1

The Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

Shockley diodes are curious devices, but rather limited in application. Their usefulness
may be expanded, however, by equipping them with another means of latching. In
doing so, each becomes true amplifying devices (if only in an on/off mode), and we
refer to these as silicon-controlled rectifiers, or SCRs.

The progression from Shockley diode to SCR is achieved with one small addition,
actually nothing more than a third wire connection to the existing PNPN structure:
(Figure below)

The Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

If an SCR's gate is left floating (disconnected), it behaves exactly as a Shockley diode.

It may be latched by breakover voltage or by exceeding the critical rate of voltage
rise between anode and cathode, just as with the Shockley diode. Dropout is
accomplished by reducing current until one or both internal transistors fall into cutoff
mode, also like the Shockley diode. However, because the gate terminal connects
directly to the base of the lower transistor, it may be used as an alternative means to
latch the SCR. By applying a small voltage between gate and cathode, the lower
transistor will be forced on by the resulting base current, which will cause the upper
transistor to conduct, which then supplies the lower transistor's base with current so
that it no longer needs to be activated by a gate voltage. The necessary gate current
to initiate latch-up, of course, will be much lower than the current through the SCR
from cathode to anode, so the SCR does achieve a measure of amplification.

This method of securing SCR conduction is called triggering, and it is by far the most
common way that SCRs are latched in actual practice. In fact, SCRs are usually
chosen so that their breakover voltage is far beyond the greatest voltage expected to
be experienced from the power source, so that it can be turned on only by an
intentional voltage pulse applied to the gate.

It should be mentioned that SCRs may sometimes be turned off by directly shorting
their gate and cathode terminals together, or by "reverse-triggering" the gate with a
negative voltage (in reference to the cathode), so that the lower transistor is forced
into cutoff. I say this is "sometimes" possible because it involves shunting all of the
upper transistor's collector current past the lower transistor's base. This current may
be substantial, making triggered shut-off of an SCR difficult at best. A variation of the
SCR, called a Gate-Turn-Off thyristor, or GTO, makes this task easier. But even with a
GTO, the gate current required to turn it off may be as much as 20% of the anode
 2

(load) current! The schematic symbol for a GTO is shown in the following illustration:
(Figure below)

The Gate Turn-Off thyristor (GTO)

SCRs and GTOs share the same equivalent schematics (two transistors connected in a
positive-feedback fashion), the only differences being details of construction designed
to grant the NPN transistor a greater β than the PNP. This allows a smaller gate
current (forward or reverse) to exert a greater degree of control over conduction from
cathode to anode, with the PNP transistor's latched state being more dependent upon
the NPN's than vice versa. The Gate-Turn-Off thyristor is also known by the name of
Gate-Controlled Switch, or GCS.

A rudimentary test of SCR function, or at least terminal identification, may be

performed with an ohmmeter. Because the internal connection between gate and
cathode is a single PN junction, a meter should indicate continuity between these
terminals with the red test lead on the gate and the black test lead on the cathode
like this: (Figure below)

Rudimentary test of SCR

All other continuity measurements performed on an SCR will show "open" ("OL" on
some digital multimeter displays). It must be understood that this test is very crude
and does not constitute a comprehensive assessment of the SCR. It is possible for an
SCR to give good ohmmeter indications and still be defective. Ultimately, the only way
to test an SCR is to subject it to a load current.
 3

If you are using a multimeter with a "diode check" function, the gate-to-cathode
junction voltage indication you get may or may not correspond to what's expected of
a silicon PN junction (approximately 0.7 volts). In some cases, you will read a much
lower junction voltage: mere hundredths of a volt. This is due to an internal resistor
connected between the gate and cathode incorporated within some SCRs. This
resistor is added to make the SCR less susceptible to false triggering by spurious
voltage spikes, from circuit "noise" or from static electric discharge. In other words,
having a resistor connected across the gate-cathode junction requires that a strong
triggering signal (substantial current) be applied to latch the SCR. This feature is
often found in larger SCRs, not on small SCRs. Bear in mind that an SCR with an
internal resistor connected between gate and cathode will indicate continuity in both
directions between those two terminals: (Figure below)

Larger SCRs have gate to cathode resistor.

"Normal" SCRs, lacking this internal resistor, are sometimes referred to as sensitive
gate SCRs due to their ability to be triggered by the slightest positive gate signal.

The test circuit for an SCR is both practical as a diagnostic tool for checking suspected
SCRs and also an excellent aid to understanding basic SCR operation. A DC voltage
source is used for powering the circuit, and two pushbutton switches are used to latch
and unlatch the SCR, respectively: (Figure below)

SCR testing circuit

 4

Actuating the normally-open "on" pushbutton switch connects the gate to the anode,
allowing current from the negative terminal of the battery, through the cathode-gate
PN junction, through the switch, through the load resistor, and back to the battery.
This gate current should force the SCR to latch on, allowing current to go directly from
cathode to anode without further triggering through the gate. When the "on"
pushbutton is released, the load should remain energized.

Pushing the normally-closed "off" pushbutton switch breaks the circuit, forcing current
through the SCR to halt, thus forcing it to turn off (low-current dropout).

If the SCR fails to latch, the problem may be with the load and not the SCR. A certain
minimum amount of load current is required to hold the SCR latched in the "on" state.
This minimum current level is called the holding current. A load with too great a
resistance value may not draw enough current to keep an SCR latched when gate
current ceases, thus giving the false impression of a bad (unlatchable) SCR in the test
circuit. Holding current values for different SCRs should be available from the
manufacturers. Typical holding current values range from 1 milliamp to 50 milliamps
or more for larger units.

For the test to be fully comprehensive, more than the triggering action needs to be
tested. The forward breakover voltage limit of the SCR could be tested by increasing
the DC voltage supply (with no pushbuttons actuated) until the SCR latches all on its
own. Beware that a breakover test may require very high voltage: many power SCRs
have breakover voltage ratings of 600 volts or more! Also, if a pulse voltage
generator is available, the critical rate of voltage rise for the SCR could be tested in
the same way: subject it to pulsing supply voltages of different V/time rates with no
pushbutton switches actuated and see when it latches.

In this simple form, the SCR test circuit could suffice as a start/stop control circuit for
a DC motor, lamp, or other practical load: (Figure below)

DC motor start/stop control circuit

Another practical use for the SCR in a DC circuit is as a crowbar device for
overvoltage protection. A "crowbar" circuit consists of an SCR placed in parallel with
the output of a DC power supply, for placing a direct short-circuit on the output of
that supply to prevent excessive voltage from reaching the load. Damage to the SCR
and power supply is prevented by the judicious placement of a fuse or substantial
series resistance ahead of the SCR to limit short-circuit current: (Figure below)
 5

Crowbar circuit used in DC power supply

Some device or circuit sensing the output voltage will be connected to the gate of the
SCR, so that when an overvoltage condition occurs, voltage will be applied between
the gate and cathode, triggering the SCR and forcing the fuse to blow. The effect will
be approximately the same as dropping a solid steel crowbar directly across the
output terminals of the power supply, hence the name of the circuit.

Most applications of the SCR are for AC power control, despite the fact that SCRs are
inherently DC (unidirectional) devices. If bidirectional circuit current is required,
multiple SCRs may be used, with one or more facing each direction to handle current
through both half-cycles of the AC wave. The primary reason SCRs are used at all for
AC power control applications is the unique response of a thyristor to an alternating
current. As we saw, the thyratron tube (the electron tube version of the SCR) and the
DIAC, a hysteretic device triggered on during a portion of an AC half-cycle will latch
and remain on throughout the remainder of the half-cycle until the AC current
decreases to zero, as it must to begin the next half-cycle. Just prior to the zero-
crossover point of the current waveform, the thyristor will turn off due to insufficient
current (this behavior is also known as natural commutation) and must be fired again
during the next cycle. The result is a circuit current equivalent to a "chopped up" sine
wave. For review, here is the graph of a DIAC's response to an AC voltage whose
peak exceeds the breakover voltage of the DIAC: (Figure below)

DIAC bidirectional response

With the DIAC, that breakover voltage limit was a fixed quantity. With the SCR, we
have control over exactly when the device becomes latched by triggering the gate at
any point in time along the waveform. By connecting a suitable control circuit to the
 6

gate of an SCR, we can "chop" the sine wave at any point to allow for time-
proportioned power control to a load.

Take the circuit in Figure below as an example. Here, an SCR is positioned in a circuit
to control power to a load from an AC source.

SCR control of AC power

Being a unidirectional (one-way) device, at most we can only deliver half-wave power
to the load, in the half-cycle of AC where the supply voltage polarity is positive on the
top and negative on the bottom. However, for demonstrating the basic concept of
time-proportional control, this simple circuit is better than one controlling full-wave
power (which would require two SCRs).

With no triggering to the gate, and the AC source voltage well below the SCR's
breakover voltage rating, the SCR will never turn on. Connecting the SCR gate to the
anode through a standard rectifying diode (to prevent reverse current through the
gate in the event of the SCR containing a built-in gate-cathode resistor), will allow the
SCR to be triggered almost immediately at the beginning of every positive half-cycle:
(Figure below)

Gate connected directly to anode through a diode; nearly complete half-wave current
through load.

We can delay the triggering of the SCR, however, by inserting some resistance into
the gate circuit, thus increasing the amount of voltage drop required before enough
gate current triggers the SCR. In other words, if we make it harder for electrons to
flow through the gate by adding a resistance, the AC voltage will have to reach a
 7

higher point in its cycle before there will be enough gate current to turn the SCR on.
The result is in Figure below.

Resistance inserted in gate circuit; less than half-wave current through load.

With the half-sine wave chopped up to a greater degree by delayed triggering of the
SCR, the load receives less average power (power is delivered for less time
throughout a cycle). By making the series gate resistor variable, we can make
adjustments to the time-proportioned power: (Figure below)

Increasing the resistance raises the threshold level, causing less power to be
delivered to the load. Decreasing the resistance lowers the threshold level, causing
more power to be delivered to the load.

Unfortunately, this control scheme has a significant limitation. In using the AC source
waveform for our SCR triggering signal, we limit control to the first half of the
waveform's half-cycle. In other words, it is not possible for us to wait until after the
wave's peak to trigger the SCR. This means we can turn down the power only to the
point where the SCR turns on at the very peak of the wave: (Figure below)
 8

Circuit at minimum power setting

Raising the trigger threshold any more will cause the circuit to not trigger at all, since
not even the peak of the AC power voltage will be enough to trigger the SCR. The
result will be no power to the load.

An ingenious solution to this control dilemma is found in the addition of a phase-

shifting capacitor to the circuit: (Figure below)

Addition of a phase-shifting capacitor to the circuit

The smaller waveform shown on the graph is voltage across the capacitor. For the
sake of illustrating the phase shift, I'm assuming a condition of maximum control
resistance where the SCR is not triggering at all with no load current, save for what
little current goes through the control resistor and capacitor. This capacitor voltage
will be phase-shifted anywhere from 0o to 90o lagging behind the power source AC
waveform. When this phase-shifted voltage reaches a high enough level, the SCR will
trigger.
 9

With enough voltage across the capacitor to periodically trigger the SCR, the resulting
load current waveform will look something like Figure below)

Phase-shifted signal triggers SCR into conduction.

Because the capacitor waveform is still rising after the main AC power waveform has
reached its peak, it becomes possible to trigger the SCR at a threshold level beyond
that peak, thus chopping the load current wave further than it was possible with the
simpler circuit. In reality, the capacitor voltage waveform is a bit more complex that
what is shown here, its sinusoidal shape distorted every time the SCR latches on.
However, what I'm trying to illustrate here is the delayed triggering action gained
with the phase-shifting RC network; thus, a simplified, undistorted waveform serves
the purpose well.

SCRs may also be triggered, or "fired," by more complex circuits. While the circuit
previously shown is sufficient for a simple application like a lamp control, large
industrial motor controls often rely on more sophisticated triggering methods.
Sometimes, pulse transformers are used to couple a triggering circuit to the gate and
cathode of an SCR to provide electrical isolation between the triggering and power
circuits: (Figure below)

Transformer coupling of trigger signal provides isolation.

When multiple SCRs are used to control power, their cathodes are often not
electrically common, making it difficult to connect a single triggering circuit to all
SCRs equally. An example of this is the controlled bridge rectifier shown in Figure
below.
 10

Controlled bridge rectifier

In any bridge rectifier circuit, the rectifying diodes (in this example, the rectifying
SCRs) must conduct in opposite pairs. SCR1 and SCR3 must be fired simultaneously,
and SCR2 and SCR4 must be fired together as a pair. As you will notice, though, these
pairs of SCRs do not share the same cathode connections, meaning that it would not
work to simply parallel their respective gate connections and connect a single voltage
source to trigger both: (Figure below)

This strategy will not work for triggering SCR2 and SCR4 as a pair.

Although the triggering voltage source shown will trigger SCR4, it will not trigger SCR2
properly because the two thyristors do not share a common cathode connection to
reference that triggering voltage. Pulse transformers connecting the two thyristor
gates to a common triggering voltage source will work, however: (Figure below)
 11

Transformer coupling of the gates allows triggering of SCR2 and SCR4 .

Bear in mind that this circuit only shows the gate connections for two out of the four
SCRs. Pulse transformers and triggering sources for SCR1 and SCR3, as well as the
details of the pulse sources themselves, have been omitted for the sake of simplicity.

Controlled bridge rectifiers are not limited to single-phase designs. In most industrial
control systems, AC power is available in three-phase form for maximum efficiency,
and solid-state control circuits are built to take advantage of that. A three-phase
controlled rectifier circuit built with SCRs, without pulse transformers or triggering
circuitry shown, would look like Figure below.

