A Major Project report

On

“Design and Fabrication of Microstrip Patch Antenna”

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology

In

Electronics and communication Engineering

Project Guide: Submitted by:

Mr N.T .MARKAD Piyush

kumar(0181152806)

(Asst. professor) Harnek

Singh(0251152806)

Vanshaj

Kumar(0271152806)

Pawan Kumar(0281152806)

Bharati Vidyapeeth’s College of Engineering

 Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University,

Kashmeere Gate, New Delhi-110006

(2006-2010)

Certificate

This is to certify that the major project report entitled “Design and

Fabrication of Microstrip Patch Antenna done by Mr. Piyush kumar,

Harnek singh, Vanshaj kumar, Pawan kumar,

roll No. 0181152806, 0251152806, 0271152806, 0281152806 respectively

is an authentic work carried out by them at BHARATI VIDYAPEETH’S

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING under my guidance. The matter embodied in

this project work has not been submitted earlier for the award of any degree

or diploma to the best of my knowledge and belief.

Date: Signature of the Guide

Mr N.T. MARKAD

Asst. professor

Department of ECE

BVCOE, NEW DELHI

Date:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our gratitude to all those who gave us the possibility to complete this

thesis. We want to thank the Department of Electronics and Communication of the former

Bharati Vidyapeeth’s College of Engineering for giving us permission to commence this

thesis in the first instance, to do the necessary research work and to use departmental data.

We have furthermore to thank the honorable Guide, Mr N.T. MARKAD whose help,

stimulating suggestions and encouragement helped us in all the time of research for and

writing of this thesis. Especially, we would like to give our special thanks to him whose patient

help enabled us to complete this work.

We would like to show our greatest appreciation to Mr. A KUNDU sir and Lab assistant Ms.

DEEPA Ma’m for there tremendous help and support.

 Piyush

kumar(0181152806)

Harnek

Singh(0251152806)

Vanshaj

kumar(0271152806)

Pawan Kumar(0281152806)

CONTENTS

•...........................................................................................................................Abstract. .i

•........................................................................................................................... List of Tables

.............................................................................................................................ii

•........................................................................................................................... List of figures...

………………………………………………………………iii

•........................................................................................................................... List of

Symbol/Abbreviation………………………………………………...iv

Chapter 1. Literature Survey .............................................................l

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Helix Antenna

1.3 Quadrifilar Helix

1.4 Printed Quadrifilar Resonant Helix Antenna

Chapter 2. Design of Software/design ofEquipment/DesignProcess/ Design of Circuit

2 .1 Introduction

2.2 Quadrifilar Helix Design

2.3 Feed Network Design

2.4 Design of Q.H. Antenna Array

Chapter 3 Experimentation

3.1 Introduction

3.2 parameter measurement

3.3 polarization and radiation pattern

Chapter 4. Result/Analysis

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Parameter V. S. W. R. Vs. Frequency

4.3 Reflection Loss Vs. Frequency

4.4 Smith Chart

 Chapter 5 conclusion/future scope

5.1 Conclusion

5.2 Remark

5.3 Future scope

References/Bibliography

ABSTRACT

The Quadrifilar Helix antenna and its antenna array are developed and it complex feed is

designed. The parameters of antenna and antenna array are measured using network analyzer.

The next factor is operating frequency band. (Most of the SPCN’s internal to use L-band (1.16 -

1.6265 GHZ)) for reception. The choice of the frequency band adds extra-complexity to the final

antenna design. The matter becomes even more complicated when the cellular system (e.g. GS M

800-- 900 Hz) has also to be served with the same handheld.

The Quadrifilar Helix (Q. H.) antenna can offer the cardioids (elevation) shaped radiation pattern.

Other antennas, like the patch and the crossed dipole, can offer the same shaped pattern, but the QH

seems to be preferred for its smaller structure, its advantage not to be too sensitive to the ground

plane and in the same way to the hand effect and the advantage of easily change its radiation pattern
by varying different parameters such as the diameter, pitch and the number of turns.

The Quadrifilar Helical (QH) Antenna is a highly resonant antenna invented by Dr. C. C. Kilgus in

the 70's. It consists of four helices placed at 90 ° difference (0°, 90°, 180°, 270°) alternatively said it

comprises two bifilar helical loops oriented in mutual orthogonal relationship on a common axis. The

terminals of each loop are fed in anti-phase and the currents in the two loops are in phase quadrature.

By selecting the appropriate configuration of the loops, a wide range of pattern shapes is available.
LIST OF TABLES

Table No.1. : - Impedance (Ω) - width (mm) table.

Table No.2 : - Phase shift (degree) - path length (cms) table.

Table No.3:Antenna
Antenna
- Array - B.W. - centre freq. Table.

Table No.4: - Frequency – vertical polarization - Horizontal

Table No.5:- Polarisation - Axial Ratio table.

