LABOUR ECONOMICS

PROPOSAL
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

To assess the effectiveness of Training and

development function in the public service
Tanzania

Prepared by: 

MAUREEN GIDEON 
 

June 5, 2010 
 

 
 

University of Dar es salaam Business School MBA II Eve 
  

To assess the effectiveness of Training and

development function in the public service Tanzania | 
A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     2 
 
Table of Contents
1  Background/Introduction to the study ................................................................................................... 4 
1.1  Overview (Historical perspective) ................................................................................................ 4 
1.2  Relational Objectives Relationship of variables ........................................................................... 4 
1.3  Brief Conceptual Presentation ...................................................................................................... 5 
2  Research Problem ................................................................................................................................. 5 
3  Significance/Rationale of the study ...................................................................................................... 6 
4  Research Questions/Hypotheses and objectives ................................................................................... 7 
5  Research Objectives .............................................................................................................................. 7 
5.1  General Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 7 
5.2  Specific Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 7 
6  Literature Review .................................................................................................................................. 8 
6.1  Definition of Terms ....................................................................................................................... 8 
6.1.1  Training ................................................................................................................................. 8 
6.1.2  Development ......................................................................................................................... 8 
6.1.3  Training and Development ................................................................................................... 8 
6.1.4  Public services ...................................................................................................................... 9 
6.1.5  Knowledge ............................................................................................................................. 9 
6.1.6  Attitude ................................................................................................................................ 10 
6.1.7  Competence ......................................................................................................................... 10 
6.1.8  Skills .................................................................................................................................... 11 
6.2  Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................... 12 
6.2.1  Skills Theories ...................................................................................................................... 12 
6.2.2  Learning Theories ............................................................................................................... 13 
6.2.3  Competence based approach .............................................................................................. 14 
6.2.4  How to develop soft skills .................................................................................................... 15 
6.3  Conceptual Framework of the Study .......................................................................................... 16 
7  Methodology ....................................................................................................................................... 17 
8  Analytical Methods ............................................................................................................................. 17 
9  References ........................................................................................................................................... 18 
9.1  Journals ....................................................................................................................................... 20 
10  Time Scale ...................................................................................................................................... 22 
11  Budget and Resources ..................................................................................................................... 22 

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1 Background/Introduction to the study
1.1 Overview (Historical perspective)
Over the past years, the Government of Tanzania redefined its roles and functions, taking a
longer term perspective in recognition of the fact that the transformation of the public service
would require a decade of sustained reforms to fully realize a public service that is responsive to
citizens needs in terms of delivering effective and efficient services. One of the critical
challenges being faced by the Government in implementing this sector‐wide reform is the
Competency Framework.

This study will establish that, depending on the type of business they are in, departments (public
service) need a certain array/set of knowledge, skills and attitudes (competencies) among their
staff to operate effectively and achieve results. Many organizations across the world have,
therefore, taken measures to identify the range/sets of competencies they need, determine current
competency levels of their staff and take measures to address the gaps. In recognition of the
above, as part of measures to improve the performance of the public service, within the
framework of the Public Service Reform Programme initial efforts should be focused on running
training programmes, which should be well structured in order to have the desired impact.

The study will employ case study research strategy using semi structured interviews,
organization based documents and some non participant observation in order to reach the desired
conclusion and confirm whether Human resources training and development will bring efficient
and effectiveness in the public service.

1.2 Relational Objectives Relationship of variables

It then followed to look at the skills of organisations in further depth, studying the skills of their
representatives, and how the training and developing of soft skills could add to this relationship.

Literature states that the evaluation of training is neglected, although it must be noted that there
is no universal method that can be employed. Evaluation of training is a subjective area, with
various factors that impinge on the successful transfer of new skills.

Numerous organisations were contacted, but the response level was low, therefore it was decided
to review soft skills within three organisations, as an interaction with both colleagues and
ultimately customers. The three organisations that were chosen are all in different industry
sections and in different stages of the life cycle.

The first organization agreed to the research, but then became reluctant to disclosure further
information. The organisations felt that the economic position they were in would not be helped
by a report written into the possible causes, although, it was stressed this was not the purpose of
the paper. It was agreed to keep the organization anonymous, but meant that their accounts could
not be discussed in relation to training.

A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     4 
 
To maintain neutrality throughout the paper all three organisations would study in the same
method. This focused the paper on utilization of soft skills, the amount of training invested in
them and the ultimate benefit to the organization.

The paper concludes individually on all three organisations. Assessing their levels of
commitment to skills training, the value they place in this, and the culture that encourages the
transfer of skills. The main conclusions are drawn from this section.

1.3 Brief Conceptual Presentation

The conceptualisation by Gupta (2007) highlights the scope of an effective training programme.
Through careful follow up of provided steps, an organisation will provide required training to
required employees. This will enhance the ability of employees to execute their daily activities in
working place. Likewise public service management department can only perform well if its
training programmes have clear scope and objectives; improve capability of an individual
employee; and be role-specific and involve practice. The public service management department
should also develop a programme that involves careful planning in terms of training materials,
learning duration, and instructors without forgetting proper mechanism of evaluation. As a point
of departure the following section examine training and development function in public service
management in order to see how it fits in this framework.

2 Research Problem

A concern in the Government ministries and departments and agencies is that the selection,
training, supervision and evaluation of human resources be the finest it can be given the excellent
resources available from conservative scholars on the subject. In this regard, developing
programs, current programs and proposed programs for human resources development need to be
evaluated according to well thought-out theology and practicality.