Three-phase bridge SCR control of load

• REVIEW:
• A Silicon-Controlled Rectifier, or SCR, is essentially a Shockley diode with
an extra terminal added. This extra terminal is called the gate, and it is
used to trigger the device into conduction (latch it) by the application of a
small voltage.
• To trigger, or fire, an SCR, voltage must be applied between the gate and
cathode, positive to the gate and negative to the cathode. When testing an
SCR, a momentary connection between the gate and anode is sufficient in
polarity, intensity, and duration to trigger it.
 12

• SCRs may be fired by intentional triggering of the gate terminal, excessive

voltage (breakdown) between anode and cathode, or excessive rate of
voltage rise between anode and cathode. SCRs may be turned off by anode
current falling below the holding current value (low-current dropout), or by
"reverse-firing" the gate (applying a negative voltage to the gate).
Reverse-firing is only sometimes effective, and always involves high gate
current.
• A variant of the SCR, called a Gate-Turn-Off thyristor (GTO), is specifically
designed to be turned off by means of reverse triggering. Even then,
reverse triggering requires fairly high current: typically 20% of the anode
current.
• SCR terminals may be identified by a continuity meter: the only two
terminals showing any continuity between them at all should be the gate
and cathode. Gate and cathode terminals connect to a PN junction inside
the SCR, so a continuity meter should obtain a diode-like reading between
these two terminals with the red (+) lead on the gate and the black (-) lead
on the cathode. Beware, though, that some large SCRs have an internal
resistor connected between gate and cathode, which will affect any
continuity readings taken by a meter.
• SCRs are true rectifiers: they only allow current through them in one
direction. This means they cannot be used alone for full-wave AC power
control.
• If the diodes in a rectifier circuit are replaced by SCRs, you have the
makings of a controlled rectifier circuit, whereby DC power to a load may
be time-proportioned by triggering the SCRs at different points along the
AC power waveform.
 13

TRIACS

SCRs are unidirectional (one-way) current devices, making them useful for controlling
DC only. If two SCRs are joined in back-to-back parallel fashion just like two Shockley
diodes were joined together to form a DIAC, we have a new device known as the
TRIAC: (Figure below)

The TRIAC SCR equivalent and, TRIAC schematic symbol

Because individual SCRs are more flexible to use in advanced control systems, these
are more commonly seen in circuits like motor drives; TRIACs are usually seen in
simple, low-power applications like household dimmer switches. A simple lamp
dimmer circuit is shown in Figure below, complete with the phase-shifting resistor-
capacitor network necessary for after-peak firing.

TRIAC phase-control of power

TRIACs are notorious for not firing symmetrically. This means these usually won't
trigger at the exact same gate voltage level for one polarity as for the other.
Generally speaking, this is undesirable, because unsymmetrical firing results in a
current waveform with a greater variety of harmonic frequencies. Waveforms that are
symmetrical above and below their average centerlines are comprised of only odd-
numbered harmonics. Unsymmetrical waveforms, on the other hand, contain even-
numbered harmonics (which may or may not be accompanied by odd-numbered
harmonics as well).
 14

In the interest of reducing total harmonic content in power systems, the fewer and
less diverse the harmonics, the better -- one more reason individual SCRs are favored
over TRIACs for complex, high-power control circuits. One way to make the TRIAC's
current waveform more symmetrical is to use a device external to the TRIAC to time
the triggering pulse. A DIAC placed in series with the gate does a fair job of this:
(Figure below)

DIAC improves symmetry of control

DIAC breakover voltages tend to be much more symmetrical (the same in one polarity
as the other) than TRIAC triggering voltage thresholds. Since the DIAC prevents any
gate current until the triggering voltage has reached a certain, repeatable level in
either direction, the firing point of the TRIAC from one half-cycle to the next tends to
be more consistent, and the waveform more symmetrical above and below its
centerline.

Practically all the characteristics and ratings of SCRs apply equally to TRIACs, except
that TRIACs of course are bidirectional (can handle current in both directions). Not
much more needs to be said about this device except for an important caveat
concerning its terminal designations.

From the equivalent circuit diagram shown earlier, one might think that main
terminals 1 and 2 were interchangeable. These are not! Although it is helpful to
imagine the TRIAC as being composed of two SCRs joined together, it in fact is
constructed from a single piece of semiconducting material, appropriately doped and
layered. The actual operating characteristics may differ slightly from that of the
equivalent model.

This is made most evident by contrasting two simple circuit designs, one that works
and one that doesn't. The following two circuits are a variation of the lamp dimmer
circuit shown earlier, the phase-shifting capacitor and DIAC removed for simplicity's
sake. Although the resulting circuit lacks the fine control ability of the more complex
version (with capacitor and DIAC), it does function: (Figure below)

This circuit with the gate to MT2 does function.

 15

Suppose we were to swap the two main terminals of the TRIAC around. According to
the equivalent circuit diagram shown earlier in this section, the swap should make no
difference. The circuit ought to work: (Figure below)

With the gate swapped to MT1, this circuit does not function.

However, if this circuit is built, it will be found that it does not work! The load will
receive no power, the TRIAC refusing to fire at all, no matter how low or high a
resistance value the control resistor is set to. The key to successfully triggering a
TRIAC is to make sure the gate receives its triggering current from the main terminal
2 side of the circuit (the main terminal on the opposite side of the TRIAC symbol from
the gate terminal). Identification of the MT1 and MT2 terminals must be done via the
TRIAC's part number with reference to a data sheet or book.

• REVIEW:
• A TRIAC acts much like two SCRs connected back-to-back for bidirectional
(AC) operation.
• TRIAC controls are more often seen in simple, low-power circuits than
complex, high-power circuits. In large power control circuits, multiple SCRs
tend to be favored.
• When used to control AC power to a load, TRIACs are often accompanied
by DIACs connected in series with their gate terminals. The DIAC helps the
TRIAC fire more symmetrically (more consistently from one polarity to
another).
• Main terminals 1 and 2 on a TRIAC are not interchangeable.
• To successfully trigger a TRIAC, gate current must come from the main
terminal 2 (MT2) side of the circuit!
 16

LIGHT ACTIVATED SCR (LASCR)

Like bipolar transistors, SCRs and TRIACs are also manufactured as light-sensitive
devices, the action of impinging light replacing the function of triggering voltage.

Optically-controlled SCRs are often known by the acronym LASCR, or Light Activated
SCR. Its symbol, not surprisingly, looks like Figure below.

Light activated SCR

Optically-controlled TRIACs don't receive the honor of having their own acronym, but
instead are humbly known as opto-TRIACs. Their schematic symbol is shown in Figure
below.

Opto-TRIAC

Optothyristors (a general term for either the LASCR or the opto-TRIAC) are commonly
found inside sealed "optoisolator" modules.
 17

SILICON CONTROLLED SWITCH

If we take the equivalent circuit for an SCR and add another external terminal,
connected to the base of the top transistor and the collector of the bottom transistor,
we have a device known as a silicon-controlled-switch, or SCS: (Figure below)

The Silicon-Controlled Switch(SCS)

This extra terminal allows more control to be exerted over the device, particularly in
the mode of forced commutation, where an external signal forces it to turn off while
the main current through the device has not yet fallen below the holding current
value. Note that the motor is in the anode gate circuit in Figure below. This is correct,
although it doesn't look right. The anode lead is required to switch the SCS off.
Therefore the motor cannot be in series with the anode.

SCS: Motor start/stop circuit, equivalent circuit with two transistors.

When the "on" pushbutton switch is actuated, the voltage applied between the
cathode gate and the cathode, forward-biases the lower transistor's base-emitter
junction, and turning it on. The top transistor of the SCS is ready to conduct, having
been supplied with a current path from its emitter terminal (the SCS's anode
terminal) through resistor R2 to the positive side of the power supply. As in the case
 18

of the SCR, both transistors turn on and maintain each other in the "on" mode. When
the lower transistor turns on, it conducts the motor's load current, and the motor
starts and runs.

The motor may be stopped by interrupting the power supply, as with an SCR, and this
is called natural commutation. However, the SCS provides us with another means of
turning off: forced commutation by shorting the anode terminal to the cathode. [GE1]
If this is done (by actuating the "off" pushbutton switch), the upper transistor within
the SCS will lose its emitter current, thus halting current through the base of the
lower transistor. When the lower transistor turns off, it breaks the circuit for base
current through the top transistor (securing its "off" state), and the motor (making it
stop). The SCS will remain in the off condition until such time that the "on"
pushbutton switch is re-actuated.

• REVIEW:
• A silicon-controlled switch, or SCS, is essentially an SCR with an extra
gate terminal.
• Typically, the load current through an SCS is carried by the anode gate
and cathode terminals, with the cathode gate and anode terminals sufficing
as control leads.
• An SCS is turned on by applying a positive voltage between the cathode
gate and cathode terminals. It may be turned off (forced commutation) by
applying a negative voltage between the anode and cathode terminals, or
simply by shorting those two terminals together. The anode terminal must
be kept positive with respect to the cathode in order for the SCS to latch.
 19

Thyristor

An SCR rated about 100 amperes, 1200 volts mounted on a heat sink - the two small
wires are the gate trigger leads

The thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of alternating N

and P-type material. They act as bistable switches, conducting when their gate
receives a current pulse, and continue to conduct for as long as they are forward
biased (that is, as long as the voltage across the device has not reversed).

Some sources define silicon controlled rectifiers and thyristors as synonymous.

Function

The thyristor is a four-layer semiconducting device, with each layer consisting of

alternately N-type or P-type material, for example P-N-P-N. The main terminals,
labeled anode and cathode, are across the full four layers, and the control terminal,
called the gate, is attached to p-type material near to the cathode. (A variant called an
SCS—Silicon Controlled Switch—brings all four layers out to terminals.) The
operation of a thyristor can be understood in terms of a pair of tightly coupled Bipolar
Junction Transistors, arranged to cause the self-latching action.
 20

Thyristors have three states:

1. Reverse blocking mode — Voltage is applied in the direction that would be

blocked by a diode
2. Forward blocking mode — Voltage is applied in the direction that would
cause a diode to conduct, but the thyristor has not yet been triggered into
conduction
3. Forward conducting mode — The thyristor has been triggered into conduction
and will remain conducting until the forward current drops below a threshold
value known as the "holding current"

Function of the gate terminal

The thyristor has three p-n junctions (serially named J1, J2, J3 from the anode).

Layer diagram of thyristor.

When the anode is at a positive potential VAK with respect to the cathode with no
voltage applied at the gate, junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased, while junction J2 is
reverse biased. As J2 is reverse biased, no conduction takes place (Off state). Now if
VAK is increased beyond the breakdown voltage VBO of the thyristor, avalanche
breakdown of J2 takes place and the thyristor starts conducting (On state).

If a positive potential VG is applied at the gate terminal with respect to the cathode, the
breakdown of the junction J2 occurs at a lower value of VAK. By selecting an
appropriate value of VG, the thyristor can be switched into the on state suddenly.

It should be noted that once avalanche breakdown has occurred, the thyristor
continues to conduct, irrespective of the gate voltage, until both: (a) the potential VG is
 21

removed and (b) the current through the device (anode−cathode) is less than the
holding current specified by the manufacturer. Hence VG can be a voltage pulse, such
as the voltage output from a UJT relaxation oscillator.

These gate pulses are characterized in terms of gate trigger voltage (VGT) and gate
trigger current (IGT). Gate trigger current varies inversely with gate pulse width in
such a way that it is evident that there is a minimum gate charge required to trigger
the thyristor.

Switching characteristics

In a conventional thyristor, once it has been switched on by the gate terminal, the
device remains latched in the on-state (i.e. does not need a continuous supply of gate
current to conduct), providing the anode current has exceeded the latching current
(IL). As long as the anode remains positively biased, it cannot be switched off until the
anode current falls below the holding current (IH).

V - I characteristics.

A thyristor can be switched off if the external circuit causes the anode to become
negatively biased. In some applications this is done by switching a second thyristor to
discharge a capacitor into the cathode of the first thyristor. This method is called
forced commutation.

After a thyristor has been switched off by forced commutation, a finite time delay
must have elapsed before the anode can be positively biased in the off-state. This
minimum delay is called the circuit commutated turn off time (tQ). Attempting to
positively bias the anode within this time causes the thyristor to be self-triggered by
the remaining charge carriers (holes and electrons) that have not yet recombined.

For applications with frequencies higher than the domestic AC mains supply (e.g.
50 Hz or 60 Hz), thyristors with lower values of tQ are required. Such fast thyristors
are made by diffusing into the silicon heavy metals ions such as gold or platinum
which act as charge combination centres. Alternatively, fast thyristors may be made
by neutron irradiation of the silicon.
 22

Applications

Load voltage regulated by thyristor phase control.

Upper trace: load voltage
Lower trace: trigger signal.

Thyristors are mainly used where high currents and voltages are involved, and are
often used to control alternating currents, where the change of polarity of the current
causes the device to automatically switch off; referred to as Zero Cross operation. The
device can be said to operate synchronously as, once the device is open, it conducts
current in phase with the voltage applied over its cathode to anode junction with no
further gate modulation being required to replicate; the device is biased fully on. This
is not to be confused with symmetrical operation, as the output is unidirectional,
flowing only from cathode to anode, and so is asymmetrical in nature.

Thyristors can be used as the control elements for phase angle triggered controllers,
also known as phase fired controllers.

Phase control (PFC), also called phase cutting, is a method of pulse width
modulation (PWM) for power limiting, applied to AC voltages. It works by
modulating a thyristor, SCR, triac, thyratron, or other such gated diode-like devices
into and out of conduction at a predetermined phase of the applied waveform.