 LIST OF FIGURES

1. Geometry of Helix

2. Quadrifilar Helical Antenna

3. Helix Structure

4 Power Divider Ckt

5. Setup for radiation pattern

6. Radiation Pattern of QHA

7. 3-D Illustration of Radiation Pattern

8. VSWR Vs Frequency for Antenna

9. Return Loss V s Frequency for Antenna

10. Smith Chart for Antenna

 CHAPTER 1

LITERATURE SURVEY

The Quadrifilar helix was invented by C.C Kilgus in the early 1970’s . This antenna was

found to be very useful because of the excellent circular polarization. It offered and its inherent

radiation pattern characteristics. The antenna gave a stable performance and was found useful in

many applications where satellite signals were involved. Nowadays it has become a popular

choice for the GPS systems and a lot of weather monitoring systems. With the advent of

satellite telephony it is being looked at as a new generation antenna for satellite telephones.
1.1 INTRODUCTION

People worldwide are travelling more and more and at the same time they wish to

keep in contact. This is the reason for the fast development in the field of communication

systems. The biggest change in electronics was brought in due to the research and development

carried out in the field of digital techniques. The digital techniques made it to achieve Very

Large Scale Integration of semi-conductors. VLSI techniques have made it possible to increase

processing power to be packed in a much smaller volume of equipment space.

Mobile equipment nowadays includes portable handsets and even miniature units which can be

fitted on a wristwatch. For the antenna designer, there is a challenging demand to create

compact or even electrically small antennas that are compatible with modern technology. It is a

fact that electronic equipment is now also so reduced in size that the use of conventional

antenna should not be acceptable to the user and in any case make the equipment

miniaturization rather useless.

A clever design of antenna can give added value by employing additional system functions such

as diversity reception capability, reduction of multipath fading or selectivity of polarization

characteristics. Antenna design is no longer confined to the design of small, lightweight, low profile

of flush mounted, omni-directional antennas on a well-defied flat ground plane, But is rather the

creation of sophisticated electronic configuration that plays a important role in signal processing

while operating in a generally is defined time varying environment.

The nature of the mobile system to be worked with greatly influences the antenna design and it

can be divided into land, maritime,

 aeronautical design and satellite mobile systems and the type of mobile platforms such a

vehicles,

ships, air crafts and portable equipment.

Frequency reuse capabilities, type of information, modulation and a personalisation of mobile

tem1inals are some of the factors, which are taken into account while designing antennas.

In zoned systems, radiation pattems have to match the some patterns to avoid interference.

Performance is also subject to variations in field strength 2ccording to the movement of mobile

terminals and environmental conditions in the propagation path.

Global Personal Communication Network (PCN) will provide telecommunication

functionality regardless of users location. The vision of PCN foccuses on the provision of a high quality

two-way communication service to both business users and consumers on the move outdoors and

indoors. The goal is to create a global PCN which will be complementary to the conventional Public

~\\'itched Telecommunication Network - wired - and to any other wireless system Satellite networks, by

their ubiquitous presence in Low Earth Orbits (LEO), "Medium Earth Orbits (MEO) or any other

combination of orbits, are well suited to fill the gaps in the land coverage left by the existing terrestrial

systems personal communication, services virtually everywhere on the globe.

The desire of the market is not only to have a global communication service but also to

use with that service handheld tem1inal similar in size, cost and performance with these currently

available for terrestrial cellular systel11s. A critical point in the user's terminal design, size and

performance is the antenna, In Global PCN this point becomes even more critical because of the pared

lei use of :he terrestrial al1d the satellite network (dual mode terminals).
Many more specific factors have to be taken into consideration at the start of the Design of an

antenna for a portable handset. In brief the designer should think About the antenna size, the

polarization characteristics, the matching requirements, the bandwidth, the effect of electrically

small ground plane, the noise figure, the transmitter efficiency, the need for diversity, the

electromagnetic compatibility, materials, the modeling, the manufacturing methods, the reliable

operation . the possible interaction effects with the handheld box, the cost the absorbing effect

of the human body, the body effect on the antenna characteristics and finally the system

compatibility. The last point is actually the most crucial since it defines the operational

frequency, the polarization characteristics, the radiation pattern shape and the required G/T of

the system.

The major Satellite PCN (SPCN) operators propose systems with different orbital

configurations and frequency bands,. These differences can affect the shape of the handset

antenna radiation pattern, the antenna environment, the radiation pattern can greatly affect the

average handset performance. Thus, the shape of the pattern has to be done with extra care,

taking, firstly into account the relative position of the transmitter and receiver and, secondly,

the fact that the not prepared to make many effort to find the correct orientation of their in

order to achieve optimum performance. What can be said as a conclusion is that in SPCN the

shape of the radiation pattern should be directed by the system’s orbital characteristics (a

minimum elevation angle, diversity, space the pattern shape of the satellite antenna and the

possible orientation of the handheld in use.

1.2 HELIX ANTENNA

The antenna is the transitional structure between free-space and a g device. The guiding

device or transmission line may take the form of a co-axial or a hollow pipe (wave-guide) and

it is used to transport electromagnetic from the transmitting source to the antenna, or form the

antenna to the receiver.