The study is intended to answer one central question: To what extent human resources training
and development function is effective in public service in Tanzania? This study will look at these
areas to determine any possible changes that would improve the overall performance in the
public service. The research and conclusions will suggest applications for Training and
Development in the public service and other areas. The evidence for other people work shows
that there is need for further research on this area.

The purpose of this study also is to examine and assess factors that can affect the effectiveness of
training in the public sector include lack of support from top management and peers, employees’
individual attitudes, job-related factors and also the deficiencies in training practice. Information
obtained could be practical when management decides to analyze the evaluation and transfer of
training elements that has been addressed in this study as to get management support and to
create conducive environment to apply related skill and knowledge on the job.

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3 Significance/Rationale of the study
In Tanzania, the importance of providing training and development is seen through the various
policies implemented by the government and the large amount of money invested. In relation to
the public sector, the government policy is to provide raining to all its employees according to
the needs assessment

The importance of training and development

• Optimum Utilization of Human Resources – Training and Development helps in

optimizing the utilization of human resource that further helps the employee to achieve
the organizational goals as well as their individual goals.
• Development of Human Resources – Training and Development helps to provide an
opportunity and broad structure for the development of human resources’ technical and
behavioral skills in an organization. It also helps the employees in attaining personal
growth.
• Development of skills of employees – Training and Development helps in increasing the
job knowledge and skills of employees at each level. It helps to expand the horizons of
human intellect and an overall personality of the employees.
• Productivity – Training and Development helps in increasing the productivity of the
employees that helps the organization further to achieve its long-term goal.
• Team spirit – Training and Development helps in inculcating the sense of team work,
team spirit, and inter-team collaborations. It helps in inculcating the zeal to learn within
the employees.
• Organization Culture – Training and Development helps to develop and improve the
organizational health culture and effectiveness. It helps in creating the learning culture
within the organization.
• Organization Climate – Training and Development helps building the positive perception
and feeling about the organization. The employees get these feelings from leaders,
subordinates, and peers.
• Quality – Training and Development helps in improving upon the quality of work and
work-life.
• Healthy work environment – Training and Development helps in creating the healthy
working environment. It helps to build good employee, relationship so that individual
goals aligns with organizational goal.
• Health and Safety – Training and Development helps in improving the health and safety
of the organization thus preventing obsolescence.
• Morale – Training and Development helps in improving the morale of the work force.
• Image – Training and Development helps in creating a better corporate image.
• Profitability – Training and Development leads to improved profitability and more
positive attitudes towards profit orientation.
• Training and Development aids in organizational development i.e. Organization gets
more effective decision making and problem solving. It helps in understanding and
carrying out organizational policies
• Training and Development helps in developing leadership skills, motivation, loyalty,
better attitudes, and other aspects that successful workers and managers usually display.

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4 Research Questions/Hypotheses and objectives

For effective training and learning evaluation, the principal questions will be:

Open ended questions

• To what extent were the identified training needs objectives achieved by the programme?
• To what extent were the learners' objectives achieved?
• What specifically did the learners learn or be usefully reminded of?
• What commitment have the learners made about the learning they are going to implement
on their return to work?

• How successful were the trainees in implementing their action plans?

• To what extent were they supported in this by their line managers?
• To what extent has the action listed above achieved a Return on Investment (ROI) for the
organization, either in terms of identified objectives satisfaction or, where possible, a
monetary assessment.

Closed ended questions

• The HR department and trainers, do not have sufficient time to do so, and/or
• The HR department does not have sufficient resources - people and money - to do so.

5 Research Objectives
5.1 General Objectives

To assess the effectiveness of Training and development function in the public service Tanzania

5.2 Specific Objectives

• To investigate to what extent were the learners' objectives achieved and supported by
their line managers during the course.
• To investigate the extent were the identified training needs objectives achieved by the
programme;
• To examine what specifically did the learners learn or be usefully reminded of and
commitment they have made about the learning they are going to implement on their
return to work;
• To investigate how successful were the trainees in implementing their action plans and to
explain the extent that the action listed above achieved a Return on Investment (ROI) for
the organization, either in terms of identified objectives satisfaction or, where possible, a
monetary assessment.

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6 Literature Review
6.1 Definition of Terms
6.1.1 Training
Training can be defined as a learning process in which people acquire knowledge (K), skills (S),
experience (E), and attitudes (A) that they need in order to perform their jobs well for the
achievement of organisational goals (Mathis and Jackson, 1998). A survey of the literature
shows that T&D are variously defined in a narrow as well as in a broad sense. For example
Jackson and Schuler (2000) refers to training as the act of improving competencies needed today
or in the future while development refers to improving competencies over the long term.
Matthews, et.al., (2004) argues that training is concerned with providing an individual with the
opportunity to learn what he/she needs in order to do their job more effectively.

Also management training is considered to be a process of enhancing an employee’s capacity to

handle greater responsibilities successfully (Singh and Vinnicombe, 2003).
6.1.2 Development
Before we begin our study of the assessment of the effectiveness of hr training and development
in public service, it is important to understand exactly what we mean when we say development:
Development describes the growth of humans throughout the lifespan, from conception to death.
The scientific study of human development seeks to understand and explain how and why people
change throughout life. This includes all aspects of human growth, including physical,
emotional, intellectual, social, perceptual, and personality development.

The scientific study of development is important not only to psychology, but also to sociology,
education, and health care. Development does not just involve the biological and physical
aspects of growth, but also the cognitive and social aspects associated with development
throughout life.

