CORROSION AND

ITS PROTECTION

IN OIL & GAS PRODUCTION

CORROSION IN OIL FILED :
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL THREATS
INTERNAL THREATS
CORROSION CAUSES
WELL TREATMENT
INFLUENCED

WATER CARRY OVER

UNDERDOSING
DEMULSIFIER

INJECTION PUMP with

LOW
CAPACITY

UNDERDOSING
CORROSION
INHIBITOR

WATER SETTLE OUT

 Typical E&P process
conditions
• Temperature
– Typical E&P process
temperatures range from
-100ºC to >200ºC
– Corrosion rates increase
with temperature
• Pressure
– Pressure: up to 10,000psi
– Increase partial pressure
of dissolved gases
• Flowrate & flow regime
– High-flow: erosion and
corrosion-erosion.
– Low-flow or stagnant
conditions promote
bacteria

5
 Internal corrosion
Hydrocarbon phase Aqueous phase
• Not normally corrosive • Responsible for corrosion
at temperatures • Corrosion exacerbated
experienced in by acid gases & organic
production systems acids
• Corrosivity depends on • CO2, H2S and O2 are the
extent and distribution most aggressive species
of the aqueous and
• Chlorides increase
hydrocarbon phases.
corrosion
• Generally,
– ‘no water, no
corrosion’

6
Internal (process-side) damage
mechanisms
• H 2S
• CO2
• Solids & velocity effects
• Chlorides – pitting, stress corrosion cracking
• Oxygen (crevice / under deposit / differential
aeration)
• Galvanic corrosion
• Preferential weld corrosion (PWC)
• Microbially induced corrosion (MIC)
• Liquid metal embrittlement (LME)
• Chemicals

7
TYPICAL REACTIONS
 Dissolved gas - effect on corrosion

Corroded seawater injection

Corrosion Rate of Carbon Steel

25

20

15
O2
10 CO2
H2S
5

0
0
O2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0 1200 2 3003 4 5 6
600 7700 8 800
H02S 100 400 500
0
CO 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
2

Dissolved Gas Concentration in Water Phase, ppm

There is no species more corrosive on a

concentration basis than oxygen!
9
H2S CORROSION

10
H2S corrosion – metal loss
– Formation of a thin protective FeS surface film often
means general corrosion rates are low on steels
– Main risk is localised pitting corrosion where film is
damaged
– Pitting will be galvanically driven

11
 Wet H2S corrosion

• H2S is soluble in water

– Produces a weak acid and lowers the pH
H2S  H+ + SH-
– At low concentrations, H2S helps form protective FeS
film
– Main risk is localised pitting corrosion which can be
rapid
• H2S also poisons combination of atomic hydrogen into
molecular hydrogen
H+ + e-  H Atomic
hydrogen -
H + H  H2
X dangerous to
steels!!

12
 Cracking in sour service
H2 H+ Fe2+
S2-
H
FeS Film

Metal Matrix
H

Applied Stress No Applied Stress

Higher Strength Steels YS > 500 MPa Low Strength Steels YS < 550 MPa

H2
H H
HH H2
H
13
 Sulphide stress cracking
(SSC)
Key parameters:
• pH and pH2S
HAZ WELD
– Domain diagrams for carbon HAZ
steel
• Material hardness
– High strength steels and areas
of high hardness susceptible.
• Temperature Hardness
readings
– Maximum susceptibility at low
temperatures for carbon steels
(15-25°C), higher for CRAs (5-
70°C).
• Stress
– Cracking promoted by high
stress levels e.g. residual
welding
14
 Protection against SSC
• Avoid wetness Upgrade to CRAs
• Minimise hardness • Martensitic and duplex
– Guidance on limits stainless steels have limited
in ISO 15156 resistance
• Optimise • H2S limits for duplex and
microstructure and super-duplex steels are
minimise residual complex
stresses – Function of temperature,
pH, chlorides, pH2S
• Nickel-base alloys such as
625 and 825 have high
resistance
• Testing: NACE TM0177

15
ISO 15156 SSC zones for
carbon steel

Service Max hardness

Domain (parent metal,
HAZ, weld metal)
0.0034bar
a 0.05psia 0 No requirements
1 300HV
2 280HV
3 250HV root
275HV cap