An antenna converts bound circuit fields into propagating electromagnetic waves, and by

reciprocity recovers power from travelling electromagnetic waves, . An antenna serves to link

the receiver & thus achieves communication between any two points. Antenna is a matching

network that couples a transmission line to free space with as much efficiency as possible. Thus

a radio antenna may be defined as "the structure associated with the region of transition

between a guided wave and a free space wave or vice-versa"

One of the most important parameters associated with the antenna is

“POLARIZATION”

Polarization is the physical orientation of the radiated waves in space. Waves are said to be

polarized if they have the same alignment in space. Polarization direction is labeled generally

after the electric intensity, this makes the direction of polarization the same as the

direction of antenna, Thus when we say an antenna is vertically or horizontally polarized, it

is actually their radiation that is so polarized. Antennas can be also circularly or elliptically

polarized.
 When I undertake the discussion of antennas involved in the communication and

tracking connected with the interplanetary Probes popularly used.

 These antennas radiate electromagnetic waves of circular polarization by properly

proportioning the area and pitch of the turns with relation to the wavelength. The helix is a

superposition of electric and magnetic dipoles to radiate a wave with circular polarization.

Circular polarization requires two relations between the crossed fields in a wave. They must

have an equal intensity and phase quadrature in time. The direction of rotation of the

polarization depends on phase sequence of the crossed components of either field. Then

antenna inherently obtains the phase quadrature. The equality of intensity of the crossed

components is obtained by making the area of each turn equal to the product of the pitch of the

turn times the wavelength.

The circular polarization sense is determined by the screw direction of the Helix. A

right - hand screw helix radiates Right Hand Circular Polarization.

The helix antenna has three basic modes of radiation:

Normal Mode: In normal mode radiation peaks occur at +- 90 from the helix

axis.

Axial Mode: In Axial mode the peak radiation is along The axis of the helix, this

radiation

mode is Required for the fixed terminal antenna.

Conical Mode: Conical Pattern is useful for mobile terminal Data links. Conical patterns

not require that the antenna be manually or automatically aligned.

 One of the application of the helix antenna is their use for Mobile and Fixed Terminal.

In case of the mobile antenna, the azimuth (Az) and elevation (EI) angles are changed while

the terminal is in operation. According to the application required the antenna can be designed

keeping in context the mode of radiation.

The geometry of the helix can be understood by looking at the figure below
 The symbols that define the Helix parameters are:

N= NUMBER OF TURNS

D= DIAMETER OF HELIX

α= PITCH ANGLE

S= SPACING BETWEEN TURNS (ie., CENTER TO CENTER)

I= LENGTH OF ONE TURN

L= TOTAL LENTH OF HELIX

When one turn of the helix is unrolled on a flat plane, the triangle shown in figure above

interrelates these dimensions.

I= (π.D) / Cos α

S= I. (Sin α) = π . D (Sin α ) / (Cos α)

We can rewrite the relation for center –to- centre spacing as

S/λ= ( π.D / λ) tan α

For operation in the axial mode

(3 / 4) < π. D/ λ < (4 / 3)

For a helical antennas , the values of ( π.D / λ) = 1 is commonly used by the designers

Therefore

S / λ = tan α

Total length of the helix is given by

L = N.S

Using the above mentioned parameters a helix antenna design was undertaken.

The design on paper for a centre frequency of 2.6GHz , having co-axial mode radiation.
1.3 QUADRIFILAR HELIX

The Quadrifilar helix is an electronically small antenna providing circular polarization over a

broad angular region. A Quadrifilar antenna generally consist of four helices, equally spaced

circumferentially on a dielectric cylinder or one dielectric disk support, and fed with equal

amplitude signals driven in phase quadrature (0 ", 90 ° , 180°, 270 ° ) . The Quadrifilar also can

be described as two rthogonal bifilars fed in phase quadrature, where a bifilar is a two

orthogonal element helical antenna.

The Quadrifilar helix antenna (QHA) offers a Cardioid ( or elevational ) shaped radiation

pattern. This type of pattern is very favorable for a Satellite Personal Communication Network

(SPCN) hand-held terminal (HHT) which requires the radiation pattern of the antenna to have

elevational directionality to compensate for propagation losses ( free space, fading)

Experienced at different elevation angles, omni directionality in the azimuth plane and

circular polarization. Other antennas like the patch and the crossed dipole, can offer similar

shaped patterns, but the Quadrifillar helix seems be preferred for the following reasons:

• Smaller structure

• Not too sensitive to the ground plane and in the same \vay to the hand effect in case of

SPCN HHT

• Its radiation pattern is easily shaped by varying geometrical patterns such as diameter, the

pitch and the number of turns,

• Wide circular polarized beam.

 Another interesting property of the QHA is that it produces a hemispherical pattern without

the need for a ground plane. In general the radiation characteristics are insensitive to the

presence of a metal structure behind the antenna, provided that it is mounted at least a quarter-

wavelength above the conducting surface. The back lobe radiation patterns are suppressed as the

ground plane gets close 0 a quarter wavelength. The presence of the ground plane in different

distances from the QHA can change the input impedance, the back lobes and the movement of

the phase center but the main lobe is essentially unaffected.