Overview

Phase fired control is often used to control the amount of voltage, current or power
that a power supply feeds to its load. It does this in much the same way that a pulse
width modulated (PWM) supply would pulse on and off to create an average value at
its output. If the supply has a DC output, its time base is of no importance in deciding
when to pulse the supply on or off, as the value that will be pulsed on and off is
continuous.

PFC differs from PWM in that it addresses supplies that output a modulated
waveform, such as the sinusoidal AC waveform that the national grid outputs. Here, it
becomes important for the supply to pulse on and off at the correct position in the
modulation cycle for a known value to be achieved; for example, the controller could
 23

turn on at the peak of a waveform or at its base if the cycle's time base were not taken
into consideration.

Phase fired controllers take their name from that fact that they trigger a pulse of
output at a certain phase of the input's modulation cycle. In essence, a PFC is a PWM
controller that can synchronise itself with the modulation present at the input.

Most phase fired controllers use thyristors or other solid state switching devices as
their control elements. Thyristor based controllers may utilise Gate Turn Off (GTO)
thyristors, allowing the controller to not only decide when to pulse the output on but
also when to turn it off, rather than having to wait for the waveform to pass within the
element's Zero Cross Point.

Output reduction by bucking

A phase fired controller, like a buck topology switched-mode power supply, is only
able to deliver an output maximum equal to that which is present at its input, minus
any losses occurring in the control elements themselves. Provided the modulation
during each cycle is predictable or repetitive, as it is on the national grid's AC mains,
to obtain an output lower than its input, a phase fired control simply switches off for a
given phase angle of the input's modulation cycle. By triggering the device into
conduction at a phase angle greater than 0 degrees, a point after the modulation cycle
starts, a fraction of the total energy within each cycle is present at the output.

'Boosting' by derating

To achieve a 'boost' like effect, the PFC designs must be derated such that maximum
present at the input is higher than the nominal output requirements. When the supply
is first turned on or operating under nominal conditions, the controller will continually
be delivering less than 100% of its input. When a boost is required, the controller
delivers a percentage closer to 100% of the maximum input available.

Derating of mains powered, phase fired controllers is important as they are often used
to control resistive loads, such as heating elements. Over time, the resistance of
heating elements can increase. To account for this, a phase fired control must be able
to provide some degree of extra voltage to draw the same heating current through the
element. The only way of achieving this is to purposely design the supply to require
less than 100% of the input's modulation cycle when the elements are first put in
place, progressively opening the supply up towards delivering 100% of the input
modulation cycle as the elements age.

Applications

Previously, extremely expensive and heavy multi-tapped transformers were used as

the supplies for such elements, with the corresponding winding tap being connected to
the element to produce the desired temperature. This limited the temperature
resolution to the number of tap combinations available. They often find their way into
controllers designed for equipment such as electric ovens and furnaces.
 24

In modern, usually high power, equipment, the transformer is replaced with phase
fired controllers connecting the load directly to the mains, resulting in a substantially
cheaper and lighter system. However, the method is usually limited to use in
equipment that would be unrealistic without it. This is because removal of the mains
transformer means that the load is in direct galvanic contact with the input. For
industrial ovens and furnaces the input is often the national grid AC, which is itself
galvanically referenced to the Earth. With the controller's output referenced to the
Earth, a user need only be in contact with the Earth and one of the output terminals to
risk receiving an electrical shock. With many high power pieces of equipment running
from three phase 415 V, high current capable inputs and having the entirety of any
metallic housing or framework present Earthed (grounded), this is a serious risk that
must be assessed with care.

History

The first patent for phase fired controllers derives from 1912.[citation needed] However
realization was first possible in 1920s, when mercury arc valve rectifiers with control
grids became available. However, this method of voltage regulation not very common
at the time, because of the limitations mercury arc valves. It became widespread with
the invention of solid-state thyristors at the end of 1950s.

Thyristors can also be found in power supplies for digital circuits, where they can be
used as a sort of "circuit breaker" or "crowbar" to prevent a failure in the power
supply from damaging downstream components. The thyristor is used in conjunction
with a zener diode attached to its gate, and when the output voltage of the supply rises
above the zener voltage, the thyristor conducts, shorting the power supply output to
ground (and in general blowing an upstream fuse).

The first large scale application of thyristors, with associated triggering diac, in
consumer products related to stabilized power supplies within color television
receivers in the early 1970s. The stabilized high voltage DC supply for the receiver
was obtained by moving the switching point of the thyristor device up and down the
falling slope of the positive going half of the AC supply input (if the rising slope was
used the output voltage would always rise towards the peak input voltage when the
device was triggered and thus defeat the aim of regulation). The precise switching
point was determined by the load on the output DC supply as well fluctuations on the
input AC supply. They proved to be unpopular with the AC grid power supplier
companies because the simultaneous switching of many television receivers, all at
approximately the same time, introduced asymmetry into the supply waveform and, as
a consequence injected DC back into the grid with a tendency towards saturation of
transformer cores and overheating. Thyristors were largely phased out in this kind of
application by the end of the decade. Thyristors have been used for decades as
lighting dimmers in television, motion pictures, and theater, where they replaced
inferior technologies such as autotransformers and rheostats. They have also been
used in photography as a critical part of flashes (strobes).

Snubber circuits

Because thyristors can be triggered on by a high rate of rise of off-state voltage, in

many applications this is prevented by connecting a resistor-capacitor (RC) snubber
 25

circuit between the anode and cathode terminals in order to limit the dV/dt (i.e., rate
of change of voltage versus time).

Motor Speed Control using Thytistor drives

A thyristor drive is a motor drive circuit where AC supply current is regulated by a

thyristor phase control to provide variable voltage to a DC motor.

Thyristor drives are very simple and were first introduced in the 1960s. They
remained the predominant type of industrial motor controller until the end of the
1980s when the availability of low cost electronics led to their replacement by
chopper drives for high performance systems and inverters for high reliability with
AC motors.

They are still employed in very high power applications, such as locomotives, where
the high power capability of the thyristors and the simplicity of the design can make
them a more attractive proposition than transistor based controllers.

A derivative of the thyristor drive is the simple AC phase controller. This uses a
single phase controlled triac to provide a variable voltage AC output for regulating a
universal motor. This is the type of motor speed control most commonly used in
domestic appliances, such as food mixers, and small AC powered tools, such as
electric drills.

HVDC electricity transmission

Since modern thyristors can switch power on the scale of megawatts, thyristor valves
have become the heart of high-voltage direct current (HVDC) conversion either to or
from alternating current. In the realm of this and other very high power applications,
both electronically switched (ETT) and light switched (LTT) thyristors[4] are still the
primary choice. The valves are arranged in stacks usually suspended from the ceiling
of a transmission building called a valve hall. Thyristors are arranged into a Graetz
bridge circuit and to avoid harmonics are connected in series to form a 12 pulse
converter. Each thyristor is cooled with deionized water, and the entire arrangement
becomes one of multiple identical modules forming a layer in a multilayer valve stack
called a quadruple valve. Three such stacks are typically hung from the ceiling of the
valve building of a long distance transmission facility.[5][6]

Comparisons to other devices

The functional drawback of a thyristor is that, like a diode, it only conducts in one
direction. A similar self-latching 5-layer device, called a TRIAC, is able to work in
both directions. This added capability, though, also can become a shortfall. Because
the TRIAC can conduct in both directions, reactive loads can cause it to fail to turn
 26

off during the zero-voltage instants of the ac power cycle. Because of this, use of
TRIACs with (for example) heavily-inductive motor loads usually requires the use of
a "snubber" circuit around the TRIAC to assure that it will turn off with each half-
cycle of mains power. Inverse parallel SCRs can also be used in place of the triac;
because each SCR in the pair has an entire half-cycle of reverse polarity applied to it,
the SCRs, unlike TRIACs, are sure to turn off. The "price" to be paid for this
arrangement, however, is the added complexity of two separate but essentially
identical gating circuits.

An earlier gas filled tube device called a Thyratron provided a similar electronic
switching capability, where a small control voltage could switch a large current. It is
from a combination of "thyratron" and "transistor" that the term "thyristor" is derived.

Although thyristors are heavily used in megawatt scale rectification of AC to DC, in

low and medium power (from few tens of watts to few tens of kilowatts) they have
almost been replaced by other devices with superior switching characteristics like
MOSFETs or IGBTs. One major problem associated with SCRs is that they are not
fully controllable switches. The GTO (Gate Turn-off Thyristor) and IGCT are two
related devices which address this problem. In high-frequency applications, thyristors
are poor candidates due to large switching times arising from bipolar conduction.
MOSFETs, on the other hand, have much faster switching capability because of their
unipolar conduction (only majority carriers carry the current).

Failure modes

As well as the usual failure modes due to exceeding voltage, current or power ratings,
thyristors have their own particular modes of failure, including:

• Turn on di/dt — in which the rate of rise of on-state current after triggering is
higher than can be supported by the spreading speed of the active conduction
area (SCRs & triacs).
• Forced commutation — in which the transient peak reverse recovery current
causes such a high voltage drop in the sub-cathode region that it exceeds the
reverse breakdown voltage of the gate cathode diode junction (SCRs only).

Silicon carbide thyristors

In recent years, some manufacturers have developed thyristors using Silicon carbide
(SiC) as the semiconductor material. These have applications in high temperature
environments, being capable of operating at temperatures up to 350 °C.
 27

Types of thyristors

• SCR — Silicon Controlled Rectifier

• ASCR — Asymmetrical SCR
• RCT — Reverse Conducting Thyristor
• LASCR — Light Activated SCR, or LTT — Light triggered thyristor
• DIAC & SIDAC — Both forms of trigger devices
• BOD — Breakover Diode — A gateless thyristor triggered by avalanche
current, used in protection applications
• TRIAC — Triode for Alternating Current — A bidirectional switching device
containing two thyristor structures
• GTO — Gate Turn-Off thyristor
• IGCT — Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor
o MA-GTO — Modified Anode Gate Turn-Off thyristor
o DB-GTO — Distributed Buffer Gate Turn-Off thyristor
• MCT — MOSFET Controlled Thyristor — It contains two additional FET
structures for on/off control.
o BRT — Base Resistance Controlled Thyristor
• SITh — Static Induction Thyristor, or FCTh — Field Controlled Thyristor
containing a gate structure that can shut down anode current flow.

LASS — Light Activated Semiconducting Switch

The GTO is a tri state device. with an 8-function setup.

 28

DIACS
The DIAC, or diode for alternating current, is a trigger diode that conducts current
only after its breakdown voltage has been exceeded momentarily. When this occurs,
the resistance of the diode abruptly decreases, leading to a sharp decrease in the
voltage drop across the diode and, usually, a sharp increase in current flow through
the diode. The diode remains "in conduction" until the current flow through it drops
below a value characteristic for the device, called the holding current. Below this
value, the diode switches back to its high-resistance (non-conducting) state. This
behavior is bidirectional, meaning typically the same for both directions of current
flow.

Typical Diac voltage and current relationships. Once the voltage exceeds the turn-on
threshold, the device turns on and the voltage rapidly falls while the current increases.

Most DIACs have a breakdown voltage around 30 V. In this way, their behavior is
somewhat similar to (but much more precisely controlled and taking place at lower
voltages than) a neon lamp.

DIACs have no gate electrode, unlike some other thyristors they are commonly used
to trigger, such as TRIACs. Some TRIACs contain a built-in DIAC in series with the
TRIAC's "gate" terminal for this purpose.
 29

DIACs are also called symmetrical trigger diodes due to the symmetry of their
characteristic curve. Because DIACs are bidirectional devices, their terminals are not
labeled as anode and cathode but as A1 and A2 or MT1 ("Main Terminal") and MT2.

A diac is a two-electrode, three-layer bidirectional avalanche diode that can

be switched from the off state to the on state for either polarity of applied
voltage.
 30

Fig. 18 shows the junction diagram and schematic symbol for a diac; Fig. 19 shows
the voltage-current characteristic.

This three-layer trigger diode is similar in construction to a bipolar transistor, but

differs from it in that the doping concentrations at the two junctions are approximately
the same and there is no contact made to the base layer. The equal doping levels result
in a symmetrical bidirectional switching characteristic, as shown in Fig. 19. When.
an increasing positive or negative voltage is applied across the terminals of the diac, a
minimum (leakage) current I (BO)flows through the device until the voltage reaches the
breakover point V(BO). The reverse-biased junction then undergoes avalanche
breakdown and, beyond this point, the device exhibits a negative-resistance
characteristic, i.e., current through the device increases substantially with decreasing
voltage.

Diacs are primarily used as triggering devices in thyristor phase-control circuits used
for light dimming, universal motor-speed control, heat control, and similar
applications. Fig. 20 shows the general circuit diagram for a diac/triac phase-control
circuit.

Diacs are bidirectional diodes that switch AC voltages and trigger silicon controlled
rectifiers (SCRs) and triacs. SCRs are four-layer (PNPN) thyristors with an input
terminal (gate), an output terminal (anode), and a common terminal (cathode) for both
the input and output. Triacs are three-terminal silicon devices that function as two
SCRs configured in an inverse, parallel arrangement, so as to provide load current
during both halves of the AC supply voltage. Diacs, which are similar to open base
NPN transistors, exhibit a high-impedance blocking state up to a voltage breakover
point above which negative resistance is achieved. Except for a small leakage amount,
 31

diacs do not conduct current until a breakover voltage is attained. Because they are
bidirectional, diacs are used as firing devices in phase control such as light dimmers
and motion speed controls.
Performance specifications for diacs include breakover voltage, breakover voltage
symmetry, breakover current, output voltage, repetitive peak on-state current, and
power dissipation. Breakover voltage (VBO), the voltage at which diacs begin to
conduct, is measured between the input and output terminals when diacs switch
on. Breakover voltage symmetry ( VBO) is the maximum breakover voltage range with
a specified capacitance when diacs are connected in parallel. Measured during the
“on” state, output voltage (VO) is the voltage across a 20-ohm resistor in series with a
diac during the discharge of a specified capacitor. Repetitive peak on-state current
(ITRM) is the maximum limiting peak on-state current, including all repetitive transient
currents, for which diacs are rated. Power dissipation (Pd) is the power dissipated by
diacs during the “on” state.

