry due to the lack of flexibility in the fabric width and
narrow range of options. Only sacks and tubes are woven on
circular weaving machines. In this machine, weft revolves in
a circular path.
WET PROCESSING OF FABRICS
The wet processing is a term that involves the mechanical
and chemical treatment to improve the aesthetic value of the
fabric, yarn, fibre.
The wet processing sector can be divided into three distinct
sections.
1) Preparation process or preparatory process.
2) Colouration process.
3) Finishing process.
The singeing process is carried out for the purpose of
removing the loose hairy fibres protruding from the surface of
the cloth as well as from the interstices fibres of yarn that
are burnt away with the help of gas flame, directly impinging
on the fabric resulting in giving smooth, even and clean
looking face.
There are three types of singeing machines:
1. Plate singeing machine.
2. Roller singeing machine.
3. Gas singeing machine.
The most commonly used machine is gas singeing
machine.

The general process sequence followed for the fabric wet
processing is shown in Figure 11.
Gray cloth inspection and stitching
Objects of Singeing
1. To provide smooth and even surface for fine prints.
2. To reduce the pilling tendency.
3. To reduce the fuzzy appearance of the fabric.

Shearing and cropping Desizing

Sizes are applied to the warp yarns of the woven fabrics to
Singeing
assist the weaving process but must be removed prior to
dyeing or printing. This process of removing the starch from
Preparation Desizing the fabric is called desizing. Cellulosic and Synthetic fabrics
processes
contain sizes to some extent, whereas knitted fabric does
Scouring not contain sizes.

Bleaching
Sizing is a necessary operation in which the cotton warps
are sized to withstand the stress and strains during weaving.
The size is applied depending upon the type of yarn, ie,
Mercerisation
coarse or fine or the type of twist S or Z.
Dyeing Printing To make the wet processing more efficient, desizing
Colouration treatment is applied which removes the size content from
processes
Finishing the fabric. Starches and waxes present in the size paste
Finishing forms a hydrophobic film on the surface of the fabric which
process hinders the further processing such as dyeing, printing. The
improvement in Folding methods available for desizing are classified in Figure 12.
Packing
appearance,
feel, aesthetic
Mostly accepted desizing technique in textile industry are
value
enzymatic desizing as it is very safe and does not cause
Figure 11 Sequential processes for fabric wet processing any damage to the fabric.

Vol 90, August 2009 33

 Desizing The bleaching process must ensure.
* a pure and permanent whiteness
* level dyeing properties (there should be no variation
Hydrolytic Oxidative
in bleaching)
* there should not be any loss in tensile strength due
to degradation of cellulose
* eco-friendly bleaching should be preferred
Rot Enzymatic Acid Chloring Chlorite Bromide Mercerisation
sleeping
This process is named after John Mercer in the year 1884.
Figure 12 Classification of desizing
The main purpose of mercerization is to increases dyeability
Scouring of cotton fabrics and study the effects of strong caustic dye
on cotton. The process is carried out with 118% to 20%
Scouring is the next process after desizing in which the
caustic soda at 20oC to 24oC.
water insoluble impurities, the natural fats and waxes
present in the fabric are removed. This provides a greater Objectives of mercerisation are as follows.
cleaning action to remove the soiling and staining developed * To impart luster.
during transportation or storage of the goods. Due to the
removal of these impurities, the absorbency of the fabric * To impart dimensional stability.
increases to the greater extent, which facilitates further * To improve the strength.
processing functions.
* To increase the capability to accept dye.
There are two methods come into account, which are, alkali
scouring and solvent scouring. * To make the fabric more absorbent.
Normally, alkali scouring is the mostly accepted process * To give soft handle.
and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is applied as alkali. The mercerization process is classified as:
Bleaching Caustic Mercerisation
The scouring process of cotton removes waxes, but other
* Cold mercerisation
majority of impurities leaving behind the natural colouring
matter. In such situation, bleaching completes the * Hot mercerisation.
purification of fibre by ensuring the complete decolourisation Liquor Ammonia Mercerisation
of colouring matter. A general classification of bleaching
agents is shown in Figure 13. Dyeing and Printing
Textiles are usually coloured to make them attractive and
beautiful. They would appear extremely dull in the absence
Bleaching agents of colour. There are two ways of adding colour to a textile
substrate, ie, printing and dyeing.
Printing is a process in which a multicolour effect is
produced on the textile at discrete places where as dyeing
Oxidative Reductive completely covers the substrate with colour. The
bleaching agents bleaching agents substances used to colour the textiles can be classified as
dyes or pigments.
Methods of Dyeing
Batchwise processes: The machine used in this process is
Peroxide system Hypochlorite jigger, jet dyeing machine
system Sulphur dioxide
Continuous processes: These methods are specified by
continuous dyeing range. The basic units for continious
Hydrogen peroxide process are padding, steaming, dry heat treatment and
pottassium soaping.
permanganate
peracetic acid Quality of Dyeing
Figure 13 General classification of bleaching agents The major requirements for dyed goods are evenness of