6.1.3 Training and Development

Training and development is the field concerned with organizational activity aimed at bettering
the performance of individuals and groups in organizational settings. It has been known by
several names, including employee development, human resource development, and learning and
development.

Harrison observes that the name was endlessly debated by the Chartered Institute of Personnel
and Development during its review of professional standards in 1999/2000. "Employee
Development" was seen as too evocative of the master-slave relationship between employer and
employee for those who refer to their employees as "partners" or "associates" to be comfortable
with. "Human Resource Development" was rejected by academics, who objected to the idea that
people were "resources" — an idea that they felt to be demeaning to the individual. Eventually,
the CIPD settled upon "Learning and Development", although that was itself not free from
problems, "learning" being an over general and ambiguous name. Moreover, the field is still
widely known by the other names.
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6.1.4 Public services

This is a term usually used to mean services provided by government to its citizens, either
directly (through the public sector) or by financing private provision of services. The term is
associated with a social consensus (usually expressed through democratic elections) that certain
services should be available to all, regardless of income. Even where public services are neither
publicly provided nor publicly financed, for social and political reasons they are usually subject
to regulation going beyond that applying to most economic sectors. Public services is also a
course that can be studied at college and/or university. These courses can lead entry in to the:
police, ambulance and fire services.

It is also an alternative term for civil service.

Public service tend to be those considered so essential to modern life that for moral reasons their
universal provision should be guaranteed, and they may be associated with fundamental human
rights (such as the right to water). An example of a service which is not generally considered an
essential public service is hairdressing. The Volunteer Fire Dept. and Ambulance Corps. are
institutions with the mission of servicing the community. A service is helping others with a
specific need or want. Service ranges from a doctor curing an illness, to a repair man, to even a
food pantry. All of these services are important in people's lives.

6.1.5 Knowledge
Knowledge is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as (i) expertise, and skills acquired by a
person through experience or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject;
(ii) what is known in a particular field or in total; facts and information; or (iii) awareness or
familiarity gained by experience of a fact or situation. Philosophical debates in general start with
Plato's formulation of knowledge as "justified true belief." There is however no single agreed
definition of knowledge presently, nor any prospect of one, and there remain numerous
competing theories. Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes: perception,
learning, communication, association and reasoning. The term knowledge is also used to mean
the confident understanding of a subject with the ability to use it for a specific purpose if
appropriate. See knowledge management for additional details on that discipline.

“ We suppose ourselves to possess unqualified scientific knowledge of a thing, as

opposed to knowing it in the accidental way in which the sophist knows, when we
think that we know the cause on which the fact depends, as the cause of that fact
and of no other, and, further, that the fact could not be other than it is. Now that
scientific knowing is something of this sort is evident - witness both those who
falsely claim it and those who actually possess it, since the former merely
imagine themselves to be, while the latter are also actually, in the condition
described. Consequently the proper object of unqualified scientific knowledge is
something which cannot be other than it is. ” - Aristotle, Posterior Analytics
(Book 1 Part 2)

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6.1.6 Attitude

An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of like or dislike for
an item. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person, place, thing, or event--
this is often referred to as the attitude object. People can also be conflicted or ambivalent toward
an object, meaning that they simultaneously possess both positive and negative attitudes toward
the item in question.

Attitudes are judgments. They develop on the ABC model (affect, behavior, and cognition). The
affective response is an emotional response that expresses an individual's degree of preference
for an entity. The behavioral intention is a verbal indication or typical behavioral tendency of an
individual. The cognitive response is a cognitive evaluation of the entity that constitutes an
individual's beliefs about the object. Most attitudes are the result of either direct experience or
observational learning from the environment.

An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of like or dislike for
an item. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person, place, thing, or event--
this is often referred to as the attitude object. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)

In heraldry, an attitude is the position in which an animal, fictional beast, mythical creature,
human or human-like being is emblazoned as a charge, supporter or crest. Many attitudes apply
only to predatory beasts and are exemplified by the beast most frequently found in heraldry —
the lion. ... en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_(heraldry)

6.1.7 Competence

Definitions of competence on the Web:

• the quality of being adequately or well qualified physically and intellectually

wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn
• In American law, competence concerns the mental capacity of an individual to participate in
legal proceedings. Defendants that do not possess sufficient "competence" are usually
excluded from criminal prosecution, while witnesses found not to possess requisite
competence cannot testify. ...
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competence_(law)
• Competence is a standardized requirement for an individual to properly perform a specific
job. It encompasses a combination of knowledge, skills and behavior utilized to improve
performance. ...
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competence_(human_resources)
• The quality or state of being competent, i.e. able or suitable for a general role; The quality or
state of being able or suitable for a particular task; the quality or state of being competent for
a particular task; A sustainable income; In law, the legal authority to deal with a matter
en.wiktionary.org/wiki/competence

• competent - properly or sufficiently qualified or capable or efficient; "a competent typist"

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• competent - adequate for the purpose; "a competent performance"
wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn

• competent - Having sufficient skill, knowledge, ability, or qualifications; Having jurisdiction

or authority over a particular issue or question
en.wiktionary.org/wiki/competent

• The individual's demonstrated capacity to perform, ie, the possession of knowledge, skills
and personal characteristics needed to satisfy the special demands or requirements of a
particular situation is referred to as competence.
www.sbctc.edu/College/_e-assessglossary.aspx