One of the major disadvantages of the QHA is the complex feed network that it

requires. One approach is to feed each Bifilar Helix with the assistance of a balun. In such a case

most configuration need a 90 0 phase difference hybrid and two baluns are needed to feed both

Bifilar Helices. The other way is to separately feed each one of the four helical elements, with

90 0 phase difference. This issue is discussed further in a later section on Feed "Networks.

1.4 PRINTED QUADRIFILAR RESONANT HELIX ANTENNA

Wire antennas such as the QHA have found many applications in both air borne

and land-based systems. These circularly polarized antennas have widely been used principally

for their hemispherical coverage and good axial ratio. The electrical properties of wire antennas

are modified when the wires are copper strips printed on dielectric support. This construction

gives us the Printed Quadrifilar Resonant Helix Antenna (PQRHA).

 The behavior of the PQRHA can be understood by considering it like two

orthogonal uncoupled bifilar helices fed in phase quadrature. Thus every bifilar helix is

considered as two parallel printed suspended lines on an place and can transform the system into

equivalent transmission line with conductors of circular cross-secretion and a coaxial dielectric.

The PQRHA can achieve both Normal mode and Axial mode radiation. Thus it can be

used for a variety of applications depending on the requirement.

NORMAL MODE:

For communications between beacon and maritime mobiles, the emission an d reception of

different signals over the sea requires the antenna provide circularly polarized radial radiation, with

good axialratio

The optimum parameters as realized in reference are:

C= Circumference= 0.315 λ

L= Strip Length = 2λ

N= number of turns = 1.8

Λ= free space wavelength

Axial Mode:

For the axial mode of operation the optimum parameters realized 111 reference are

C = Circumference =

α = pitch angle

L = strip Length =

N = number of turns

In this project using the reference and parameters mentioned above ,vo antenna models

were built. The antennas models were built for a center frequency of -2.6 GHz. The models were

designed for the Normal mode of radiation.

The antennas were built using a wooden rod of required length as a support base. In the

antenna Copper wires were wound around the wooden rod to serve as the helical structure. In

the antenna the Pitch Angle a and the Strip length L were taken into account while winding the

helices. A detailed analysis of the design of the antenna and feed network is given further in a

separate section on Antenna Design and array Design.

 FEED NETWORK

One of the major disadvantages of the Quadrifilar Helix Antenna is the complex feed

network that it requires. The design requires, that the four Helices placed at 90° phase difference

( 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°). One of the methods to satisfy this condition is to separately feed each one

of the four helical elements, with 90° phase quadrature. Such a feed network can be designed

using microstrip circuits.

The basic requirement of the circuit is to split the signal into four equal signals of lesser

power, each signal being 90 ° apart in phase to the other and then feed them individually to each

helix. A Wilkinson Power Divider circuit as mentioned in [1] can be used for this purpose. This

circuit has the useful property of being losses when the Output ports are matched; that is only

reflected power is dissipated. It also presents isolation between output ports. This divider is

often made in microstrip or strip line form.

The key to the design of the circuit, when designing in a microstrip form is to achieve

the requisite widths of the microstrip line, which would result in the path with the required

impedance. The design of the circuit can be depicted in the figure.

 MICROSTRIP LINE

Microstrip line is one of the most popular types of transmission lines, primarily

because it can be fabricated by the photolithography processes and is easily integrated with other

passive and active microwave devices. Microstrips are printed circuits for very high frequency

electronics and microwaves. When made of conducting strips deposited upon a dielectric

substrate, they are called microwave integrated circuits (MICs).

Physically, any microstrip structure consists of a thin plate of low loss insulating

material, the substrate, covered with metal completely on one side, the ground plane, and partly

on the other, where the circuit or the antenna patterns are printed.

The substrate fulfills two functions:

1. It is a mechanical support that ensures that implanted components are properly positioned and

mechanically stable, just as in printed circuits for low-frequency electronics.

2. It behaves as an integral part of connecting transmission lines and deposited circuit components;

its permittivity and thickness determine the electrical characteristics of the circuit or antenna.

The presence of the dielectric, and particularly the fact that the lectric does not fill the air region

above the strip, complicates the behavior and ysis of microstrip line. The microstrip has some

(usually most) of its field - in the dielectric region, concentrated between the strip conductor and

the d plane, and some fraction in the air region above the substrate. Thus we came across a

constant Єe, which is defined as the effective dielectric constant of the microstrip line.
Since some of the field lines are in the dielectric region and some are in air, the effective dielectric constant

satisfies the relation.