Diac

A diac is a form of solid-state switch used to switch AC voltage; it belongs

to the class of switches known as thyristers. It is like a junction
transistor without a base lead (it is a two-lead device) and
accomplishes its switching action by breakdown at a certain voltage.
There are also four layer devices with a similar mode of operation
known as four-layer diodes.

Triac
 32

The triode AC switch (TRIAC) is a power-switching device as is the SCR.

The TRIAC conducts currents in both directions while the SCR allows
current in only one direction. A common application is for lighting
controllers. In response to a trigger, the triac conducts until the AC
voltage applied reaches zero, then blocks flow until the next trigger
occurs. Since a trigger can cause it to trigger current in either
direction, it is an efficient power controller from essentially zero to
full power.

Thyristers
Thyrister is the name given to semiconductor switches in which a large current can be
switched by a small gate current. They are usually three-lead devices where the gate
signal on one lead controls the current between the other leads. Examples are the
silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) which conducts current in one direction and the triac
which is a double SCR which conducts in both directions. There are some two lead
varieties like the diac in which a zener type breakdown provides the trigger to start
conduction.

Silicon Controlled Rectifier

The SCR is a power-switching device commonly used for lighting control, motor
speed control and other variable power applications

The silicon-controlled rectifier is like a junction transistor with a fourth layer and
therefore three p-n junctions. The two outer junctions are forward biased by the
voltage as shown, but the inner junction is reverse biased. A small current in the gate
electrode can turn on the current, and it will stay on until the driving voltage is
removed. It is called a rectifier because it conducts current in only direction. If AC
voltage is applied, then it can be turned on by a pulse and remain on until the end of
that half cycle. Timed 60 Hz triggers can by used to control power by changing the
trigger point within the half cycle.
 33

UJT’s and PUT’s

Unijunction transistor

Circuit symbol

A unijunction transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device that has only

one junction. The UJT has three terminals: an emitter (E) and two bases (B1 and B2).
The base is formed by lightly doped n-type bar of silicon. Two ohmic contacts B1 and
B2 are attached at its ends. The emitter is of p-type and it is heavily doped. The
resistance between B1 and B2, when the emitter is open-circuit is called interbase
resistance.

There are two types of unijunction transistor:

• The original unijunction transistor, or UJT, is a simple device that is

essentially a bar of N type semiconductor material into which P type material
has been diffused somewhere along its length, defining the device parameter
η. The 2N2646 is the most commonly used version of the UJT.

• The programmable unijunction transistor, or PUT, is a close cousin to the

thyristor. Like the thyristor it consists of four P-N layers and has an anode and
 34

a cathode connected to the first and the last layer, and a gate connected to one
of the inner layers. They are not directly interchangeable with conventional

UJTs but perform a similar function. In a proper circuit configuration with two
"programming" resistors for setting the parameter η, they behave like a
conventional UJT. The 2N6027 is an example of such a device.

The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between the two bases. This causes a
potential drop along the length of the device. When the emitter voltage is driven
approximately one diode voltage above the voltage at the point where the P diffusion
(emitter) is, current will begin to flow from the emitter into the base region. Because
the base region is very lightly doped, the additional current (actually charges in the
base region) causes conductivity modulation which reduces the resistance of the
portion of the base between the emitter junction and the B2 terminal. This reduction
in resistance means that the emitter junction is more forward biased, and so even more
current is injected. Overall, the effect is a negative resistance at the emitter terminal.
This is what makes the UJT useful, especially in simple oscillator circuits.

Unijunction transistor circuits were popular in hobbyist electronics circuits in the

1970's and early 1980's because they allowed simple oscillators to be built using just
one active device. Later, as Integrated Circuits became more popular, oscillators such
as the 555 timer IC became more commonly used.

In addition to its use as the active device in relaxation oscillators, one of the most
important applications of UJTs or PUTs are to trigger thyristors (SCR, TRIAC, etc.).
In fact, a DC voltage can be used to control a UJT or PUT circuit such that the "on-
period" increases with an increase in the DC control voltage. This application is
important for large AC current control.

Unijunction Transistor

The unijunction transistor(UJT) is a three terminal device with characteristics very

different from the conventional 2 junction, bipolar transistor. It is a pulse generator
with the trigger or control signal applied at the emitter . This trigger voltage is a
fraction (n) of interbase voltage, Vbb.The UJT circuit symbol, junction schematic,
and characteristic curve are shown below.

The emitter terminal does not inject current into the base region until its voltage
reaches Vp. Once Vp is reached the base circuit conducts and a postive pulse appears
at the B1 terminal and a negative pulse at B2. The UJT incorporates a negative
resistance region, a low emitter current, and a high output pulse current at terminals
B1 and B2, making it an ideal pulse trigger. A simple RC timer circuit using a UJT is
shown below.
 35

The very basic specifications of a UJT are:

(a) Vbb(max) - The maximum interbase voltage that can be applied to the UJT
(b) Rbb-the interbase resistance of the UJT
(c) n - The intrinsic standoff ratio which defines Vp.
(d) Ip - The peakpoint emitter current
 36

UJT CHARACTERISTICS …. some more information:

As observed during plotting of the characteristics, in practice, as the emitter

voltage is increased gradually upwards from 0 volts, at about 7.2 volts the emitter-
base1 junction of the diode gets forward biased and at the peak point voltage, there is
a sudden and quick changeover, in the sense that the emitter current rises sharply and
the emitter voltage drops down to the valley point voltage, from the peak point
voltage. This observed change is as follows:

From Peak Point Voltage of 7.2 volts, the voltage falls down to the Valley
Point Voltage which is about 3.2 volts. The rise in the emitter current level is from 0
mA. to about 3.4 mA. Under this condition onwards, the UJT emitter-base 1 junction
is in saturation region. The characteristics from the Peak Point Voltage up to the
Valley Point Voltage represents the negative resistance region. Beyond this if the
emitter voltage is increased more than 3.2 volts, say, 3.4 or 3.6 or 3.8 volts,
correspondingly the emitter current also increases (following ohms law). Increasing
the emitter voltage further will further increase the emitter current.

The only way to therefore bring down this saturation current flowing through
the device when Valley Point Voltage is reached, is to reduce the emitter voltage and
make it less than 3.2 volts. Reducing this voltage and making it 3 volts, 2.8 volts, 2.6
volts, etc and further, still keeps the UJT in full conduction or saturation, and
somewhere around 2.2 volts or so, the current drops down to 0mA (or for that matter
the emitter current takes on the reverse direction of the order of microamps). This
lowering of the emitter voltage below the Valley Point Voltage is necessary, in order
to bring the UJT out of the breakdown state. And after this the only way to make the
UJT start conducting is increase the emitter voltage until the “diode” at the emitter
 37

junction becomes forward biased, at which conduction starts and breakdown takes
place again.

PUT PROGRAMMABLE UJT

The Programmable Unijunction Transistor behaves much like a unijunction transistor
(UJT), but is "programmable" via external resistors (that is, you can use two resistors
to set a PUT's peak voltage). Note that the name is a bit of a misnomer -- as a
thyristor, it is a four layer device, unlike a true unijunction transistor which has but
two layers.

Like other thyristors, a PUT looks much like a junction transistor with a fourth layer
and therefore a total of three P-N junctions. Meanwhile, a third terminal, the gate (G),
makes a PUT function like a hybrid of transistor and diode:

PUTs are essentially special-purpose devices in electronics, used for lighting control,
motor speed control and other variable power applications. In combination with an
SCR they can, though, make a mean solar engine.

In a pinch, you can build up something much like a PUT from discrete transistors
wired as a complementary feedback pair:

Here, as soon as any current flows in either transistor, this current becomes base
current for the other transistor, and both transistors turn on hard. This means you can
 38

only build up this circuit using low-leakage transistors ('though this should be the
case with any decent-quality modern transistor ).

Programmable UJT

Programmable UJT

The programmable unijunction transistor (PUT) is not a unijunction transistor at all.

The fact that the V-I characteristics and applications of both are similar prompted the
choice of labels.

It is also a four-layer P-N-P-N solid-state device with a gate connected directly to the
sandwiched N-type layer. The basic structure, schematic symbol and the basic biasing
arrangement of PUT are shown in figures respectively. As the symbol indicates, it is
essentially an SCR with a control mechanism that permits a duplication of the
characteristics of the typical SCR. The term “programmable” is applied because the
inter base resistance RBB, the intrinsic stand-off ratio Ƞ and peak-point voltage VP, as
defined in UJT can be programmed to any desired values through external resistors R B
and RB2 and the supply voltage VBB. From figure we see that by voltage divider rule
when IG = 0,

VG = (RB1 / RB1 + RB2 ) VBB = Ƞ VBB

Consider figure The P-N-P-N device shown in figure has its gate connected to the
junction of external resistors RB and RB . The four-layer construction shown in figure
indicates that the anode-gate junction is forward biased when the anode
becomes positive with respect to gate. When this occurs, the device is turned on. The
anode-to-cathode voltage VAK then drops to a low level, and the device conducts
heavily until the input voltage become too low to sustain conduction. It is seen that
this action stimulates the performance of a UJT. The anode of the device acts as the
emitter of UJT.
 39

Characteristics of Programmable UJT

The typical characteristics of the device are shown in figure. The firing or peak-point
potential is given as

VP = Ƞ VBB + VB as defined for the UJT.

However VP represents the voltage drop VAK in figure [ the forward voltage drop
across the conducting diode]. For silicon VB is typically 0.7 V.

In PUT RB1 and RB2 are the external resistors to the device permitting the adjustment
of Ƞ and hence VG while in the UJT both RB1 and RB2 represent the bulk resistance
and ohmic base contacts of the device (both inaccessible). Although the
characteristics of the PUT and UJT are similar, the peak and valley currents of the
PUT are typically lower than those of a UJT of a similar rating. In addition, the
minimum operating voltage of PUT is also lower than that of UJT.

Application of PUT

PUT Relaxation Oscillator

 40

PUT, because of its superiority over UJT, replaces UJT. One popular application of
PUT is in the relaxation oscillator shown in figure. The instant the supply VBB is
switched on, the capacitor starts charging toward VBB volts, since there is no anode
current at this point. The instant the voltage across the capacitor equals VP, the device
fires and anode current IA = IP is established through the PUT. As soon as the device
fires, the capacitor starts discharging rapidly through the low on-resistance of the PUT
and RK. Consequently, a voltage spike is produced across RK during the discharge. As
soon as the capacitor C gets discharged, the PUT turns off and the charging cycle
starts all over again as narrated above.

The time period required to attain the firing potential VP is given approximately by the
expression

T = RC loge = VBB / VBB – VP = Ƞ VBB

At the point of firing of PUT

IP R = VBB – VP

If R is too large, the current IP cannot be established, and the device will not fire

So RMAX = VBB – VP / IP

Similarly RMIN = VBB – VV / IV

VBB – VP / IP > R > VBB – VV / IV

Programmable uni-junction transistors (PUT) are three-terminal thyristors that are

triggered into conduction when the voltage at the anode exceeds the voltage at the
gate. The PUT is similar to the UJT, but its intrinsic standoff ratio can be set by two
external resistors. Hence, the name "programmable" is used. A PUT is a more
advanced version of a unijunction transistor (UJT). In a programmable unijunction
transistor, operating characteristics such as base-to-base resistance, intrinsic standoff
voltage, valley current, and peak current can be programmed by setting the values of
two external resistors. Applications for programmable unijunction transistors (PUT)
include thyristor triggers, oscillators, pulse, and timing circuits, with frequencies up to
10 kHz. An integrated circuit can include not only an integrated circuit chip, but also
a circuit transistor such as a programmable unijunction transistor.

Performance specifications for programmable unijunction transistors (PUT) include

peak current (with RG of 10K ohms and 1M ohms), valley current (with RG of 10K
ohms and 1M ohms), gate-to-cathode forward voltage, gate-to-cathode reverse
voltage, gate-to-anode reverse voltage, anode-to-cathode voltage, peak non-repetitive
forward current, peak repetitive forward current, peak repetitive forward current, DC
forward anode current, DC gate current, power dissipation, storage temperature,
operating junction temperature. Programmable unijunction transistors (PUT) can be
packaged individually or in standard packaging for high-volume requirements, such
as automatic insertion equipment.
 41

THYRISTOR / SCR THEORY

As stated before, Bell Laboratories were the first to fabricate a silicon-based

semiconductor device called thyristor. Its first prototype was introduced by GEC
(USA) in 1957. This company did a great deal of pioneering work about the utility of
thyristors in industrial applications. Later on, many other devices having
characteristics similar to that of a thyristor were developed. These semiconductor
devices, with their characteristics identical with that of a thyristor, are triac, diac,
silicon-controlled switch, programmable unijunction transistor (PUT), GTO, RCT etc.
This whole family of semiconductor devices is given the name thyristor. Thus the
term thyristor denotes a family of semiconductor devices used for power control in dc
and ac systems. One oldest member of this thyristor family, called silicon-controlled
rectifier (SCR), is the most widely used device. At present, the use of SCR is so vast
that over the years, the word thyristor has become synonymous with SCR. It appears
that the term thyristor is now becoming more common than the actual term SCR. In
this book, the term SCR and thyristor will be used at random for the same device
SCR. Other members of thyristor family are also discussed in this category.