16
SSC limits for selected
CRAs
Alloy pH2S limit (bara)

13% Cr martensitic 0.008

22% Cr duplex 0.10

25% Cr super-duplex 0.25

Alloy 825 No limit

Alloy 625 No limit

17
 HIC / SWC / blistering
• Laminar cracking in plane
of inclusions or blistering
(HIC).
• Transverse cracking
between laminar cracks on
different planes (SWC).
Hydroge
n
blisters

Step-wise cracking Blistering of CS

plate 18
 Avoiding HIC / SWC

• Avoid plate steels (rolled)

– otherwise qualify by HIC
test
• Control impurities e.g. S, P
• Uniform microstructure
• Use internal coatings Banded
– isolate steel from process
fluid
• Testing: NACE TM0284

Uniform 19
 ISO 15156 (NACE MR0175)
• ISO 15156 combination of
– NACE MR0175 and NACE testing requirements TM0177 & TM0284
– European Federation of Corrosion Guidelines No.16 & 17
• Part 1: General principles for selecting crack-resistant materials
• Part 2: Cracking resistant carbon & low-alloy steels & cast iron
• Part 3: Cracking resistant corrosion resistant alloys (CRAs)
• Covers all cracking mechanisms
• Goes beyond application of the 0.05 psia pH2S threshold for sour service
• It is the equipment user’s responsibility to select suitable materials
• HIC/SWC of flat rolled carbon steel products for environments containing even
trace amounts of H2S to be evaluated
• BP ETP: GP 06-20 Materials for Sour Service

20
 Designing for H2S service
• Materials requirements
– Reference ISO 15156 and GP 06-20
– pH2S and pH
– Temperature
– Chlorides
– Hardness limits
• Welding QA/QC (HIC)
– Maintain hardness limits
• HIC testing for plate products

21
CO2 CORROSION

22
 CO2 - containing
environments
• CO2 always present in
produced fluids
– Corrosive to carbon Mechanism
steel when water CO2 + H2O  H2CO3
present
H2CO3 + e- HCO3- + H
– Most CRAs have good
resistance to CO2 2H H2
corrosion. Fe  Fe2+ + 2e-
Fe + H2O + CO2 FeCO3
+ H2

23
Types of CO2 damage

General & pitting Mesa corrosion

corrosion

Flow-assisted-corrosion Localised weld 24

(CO2) corrosion
CO2 corrosion in a production
flowline

• 6” CS production flowline (Magnus,

1983)
• 25mm thick, 90bar, 30°C, 2%CO2
• Heavily pitted pipe wall and welds
(not necessarily uniform corrosion)
• Didn’t fail – removed due to crevice
corrosion of hub sealing faces 25
 Factors in CO2 corrosion
•
Main factors
pCO2, temperature, velocity, pH For an ideal gas mixture, the
partial pressure is the pressure
-– CO2 prediction model

exerted by one component if it

alone occupied the volume. Total
pressure is the sum of the partial
pressures of each gas
component in the mixture

Temperature, (ºC) pCO2 (bar) Carbon steel

corrosion rate
(mm/yr)
130 0.6 7
75 0.6 6
149 30 >50

26
 Effect of sand on CO2
corrosion
• Produced sand can affect inhibitor efficiency
– Inhibitor adsorption loss
• Sand (and other solid) deposits give increased risk of
localised corrosion;
– Prevent access of corrosion inhibitor to the metal
– Provide locations for bacteria proliferation
– Galvanic effects (area under deposit at more negative
potential than area immediately adjacent to deposit)
– Formation of concentration cells/gradients

27
 Mitigation of CO2 corrosion
• Internal CO2 corrosion of carbon steel needs to be managed
– Usually mitigate by chemical inhibitors
– Simple geometries only (mainly pipelines)
• Assume inhibitor availability (90-95%)
– Inhibited corrosion rate of 0.1mm/year
– Remaining time at full predicted corrosion rate
– Apply a corrosion allowance for the design life
– If calculated corrosion allowance >8mm use CRAs