1< e < r

And is dependent on the substrate thickness d, and conductor width W

The design formulas as mentioned in [1] for the effective dielectric constant and characteristic impedance of

microstrip line are presented below

Effective Dielectric Constant:

The effective dielectric constant of a microstrip line is given approximately by-

e=( ) / 2 + { ( r - 1) / 2} { 1 + 12 d/w}1/2

The effective dielectric constant can be interpreted as the dielectric constant of a

homogeneous medium that replaces the air and dielectric regions of the microstrip
For given characteristic impedance Zo and dielectric constant r the w/d ratio can be found as :

w/d = 2 / П [ B - l –ln (2B - 1) + ( r - 1) / 2 r { In (B-1) + 0.39 - 0.61/ r }]

for w/d > 2

w/d = 8eA / (e2A – 2) for w/d < 2

Where,

A = Zo / 60 {( r + 1) / 2} 1/2 + ( r - 1) / ( r + 1) { 0.23 + 0.11 / r }

Considering the above equations a required Power Divider can be designed.

 SPECIFICATIONS

1. Frequency - S Band ( 2.1 GHz to 2.4 GHz)

2. Polarization - Circular

3. Impedance - 50 ohm

4. VSWR Bandwidth - 1.4% - 3.4%

3. Substrate - Glass Epoxy

 CHAPTER 2

ANTENNA DESIGN

INTRODUCTION :

2.1 QUADRIFILAR HELIX DESIGN

The Quadrifilar Helix Antenna (QHA) is an extension of the Helix antenna, While in a Helix antenna

there is a single helix wound for a particular number if turns, in the Quadrifilar helix there are four

such helices which are wound alongside each other. This kind of a helical structure gives the

advantages of a good elevation radiation pattern and a very prominent Circular Polarization. The basic

structure of the QHA can be understood by looking at the fig.

The QHA volute with one turns (a) front (b) top and (c) trimetric view
Another advantage of the Quadrifilar Helix is that the radiation pattern can be easily changed

by varying different parameters such as the diameter, the pitch and the number of turns,

However there is no fixed trend which can be followed regarding the change in the radiation

pattern with the modification of different parameters, In most of the references concerning the

QHA, there is information on how the radiation pattern is shaped or changed by different

variations of the geometrical characteristics, most of this information is empirical and some-

times contradictory.

In this project the Quadrifilar Antenna and its array were designed for Normal

mode of radiation with a center frequency of 2.6 GHz. As mentioned in a previous section on

the QHA, reference realizes the optimum parameters required to achieve the given results.

These parameters were used to design the helical structure of the antenna. The design is as

given below.

The optimum parameter values as given in reference are:

1. Circumference of Helix, C = 0.315 λ o

2. Pitch Angle, α = 72°

3. Length of Helix, l=
2.2 FEED NETWORK DESIGN

In this project antenna and its array were designed each using a different Power

Divider Network. The design was etched on a glass epoxy substrate using the Printed Circuit

Board technique used for fabrication of Microstrip components.

Antenna

In this model the idea of using a power divider circuit as a Feed for the

Quadrifilar helix antenna was first explored, therefore most of the design parameters used are

based on approximate values which were suggested to be close to the original calculated value.

1. Dielectric Constant of Substrate -

The basic design was started with taking into consideration the Dielectric Constant of the

substrate used. The value was taken as 1.4]

i.e. o = 1.41

2. Calculation of Wavelength in Free Space-

o =C /f
Where,

C - Velocity of light = 3 x 1010 cm/sec.

f - Center frequency = 2.6 x 106 Hz

o = (3 x 1010 cm/sec) x (2.6 x 106 Hz) -1

o = 11.358 cm

2. Calculation of Wavelength in Substrate –

g= o / r

g = 11.538 cm / 1.41
g= 81mm

Calculation of Extra Length for Phase Shift of 90° in each Helix -

Extra Length = g / 4

g/4 = 81 / 4

= 20.25 - 21 mm

Let the basic length of the Microstrip path = x

For 90° phase shift length of path = x + g / 4

For 180° phase shift length of path = x + 2 g / 4

For 270° phase shift length of path = x + 3 g / 4

From the Microstrip circuit etched out we get the following path length.

PHASE SHIFT PATH LENGTH

(cm)
0° 4
90° 6.1
180° 8.2
270° 10.3 10.3

5. Width of the Micro Strip line of Different Impedance Values -

The following values were assumed for the basic design:

IMPEDANCE (Ω) WIDTH (mm)

50 5
75 3.5
100 2.4
6. Construction of the Microstrip Network

Using the above-mentioned values a Power Divider Feed Network was developed and is as

shown in figure 2. The substrate used was Glass Epoxy. A SMA Connector was used to

provide connection of the Microstrip circuit to the

Co-axial cable adapter-bullet. It is to be noted that the lengths of all Microstrip lines without

the end extension for Phase shifts are g / 4

Antenna 2

Seeing the feasibility of the second model was done using exact .formulate, and this model was

developed as an improvement on the first model. In this antenna the helical structure was

developed by winding Copper wire strips instead of the Aluminum flat-strips used in the first

model. The formulae used here have already been discussed in the previous section on Feed

Networks.