A thyristor has characteristics similar to a thyratron tube. But from the construction
view point, a thyristor (a pnpn device) belongs to transistor (pnp or npn device)
family. The name ‘thyristor’, is derived by a combination of the capital letters from
THYRatron and transISTOR. This means that thyristor is a solid state device like a
transistor and has characteristics similar to that of a thyratron tube. The present-day
reader may not be familiar with thyratron tube as this is not being taught these days.

MOS CONTROLLED THYRISTOR

An MCT is a new device in the field of semiconductor-controlled devices. It is

basically a thyristor with two MOSFETs built into the gate structure. One MOSFET is
used for turning on the MCT and the other for turning off the device. An MCT is a
high-frequency, high:power, low-conduction drop switching device.

An MCT combines into it the features of both conventional four-layer thyristor having
regenerative action and MOS-gate structure. However, in MCT, anode is the reference
with respect to which, all gate signals are applied. In a conventional SCR, cathode is
the reference terminal for gate signals.
 42

The equivalent circuit of MCT is shown in Fig. 2.21 (a). It consists of one on-FET,
one off-FET and two transistors. The on-FET is ap-channel MOSFET and off-FET is
an rc-channel MOSFET. An arrow towards the gate terminal indicates n-channel
MOSFET and the arrow away from the gate terminal as the p-channel MOSFET. The
two transistors in the equivalent circuit indicate that there is regenerative feedback in
the MCT just as it is in an ordinary thyristor. Fig. 2.21 (6) gives the circuit symbol of
an MCT

An MCT is turned-on by a negative voltage pulse at the gate with respect to the anode
and is turned-off by a positive voltage pulse. Working of MCT can be understood
better by referring to Fig. 2.21 (a).

Turn-on process. As stated above, MCT is turned on by applying a negative voltage

pulse at the gate with respect to anode. In other words, for turning on MCT, gate is
made negative with respect to anode by the voltage pulse between gate and anode.
With the application of this negative voltage pulse, on-FET gets >turned-on and off-
FET is off. With on-FET on, current begins to flow from anode A, through on-FET
and then as the base current and emitter current of npn transistor and then to cathode
C. This turns on npn transistor. As a result, collector current begins to flow in npn
transistor. As off-FET is off, this collector current of npn transistor acts as the base
current of pnp transistor. Subsequently, pnp transistor is also turned on. Once both the
transistors are on, regenerative action of the connection scheme takes place and the
thyristor or MCT is turned on.

Note that on-FET and pnp transistor are in parallel when thyristor is in conduction
state. During the time MCT is on, base current of npn transistor flows mainly through
pnp transistor because of its better conducting property.

Turn-off process. For turning-off the MCT, off-FET (or n -channel MOSFET) is
energized by positive voltage pulse at the gate. With the application of positive
voltage pulse, off-FET is turned on and on-FET is turned off. After off-FET is turned
on, emitter-base terminals of pnp transistor are short circuited by off-FET So now
anode current begins to flow through off’-FET and therefore base current of pnp
transistor begins to decrease. Further, collector current of pnp transistor that forms the
base current of npn transistor also begins to decrease.

As a consequence, base currents of both pnp and npn transistors, now devoid of stored
charge in their n and p bases respectively, begin to decay. This regenerative action
eventually turns off the MCT.
 43

An MCT has the following merits :

(i) Low forward conduction drop,

(ii) fast turn-on and turn-off times,

(iii) low switching losses and

(iv) high gate input impedance, which allows simpler design of drive circuits.

An MCT is a brand-new device which is likely to be available commercially very

soon. As it possesses highly adaptable features for its use as a switching device, it
seems to have tremendous scope for its widespread applications. Its potential
applications include dc and ac motor drives, UPS systems, induction heating, dc-dc
converters, power line conditioners etc. It may, in the near future, challenge the
existence of most of the available devices like - resistors, GTOs, BJTs, IGBTs (7).

NEW SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS

At present, silicon enjoys monopoly as a semiconductor material for the commercial

production of power-control devices. This is because silicon is cheaply available and
semiconductor devices of any size can be easily fabricated on a single silicon chip.
There are, however, new types of materials like gallium arsenic (GaAs), silicon
carbide and diamond which possess the desirable properties required for switching
devices. At present, state-of-the-art technology for these materials is primitive
compared with silicon, and many more years of research investment are required
before these materials become commercially viable for the production of power-
controlled devices. Superconductive materials may also be used in the manufacture of
such devices, but work in this direction has not yet been reported.

Germanium is not used in the fabrication of thyristors because of the following

reasons:

1. Germanium has much lower thermal conductivity; its thermal resistance is,
therefore, more. As a consequence, germanium thyristors suffer from more
losses, more temperature rise and therefore lower operating life.
2. Its breakdown voltage is much less than that of silicon. It means that
germanium thyristor can be built for small voltage ratings only.
3. Germanium is much costlier than silicon.

TERMINAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A THYRISTOR

Thyristor is a four layer, three-junction, p-n-p-n semiconductor switching device. It

has three terminals ; anode, cathode and gate. Fig. 4.1 (a) gives constructional details
of a typical thyristor. Basically, a thyristor consists of four layers of alternate p-type
and n-type silicon semiconductors forming three junctions J1, J2 and J3 as shown in
Fig. 4.1 (a). The threaded portion is for the purpose of tightening the thyristor to the
frame or heat sink with the help of a nut. Gate terminal is usually kept near the
cathode terminal Fig. 4.1 (a). Schematic diagram and circuit symbol for a thyristor are
shown respectively in Figs. 4.1 (b) and (c). The terminal connected to outer p region
is called anode (A), the terminal connected to outer n region is called cathode and that
 44

connected to inner p region is called the gate (G). For large current applications,
thyristors need better cooling ; this is achieved to a great extent by mounting them
onto heat sinks. SCR rating has improved considerably since its introduction in 1957.
Now SCRs of voltage rating 10 kV and an rms current rating of 3000 A with
corresponding power-handling capacity of 30 MW are available. Such a high power
thyristor can be switched on by a low voltage supply of about 1 A and 10 W and this
gives us an idea of the immense power amplification capability (= 3 x 106) of this
device. As SCRs are solid state devices, they are compact, possess high reliability and
have low loss. Because of these useful features, SCR is almost universally employed
these days for all high power-controlled devices.

An SCR is so called because silicon is used for its construction and its operation as a
rectifier (very low resistance in the forward conduction and very high resistance in the
reverse direction) can be controlled. Like the diode, an SCR is an unidirectional
device that blocks the current flow from cathode to anode. Unlike the diode, a
thyristor also blocks the current flow from anode to cathode until it is triggered into
conduction by a proper gate signal between gate and cathode terminals.

For engineering applications of thyristors, their terminal characteristics must be

known. In this article, their static V-I characteristics, dynamic characteristics during
turn-on and turn-off processes and their gate characteristics are discussed.

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A THYRISTOR

An elementary circuit diagram for obtaining static V-I characteristics of a thyristor is

shown in Fig. 4.2 (a). The anode and cathode are connected to main source through
the load. The gate and cathode are fed from a source Es which provides positive gate
current from gate to cathode.

Fig. 4.2 (b) shows static V-I characteristics of a thyristor. Here Va is the anode voltage
across thyristor terminals A, K and Ia is the anode current. Typical SCR V-I
characteristic shown in Fig. 4.2 (b) reveals that a thyristor has three basic modes of
operation ; namely, reverse blocking mode, forward blocking (off-state) mode and
forward conduction (on-state) mode. These three modes of operation are now
discussed below :

Reverse Blocking Mode: When cathode is made positive with respect to anode with
switch S open, Fig. 4.2 (a), thyristor is reverse biased as shown in Fig. 4.3 (a).
Junctions J1 J3 are seen to be reverse biased whereas junction J2 is forward biased.
The device behaves as if two diodes are connected in series with reverse voltage
applied across them. A small leakage current of the order of a few milliamperes (or a
few microamperes depending upon the SCR rating) flows. This is reverse blocking
 45

mode, called the off-state, of the thyristor. If the reverse voltage is increased, then at a
critical breakdown level, called reverse breakdown voltage VBR, an avalanche occurs
at J1 and J3 and the reverse current increases rapidly. A large current associated with
VBR gives rise to more losses in the SCR. This may lead to thyristor damage as the
junction temperature may exceed its permissible temperature rise. It should, therefore,
be ensured that maximum working reverse voltage across a thyristor does not exceed
VBR. When reverse voltage applied across a thyristor is less than VBR, the device
offers a high impedance in the reverse direction. The SCR in the reverse blocking
mode may therefore be treated as an open switch.

Note that V-I characteristic after avalanche breakdown during reverse blocking mode
is applicable only when load resistance is zero, Fig. 4.2 (b). In case load resistance is
present, a large anode current associated with avalanche breakdown at VBR would
cause substantial voltage drop across load and as a result, V-I characteristic in third
quadrant would bend to the right of vertical line drawn at VBR.

Forward Blocking Mode : When anode is positive with respect to the cathode, with
gate circuit open, thyristor is said to be forward biased as shown in Fig. 4.3 (b). It is
seen from this figure that junctions J1, J3 are forward biased but junction J2 is reverse
biased. In this mode, a small current, called forward leakage current, flows as shown
in Figs. 4.2 (b) and 4.3 (b). In case the forward voltage is increased, then the reverse
biased junction J2 will have an avalanche breakdown at a voltage called forward
 46

breakover voltage VB0. When forward voltage is less than VBO, SCR offers a high
impedance. Therefore, a thyristor can be treated as an open switch even in the forward
blocking mode.

Forward Conduction Mode : In this mode, thyristor conducts currents from anode to
cathode with a very small voltage drop across it. A thyristor is brought from forward
blocking mode to forward conduction mode by turning it on by exceeding the forward
breakover voltage or by applying a gate pulse between gate and cathode. In this mode,
thyristor is in on-state and behaves like a closed switch. Voltage drop across thyristor
in the on state is of the order of 1 to 2 V depending on the rating of SCR. It may be
seen from Fig. 4.2 (b) that this voltage drop increases slightly with an increase in
anode current. In conduction mode, anode current is limited by load impedance alone
as voltage drop across SCR is quite small. This small voltage drop v T across the
device is due to ohmic drop in the four layers.

TURNING ON THE THYRISTOR:

With anode positive with respect to cathode, a thyristor can be turned on by any one
of the following techniques :

(a) Forward voltage triggering (b) gate triggering

(c) dv/dt triggering (d)Temperature triggering

(e)Light triggering.

These methods of turning-on a thyristor are now discussed one after the other.

(a) Forward Voltage Triggering: When anode to cathode forward voltage is

increased with gate circuit open, the reverse biased junction J2 will break. This is
known as avalanche breakdown and the voltage at which avalanche occurs is called
forward breakover voltage VB0. At this voltage, thyristor changes from off-state (high
voltage with low leakage current) to on-state characterised by low voltage across
thyristor with large forward current. As other junctions J1, J3 are already forward
biased, breakdown of junction J2 allows free movement of carriers across three
junctions and as a result, large forward anode-current flows. As stated before, this
forward current is limited by the load impedance. In practice, the transition from off-
state to on-state obtained by exceeding VB0 is never employed as it may destroy the
device.

The magnitudes of forward and reverse breakover voltages are nearly the same and
both are temperature dependent. In practice, it is found that VBR is slightly more than
VB0. Therefore, forward breakover voltage is taken as the final voltage rating of the
device during the design of SCR applications.

After the avalanche breakdown, junction J2 looses its reverse blocking capability.
Therefore, if the anode voltage is reduced below VB0 SCR will continue conduction of
the current. The SCR can now be turned off only by reducing the anode current below
a certain value called holding current (defined later).
 47

(b) Gate Triggering : Turning on of thyristors by gate triggering is simple, reliable

and efficient, it is therefore the most usual method of firing the forward biased SCRs.
A thyristor with forward breakover voltage (say 800 V) higher than the normal
working voltage (say 400 V) is chosen. This means that thyristor will remain in
forward blocking state with normal working voltage across anode and cathode and
with gate open. However, when turn-on of a thyristor is required, a positive gate
voltage between gate and cathode is applied. With gate current thus established,
charges are injected into the inner p layer and voltage at which forward breakover
occurs is reduced. The forward voltage at which the device switches to on-state
depends upon the magnitude of gate current. Higher the gate current, lower is the
forward breakover voltage

When positive gate current is applied, gate P layer is flooded with electrons from the
cathode. This is because cathode N layer is heavily doped as compared to gate P
layer. As the thyristor is forward biased, some of these electrons reach junction J2. As
a result, width of depletion layer around junction J2 is reduced. This causes the
junction J2 to breakdown at an applied voltage lower than forward breakover voltage
VB0. If magnitude of gate current is increased, more electrons will reach junction J2 ,as
a consequence thyristor will get turned on at a much lower forward applied voltage.

Fig. 4.2 (b) shows that for gate current Ig = 0, forward breakover voltage is VB0. For Igl
, forward breakover voltage, or turn-on voltage is less than VB0 For Ig2 > Ig1 , forward
breakover voltage is still further reduced. The effect of gate current on the forward
breakover voltage of a thyristor can also be illustrated by means of a curve as shown
in Fig. 4.4. For Ig < oa, forward breakover voltage remains almost constant at VB0. For
gate currents Ig1 , Ig2 and Ig3 the values of forward breakover voltages are ox, oy and
oz, respectively as shown. In Fig. 4.2 (b), the curve marked Ig = 0 is actually for gate
current less than oa. In practice, the magnitude of gate current is more than the
minimum gate current required to turn on the SCR. Typical gate current magnitudes
are of the order of 20 to 200 mA.