28
 CO2 corrosion inhibition
• Filming type
• Retention time
• Continuous injection
• Adsorption onto clean
surfaces

Clean steel

29
CO2 + H2S corrosion – metal
loss
CO2/H2S > 500 CO2 dominates

500 > CO2/H2S > 20 mixed CO2/H2S

20 > CO2/H2S > 0.05 H2S dominates

• H2S corrosion (CO2/H2S < 20)

– Initial corrosion rate high
– Protective FeS film quickly slows down corrosion to low
level
– The corrosion rate is much less than the Cassandra
prediction

30
 H2S + CO2 materials
selection guide
Duplex SS
)r ab(2

13% Cr SS Nickel-based alloys

Carbon/low alloy steels

er pl ai tr aP

Partial pressure H2S (bar)

EROSION & EROSION-
CORROSION

32
 Flow regimes
• Various multi-phase
Liq G
flow regimes possible; uid as
− erosion Bubble (bubbly) Plug flow
characteristics flow
Ga Ga
− distribution of s s
Liq Liq
phases uid
Stratified uid
Wave (wavy) flow
− carrier phase for flow
solids Gas Ga
Liq Liq
• Flow regimes with s
uid
Annular uid
Slug flow
particles in the gas flow
show higher erosion
rates than those with
particles in the liquid
phase. Churn flow Mist (spray) flow

33
 Erosion & erosion-
corrosion
• Erosion
– Caused by high velocity
impact & cutting action of
liquid and/or solid particles
– Erosion failures can be rapid
• Erosion-corrosion
– Occurs in environments that
are both erosive and
corrosive.
– Erosion and corrosion can be
independent or synergistic. Erosion of tungsten
carbide choke trim

34
Typical vulnerable areas for
erosion
• Areas wherever flow is restricted
or disturbed
– T-pieces, bends, chokes, valves,
weld beads
• Areas exposed to excessive flow
rates
• Sand washing
Trinidad – Washing infrequently allowing
sand to accumulate
– High pressure drop during
washing of separators
• Sea water systems
– High flow areas in water
injection / cooling systems

Algeria (duplex)
35
 Erosion in piping
• Sand accumulation
– Build up of sand in a test
separator
• Pressure drop
– Large pressure drop across
sand drain pipework during
washing
• Rapid failure
– Occurred within 2 minutes
of opening the drain

Erosion at bend

36
 Erosion in a vessel
• Sand allowed to accumulate in
separator
– Wash nozzles embedded in sand
• PCV not working properly Water
spray
– High pressure / flowrate
– Nozzle not erosion-resistant
– Erosion of wash nozzle
– Spray changed to a jet causing
erosion of shell
• Local changes to operating Water
procedures not communicated jet
– Frequency of sand washing
– Risk not captured or assessed in
RBI
37
Erosion of sandwash nozzle

Progressive nozzle
damage
38
 Erosion-corrosion
• Occurs in environments that can be erosive and
corrosive.
• Erosion and corrosion can either be:
– independent of each other;
• wastage equals sum of individual wastage
rates
– synergistic;
• wastage rate > sum of individual rates
• localised protective film breakdown at
bends, elbows areas of turbulence

39
 Impingement

• Water speed or local turbulence damages or removes

protective film
• 90-10 Cu-Ni susceptible to internal erosion-corrosion
(impingement) at velocities >3.5ms-1
• Water-swept pits (horse-shoe shaped)

40
 Cavitation
• Occurs at high fluid velocities
• Formation & collapse of vapour
bubbles in liquid flow on metal
surface.
• No solids required
• Typical locations
– Pump impellers (rapid change in
pressure which damages films)
– Stirrers, hydraulic propellers
• Use erosion resistant materials
– Stellite, tungsten carbide

41
CORROSION IN SEAWATER

42
 Raw seawater
• Composition of raw seawater varies around the world
– Temperature, pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen, marine
life
• Very corrosive to unprotected carbon steel, other
materials susceptible to pitting and crevice corrosion
• Select seawater resistant materials
– Super-duplex grades, 6Mo, CuNi, titanium
• Consider galvanic corrosion
– Most seawater resistant grades of stainless steel and
Ni-Cr-Mo alloys are compatible with each other in
seawater.
• Seawater can cause SCC of 300-series, duplex grades
and 6Mo