1. Dielectric Constant of Substrate -

The substrate used was Glass Epoxy. The dielectric constant of glass epoxy was

found to be 5.3 (reference)

i.e. r = 5.3

The measured thickness of the material is 1.4 mm

i.e. d = 1.4 mm

2. Calculation of the Width of the Microstrip Line -

a) For Characteristic Impedance = Zo = 50 ohm

we have formula

w/d = 2 / П [ B - l –ln (2B - 1) + ( r - 1) / 2 r { In (B-1) + 0.39 - 0.61/ r }]

for w/d > 2

B = 377 П / 2 Zo ( r)1/2

Where,

w = width of Microstrip Line

d = thickness of substrate = 1.4 mm

B = 377 П / (2 x 50 x (5.3)1/2)

= 5.1446

w/d = 2 / П [ 5.1446 - l –ln (2 5.1446 - 1) + ( 5.3 -1 ) / 2 x 5.3 { ln

(5.1446-1) + 0.39 - 0.61/ 5.3}]

w/d =1.6564 < 2

since w/d < 2

we use formula : w/d = 8eA / (e2A - 2) for w/d

A = Zo / 60 {( r + 1) / 2} 1/2 + ( r - 1) / ( r + 1) { 0.23 + 0.11 / r }

=50 / 60 {(6.3) / 2}1/2 + (4.3) / (6.3) (0.23 + 0.11 / 5.3)

= 1.65010

w/d = 8e1.65010 / (e3.300 - 2)

= 1.658

Now since,

d = 1.4 mm

w = 2.8186 mm

b) For Characteristic ImpedanceZ=o = 21/2 x 50 ohm = 70.710 ohm

We use the same formula as used in the above case for w/d < 2
Therefore using:

w/d = 8eA / (e2A – 2) for w/d < 2

A =Zo / 60 {( r + 1) / 2} 1/2 + ( r - 1) / ( r + 1) { 0.23 + 0.11 / r }

 We get,

A = 2.26273

w/d = 0.85095

since,

d = 1.4 mm

w = 1.18 mm

3. Calculation of Effective Dielectric Constant e of Microstrip Line-

a) For Characteristic Impedance Zo = 50 ohm

e = ( r + 1) / 2 + {( r - 1 ) /2} {1 + 12 d/w}-1/2

e = (6.3/2) + (4.3/2) (1/2.8700)

e = 3.89912

b) For Characteristic Impedance Zo = 70.710 ohm

e = ( r + 1) / 2 + {( r - 1 ) /2} {1 + 12 d/w}-1/2

e = (6.3/2) + (4.3/2) (1/3.8860)

e = 3.70325

4. Calculation of Wavelength in Substrate -

a) For Characteristics Impedance Zo = 50 ohm

g = g/ e

g = 11.538 / 3.899
 g = 2.959 cm

b) For Characteristics Impedance Z o = 70.71 0 ohm

λg = λg/ εc

λg = 11.538/3.703

λg = 3.11563

4. Calculation of Extra Strip Length for Phase Shift -

a) For Characteristic Impedance Z o = 50 ohm

Extra Length = λg/4

λg/4 = 2.959/4

λg/4 - = 0.73975 cm

Let the basic length of the Microstrip path = x

F.or 90° phase shift length of path = x + λg /4

For 180° phase shift length of path = x + 2 λg /4

For 270° phase shift length of path = x + 3 λg /4

From the Microstrip circuit etched out we get the following path length.
 PHASE SHIFT PATH LENGTH
(cm)
0° 4
90° 6.1
180° 8.2
2700 10.3

b) For Characteristics Impedance Z o = 70.710 ohm

Extra Length = λg /4

λg/4 = 11.538/3.7032

It is to be noted that the lengths of all Microstrip lines without the end extension for Phase shifts

are λg /4.

Antenna 2

Seeing the feasibility of the second model was done using exact formulae, and this model was

developed as an improvement on the first model. In this antenna the helical structure was developed

by winding Copper wire strips instead of the Aluminum flat-strips used in the first model. The

formulae used here already been discussed in the previous section on Feed Networks.

1. Dielectric Constant of Substrate -

The substrate used was Glass Epoxy. The dielectric constant of glass epoxy

was found to be 5.3 (reference)

i.e. £r=5.3

The measured thickness of the material is 1.7 mm

 i.e. d = 1.7 mm

2. Calculation of the Width of the Microstrip Line -

a) For Characteristic Impedance = Z o = 50 ohm

we have formula

r (B-1) + 0.39 ~ 0.61/£r } ]

w/d = 2 / IT [B-1-ln(2B - 1) + (£r- 1 ) /2 £{In

for w/d >2

where,

W = width of Microstrip Line

D = thickness of substrate = 1.7 mm

B -3 7 7 π ( I (2 x 50 X (5.3)1/2) =5.1446

w/d = 2 / π ( [5.1446 - 1-In (2x5.1446 +

-) (5.3 -1)/ (2 x 5.3) { In (5.1446
-1)+ 0.39 0.61/5.3}]

w /d= 1.6564< 2

since w/d< 2

we use formula:

w/d = 8eA I e2A -2 )

for w/d < 2

A = Zo/ 60 { (£r + 1) /2} 1/2 + (£r - 1 ) / (£r' +1) { 0.23 + 0.11/ £r}

' = 50/60(6.3/2)1/2+ 4.3/ 6.3 (0.23+ 0.11/5.3)