Once the SCR is conducting a forward current, reverse biased junction J2 no longer
exists. As such, no gate current is required for the device to remain in on-state.
Therefore, if the gate current is removed, the conduction of current from anode to
 48

cathode remains unaffected. However, if gate current is reduced to zero before the
rising anode current attains a value, called the latching current, the thyristor will turn-
off again. The gate pulse width should therefore be judiciously chosen to ensure that
anode current rises above the latching current. Thus latching current may be defined
as the minimum value of anode current which it must attain during turn-on process to
maintain conduction when gate signal is removed.

Once the thyristor is conducting, gate loses control. The thyristor can be turned-off (or
the thyristor can be returned to forward blocking state) only if the forward current
falls below a low-level current called the holding current. Thus holding current may
be defined as the minimum value of anode current below which it must fall for
turning-off the thyristor. The latching current is higher than the holding current. Note
that latching current is associated with turn-on process and holding current with turn-
off process. It is usual to take latching current as two to three times the holding
current . In industrial applications, holding current (typically 10 mA) is almost taken
as zero.

(c) dv/dt Triggering :

dv/dt triggering : The reversed biased junction J2 behaves like a capacitor because of
the space-charge present there. Let the capacitance of this junction be Cj. For any
capacitor, i = C dv/dt.In case it is assumed that entire forward voltage va appears
across reverse biased junction J2 then charging current across the junction is given by

i = Cj dva /dt

This charging or displacement current across junction J2 is collector currents of Q2 and

Q1 Currents IC2, IC1 will induce emitter current in Q2, Q1 In case rate of rise of anode
voltage is large, the emitter currents will be large and as a result, α1+ α2 will approach
unity leading to eventual switching action of the thyristor.

(d) Temperature Triggering : During forward blocking, most of the applied voltage
appears across reverse biased junction J2. This voltage across junction J2 associated
with leakage current may raise the temperature of this junction. With increase in
temperature, leakage current through junction J2 further increases. This cumulative
process may turn on the SCR at some high temperature.

(e) Light Triggering: For light-triggered SCRs, a recess (or niche) is made in the
inner p-layer as shown in Fig. 4.5 (a). When this recess is irradiated, free charge
carriers (holes and electrons) are generated just like when gate signal is applied
between gate and cathode. The pulse of light of appropriate wavelength is guided by
optical fibres for irradiation. If the intensity of this light thrown on the recess exceeds
a certain value, forward-biased SCR is turned on. Such a thyristor is known as light-
activated SCR (LASCR).

LASCR may be triggered with a light source or with a gate signal. Sometimes a
combination of both light source and gate signal is used to trigger an SCR. For this,
the gate is biased with voltage or current slightly less than that required to turn it on,
now a beam of light directed at the inner p-layer junction turns on the SCR. The light
 49

intensity required to turn-on the SCR depends upon the voltage bias given to the gate.
Higher the voltage (or current) bias, lower the light intensity required.

Light-triggered thyristors have now been used in high-voltage direct current (HVDC)
transmission systems. In these several SCRs are connected in series-parallel
combination and their light-triggering has the advantage of electrical isolation
between power and control circuits.

TURNING OFF THE THYRISTOR (COMMUTATION):

Static and switching characteristics of thyristors are always taken into consideration
for economical and reliable design of converter equipment. Static characteristics of a
thyristor have already been examined. In this part of the section; switching, dynamic
or transient, characteristics of thyristors are discussed.

During turn-on and turn-off processes, a thyristor is subjected to different voltages

across it and different currents through it. The time variations of the voltage across a
thyristor and the current through it during turn-on and turn-off processes give the
dynamic or switching characteristics of a thyristor. Here, first switching
characteristics during turn-on are described and then the switching characteristics
during turn-off

Switching Characteristics during Turn-off

Thyristor turn-off means that it has changed from on to off state and is capable of
blocking the forward voltage. This dynamic process of the SCR from conduction state
to forward blocking state is called commutation process or turn-off process.

Once the thyristor is on, gate loses control. The SCR can be turned off by reducing the
anode current below holding current . If forward voltage is applied to the SCR at the
moment its anode current falls to zero, the device will not be able to block this
forward voltage as the carriers (holes and electrons) in the four layers are still
favourable for conduction. The device will therefore go into conduction immediately
even though gate signal is not applied. In order to obviate such an occurrence, it is
 50

essential that the thyristor is reverse biased for a finite period after the anode current
has reached zero.

The turn-off time decreases with an increase in the magnitude of reverse voltage,
particularly in the range of 0 to – 50 V. This is because high reverse voltage sucks out
the carriers out of the junctions Jl , J3 and the adjacent transition regions at a faster rate.

The thyristor turn-off time tq is applicable to an individual SCR. In actual practice,

thyristor (or thyristors) form a part of the power circuit. The turn-off time provided to
the thyristor by the practical circuit is called circuit turn-off time tc.

Thyristors with slow turn-off time (50 – 100 (usee) are called converter grade SCRs
and those with fast turn-off time (3 – 50 µsec) are called inverter-grade SCRs.
Converter-grade SCRs are cheaper and are used where slow turn-off is possible as in
phase-controlled rectifiers, ac voltage controllers, cycloconverters etc. Inverter-grade
SCRs are costlier and are used in inverters, choppers and force-commutated
converters.

SCR TURN-ON TIME

As stated before, thyristor is considered to be a charge controlled device. Thus, higher

the magnitude of gate current pulse, lesser is the time to inject the required charge for
turning-on the thyristor. Therefore, SCR turn-on time can be reduced by using gate
current of higher magnitude. It should be ensured that pulse width is sufficient to
allow the anode current to exceed the latching current. In practice, gate pulse width is
usually taken as equal to, or greater than, SCR turn-on time. With pulse triggering,
greater amount of gate power dissipation can be allowed

A duty cycle is defined as the ratio of pulse-on period to periodic time of pulse. In
Fig. 4.12 (a), pulse-on period is T and periodic time is T1. Therefore, duty cycle δ is
given by

δ = T/ T1
 51

Sometimes the pulses of Fig. 4.12 (a) are modulated to generate a train of pulses as
shown in Fig. 4.12 (b). This technique of firing the thyristor is called high-frequency
carrier gating. The advantages offered by this method of firing the SCRs are lower
rating, reduced dimensions and therefore an overall economical design of the pulse
transformer needed for isolating the low power circuit from the main power circuit.

There is also prescribed a peak reverse voltage (gate negative with respect to cathode)
that can be applied across gate-cathode terminals. Any voltage signal, given by the
trigger circuit (or by any interference), exceeding this prescribed limit of about 5 to 20
V may damage the gate circuit. For preventing the occurrence of such hazards, a
diode is connected either in series with the gate circuit or across the gate-cathode
terminals as shown in Fig. 4.12 (c). Diode across the gate-cathode terminals, called
clamping diode, prevents the gate-cathode voltage from becoming more than about 1
V. Diode in series with gate circuit prevents the flow of negative gate source current
from becoming more than small reverse leakage current.

The magnitude of gate voltage and gate current for triggering an SCR is inversely
proportional to junction temperature. Thus, at very low temperatures, gate voltage and
gate current must have high values in order to ensure turn-on. But Pgm should not be
exceeded in any case.

The resistor Rl , connected across gate-cathode terminals, Fig. 4.10 (b), also serves to
bypass a part of the thermally-generated leakage current across junction J2 when SCR
is in the forward blocking mode ; this improves the thermal stability of SCR.
 52

FINGER VOLTAGE:
53
 54

SNUBBER CIRCUITS:

A snubber circuit consists of a series combination of resistance Rs and capacitance Cs

in parallel with the thyristor as shown in Fig. 4.25. Strictly speaking, a capacitor C s in
parallel with the device is sufficient to prevent unwanted dv/dt triggering of the SCR.
When switch S is closed, a sudden voltage appears across the circuit. Capacitor Cs
behaves like a short circuit, therefore voltage across SCR is zero. With the passage of
time, voltage across Cs builds up at a slow rate such that dv/dt across Cs and therefore
across SCR is less than the specified maximum dv/dt rating of the device. Here the
question arises that if Cs is enough to prevent accidental turn-on of the device by
dv/dt, what is the need of putting Rs in series with Cs ? The answer to this is as under.

Before SCR is fired by gate pulse, Cs charges to full voltage Vs. When the SCR is
turned on, capacitor discharges through the SCR and sends a current equal to Vs /
(resistance of local path formed by Cs and SCR). As this resistance is quite low, the
turn-on di/dt will tend to be excessive and as a result, SCR may be destroyed. In order
to limit the magnitude of discharge current, a resistance Rs is inserted in series with Cs
as shown in Fig. 4.25. Now when SCR is turned on, initial discharge current V s/Rs is
relatively small and turn-on di/dt is reduced.

In actual practice ; Rs, Cs and the load circuit parameters should be such that dv/dt
across Cs during its charging is less than the specified dv/dt rating of the SCR and
discharge current at the turn-on of SCR is within reasonable limits. Normally, Rs Cs
and load circuit parameters form an underdamped circuit so that dv/dt is limited to
acceptable values.

The design of snubber circuit parameters is quite complex.. In practice, designed

snubber parameters are adjusted up or down in the final assembled power circuit so as
to obtain a satisfactory performance of the power electronics system.
 55

OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION

Thyristors are very sensitive to overvoltages just as other semi-conductor devices are.
Overvoltage transients are perhaps the main cause of thyristor failure. Transient
overvoltages cause either maloperation of the circuit by unwanted turn-on of a
thyristor or permanent damage to the device due to reverse breakdown. A thyristor
may be subjected to internal or external overvoltages ; the former is caused by the
thyristor operation whereas the latter comes from the supply lines or the load circuit.

(i) Internal overvoltages. Large voltages may be generated internally during the
commutation of a thyristor. After thyristor anode current reduces to zero, anode
current reverses due to stored charges. This reverse recovery current rises to a peak
value at which time the SCR begins to block. After.this peak, reverse recovery current
decays abruptly with large di/dt. Because of the series inductance L of the SCR
circuit, large transient voltage L di/dt is produced. As this internal overvoltage may be
several times the breakover voltage of the device, the thyristor may be destroyed
permanently.

{ii) External overvoltages. External overvoltages are caused due to the interruption
of current flow in an inductive circuit and also due to lightning strokes on the lines
feeding the thyristor systems. When a thyristor converter is fed through a transformer,
voltage transients are likely to occur when the transformer primary is energised or de-
energised. Such overvoltages may cause random turn on of a thyristor. As a result, the
overvoltages may appear across the load causing the flow of large fault currents.
Overvoltages may also damage the thyristor by an inverse breakdown. For reliable
operation, the overvoltages must be suppressed by adopting suitable techniques.

Suppression of overvoltages. In order to keep the protective components to a

minimum, thyristors are chosen with their peak voltage ratings of 2.5 to 3 times their
normal peak working voltage. The effect of overvoltages is usually minimised, by
using RC circuits and non-linear resistors called voltage clamping devices.

The RC circuit, called snubber circuit, is connected across the device to be protected,
see Fig. 4.29. It provides a local path for internal overvoltages caused by reverse
recovery current. Snubber circuit is also helpful in damping overvoltage transient
spikes and for limiting dv/dt across the thyristor. The capacitor charges at a slow rate
and thus the rate of rise of forward voltage (dv/dt) across SCR is also reduced. The
resistance Rs damps out the ringing oscillations between the snubber circuit and the
stray circuit inductance. Snubber circuits are also connected across transformer
secondary terminals to suppress overvoltage transients caused by switching on or
switching off of the primary winding. As snubber circuits provide only partial
protection to SCR against transient overvoltages, thyristor protection against such
overvoltages can be upgraded. This is done with the help of voltage-clamping devices.

The RC snubber is not enough for overvoltage protection of SCR. In practice,

therefore, a combined protection consisting of RC snubber and voltage clamping
arrangement is provided to thyristors.
 56

OVERCURRENT PROTECTION:

Thyristors have small thermal time constants. Therefore, if a thyristor is subjected to

overcurrent due to faults, short circuits or surge currents ; its junction temperature
may exceed the rated value and the device may be damaged. There is thus a need for
the overcurrent protection of SCRs. As in other electrical systems, overcurrent
protection in thyristor circuits is achieved through the use of circuit breakers and fast-
acting fuses.

The type of protection used against overcurrent depends upon whether the supply
system is weak or stiff. In a weak supply network, fault current is limited by the
source impedance below the multi-cycle surge current rating of the thyristor. In
machine tool and excavator drives, if the motor stalls due to overloads, the current is
limited by the source and motor impedances. The filter inductance commonly
employed in dc and ac drives may limit the rate of rise of fault current below the
multicycle surge current rating of the thyristor. For all such systems, overcurrent can
be interrupted by conventional fuses and circuit breakers. However, proper co-
ordination is essential to guarantee that (i) fault current is interrupted before the
thyristor is damaged and (ii) only faulty branches of the network are isolated.

Conventional protective methods are, however, inadequate in electrical stiff supply

networks. In such systems, magnitude and rate of rise of current is not limited because
source has negligible impedance. As such, fault current and therefore junction
temperature rise within a few milliseconds. Special fast-acting current-limiting fuses
are, therefore, required for the protection of thyristors in these stiff supply networks.

These fuses and thyristors are found to have similar thermal properties, The current-
limiting fuse consists of one or more fine silver ribbons having very short fusing time.