43
Pitting resistance of stainless
steels
• Pitting Resistance Equivalent
Number (PREw) Alloy PREw
• Formula for comparing 13Cr 13
relative pitting resistance
316ss 23
• Applicable to stainless steels
& Ni-Cr-Fe alloys Alloy 825 28
• Typically PREw ≥40 required 22Cr duplex 33
for exposure to raw sea 25Cr super- 40
water <30ºC duplex
• Alternatively, use titanium or Alloy 625 46
GRE

PREw = %Cr + 3.3x (%Mo + 0.5%W)

+ 16%N 44
Internal & external pitting

Internal pitting

• Section of 3” 316L pipe fitting

• Failed due to internal corrosion (pinhole leak)
• Poor hydrotest practice - seawater left within spool

45
Failure of a seawater pump
cooling coil……

Indication on coil External surface of Internal surface of

coil coil

• 316 SS coil, raw seawater service, hypochlorite added

• Shellside: lube oil up to 50°C
• Tubeside: seawater inlet ~6°C, return ~18°C
• Failed due to localised internal pitting
– 316 SS has low PREw
• Material upgrade required

46
Oxygen - concentration
cells
• Crevice corrosion
– O2 is consumed in the crevice and
becomes the anode
– pH decreases in the crevice
increasing attack
• Differential aeration cells
– Air/water interfaces with attack
below the water line e.g. splash
zone
– Pipelines in soils containing
different amounts of oxygen
• Under deposit corrosion
– Deposits of scale, sand or sludge
Crevice
– Produces differential concentration
corrosion – SRBs thrive - H2S pitting
under baffle

47
 Galvanic corrosion
• Three conditions are required for galvanic corrosion;
– A conducting electrolyte (typically seawater).
– Two different metals in contact with the electrolyte.
– An electrical connection between the two metals.
• Relative positions within the electrochemical series (for
given electrolyte) provides driving potential and affects
rate.
• Corrosion of base metal (anode) stimulated by contact
with noble metal (cathode).
• Relative area of anode and cathode can significantly
affect corrosion rate.
• Higher conductivity increases corrosion e.g. presence of
salts

48
Galvanic corrosion – firewater
piping
• Firewater – CuNi / super duplex
stainless steel connections.
• 4”CuNi pipe with a 550mm
isolation spool (i.e. 5x OD)
• Leaks experienced on CuNi
spools at welds
• Same problems with CuNi / 6Mo

49
Galvanic corrosion - seal
rings
• ETAP platform
• Techlok joints in a
firewater piping system
– Piping: super-duplex
– Seal rings: 17-4PH

50
 Dealloying of brass
• Brass tubesheet in seawater
service
– Brass is Cu-Zn alloy
– Cu is more noble than Zn
– Zn dissolves
preferentially leaving Cu
behind
• Result
– Loss of strength
– Difficult to seal
• Remedy
– Add arsenic to the brass

51
 Mitigation of galvanic
corrosion
• Avoid dissimilar • Electrical isolation between
materials in seawater different alloy classes
system designs • Install distance spools,
separation of at least 20x pipe
– MoC for later changes
diameters
• Avoid small – Solid non-conducting spool e.g.
anode/large cathode GRP
• Avoid graphite gaskets & – Line the noble metal internally
seals with an electrically non-
• Avoid connecting carbon conducting material e.g.
rubber
steel to titanium alloys
• Apply a non-conducting internal
– Galvanic corrosion or coating on the more noble
hydrogen charging of material. Extend coating for 20
titanium may occur pipe diameters.

52
Example : CuNi-Super duplex

Distance spool: solid, non-conducting material e.g. GRP

Distance spool: noble metal internally lined with an

electrically non-conducting material such as rubber

Apply a non-conducting internal coating on the more noble

53
material.
 Cathodic protection (CP) –
what is it?
• By connecting an external anode to the component to be
protected and passing a dc current, it becomes cathodic and
does not corrode.
– External anode may be a galvanic (sacrificial) anode, the
current is the result of the potential difference between the
two metals
– External anode may be an impressed current anode,
current is supplied from an external dc power source.
• CP is mostly applied to coated, immersed and buried structures
– The coating is the primary protection, acting as a barrier
between the metal and the environment
– CP protects steel at coating defects
• Coating + CP is most practical and economic protection system.
– Primary principle in GP 06-31