• is the possession of the requisite knowledge, abilities, and qualities to be a physical therapist.
[30]www.wcpt.org/node/29562

6.1.8 Skills

Definitions of Skills on the Web:

• A skill is the learned capacity to carry out pre-determined results often with the minimum
outlay of time, energy, or both. Skills can often be divided into domain-general and domain-
specific skills. ...
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skills

• Skills is a San Francisco-based event promoter that promotes parties and concerts in San
Francisco and the SF Bay Area. It is known for being one of the most popular and largest
electronic music promoters in California and the United States. ...
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skills_(company)

• Antwon Charles Taylor is a former recurring and now regular character on the CW television
series One Tree Hill, played by Antwon Tanner. He is best friend to Lucas Scott and was
Bevin Mirskey's boyfriend in senior year.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skills_(One_Tree_Hill_character)

• skill - an ability that has been acquired by training

• skill - ability to produce solutions in some problem domain; "the skill of a well-trained
boxer"; "the sweet science of pugilism"
wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn

• Skill is a measure of a worker's expertise, specialization, wages, and supervisory capacity.

Skilled workers are generally more trained, higher paid, and have more responsibilities than
unskilled workers.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skill_(labor)

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• skill - capacity to do something well; technique, ability. Skills are usually acquired or
learned, as opposed to abilities, which are often thought of as innate
en.wiktionary.org/wiki/skill

• Strong interpersonal skills.

operations.undp.am/recruitment/upload/5793.doc

• performance of mental or physical tasks.

www.edo.ca/certification/about-certification/glossary

• The ability to apply knowledge and use know-how to complete tasks and solve problems . . .
skills are described as cognitive (involving the use of logical, intuitive and creative thinking)
or practical (involving manual dexterity and the use of methods, materials, tools and
instruments' (Annex I ...
www.eqf-reference-nqf.net/terms.aspx

• Area of proficiency. In a typical role playing game, a character will have a number of 'skills',
namely things they are especially good (or especially not good) at. For example “hide”,
“discover hidden things”, “hit with a sword”, etc. ...
rpg.geekdo.com/wiki/page/RPG_Glossary

6.2 Theoretical Framework

This paper will discuss training and development of employees and focus on skills. This will
compare the literature with case studies and conclude on the benefits of training in organisations.

6.2.1 Skills Theories 

Skills of employees are broken down into two main headings, hard (technical) that allow them to
perform the tasks that make up the role, and soft skills that encourage interactions, with
colleagues, peers and customers. This paper has concluded that both skills need to be present to
gain the most from the customer relationship, although soft skills will increase the benefit of hard
skills, they allow the communication of technical skills.

Soft skills are the interaction between individuals, which includes communication and
empowerment, autonomy and decision making. Soft skills are discussed as the last competitive
edge organisations can posses, that add value. This skills are difficult to assess, many are already
present in employees, but not nurtured.

The theorist during the early 1990’s discussed soft skills from a management perspective; it was
discussed as the hidden value (or skill) that organisations could offer. This perspective has now
changed, to one of marketing theory, discussed in areas such as relationship marketing and
customer value.

This is opinion by marketers is that by encouraging soft skills in employees it will add value to
the product. Marketing theory discusses that customer loyalty can offer the organisation repeat
business; this is valuable as it utilises economies of scale, lowering marketing and production
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costs. This is a cost effective method to maintain and increase business, leading to a higher level
of revenue, but it requires the organisation understanding what the customer requires from this
relationship.

Laurie Bassi measured how well employees are trained and developed (Delahoussaye, et al.,
2002). She writes that organizations that make large investments in people typically have lower
employee turnover, which is associated with higher customer satisfaction, which in turn is a
driver of profitability (p22). A second driver is manager proficiency -- good managers determine
if people stay or go, and this is also influenced by training and development. She further writes
that the education and training variable is the most significant predictor of an organization's
success as compared to price-to-earning ratios, price-to-book statistics, and measures of risk and
volatility.

Bassi puts her theories to the test -- her and a fellow partner launched an investment firm that
buys stocks in companies, such as CDW, that invest heavily in employee training. It has returned
24 percent a year over the past two years, topping the S&P by four percentage points.

Companies that fail to invest in employees jeopardize their own success and even survival. In
part, this practice has lingered for lack of alternatives. Until recently, there simply were not
robust methods for measuring the bottom-line contributions of investments in human capital
management (HCM) - things like leadership development, job design, and knowledge sharing.
That's changed. - Bassi & McMurrer (2007).

In the Human Equation, Jeffery Pfeffer writes that "Virtually all descriptions of high
performance management practices emphasize training, and the amount of training provided by
commitment as opposed to control-orientated management is substantial" (p85). Yet companies
seem to be very short-sighted as on the next page he writes that in times of economic stringency,
many U.S. organizations reduce training to make profit goals.

6.2.2 Learning Theories

Organisations have an economic need for all employees to be flexible within the workplace. The
culture should encourage them to use their own initiative and apply the knowledge to undertake a
variety of tasks. Cognitive learning lets the workforce learn strategies, and then transfer the
learning to be able to solve problems. Lewin (1958) broke the learning down into three key
stages. The first stage is the disposal of the old level (unfreezing), second stage is to implement
the new structures and processes (moving) and the final stage involves stabilising the company
with its new structure (refreezing). This technique was used so the organisation and the
employees would be able to understand and implement improvements to their methods of
working. Problems that arise from organisational change, which it is not flexible and cannot
adapt swiftly to situations such as economic recession (Lewin (1958) cited in Buchanan, D and
Hucczynski, A 1991).