Proper co-ordination between fast-acting current-limiting fuse and thyristor is

essential. A fuse carries the thyristor current as both are placed in series. Therefore,
the fuse must be rated to carry full-load current plus a marginal overload current for
an indefinite period. But the peak let through current of fuse must be less than the
subcycle surge current rating of the SCR. The voltage across the fuse during arcing
period is known as arcing, or recovery, voltage. This voltage is equal to the sum of
source voltage and the emf induced in the circuit inductance during arcing time ta. If
the fuse current is interrupted abruptly, induced e.m.f. may be high; as a result arcing
voltage would be excessive. It should therefore be ensured during fuse design and co-
ordination that arcing voltage is limited to less than twice the peak supply voltage. In
case voltage rating of the fuse is far in excess of circuit voltage, an abrupt current
interruption would lead to dangerous overvoltages.

When both circuit breaker and fast-acting current-limiting fuse are used for
overcurrent protection of SCR. The faulty circuit must be cleared before any damage
is done to the device. A circuit breaker has long tripping time, it is therefore generally
used for protecting the semiconductor device against the continuous overloads or
against surge currents of long duration. A fast-acting C.L. fuse is used for protecting
thyristors against large surge currents of very short duration. The tripping time of the
circuit breaker, the fusing-time of the fast-acting fuse must be properly co-ordinated
with the rating of a thyristor.
 57

ELECTRONIC CROWBAR PROTECTION:

As thyristor possesses high surge current capability, it can be used in an electronic

crowbar circuit for overcurrent protection of power converters using SCRs. An
electronic crowbar protection provides rapid isolation of the power converter before
any damage occurs

Fig. 4.28 illustrates the basic principle of electronic crowbar protection. A crowbar
thyristor is connected across the input dc terminals. A current sensing resistor detects
the value of converter current. If it exceeds preset value, gate circuit provides the
signal to crowbar SCR and turns it on in a few microseconds. The input terminals are
then short-circuited by crowbar SCR and it shunts away the converter overcurrent.
The crowbar thyristor current depends upon the source voltage and its impedance.
After some time, main fuse interrupts the fault current. The fuse may be replaced by a
circuit breaker if SCR has adequate surge current rating.

GATE PROTECTION:

Gate circuit should also be protected against overvoltages and over currents.
Overvoltages across the gate circuit can cause false triggering of the SCR.
Overcurrent may raise junction temperature beyond specified limit leading to its
damage. Protection against over-voltages is achieved by connecting a zener diode
across the gate circuit. A resistor R2 connected in series with the gate circuit provides
protection against overcurrents.

A common problem in thyristor circuits is that they suffer from spurious, or noise,
firing. Turning-on or turning-off of an SCR may induce trigger pulses in a nearby
SCR. Sometimes transients in a power circuit may also cause unwanted signal to
appear across the gate of a neighbouring SCR. These undesirable trigger pulses may
turn on the SCR leading to false operation of the main SCR. Gate protection against
such spurious firing is obtained by using shielded cables or twisted gate leads. A
varying flux caused by nearby transients cannot pass through twisted gate leads or
shielded cables. As such no e.m.f. is induced in these cables and spurious firing of
thyristors is thus minimised. A capacitor and a resistor are also connected across gate
 58

to cathode to bypass the noise signals, as shown in the figure below. The capacitor
should be less than 0.1 µF and must not deteriorate the waveshape of the gate pulse.

TWO TRANSISTOR MODEL FOR A THYRISTOR

 59

The principle of thyristor operation can be explained with the use of its two-transistor
model (or two-transistor analogy). Fig.4.15 below shows schematic diagram of a
thyristor. From this figure, two-transistor model is obtained by bisecting the two
middle layers, along the dotted line, in two separate halves as shown in the figure. In
this figure, junctions J1 – J2 and J2 -J3 can be considered to constitute pnp and npn
transistors separately. The circuit representation of the two-transistor model of a
thyristor is shown in figure (c).

In the off-state of a transistor, collector current Ic is related to emitter current IE as

IC = αIE + ICBO

where α is the common-base current gain and ICB0 is the common-base leakage current
of collector-base junction of a transistor.

For transistor Q1 in Fig. 4.15 (c), emitter current IE = anode current Ia and IC =
collector current IC1. Therefore, for Q1

IC1 = α1 Ia + ICBO1 ……..(4.3)

where α1 = common-base current gain of Q1

and ICBO1 = common-base leakage current of Q1

Similarly, for transistor Q2, the collector current IC2 is given by

IC2 = α2 Ik + ICBO2 …(4.4)

where α2 – common-base current gain of Q2,ICBO2 =common-base leakage current

of Q2 and

Ik = emitter current of Q2.

 60

The sum of two collector currents given by Eqs. (4.3) and (4.4) is equal to the external
circuit current Iα entering at anode terminal A.

There fore Ia = IC1 + IC2

Ia = α1 Ia + ICBO1+ α2 Ik + ICBO2 …(4.5)

When gate current is applied, then Ik = Ia + Ig . Substituting this value of Ik in Eq. (4.5)
gives

Ia = α1 Ia + ICBO1+ α2 (Ia + Ig ) + ICBO2

or

Ia = α2 Ig + ICBO1 + ICBO2 /[1-( α1+ α2)]

For a silicon transistor, current gain α is very low at low emitter current. With an
increase in emitter current, a builds up rapidly as shown in Fig. 4.16. With gate
current Ig = 0 and with thyristor forward biased,( α1+ α2)is very low as per Eq (4.6) and
forward leakage current somewhat more than ICBO1 + ICBO2 flows. If, by some means,
the emitter current of two component transistors can be increased so that α 1+ α2
approaches unity, then as per Eq. (4.6) Ia would tend to become infinity thereby
turning-on the device. Actually, external load limits the anode current to a safe value
after the thyristor begins conduction. The methods of turning-on a thyristor, in fact,
are the methods of making α1+ α2 to approach unity. These 0.25 various mechanisms
for turning-on a thyristor are now discussed below :

(i) GATE Triggering : With anode positive with respect to cathode and with
gate current Ig = 0, Eq. (4.6) shows that anode current, equal to the forward leakage
current, is somewhat more than ICBO1 + ICBO2,Under these conditions, the device is in
the forward blocking state.
 61

Now a sufficient gate-drive current between gate and cathode of the transistor is
applied. This gate-drive current is equal to base current IB2 = Ig and emitter current Ik of
transistor Q2. With the establishment of emitter current Ik of Q2, current gain α2 of Q2
increases and base current IB2 causes the existence of collector current IC2 = β2IB2 = β2
Ig. This amplified current IC2 serves as the base current IB1 of transistor Q1 With the
flow of IB1 collector current IC1 = β1 IB1 = β1 β2 Ig of Q1 comes into existence. Currents
IB1 and IC1 lead to the establishment of emitter current Ia of Q1 and this causes current
gain α1 to rise as desired. Now current Ig + ICI = (1 + β1 β2) Ig acts as the base current
of Q2 and therefore its emitter current Ik = ICI + Ig With the rise in emitter current Ik α2
of Q2 increases and this further causes IC2 = P2 (1 + β1 β2) Ig to rise. As amplified
collector current IC2 is equal to the base current of Q1 current gain α1 eventually rises
further. There is thus established a regenerative action internal to the device. This
regenerative or positive feedback effect causes α1+ α2 to grow towards unity. As a
consequence, anode current begins to grow towards a larger value limited only by
load impedance external to the device. When regeneration has grown sufficiently,
gate current can be withdrawn. Even after Ig is removed, regeneration continues. This
characteristic of the thyristor makes it suitable for pulse triggering. Note that thyristor
is a latching device

After thyristor is turned on, all the four layers are filled with carriers and all junctions
are forward biased. Under these conditions, thyristor has very low impedance and is
in the forward on-state.

(ii) Forward-voltage triggering : If the forward anode to cathode voltage is

increased, the collector to emitter voltages of both the transistors are also increased.
As a result, the leakage current at the middle junction J2 of thyristor increases, which
is also the collector current of Q2 as well as Q1 With increase in collector currents IC1
and IC2 due to avalanche effect, the emitter currents of the two transistors also increase
causing α1+ α2 to approach unity. This leads to switching action of the device due to
regenerative action. The forward-voltage triggering for turning-on a thyristor may be
destructive and should therefore be avoided.

(iii) dv/dt triggering : The reversed biased junction J2 behaves like a capacitor
because of the space-charge present there. Let the capacitance of this junction be Cj.
For any capacitor, i = C dv/dt.In case it is assumed that entire forward voltage v a
appears across reverse biased junction J2 then charging current across the junction is
given by

i = Cj dva /dt

This charging or displacement current across junction J2 is collector currents of Q2 and

Q1 Currents IC2, IC1 will induce emitter current in Q2, Q1 In case rate of rise of anode
voltage is large, the emitter currents will be large and as a result, α1+ α2 will approach
unity leading to eventual switching action of the thyristor.

(iid Temperature triggering : At high temperature, the forward leakage current

across junction J2 rises. This leakage current serves as the collector junction current of
the component transistors Q1 and Q2. Therefore, an increase in leakage current ICI, IC2
leads to an increase in the emitter currents of Ql Q2. As a result, (α1+ α2) approaches
unity. Consequently, switching action of thyristor takes place.
 62

(v) Light triggering : When light is thrown on silicon, the electron-hole pairs
increase. In the forward-biased thyristor, leakage current across J2 increases which
eventually increases α1+ α2 to unity as explained before and switching action of
thyristor occurs.

As stated before, gate-triggering is the most common method for turning-on a

thyristor. Light-triggered thyristors are used in HVDC applications.

The operational differences between thyristor-family and transistor family of devices

may now be summarised as under :

i) Once a thyristor is turned on by a gate signal, it remains latched in on-state due to

internal regenerative action. However, a transistor must be given a continuous base
signal to remain in on-state.

ii) In order to turn-off a thyristor, a reverse voltage must be applied across its anode-
cathode terminals. However, a transistor turns off when its base signal is removed.
 63

THYRISTOR PROTECTION: Reliable operation of a thyristor demands that its

specified ratings are not exceeded. In practice, a thyristor may be subjected to
overvoltages or overcurrents. During SCR turn-on, di/dt may be prohibitively large.
There may be false triggering of SCR by high value of dv/dt. A spurious signal across
gate-cathode terminals may lead to unwanted turn-on. A thyristor must be protected
against all such abnormal conditions for satisfactory and reliable operation of SCR
circuit and the equipment. SCRs are very delicate devices, their protection against
abnormal operating conditions is, therefore, essential. The object of this section is to
discuss various techniques adopted for the protection of SCRs.

(a) di/dt protection. When a thyristor is forward biased and is turned on by a gate
pulse, conduction of anode current begins in the immediate neighbourhood of the
gate-cathode junction, Fig. 4.6 (a). Thereafter, the current spreads across the whole
area of junction. The thyristor design permits the spread of conduction to the whole
junction area as rapidly as possible. However, if the rate of rise of anode current, i.e.
di/dt, is large as compared to the spread velocity of carriers, local hot spots will be
formed near the gate connection on account of high current density. This localised
heating may destroy the thyristor. Therefore, the rate of rise of anode current at the
time of turn-on must be kept below the specified limiting value. The value of di/dt can
be maintained below acceptable limit by using a small inductor, called di/dt inductor,
in series with the anode circuit. Typical di/dt limit values of SCRs are 20-500 A/µ sec.
Local spot heating can also be avoided by ensuring that the conduction spreads to the
whole area as rapidly as possible. This can be achieved by applying a gate current
nearer to (but never greater than) the maximum specified gate current.

dv/dt protection. With forward voltage across the anode and cathode of a thyristor,
the two outer junctions are forward biased but the inner junction is reverse biased.
This reverse biased junction J2, Fig. 4.3 (b), has the characteristics of a capacitor due
to charges existing across the junction. In other words, space-charges exist in the
depletion region around junction J2 and therefore junction J2 behaves like a
capacitance. If the entire anode to cathode forward voltage Va appears across J2
junction and the charge is denoted by Q, then a charging current i given by Eq. (4.6)
flows

i = dQ/dt =d(Cj Va )/dt

=Cj (d Va /dt) + Va(d Cj /dt) …………..(4.6 a)

As Cj the capacitance of junction J2 is almost constant, the current is given by

i = Cj (d Va /dt) …………..(4.6 b)

If the rate of rise of forward voltage dVa/dt is high, the charging current i will be
more.This charging current plays the role of gate current and turns on the SCR even
when gate signal is zero. Such phenomena of turning-on a thyristor, called dv/dt turn-
on must be avoided as it leads to false operation of the thyristor circuit. For
controllable operation of the thyristor, the rate of rise of forward anode to cathode
voltage dVa/dt must be kept below the specified rated limit. Typical values of dv/dt
are 20 – 500 V/µsec. False turn-on of a thyristor by large dv/dt can be prevented by
using a snubber circuit in parallel with the device.
 64

INDUCTION HEATING OF CONDUCTING MATERIALS

Induction heating is a non-contact heating process. It uses high frequency

electricity to heat materials that are electrically conductive. Since it is non-
contact, the heating process does not contaminate the material being heated.
It is also very efficient since the heat is actually generated inside the work
piece. This can be contrasted with other heating methods where heat is
generated in a flame or heating element, which is then applied to the work
piece. For these reasons Induction Heating lends itself to some unique
applications in industry. A source of high frequency electricity is used to drive
a large alternating current through a coil. This coil is known as the work coil.

The passage of current through this coil generates a very intense and rapidly
changing magnetic field in the space within the work coil. The work piece to
be heated is placed within this intense alternating magnetic field.

Depending on the nature of the work piece material, a number of things

happen...