54
 Cathodic protection – how
does it work?
• CP works by making the component to be protected the cathode in an electrolytic cell
• When two metals are connected in an electrolyte, electrons flow from the anode to the
cathode due difference in the electrical potential

ANODIC

Magnesium
Zinc
Aluminium
Iron (steel)
Copper
Stainless steels
Titanium
Graphite Corrosion of Cathodic protection
steel by copper of steel by zinc
CATHODIC plating plating 55
 Galvanic (sacrificial) CP
• Aluminium anodes: require alloy
additions to become active e.g. Zn + In,
high efficiency (>90%).
– Typically used in seawater applications.
• Zinc anodes: ambient applications only.
Alloyed with Al or Cd to improve efficiency.
– Typically used on coated pipelines in
seawater
• Magnesium anodes: large driving
potential, alloyed with e.g. Al or Zn to
reduce rapid activation, limited efficiency
(50-60%) Sacrificial anodes,
– Used in soils and other high-resistance new and wasted
environments (risk of over- (therefore working!)
protection/rapid consumption in
seawater).

56
Applications of internal CP

• Anodes in shell & tube seawater

cooler water boxes

• Oil storage tanks (in water

bottom)
• Water tanks

•Stainless steel piping systems in warm/hot chlorinated seawater.

−To avoid high anode consumption rates, resistor controlled CP
(RCP) systems should be considered.
−E.g. RCP + 25Cr super duplex piping instead of titanium or
other higher-alloy CRA.
−Used on Greater Plutonio
57
 Chloride stress corrosion
cracking (SCC)
• Susceptibility varies
considerably (no absolutes);
– Material grade, strength,
residual stress, chlorides,
oxygen and temperature
• 300-series austenitic stainless
steels susceptible to at temps
>50°C
• Highly-alloyed austenitic and
duplex SS have improved
resistance
• Nickel-base alloys with Ni ≥
42% are highly resistant, e.g.
825
58
 Chloride SCC (22Cr duplex
vessel drain)

• 22Cr duplex drain ex-production separator

− heat-traced to 60°C (vessel temp up to 105°C)
• Internal chloride SCC (cracking in parent metal, HAZ and
weld metal)
• Contributory factors:
− Susceptible material
− Local stress concentration (weld toe and lack of support)
59
− Environment (elevated temperature, chlorides).
 Water injection systems
Oxygen:
(deaerated) Fluid Velocity:
• Trace amounts corrosive to carbon • Areas of high fluid velocity or turbulence
steel. As a guide: and O2
– O2 from poor deaeration or air ingress
– <20ppb O2 maintains general
corrosion rates <0.25mm/yr – susceptible areas include pump
discharge piping, bends tees and
– Stricter limits often applied e.g. reducers.
<10ppb if 13Cr completions
Microbial-induced Corrosion, MIC
• SRB require anaerobic conditions
– deaerated water
– conditions within and under
biofilms
• SRB use sulphate in water in their
metabolisms to generate H2S

60
 Mitigation & monitoring
• Deaeration and supplementary O2 scavenging
– Monitor O2 concentrations on-line
(orbisphere) or colorimetric analysis
– Maintain oxygen scavenger residual to
mop-up oxygen spikes.
• Chlorination u/s of deaerator, biocide applied
into or d/s of deaerator
• Effective biociding based on;
– Type, frequency, dosage, duration
• Bacterial monitoring (sidestreams, scrapings Leaking deaerator
or bioprobes)
• Corrosion monitoring
Seawater injection
tubing

61
 Preferential weld corrosion
(PWC)
• The selective corrosion of weld zones (WM/HAZ)
• Relevant factors include;
– Electrochemical properties of the materials and any
corrosion cell forming around the weld joint
– Water phase liquid film thickness and conductivity
– Temperature and tendency to form protective scale
– Corrosion inhibitor effectiveness, (film formation,
composition)
– Weld joint metallurgy
– Flow pattern and flow induced shear stress
• PWC rate of attack can be high, up to 12mm/yr
observed