Wilson (1999) summarised on three main adult learning theories. Behaviourist theories of
learning recognise learning as a response to external stimuli. Maintenance of the new behaviour
is enforced by positive and negative reinforcement, a system of punishment and reward.
Cognitivist theories of learning emphasise the proactive nature of development This school of
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thought perceives human beings as seekers of knowledge in an attempt to understand our own
identities and positionality. Humanist theories believe that learning occurs as a result of our
natural inclination towards it. People learn because in an environment of “warmth, care and
understanding” (Wilson, 1999:197) we cannot help it. In this sense education is learner-centred;
the student initiates the development environment and needs assessment.

People continue to learn throughout their life, whether this is formally taught or just experienced.
The process of life long learning requires continuous adaptation. This is gained from increased
knowledge and improved skills, which aid the individual to adapt to or change the environment.
This allows for new possibilities and outcomes from situations that they face. These changes can
raise the individuals self esteem and confidence. Therefore the learning can generate far reaching
changes in both the individual and the environment (Beardwell I et al 2004)

Reinforcing learning within in an organisations, requires what Hawkins (1994) called "a change
at the heart” this change is in “the understanding of learning, a shift from viewing learning as
being abrupt facts to learning as a more multi-faceted and dynamic process". As Hawkins
suggests, it is not that we are learning any differently than before but "our understanding of how
we learn has begun to catch up with what happens in practice" (Hawkins, 1994:9). The learning
process has been challenged to create a culture that allows continual learning throughout the
organisation. As knowledge is what matters, organisations and individuals alike must become
continuous learners (Hawkins, 1994).

Unlike most traditional methods of instruction, role-playing has proven effective in many
training settings. With the traditional methods of training, the tacit belief is that trainees are made
to learn too much by cramming and too little by understanding. In most cases, concepts learned
are soon forgotten because they are often taught in isolation of direct practice. This is so,
especially with such traditional or conventional training methods as lectures, reading, writing,
and workshops. In contrast, role-playing accelerates acquisition of knowledge, skills (both hard
and soft.), and attitudes, and offers educators, trainers, and learners the opportunity to observe
growth and progress in both teaching and learning transactions in a more practical way (Sogunro,
O 2004).

Many programs for leaders, administrators, managers, supervisors, teachers, counsellors, and
social workers among others, often lack the rationale of actively engaging learners in the process.
Rather, they are predisposed to too much theory and less practical application. Evidence suggests
that participate actively in a learning activity are more likely to demonstrate greater cognitive
and skill understanding of concepts learned than many traditional educational forms of
instruction. Role-playing encourages practice and direct experience in specific activities similar
to real-life situations. With direct experience through role-playing, much is learned by
understanding and comprehension of the learning activity (Sogunro, O 2004).

6.2.3 Competence based approach

The competence based HRD approach is not constrained with definition, identification or
classification, it is not linked to knowledge but it is "a combination of knowing and being able to
do." Webster (1994) put forward a definition that it is "the state or quality of being capable or
competent; skill; ability" (Webster (1994) cited in Civelli, F 1997:249).
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There are three main approaches to competencies. (1) The US approach: it is strictly linked with
David McClelland's approach. This author sees "competence" as an "underlying characteristic
causally related to superior performance". In this approach strong emphasis is on top performers
in managerial people. This approach is defined as "behavioural competence". (2) French
approach: Claude Levy-Leboyer, highlights a competence approach which is oriented to consider
this as a resultant of several psychological elements of a person and with a basis in "self-image".
Levy-Leboyer points out an approach of competence related to aptitudes, personality traits, and
acquired knowledge. (3) UK approach: this development of the competence-based approach has
in part been due to activities of the MCI (Management Charter Initiative) and of NCVQ
(National Council for Vocational Qualifications) ... and is much more geared to certification and
accreditation. Occupational competence is defined as the ability to perform activities within an
occupation to the standards expected in employment. The element of competence identifies a
required function which the competent individual should be capable of carrying out (Civelli, F
1997).

Some aspects of identifying competencies are linked to the recognising it, communicating it, in a
defined social context, and obtaining it as a differential output of behaviours, of actions and
ultimately performances. Lanzara (1994) discussed that to "learn a competence means to become
an insider, the social actor has to learn to act as a member of what it is a social community in
itself.... A competence has a crucial, social value and it grants identity or social visibility"
(Lanzara (1994) cited in Civelli, F 1997:250).

The competences approach cannot be viewed only as a rational approach. It requires an

interpersonal and communicational dynamics. We can recognise actions, behaviours, in an
understandable form of communication. It is important to remember that the competences that
we can identify can be particular to an organisation. Human resource management and
development departments are highly involved (Civelli, F 1997).

6.2.4 How to develop soft skills

Organisations use many avenues to create strategic development plans that address current and
future capability needs. The Human resource a function as strategic business partners to the
organisation are prepared to help assure that employees have the required proficiency in soft
skills. Data is gathered using both informal and formal methods ranging from interviews with
managers, observations of employees at work, use of surveys, and review of job requirements.
Although a lack of soft skills can be identified by a pattern of employee complaints, i.e. unfair
treatment, ineffective management practices, or strained co-worker relationships.