34 IE(I) Journal-TX
dyeing, desired fastness value and brightness of colours.
Process controls are necessary to achieve these objectives.
Printing
Printing results multi coloured design effects on textiles.
The most economical multicoloured effects on textiles can
also be produced by combining dyed fabrics or woven and
knitted fabrics using coloured yarn, but the effects are
restricted to simple geometrical designs. In printing, there
is no restriction to the designer and all types of fabrics in any
yarn, pliers or fabrics can be printed. Printing can be
combined with white as well dyed fabric grounds. Broadly,
printing can be classified into these group.
Flat Bed Screen Printing
The fabric is printed with the first screen and passes to the
next screen. In this process all the screens for the design
(one screen for each colour) are positioned accurately along
the top of the long endless belt, known as a blanket.
Rotary Screen Printing
In rotary screen printing, continuous rotation of a cylindrical
screen while in contact with the fabric ensures genuinely
continuous printing. The print paste is fed inside of the
screen. During printing it is forced out through the design
area with the acid of a stationary squeeze.
Heat Transfer Printing
In this case the paper is printed, first and then it is
transferred to the fabric at high temperature simply by
sublimating the disperse dye.
Printing of textiles also contain various styles which can be
classified as follows.
Direct Style of Printing
In this style, the print paste is directly applied either by roller
or screen and desired motifs with different colours can be
obtained. This style is generally applied for all type of print
motifs irrespective of no. of colours, coverage of the print
paste and the cost.
Discharge Style of Printing
In this style, generally the fabric is dyed all over with any
class of the dye and after drying, the same is printed with
certain chemicals which destroy or discharge the dyed
colour in the printed portion, which is responsible in giving
white portion in the dyed ground. This is called as white
discharge effect or style. If a dye which is resistant to the
above chemicals in the print paste is incorporated, the
coloured effect instead white can be obtained and is termed
as coloured discharge on dyed ground. The chemicals
which destroy or discharge the colour in the printed portion
is called as 'discharging agent'. The dyed colour must have
good dischargeability whereas a dye in the printed portion
(for getting coloured discharge) must have no
dischargeability property.
Vol 90, August 2009
Resist Style of Printing
In this style, the printing is carried out first with certain
chemicals, called as resisting agents and dyeing
afterwards. The resisting agents resist for the development
of the colour in the printed portion and produced a white
effect. If coloured effect is needed, a dye which is resistant
to this resisting chemical must be incorporated in the
printing paste and dyeing follows. In this case, a coloured
resist effect is obtained.
Generally discharge and resist styles of printing are applied
to the fabric motifs where heavy blocks are used wherein
shrinkage of the fabric after printing and cost of the direct
style of printing will be very high and hence discharge and
resist style of printing is used.
Finishing
Textile finishing covers an extremely wide range of activities,
which are performed on textiles before they reach the final
customer. The term finishing includes all the mechanical
and chemical processes employed commercially to improve
the acceptability of the product. The finishing can be
categorised as mechanical finishing and chemical finished.
Mechanical Finishing
This can be further subdevided as calandering and napping.
Calendering
The process referes to compression of fabric between two
heavy rollers to provide a smooth appearance and the fabric
surface.
Napping and Shearing
This process essentially consists surface shearing and cut
the raised naps to a uniform height.
Chemical Finising
As the name implies, this process refers to application of
chemicals. These are eight methods for chemical finishing.
1. Water repellency.
2. Flame retardancy.
3. Resin finishing anticrease, wash-n-wear, durable press
(permanent pleating).
4. Softening (handle modification).
5. Oil and soil repellency.
6. Antistatic finishes.
7. Anti-microbial finish.
8. Both proofing and insect damage.
CONCLUSION
Textile materials are of interest to everyone, which play the
most important part in human civilization. As a result, today
there are wide variety of textile materials pertaining to wide
35
application, further improvements can also be anticipated
perhaps at a rate, greater than ever before.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author wishes to express his sincere thanks to Prof S K
Laga, D K T E Society's Textile and Engineering Institute,
Ichalkaranji, Prof. (Dr) P A Koli, Department of Economics,
Shivaji University, Kolhapur, Prof (Dr) C D Kane, Prof (Dr) A I
Wasif, Prof (Dr) P V Kadole for their encouragement and
moral support for writing this paper.
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Delhi, p 67.
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3. Dr M K Talukdar and Prof D B Ajgaonkar. 'GS-India, Weaving
Machines, Mechanism, Management'. Mahajan Publishers Private
Limited, p 4.
36
4. 'NCUTE Pilot Programme organized by DKTE's Textile and Engineering
Institute'. Weaving II Shuttleless Looms, October 7-9, 1999,
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5. Dr M K Talukdar and Prof D B Ajgaonkar. 'GS-India, Weaving
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7. Dr M K Talukdar and Prof D B Ajgaonkar. 'GS-India, Weaving
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Machines, Mechanism, Management'. p 4 'Handbook of Weaving' Sabit
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Lancaster-Basel, p 293.
10. S Adanur. 'Handbook of Weaving'. Technomic Publishing Co.Inc.,
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