62
 Preferential weld corrosion
Water Injection:
(1%Ni)
Wet hydrocarbon service:
• 1% Ni-containing welds • Lower conductivity, no benefit of
beneficial for avoiding selecting ‘cathodic’ weld metal
PWC in WI systems. • Reliant on intrinsic corrosion
• Weld cathodic to parent resistance of the weld metal
metal, protected by large • Require corrosion inhibitor for
area of parent metal. protection (test against WM and PM)
• Attack of weld metal promoted by
under-dosing of inhibitor (WM needs
more inhibitor than PM)

Welds exposed to hydrocarbon service 63

 Lomond drains - PWC

• TEG contactor scrubber drain

pipework (hydrocarbon)
• Carbon steel parent metal
• ~2%Ni deposited in weld
metal
• Groove along 6 o’clock
position
• Accelerated corrosion at the
weld
• Large number of isolations,
extensive inspection and
repair

64
MIC & DEADLEG CORROSION

65
Microbially induced corrosion
(MIC)
• Anaerobic environments often
support development of biofilms.
• Sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB)
thrive in anaerobic conditions
• SRB biofilms generate H2S
• FeS corrosion product cathodic to
bare steel, increasing corrosion
rate.
• MIC of carbon steel usually
localized pitting under biofilm.
• Corrosion rates of 5-10 mm/yr
seen
• CRAs also susceptible

66
 Bacterial growth factors
• pH • Carbon source
MIC growth in pH 5-9.5 SRB growth restricted if
range organic carbon (volatile
• Temperature fatty acids) not available
(<20ppm)
SRB can grow in temps of
• Nitrogen
5-100°C. Optimum
temp <45ºC. Important but at levels
which are difficult to
• Sulphates
detect
– Necessary for SRB • Flow
activity.
– Highest corrosion rates in
– Growth restricted if <10 stagnant conditions.
ppm – Biofilms unstable at high
flows.

67
 Deadlegs – types &
locations
• A deadleg is a section of pipework or vessel which
contains hydrocarbon fluids and/or water under
– stagnant conditions (permanent or intermittent)
– or where there is no measurable flow.
• Permanent or physical deadlegs (long term stagnation
by design)
• Operational deadlegs (stagnant for operational
reasons)
• Unprotected mothballed items (plus those temporarily out
of service)

68
Examples of deadlegs

69
 Deadlegs – assessment
factors
• Consequence of failure
• Location of pipework
• Nutrients replenished by regularly opening /closing
valves?
• Is draining of pipework possible?
• Is removal of deadleg possible?
• Presence of SRBs, deposits, biocide?
• Material of construction
• Wall thickness
• Fluid type (aqueous phase, sulphates, nutrients, oxygen
ingress)
• Temperature
• Stagnant – permanent/intermittent
• Prior history of corrosion

70
 Example of deadleg
corrosion

Pin Hole leaks

Releasing water

• Crude oil recycle cooler bypass

• Scale-inhibited seawater left in line after leak test (of u/s
valve)
• Severe corrosion rate at and around pinhole.
• Fortunately, a leak of water not crude.
• Two week shutdown 71
 Root causes
North • Failure to identify the bypass
line as an operational
deadleg
• No deadleg register
• Failure to recognise
introduction of new corrosion
hazard
• No mitigation measures.
Photo 1
250 mm

80 mm

Area of internal 30 mm

corrosion 4.2 mm 110 mm Area of internal corrosion

tapering out to reading from 3.5 mm
average wall tapering out to average of
thickness of 10.0 mm 10.7mm

Corroded area approx 80mm x72

VIEW LOOKING WEST 110mm.
Mitigation & inspection
• Flush system of deposits and
treat with biocide, nitrate
• Out of service items
– Biocide treat or mothball
procedure
• Use treated water
– Hydrotest & washing
• Profile radiography or UT
scanning
– low points, bottom of vertical
sections etc.
• Lowest parts of vessel bridle
together with any associated
level gauges.
73
OTHER CORROSION
MECHANISMS