Organisations can utilise their job evaluation or job classification systems to define the essential
functions of a given job or group of jobs. Those evaluations typically list required knowledge,
skills and abilities, and the preferred qualifications. Most evaluation systems assess the number,
complexity, and hierarchical level of individuals with whom a focal individual must interact to
get the job done. Designing soft skills development requires paying close attention to the
organisation's mission, ethical stance and strategic vision (Muir, C. 2004)

The future of organizational initiatives increasingly spans the organizational boundaries, with the
need for collaboration, understanding of diverse perspectives, and for integration of knowledge
A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     15 
 
work. This can only be successful if soft skills capability in every participant is an important
issue (Muir, C. 2004)

6.3 Conceptual Framework of the Study

The first part of the study framework is based on Kirkpatrick model, in which employees’
reaction, learning, behaviors, results and return on investment (ROI) will be examined. The
second part of the study will examined the transfer of training but only to the context of after
training; to explore the effectiveness of training and development by looking at how is transfer of
training applied after training. The final part of the study will examine other factors that can
influence the effectiveness of training and development.

Bassi et al. (1996) discovered that 96% of companies surveyed used some form of the
Kirkpatrick framework to evaluate training and development programs.

McMurrer et al. (2000) surveyed the American Society for Training and Development
Benchmarking Forum to determine what percentage each of Kirkpatrick's four levels are used in
organizations:

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

Evaluation

Evaluation 
• Level 1 ‐ Reaction 
• Level 2 ‐ Learning 
• Level 3 ‐ Behaviors 
• Level 4 ‐ Results 
• Level 5 ‐ ROI 

Transfer of Training  Effectiveness
(After attending a  of Training 
course)  and 
Development 

Other Factors 
affecting Training 

A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     16 
 
In order to conceptualise the scope of training, Gupta (2007) considers the following as
characteristics of an ideal training and development function. First, it should be designed with
clear scope and objectives.

In this case the training needs assessment (TNA) exercise should be conducted to establish skill
gap and performance standards. Second, it should have proper reinforcements to continuously
improve the performance capability of an individual employee; this is supported by Skinner’s
behavioural modification model which stipulates that ‘when behaviour is repeatedly rewarded, it
becomes permanent part of one’s personality. Third, it should be role-specific and involve
practice; it helps employees do their present jobs better and skills that are practiced often are
better learned and less easily forgotten. Fourth, an effective T&D function should be carefully
planned in terms of reading materials, learning duration, and instructors. Their proper
organization enhances training effectiveness. Fifth, it should be transparentto all employees at all
levels. Employees should be aware of selection criteria of trainees and trainers, preparation of
relevant teaching materials, training room and accommodation of courses and actual conduction
of courses. They feel responsive to training programmes when they are well informed. Lastly, it
should be evaluated. Training consumes both organisation’s time and money, therefore it is
important to determine how well it was conducted (i.e. trainees feedback). Evaluation reports
establish whether the organisation has derived more-or-less the same value from the amount of
money and time invested in the programme.

The conceptualisation by Gupta (2007) highlights the scope of an effective training programme.
Through careful follow up of provided steps, an organisation will provide required training to
required employees. This will enhance the ability of employees to execute their daily activities in
working place. Likewise public service management department can only perform well if its
training programmes have clear scope and objectives; improve capability of an individual
employee; and be role-specific and involve practice. The public service management department
should also develop a programme that involves careful planning in terms of training materials,
learning duration, and instructors without forgetting proper mechanism of evaluation. As a point
of departure the following section examine training and development function in public service
management in order to see how it fits in this framework.

7 Methodology
The aim of this study is to examine the effectiveness of training and development in the public
sector using training evaluation framework and transfer of training elements. Quantitative
method through questionnaire survey will be used for data collection in which questionnaires
will be distributed to respondents in various Ministries and departments in the Tanzania. The
findings of this study will show that public service employees will be evaluated at all levels of
evaluation namely, the reaction, learning, behavior change, results and transfer of training levels.

8 Analytical Methods
A quantitative approach was adopted and a survey was chosen as the method of enquiry. The
development of the survey instrument, a questionnaire, was guided by the research questions and
was based on the literature reviewed. The questionnaire assessed the five level of evaluation,
namely, the reaction, learning, behavior change, results and transfer of training levels. A total of
A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     17 
 
120 questionnaires will be distributed to respondents with expectation of a response rate of 50%.
Respondents will be choosen from various Ministries and departments in Tanzania using simple
random sampling. The data will be analyzed through SPSS (Statistical Package for Social
Sciences).