=1.65010

w/d = 8e

= 1.658

Now since, d = 1.7mm

W =2.8186mm

b) Characteristic Impedance Z=o =2 = 70.710 ohm

We use the same formulae as used in the above casew/d

for< 2

therefore using:

w/d=8eA I (e 2/\ - 2) for w/d < 2

A= Zo 160 { ( CI' + 1) 12 l + (ci - 1 ) I (E, + 1 ) {0.23+ 0.1] lEI)

 We get,

A = 2.26273

w/d = 0.850959

since,

d = 1.7 mm w= 1.44 mm

3. Calculation of Effective Dielectric Constant Ce of Microstrip Line-

b) For Characteristic Impedance Zo = 50 ohm

Cc = (cr + 1) 1 2 + {( Cr - 1 ) /2} {1 + 12 d/wr l/2

£e = (6.3/2) + (4.3/2) (1/2.8700)

£e = 3.89912

b) For Characteristic Impedance Z o = 70.710 ohm

Cc = (cr + 1)/ 2 + {( £r -1 )/2} {1+ 12 d/w }-112

£c = (6.3 12) + (4.3 12) ( 1 /3 .8 8 6 0 )

Cc = 3.70325

4. Calculation of Wavelength in Substrate -

a) For Characteristics Impedance Z o = 50 ohm

λg = λg / £c

λg = 11.538/3.899

λg = 2.959 cm
 CHAPTER 3

EXPERIMENTATION

3.1 INTRODUCTION:

All antennas are described by various general parameters of their radiation patterns

and impedance. These parameters include impedance, VSWR, Bandwidth, Polarization, 3dB

Bandwidth and Directivity.

IMPEDANCE AND DIRECTIVITY

These two terms almost always appear together. Impedance is a prime- determining

factor in the amount of power transferred from the component to the associated circuitry and vice-

versa.! When referring to antennas we must know how well energy is transferred from free space and

a transmission line.

A more convenient term is VSWR. A high VSWR indicates a large measure of

reflected power and a poor transfer of power, a low VSWR' 'characterizes a good power transfer.

One consideration when specifying VSWR is the application for which the antenna

will be used. For E.g. the VSWR of an antenna used in receiving setup can be set as high as 3:1. But

use of 3:1 VSWR in a transmitting antenna would cause losses that would put a great burden on the

final power stages.

3 dB BEAMWIDTH

This specification is very similar to the 3dB Bandwidth used in describing the operation

of filters. It is a number, expressed in degrees, which indicates where the strength of the radiation pattern

of an antenna decreases to half power ( or 3dB) . With filters, this term measures the number of degrees

between the points.

POLARIZATION

An electromagnetic wave is made up of just two components. One electric (E) and one

magnetic (M). Polarization refers to the orientation of the E component or E - vector. Three types of

polarization are commonly considered Linear, Circular and Elliptical. The E vector is associated with

only a single either vertical or horizontal plane i.e. the electrical field (E) is in a plane oriented vertically

or horizontally.

Circular polarization involves more than one plane and is characterized as being involved with the tri -

plane. The E-vector rotates either in clockwise or counter clockwise direction. If it moves clockwise it is

said to be

Right Hand Circularly Polarized (RHCP). And counterclockwise means Left Hand

Circularly' Polarized (LHCP)

For circular polarization, the E vector must remain at constant amplitude. If it changes

magnitude as it rotates, its tip traces an ellipse and the wave is said to be Elliptically Polarized.
DIRECTIVITY

This specification is a measure of the ability of an antenna to

concentrate energy in a preferred direction. Antennas with narrow bandwidths have a greater

directivity than conventional Omni-directional antennas. The gain of the antennas is closely linked

with its directivity - if antenna has no heat losses and is perfectly matched to the· source or load, then

the gain is equal to the

directivity. However, the gain decreases proportionally to the losses. For e.g., if -he antenna is 50%

efficient then the gain 50% ( or 3dB) is less than the directivity.

G A IN

Antenna gain is basically a comparison of one phenomenon to another. The gain of an antenna in a

given direction is the ratio of the power radiated by the antenna in that direction to the power which

would be radiated by a losses isotropic radiator with the same power accepted through its input

terminals.

The term 'Gain' is often taken to mean the maximum gain of the antenna hence the gain

at the peak of the main lobe.

BANDWIDTH

It is the frequency range over which the specifications listed apply. outside this region, the antenna

does not behave as predicted. In terms of the ','SWR the bandwidth can be set for a particular value

for e.g. 1.4 : I. At frequencies outside this range the specifications cannot be truly achieved.
3.1 PARAMETER MEASUREMENT

The HP8714E vector network analyzer was used to measure the various

parameters of the antennas (Antenna 1 and Antenna 2 ) namely VSWR, Impedance

Character4istics, Return loss.