74
 Corrosion due to chemicals
• Chemicals can be corrosive
• Carbon steel OK for non-corrosive
chemical piping, e.g. methanol
• Corrosive chemicals (e.g.
concentrated solutions of inhibitors
and biocides) require CRAs – vendor
will specify
– 316 SS is typical
• Notable exceptions:
– Hypochlorite: very corrosive, titanium
or GRP piping required
– Avoid titanium alloys in dry methanol SCC of a titanium
service due SCC seal exposed to
pure methanol
instead of 5%
water content 75
Corrosion due to chemicals
• Carbon steel open drain
pipework.
• Seepage of scale inhibitor
(passing valve)
• Scale inhibitor pH <2.
• Chemical entered drains, not
flushed

76
 Injection point issues
• Inadequate mixing – corrosion
• Intermittent use
– switch off when not flowing
• Areas affected
– Impingement / turbulent areas
– Bends and low points
• Use quill/other mixer
– Upgrade material
– Thicker schedule
• Valve arrangement
– Make self-draining
Injected Fluid
– Enable quill removal

Main Flow Impingement

77
 High temperature
corrosion
• Environments less common in E&P
– Flare tips, fired heaters, boilers
• Oxidation
– Oxidation significant >530°C
– Oxidation rate varies with temp,
gas composition and alloy Cr
content
• Firetubes: usually CS, but Cr-
Mo alloys needed for high
temps
• Flare tips: 310 SS, alloy 800H
• Other high temperature mechanisms
– sulphidation (H2S and SO2)
– carburizing, metal dusting, hot salt
– thermal fatigue and creep

78
 Amine stress corrosion
cracking
• Material: carbon/low-alloy steels
• Environment: aqueous amine
systems
• Cracking due to residual stresses
at/next to non-PWHT’d weldments
– Cracking develops parallel to the Intergranular cracking
weld
• Mitigation:
– PWHT all CS welds including
repair and internal/external
attachment welds.
– Use solid/clad stainless steel
• 304 SS or 316 SS
Amine piping welds require
PWHT to avoid SCC 79
Corrosion in glycol system
• Glycol usually regarded as benign
• Corrosion in glycol regeneration
systems usually due to;
– Acid gases absorbed by rich
glycol or
– Organic acids from oxidation of
glycol and thermal
decomposition products
• Condensation of low pH water
giving carbonic acid attack.
• Risk recognised in design
– On-skid: CRA piping & clad
vessels
– However, off-skid piping mix of
regular CS and LTCS
80
 Corrosion fatigue
• Combined action of cyclic tensile
stress and a corrosive environment
• Fatigue is caused by cyclic
stressing below the yield stress
– Cracks start at stress raisers
– Can occur due to vibration e.g.
smallbore nozzles & with heavy
valve attachments
• Presence of corrosive environment
exacerbates the problem
– Can lead to pitting, which acts
as stress concentrators

81
 Example of corrosion
fatigue

• 2” A106 GrB carbon steel piping

• Wet gas service, 1.2%CO2 and
160ppm H2S
• Operating @ 120°C and 70bar
• Elbow exposed to vibration (used in
a gas compression train)
• Crack located at 12 o'clock position
• Crack initiated internally

82
EXTERNAL CORROSION –
SURFACE FACILITIES

83
 External corrosion
• External corrosion of unprotected steel surfaces
• External corrosion of coated surfaces
• Corrosion under insulation (CUI)
• Corrosion under fireproofing (CUF)
• Pitting & crevice Corrosion
• Environmental cracking

84
 Where does it occur?
• Bare steel surfaces
• At locations of coating breakdown
• Under deposits such as dirt, adhesive tape or nameplates
• Mating faces between pipe/pipe support saddles & clamps
• Isolated equipment not maintained or adequately mothballed
• Water sources include:
– sea spray and green water (FPSO or semi-sub)
– rain
– deluge water
– leaking process water
– condensation
– downwind of cooling towers.

85
What does it look like?

• Damage can be extensive or localised.

• Corrosion can be general attack, pitting or cracking.
• Seen as flaking, cracking, and blistering of coating
with corrosion of the substrate.

86
 Appearance
• Carbon/low alloy steels usually covered in
compact scale/thick scab
• Stainless steels have light stains on the
surface possibly with stained water
droplets and / or salts.
• Corroding copper alloys covered in
blue/green corrosion products.