9 References
• Abdi, A.I. (2005). “Tanzania’s Economic Transformation: Recent Successes and Remaining
Challenges.”
• ESRF Quarterly Economic Review, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 17-23.
• Braathen, E. Chaligha, A. and Fjeldstad, O.H. (2005), “Local Governance, Finance and
Service Delivery
• in Tanznaia” Norwegian Institute for Urban and Regional Research, Oslo, Norway.
• Fjeldstad, O., Lange, S. , Morten Jerve, A. and Nygaard, Knut (2002). NORAD Project
completed in
• 2002. Retrieved in March 8, 2009 from
http://www.cmi.no/research/project/?488=localgovernment-
• reform-in-tanzania-phase-1
• Gupta, C.B. (2007). Human Resources Management, Sultan Chand & Sons, New Delhi pp. 9
-18.
• Jackson, S.E. and Schuler, R.S. (2000). “Managing Human Resources: A Partnership
Perspective” South
• Western College Publishing, USA.
• Mathis, R.L. and Jackson, J.H. (1998). Personnel/Human Resources Management, Web
Publishing Co.,
• New York, USA.
• Matthews, J. J., Megginson, D. and Surtees M. (2004). Human Resource Development, 3rd
Edition;
• Kogan Page Publishers, New York - USA, 309p.
• Rugumyamheto, J.A. (2004). “Innovative Approaches to Reforming Public Services in
Tanzania” Public
• Administration and Development Vol. 24, 437-446.
• Samuel M. Wangwe, Brian Van Arkadie (Eds.) (2000). Overcoming Constraints on
Tanzanian Growth:
• Policy Challenges Facing the Third Government Phase, Mkuki na Nyota Publishers and
ESRF.
• Singh, V. and Vinnicombe, S. (2003). “Women-only Management Training: an Essential Part
of
• Women’s Leadership Development”, Journal of Change Management, 3 (4), 294-306.
• Skinner, B.F (1974). About Behaviourism, Vintage Books, New York, USA.,
• U.R.T (1998). Education and Training Policy, TWEC (1998). Dar Es Salaam.
• UNDP (2005). International Cooperation at Crossroads, Human Development Report 2005.
Retrieved
• March 6, 2009 from http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/hdr05_summary.pdf.

A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     18 
 
• URT, (2003) Report of the Top Management Trainers Workshop conducted 22nd February,
2003 at
• ESAMI, Arusha, March 8.
• URT, (2004). Education and Training Policy, Ministry of Education and Culture, Dar es
Salaam.

• Rosemary Harrison (2005). Learning and Development. CIPD Publishing. pp. 5.

ISBN 1843980509.
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Management. Barron's Educational Series. pp. 225. ISBN 0764112767.
• Thomas N. Garavan, Pat Costine, and Noreen Heraty (1995). "Training and Development:
Concepts, Attitudes, and Issues". Training and Development in Ireland. Cengage Learning
EMEA. pp. 1. ISBN 1872853927.
• Derek Torrington, Laura Hall, and Stephen Taylor (2004). Human Resource Management.
Pearson Education. pp. 363. ISBN 0273687131.
• John Hoover, PhD "How to Work for an Idiot: Survive and Thrive Without Killing Your
Boss" (Career Press ISBN 1564147045/ISBN 978-1564147042).
• Beardwell, I. & Holden, L. (1994) Human Resource Management.
Pitman Publishing, London.
• Beardwell, I. et al. (2004) (4th Ed) Human Resource Management a Contemporary Approach
Prentice Hall, Harlow.
• Blackwood T, (1995) Accounting for Business
Business education Publishers Limited, Sunderland
• Buchanan D, and Hucczynski A,(1991) Organisational Behaviour
Prentice Hall, Padstow
Field, L. and Ford, B. (1995) Managing Organisational Learning from Rhetoric to Reality
Longman Publishing Melbourne
Garrick (1999) Informal Learning in the Workplace:
Unmasking human resource development, Routledge Press, London.
• Guirdham, M. (1995) Interpersonal Skills at Work
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
• Harrison, R. (1993) Human Resource Management.
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Wokingham, England
• Harrison, R. (1997) Employee Development
Cromwell Press, Wiltshire,
• Harrison, R (2002) (3rd Edition) Learning and Development:
CIPD Publishing, London
• Hawkins, P. (1994), The changing view of learning in Burgoyne, J., Pedler, M. and Boydell,
T., Towards the Learning Company: Concepts and Practices, McGraw Hill, London.
Hollinshead, G. and Lear, M. (1995) Human Resource Management, an International and
Comparative Perspective Pitman Publishing. London,
• Keep, E. (1989). Corporate training: the vital component?’
New Perspectives on Human Resource Management. Routledge Press. London
Legge, K. (1995) Human Resource Management, Rhetoric’s and Realities, MacMillan Press,
Basingstoke.

A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     19 
 
 Kotler, P (2003) (11th ed.) Marketing Management
Prentice Hall/Pearson Education, NJ
• Marchington, M. & Wilkinson, A. (1996) Core Personnel and Development
IPD Publishing London.
• Mullins, L.(1996) (4th Ed) Management and Organisational Behaviour
Pitman publishing, London.
• Mullins, L (2005) (7th Ed) Management and Organisational Behaviour
Prentice Hall, Pearson Education, Edinburgh
• Mumford,A (1997) (3rd Ed)Management Development
IPD Publishing, Great Britain.
• Oppenheim, A. (1996) Questionnaire Design And Attitude Measurement
Pinter publishing Ltd, London,
• Reader A, Strategic Human Resource Management (1998) Sage Publications, Pitman,
London
• Reid, M.and Barrington, H. (1997). (5th Ed) Training Interventions: Managing Employee
Development IPD Publishing, London.
• Saunders, M. Et al (1997) Research Methods For Business Students
Pitman Publishing. London.
Storey, J. (1989) New Perspectives on Human Resource Management Routledge Press,
London.
Thompson, P. and McHugh, D. (1995) Work Organisations a Critical Introduction,
Macmillan Press, Aldershot
• Walton, J (1999), Strategic Human Resource Development,
Prentice Hall Padstow
• Wilson, J. (1999) Human Resource Development: Learning & Training for Individuals &
Organisations Kogan Page London
• Wass, VJ and Wells P. (1994) Principles And Practice In Business And Management
Research Pitman Publishing. London.