The alternating magnetic field induces a current flow in the conductive work
piece. The arrangement of the work coil and the work piece can be thought of
as an electrical transformer. The work coil is like the primary where electrical
energy is fed in, and the work piece is like a single turn secondary that is
short-circuited. This causes tremendous currents to flow through the work
piece. These are known as eddy currents.

In addition to this, the high frequency used in induction heating applications

gives rise to a phenomenon called skin effect. This skin effect forces the
alternating current to flow in a thin layer towards the surface of the work piece.
The skin effect increases the effective resistance of the metal to the passage
of the large current. Therefore it greatly increases the heating effect caused
by the current induced in the work piece.

(Although the heating due to eddy currents is desirable in this

application, it is interesting to note that transformer manufacturers go to
great lengths to avoid this phenomenon in their transformers.
Laminated transformer cores, powdered iron cores and ferrites are all
used to prevent eddy currents from flowing inside transformer cores.
Inside a transformer the passage of eddy currents is highly undesirable
because it causes heating of the magnetic core and represents power
that is wasted.)

For ferrous metals like iron and some types of steel, there is an additional
heating mechanism that takes place at the same time as the eddy currents
mentioned above. The intense alternating magnetic field inside the work coil
repeatedly magnetises and de-magnetises the iron crystals. This rapid flipping
of the magnetic domains causes considerable friction and heating inside the
material. Heating due to this mechanism is known as Hysteresis loss, and is
greatest for materials that have a large area inside their B-H curve. This can
be a large contributing factor to the heat generated during induction heating,
 65

but only takes place inside ferrous materials. For this reason ferrous materials
lend themselves more easily to heating by induction than non-ferrous
materials.

It is interesting to note that steel looses its magnetic properties when heated
above approximately 700°C. This temperature is known as the Curie
temperature. This means that above 700°C there can be no heating of the
material due to hysteresis losses. Any further heating of the material must be
due to induced eddy currents alone. This makes heating steel above 700°C
more of a challenge for the induction heating systems. The fact that copper
and Aluminium are both non-magnetic and very good electrical conductors,
can also make these materials a challenge to heat efficiently. (We will see that
the best course of action for these materials is to up the frequency to
exaggerate losses due to the skin effect.)

In order to achieve uniform heating of conducting materials, electrical

induction heating is a very effective method as compared to heating of such
work peaces by direct heat or fuel fired furnaces. This method is faster and
cleaner and also economical.
The frequency to be used for induction heating is determined by the size of
the work piece and the depth of heating required, rather than the type of
conducting material. Eddy currents, hysterisis and skin effect principles have
to be borne in mind when deciding the power required as well as the
frequency for induction heating.
For heating small work jobs, or for heat treatment for hardening the surface of
the material, higher frequencies are used to produce greater “skin effect”.
Due to the skin effect the induced currents in the work piece heat only about
5% of the outer surface of the work job above 1500 degrees F. The internal
metal below is not greatly heated and hence it remains softer and tougher,
thus providing the required strength. Much of the heat quickly gets transferred
to the inner portion and also some heat is radiated. Hence, it is important that
the surface is brought to a high temperature quickly in few seconds and
quench or cool it before the heat has traveled to the inside of the work piece
or is lost due to radiation. Since the time involved in the procedure is minimal,
the cost is very much reduced. Also, with this method, the main part of the
work job maintains its shape, thereby straightening of the piece is not
necessary, which would have been required if the whole piece was heated.

The frequency to be used does not depend much on the type of conducting
material, but depends more on the size and shape of the material, and also on
the depth of heat penetration that is required. At high frequencies, high
temperature is obtained quickly with lesser amount of energy input. The
frequency used can vary between 10 KHz to 100 KHz from thicker rods to
thinner rods for surface hardening. The depth of penetration of the heat
decreases in proportion to the square root of the frequency approximately
whereas the amount of power increases in proportion to the square root of the
frequency. About 5 to 50 KW/square inch (of surface) input power is required
for most metal hardening.
 66

Induction heating can be used for any application where we want to heat an
electrically conductive material in a clean, efficient and controlled manner.

One of the most common applications is for sealing the anti-tamper seals that
are stuck to the top of medicine and drinks bottles. A foil seal coated with "hot-
melt glue" is inserted into the plastic cap and screwed onto the top of each
bottle during manufacture. These foil seals are then rapidly heated as the
bottles pass under an induction heater on the production line. The heat
generated melts the glue and seals the foil onto the top of the bottle. When
the cap is removed, the foil remains providing an airtight seal and preventing
any tampering or contamination of the bottle's contents until the customer
pierces the foil.

Another common application is "getter firing" to remove contamination from

evacuated tubes such as TV picture tubes, vacuum tubes, and various gas
discharge lamps. A ring of conductive material called a "getter" is placed
inside the evacuated glass vessel. Since induction heating is a non-contact
process it can be used to heat the getter that is already sealed inside a
vessel. An induction work coil is located close to the getter on the outside of
the vacuum tube and the AC source is turned on. Within seconds of starting
the induction heater, the getter is heated white hot, and chemicals in its
coating react with any gasses in the vacuum. The result is that the getter
absorbs any last remaining traces of gas inside the vacuum tube and
increases the purity of the vacuum.

Yet another common application for induction heating is a process called

Zone purification used in the semiconductor manufacturing industry. This is a
process in which silicon is purified by means of a moving zone of molten
material. An Internet Search is sure to turn up more details on this process
that I know little about.

Other applications include melting, welding and brazing or metals. Induction

cooking hobs and rice cookers. Metal hardening of ammunition, gear teeth,
saw blades and drive shafts, etc are also common applications because the
induction process heats the surface of the metal very rapidly. Therefore it can
be used for surface hardening, and hardening of localised areas of metallic
parts by "outrunning" the thermal conduction of heat deeper into the part or to
surrounding areas. The non contact nature of induction heating also means
that it can be used to heat materials in analytical applications without risk of
contaminating the specimen. Similiarly, metal medical instruments may be
sterilised by heating them to high temperatures whilst they are still sealed
inside a known sterile environment, in order to kill germs.

In theory only 3 things are essential to implement induction heating:

1. A source of High Frequency electrical power,

2. A work coil to generate the alternating magnetic field,
3. An electrically conductive work piece to be heated,
 67

In practice the work coil is usually incorporated into a resonant tank circuit.
This has a number of advantages. Firstly, it makes either the current or the
voltage waveform become sinusoidal. This minimises losses in the inverter by
allowing it to benefit from either zero-voltage-switching or zero-current-
switching depending on the exact arrangement chosen. The sinusoidal
waveform at the work coil also represents a more pure signal and
causes less Radio Frequency Interference to nearby equipment. This
later point becoming very important in high-powered systems.

The system schematic above shows the simplest inverter driving its LCLR
work coil arrangement.

Note that this schematic DOES NOT SHOW the MOSFET gate-drive circuitry and
control electronics!

The inverter in this demonstration prototype was a simple half-bridge consisting

of two MTW14N50 MOSFETs made my On-semiconductor (formerly
Motorola.) It is fed from a smoothed DC supply with decoupling capacitor across
the rails to support the AC current demands of the inverter. However, it should
be realised that the quality and regulation of the power supply for induction
heating applications is not critical. Full-wave rectified (but un-smoothed) mains
can work as well as smoothed and regulated DC when it comes to heating metal,
but peak currents are higher for the same average heating power. There are
many arguments for keeping the size of the DC bus capacitor down to a
minimum. In particular it improves the power factor of current drawn from the
mains supply via a rectifier, and it also minimises stored energy in case of fault
conditions within the inverter.

The DC-blocking capacitor is used merely to stop the DC output from the half-
bridge inverter from causing current flow through the work coil. It is sized
sufficiently large that it does not take part in the impedance matching, and does
not adversely effect the operation of the LCLR work coil arrangement.
 68

In high power designs it is common to use a full-bridge (H-bridge) of 4 or more

switching devices. In such designs the matching inductance is usually split
equally between the two bridge legs so that the drive voltage waveforms are
balanced with respect to ground. The DC-blocking capacitor can also be
eliminated if current mode control is used to ensure that no net DC flows
between the bridge legs. (If both legs of the H-bridge can be controlled
independently then there is scope for controlling power throughput using phase-
shift control.

At still higher powers it is possible to use several separate inverters effectively

connected in parallel to meet the high load-current demands. However, the
 69

separate inverters are not directly tied in parallel at the output terminals of their
H-bridges. Each of the distributed inverters is connected to the remote work coil
via its own pair of matching inductors which ensure that the total load is spread
evenly among all of the inverters.

These matching inductors also provide a number of additional benefits when

inverters are paralleled in this way. Firstly, the impedance BETWEEN any two
inverter outputs is equal to twice the value of the matching inductance. This
inductive impedance limits the "shoot between" current that flows between
paralleled inverters if their switching instants are not perfectly synchronised.
Secondly, this same inductive reactance between inverters limits the rate at
which fault current rises if one of the inverters exhibits a device failure,
potentially eliminating failure of further devices. Finally, since all distributed
inverters are already connected via inductors, any additional inductance
between the inverters merely adds to this impedance and only has the effect of
slightly degrading current sharing. Therefore the distributed inverters for
induction heating need not necessarily be located physically close to each other.
If isolation transformers are included in the designs then they need not even run
from the same supply!
70
71
72
 73

QUESTIONS:
1) State and explain the principle involved in induction heating
procedure.
2) What are the advantages of induction heating?
3) List applications of induction heating.
4) Why is induction heating more preferable than conventional
furnace heating methods?
5) Can induction heating be used for non conductive materials like
plastic? Justify your answer.
 74

DIELECTRIC HEATING OF NONCONDUCTING MATERIALS

A non-conducting material generates heat when subjected to an alternating

electric field. Dielectric heating is the result of dielectric loss in the material to
be heated. The heat produced will depend on the dielectric strength of the
material to be heated. This method of heating is widely used in wood and
plastic industry. For heating and gluing / joining / bonding multiple layers of
plywood, this is a very effective method, since the heat that is generated is
uniform throughout the material, providing certain conditions are adhered to.

The other areas where this method is used are textile, rubber, food and
chemical industries. The job to be heated is place between two electrodes
which are connected to a very high frequency supply. The basic arrangement
is as shown in the diagram. In very simple terms a capacitance is formed
between the two electrodes and the job or work piece, where the two
electrodes are as good as two plates of a capacitor and job is the dielectric
material between the two electrodes. The current flowing in the circuit is given
by Ic = E / Xc, where Ic is the current flowing through the capacitor in
amperes, E is the magnitude of the high frequency voltage applied to the two
plates and Xc is the reactance of the capacitance in also. Also we know that
Xc = 1 / 2¶ √LC.

Because of the charging and discharging of the capacitance, the molecular

arrangement in the job changes due to the continuous stress caused by the
alternating electric field. This causes heat to be produced.

Thus dielectric heating is based on the principle of converting high frequency

electric energy into heat energy. The block diagram shown represents the
basic principle of operation. An oscillator is used to provide the high
frequency. Generally radio frequency oscillators are used in this process. The
amount of heat generated depends upon and is directly proportional to the
following:

1) frequency
2) capacity of the job
3) square of the supply voltage
4) power factor of t he load
5) area of the electrode plates, and
 75

6) dielectric constant of the job or work piece.

Note that the heat produced is inversely proportional to the distance

between the two plates.

The frequency to be used will depend upon the size / dimensions of the job
and also on the high frequency electrical power output. For lesser power
outputs, of 100 watts to 1000 watts frequencies in the range of 200 MHz
maybe used, whereas, as the power increases to about 40 – 50 K-watts, the
frequency used is less at about 30 MHz and yet, for still higher electrical
outputs in the range of 200 K-watts, the frequency used may be in the range
of 10 -15 MHz. The dielectric constants for most materials generally range
between 2 and 17, with a few exceptions like, in case of gases it can be as
low as 0.5 and for ceramics it can be as high as 1000 or more.

For uniform heating of the material there are two important and absolutely
essential conditions, namely, the size of the electrodes that are used as plates
of the capacitor should be larger or greater than the size or dimensions of the
job, and, the length of the electrodes or plates should be greater than the
distance between the two plates. Also note that the maximum value of the
voltage applied to the electrodes should not be more than 15,000 volts so as
to ensure that arcing or corona effects do not takes place between the
electrodes or plates. Yet one more consideration is that there should not be
any air gap between the plates and the job, which should be contact with both
the plates so that series capacitance due to air is not introduced.

One important point to be noted is that, any other method of heating of non-
conductive materials will not produce uniform heating or rise in temperature
and hence will take longer duration to heat.

Specific applications of dielectric heating are:

1) Drying and heat treatment of textile goods such as rayon, nylon,

terylene, etc.
2) Processing of chemicals during manufacturing process.
3) Gluing, drying and curing of wood. The glue between the wood
layers can be dried using dielectric heating in the manufacture of
plywood.
4) Preheating and curing of plastics. A “perform” of a biscuit sized
material is placed in a dielectric heater for a minute and then it is
passed on to a press that moulds it in the required shape.
Approximately 2000 watts of power will heat the plastic perform of 1
pound to about 300 degrees F. in just one minute.
5) Processing rubber and other synthetic materials.
6) Processing and manufacture of semiconductor devices.
7) Sterilization of food and medical supplies.
8) Curing of resin based adhesives and sand cores in foundries.
9) Sewing of seam in plastic materials. (Plastic sheets are joined
together using combination of heat and pressure.)
 76

10) A V.H.F. band oscillator can b used in the medical field for heating
the human body, which produces “artificial fever” when desired for
medical treatment. When the V.H.F. electricity flows in wires or
electrodes several inches away from the body, heat is produced
inside the blood vessels.
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VI. EQUIPMENTS/APPARATUS REQUIRED