The HP8714E is a high performance vector network analyzer for laboratory or

production measurements of reflection or transmission parameters. It integrates a high

resolution synthesized RF source, an S - parameter test set, and a dual channel three input

receiver to display and measure the magnitude, phase and group delay responses of active and

passive RF networks.

Two independent display channels and a large screen color display show the

measured results of one or both of the channels, in rectangular or polar /

Smith chart formats. The frequency range ofHP8719Dis from 300KHz to 3 GHz.

The experimental setup for measurements is as shown in fig.

Before taking the actual measurements, calibration of the network analyzer was carried out using

standard procedure of calibration using standard loads like short, open and matched.

The readings were taken with a Start frequency of 2 GHz and a Stop frequency of 3

GHz.

The results as observed all the HP87l4E are attached in form of printouts
The results are attached in the

following sequence.

VSWR Vs. Frequency for Antenna (Fig)

Return loss Vs. Frequency for Antenna (Fig).

Smith Chart representation for Antenna (Fig.)

From the graphs of VSWR Vs. Frequency the VSWR bandwidth of

the antennas is as follows.

Antenna Bandwidth (HZ ) Center Frequency (GHz)

1 1.785 2.355
2. 2.3076 2.214

A VSWR of 1.4: 1 is chosen when calculating the bandwidth, Which is good for an

antenna acting as a receiving antenna.

3. 2 Polarization and Radiation Pattern:

For good performance the antenna need to be circularly polarized.

To measure the quality of circular polarization we use a parameter called as Axial Ratio. Axial ratio is

defined as the ratio of the major to minor axes of the polarization ellipse. For circular polarization the

axial ratio (AR) = 1. The Quadrifilar Helix antenna can offer a very good circular polarization over a

wide elevation angle beam, a value lower than 5dB inside the coverage is considered adequate.

The axial ratio of the two antennas was found out by using a linearly polarized HORN antenna. The

HORN antenna was used once with Horizontal polarization and once with Vertical polarization. The

difference in the value of the return loss was the axial ratio.

The results have been tabulated for both the antennas.

ANTENNA

Table No.4

Frequency Vertical Horizontal Axial Ratio (dB)

(GHz) Polarization (dB) Polarization (dB)
2.7 -59 -49 10
3.0 -66 -51.6 13.4
As mentioned before the Quadrifilar Helix antenna offers the CARDIOD shaped radiation

pattern. The optimum radiation patterns are as shown below in the figures. The radiation

pattern of the antenna was observed with the help of another antenna and it was tested in the

elevational plane. It was found to be quite in accordance with the ideal patterns as shown by

the figures below.

Fig: Radiation pattern of QHA backfire configuration

 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

5.1 CONCLUSION

The following observations were made from the measurements taken for different Antenna

parameters.

1. The 50 Ω best impedance matching for Antenna 1 was observed at 1.995 GHz.

2. The minimumSWR for Antenna 1 was observed at 1.995 GHz (VSWR = 1.328).

3. For a VSWR of 1.4:1 the % bandwidth of bandwidth for Antenna 1 is 1.785%.

4. The Circular polarization for Antenna 1 was the best at 1.995 GHz. The value of axial

ratio at this frequency was 3.4.

5. The Circular polarization for antenna 1 was best at 1.995 ghz., the value of axial ratio

at this frequency was 1.7.

5.2 REMARKS

Form the observed results, the VSWR for two antennas is good with sufficient bandwidth. Most

of the parameters are as predicted for a Quadrifilar Helix of similar dimensions. The shift in the actual

designed frequency and the actual measured frequency could be attributed to the low quality of

substrate used. Due to unavailability of better materials. Still the results are quite satisfactory

considering the use of Glass Epoxy substrate. Which is not a favored substrate for use in microstrip

designs. Better results can be anticipated with the use of a more high quality substrate like RT

DURIOD etc. which would be less lossy also compared to the present substrate used.
 5.3 FUTURE SCOPE

The Quadrifilar Helix antenna has been widely' selected as a preferred handset antenna for

mobile satellite communication, It has the key attributes of near-hemispherical pattern with good

circular polarization within a compact form-factor. Concern has been expressed, however, with regard

to the impact of relatively high transmit powers on absorption in the human head. Two methods have

been proposed to minimize these interactions. Still compared to the presently used antennas for mobile

communications, this antenna has been found quite superior. The Quadrifilar helix antenna is already a

popular choice for the use in "Global Positioning Systems (GPS) and is incorporated for the same by

many companies like GRAMIN for their designs.

The antennas built in this project can be used to built a high quality satellite receiving system and can

be used for any service in the range of 2 GHz to 2.4 GHz.

When array using 94 antenna are developed in L - band, then this system will work as mobile band

telescope. When this antenna used in S - band as base station and some modification is made in

EPBAX, then this system will work as P.C.S. for limited area.