9.1 Journals 

• Bell, J (1993) (2nd Edition) Doing Your Research Project

Open University Press, Buckingham
• Bryans, P. & Smith, R. (2000) Beyond Training: Re-conceptualising Learning at Work
Journal of Workplace Learning 2000.Vol.12
• Buzan, T. (1995) (Rev ed) Use Your Head.
BBC Books, London
• Civelli, F. (1997) New competences, new organisations
Industrial and Commercial Training, Guilsborough,1997Vol.29, Iss. 7;
• Connell, J. (1998).Soft skills: the neglected factor in workplace participation?
Labour & Industry, August 1998 v9
Crosbie, R. (2005) Learning the soft skills of leadership Industrial & Commercial Training;
Vol. 37, Issue 1,
• Davies, L. (1990), Experience Based Learning within the Curriculum — A Synthesis Study,
Council for National Academic Awards, London.

A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     20 
 
• DeFillippi, R. (2002) Organisational Models For Collaboration In The New Economy.
Human Resource Planning, Dec 2002 v25
• Dervaraj, S. et al (2001) Product and service quality: The antecedents of customer loyalty in
the automotive industry Production and Operations Management, Winter 2001Vol.10, Iss. 4;
• Guest, D (1999) Human Resource Management—The Workers’ Verdict
Human Resource Management Journal, London, 1999.Vol.9, Iss. 3;
• Gustafsson, A. and Johnson, M (2002) Measuring and managing the satisfaction-loyalty-
performance links at Volvo Journal of Targeting, Measurement and Analysis for Marketing.
London: Mar 2002Vol.10, Iss.
• Harvey, L., Moon, S., Geall, V. and Bower, R. (1997), Graduates’ Work: Organisational
Change and Students’ Attributes Centre for Research into Quality, University of Central
England, Birmingham.
• Huber, F and Herrmann, A (2001) Achieving brand and dealer loyalty:
Int. Rev. of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research 11:2 April 2001
• Falconer, S and Pettigrew, M (2003)Developing added value skills within an academic
programme through work-based learning International Journal of Manpower, Bradford:
2003.Vol.24, Iss. 1;
Kotler, P. (1992) Marketing’s New Paradigm: What’s Really Happening Out There?.
Planning Review Dayton: Sep/Oct 1992.Vol.20, Iss. 5;
• Liljander, V. and Roos, I. (2002) Customer-Relationship Levels, From Spurious to True
RelationshipsThe Journal of Services Marketing. Santa Barbara: 2002Vol.16, Iss. 7;
• Muir, C. (2004) Learning soft skills at work:
Business Communication Quarterly, March 2004 v67 i1
• Nixon, B. (2004) Creating a cultural revolution: the 21st century challenge for HRD Training
Journal. Ely: Oct 2004
• Paauwe, J & Boselie, P. (2003) Challenging ‘Strategic HRM’ And The Relevance Of The
Institutional Setting Human Resource Management Journal 2003Vol.13,
• Reade, Q (2004) Boost for budgets as firms take action on skills gaps
Personnel Today. Sutton: Apr 20th 2004
• Rogers, S. (2004) Power To The People Managers
People Management London: Sep 2004. Vol. 10
• Santos, A and Stuart M (2003) Employee perceptions and their influence on training
effectiveness. Human Resource Management Journal, London: 2003Vol.13
• Sinha, I and DeSarbo, W. (1998) An Integrated Approach Toward The Spatial Modelling Of
Perceived Customer Value Journal of Marketing Research. Chicago: May 1998.Vol.35, Iss. 2
• Sloman, M (2004) Evaluation and evolution
People Management. London: Jul 15th 2004.Vol.10
• Sogunro, O.(2004) Efficacy of Role-Playing Pedagogy in Training Leaders: Some
Reflections The Journal of Management Development Bradford 2004Vol.23, Iss. 3/4
• Sparrow, S (2004) The home-grown philosophy
Personnel Today. Sutton: Apr 20th 2004
• Stalinski, S. (2004) Organisational Intelligence: A Systems Perspective
Organisation Development Journal: Summer 2004.Vol.22
• Stoneall, L (1992) The case for more flexible objectives
Training & Development, August 1992 v46

A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     21 
 
• Taylor, S. et al (2004) The importance of brand equity to customer loyalty
The Journal of Product and Brand Management, Santa Barbara: 2004.Vol.13, Iss. 4/5

10 Time Scale

Target date Duration Task to be achieved

Start May 1 week Choose research topic and
finalize the objectives
Mid May 1 week Read and write the
literature (including CIT
method)
Mid May 1 week Primary data collect
methods selection
End May 1 week Analyze the data which
linked to
methodology/research
literature
End May 2 days Revise the draft and submit
proposal
June 3 weeks Data collection
End June – early July 2 weeks Data analysis
Middle July 1 week Report writing
End July 1 week Presentation and final
submission of report

11 Budget and Resources

We will use the SPSS software for data analysis. Moreover, in order to interview the
respondents, we will prepare some gifts to respondents. Our group has agreed to pay all
incidental costs as part of our project.

STUDY BUDGET
May 2010- July, 2010
Item Description Amount
Research Assistants (2) Graduate @ $800/month @ 2 month $3,200.00
Stationeries and printing $400 $400.00
Computer hiring $50@ week $400.00
Data Analysts (2) $500@ month $1,000.00
Research Supervisors (1) $1000@month $3,000.00
Transport and lunch allowance $ 1000 $1,000.00
Other (research incentives) $300.00 $300.00
TOTAL BUDGET sum items listed above $9,300.00
 

A Proposal Prepared by Maureen Gideon     22