87
Piping, supports & clamps

88
 Not just carbon steel
• 25Cr super-duplex (PREN ≥40)
• Seawater service
• 12 months exposure in tropical
climate
• External corrosion along welds
• Poor quality fabrication

89
 Corrosion of bolts and
fasteners
• Bolted joints
– Onshore and offshore: exposed to frequent
wetting
• Low alloy bolts
– General or localised corrosion
– Galvanic corrosion in stainless steel flanges
• CRA bolts susceptible to pitting and/or SCC
• Crevice corrosion under bolt heads and nuts
• Hydrogen embrittlement possible
• Fatigue

90
Corrosion of bolts and
fasteners

General corrosion Galvanic corrosion

Crevice corrosion Stress corrosion 91

cracking
 Flanged connections
• Corrosion
– General surface corrosion
– Galvanic corrosion
• e.g. 316 SS / carbon steel
• Use of graphite gaskets
• Potential problems
– Failure of flanged connection
due to corroded fasteners
– Joint leak
• Corrective actions
– Change gasket/fastener
materials
– Replace graphite gaskets
with non-asbestos or rubber
material

92
Corroded fasteners (seawater
service)

Location of graphite gaskets

93
 Structures / valves
• Valves
– Valve handles
– Chain-wheels
– Valve body
• Structures
– Stairways and walkways
– Gratings, ladders,
handrails
– Cable trays and unistruts
• Threaded plugs
– Valve bodies, xmas trees,
piping
– Dissimilar metals

94
 Coating damage and
breakdown
• Deterioration of coating with time
– All paints let water through - continuously wet areas will fail
• Poor original surface preparation / paint application
• Mechanical damage
– Small area of damage can lead to major corrosion

95
 External cathodic
protection
• Types of structures with
external CP
– Buried pipelines / structures /
piping / tanks
– Floors of above-ground
storage tanks
– Submerged jetty structures
• Factors affecting corrosion
– Extent of wetness
– Oxygen – depends on depth
– Resistivity of soil & presence
of salts
– Equipment temperature

96
 Impressed current CP
• Adjustable dc source
– Negative terminal
connected to the
steel structure
– Positive terminal
connected to the
anodes
• Typically used on larger
structures where
galvanic anodes cannot
economically deliver
enough current.

97
Corrosion under insulation
(CUI) and Corrosion under
fireproofing (CUF)
• CUI
– Water seeps into insulation
and becomes trapped,
results in wetting and
corrosion of the metal
– Carbon steel corrodes in the
presence of water due to
the availability of oxygen.
• CUF
– Same mechanism except
water gets behind the
fireproofing.

98
 Insulation
• Typical insulation types;
– Process
– Personnel protection
(PP)
– Winterisation
– Acoustic
• Challenge the need Mitred joint

– Remove unnecessary
insulation
– Replace PP with ‘Lobster-back’
cages joint

Pre-formed bends
99
 CUI incident
• 4” gas compression recycle
line
• Operating pressure, 35bar
– 3 bar pressure surge
• Temperature: 50ºC
• 6.02mm nominal WT
• Rockwool insulation
• Extensive corrosion –
rupture
• Unusual, burst rather than
leaked

100
 CUI gas leak
• 2” fuel gas piping outside
edge of platform - exposed
• CS, heat-traced, Rockwool
• Operating @ 5bar, 45°C,
5.4mm NWT
• Failed during plant start-up
• External corrosion scale, CUI
• Focus on internal corrosion
• Previous survey found defect in an
adjacent line.
Failed line in survey but not failed
•
area.
– Features selected from onshore
not site survey

101
 piping CUI
• 4” CS hydrocarbon line
• 55°C, inlet to PSV (153 bar)
• Thermally-sprayed aluminium
(TSA)
• CUI found, radiographed – ok
to refurbish.
• Found during needle-gunning
(paint removal)
• Max pit depth 10mm
• Insulation permanently
removed

102
CUI on pressure vessel
• CS offshore vessel
• Operating at 85°C and 11 bar
• PFP coating (passive fire
protection)
• Extensive corrosion scabbing
on both sides of vessel.
• Scaling runs in two horizontal
distinct lines along each side. 400x300x30mm
• Scaling directly above
lower seam of insulation
– location of water retention.

400x100x25mm
103
External pitting & crevice
corrosion
• Stainless steels in marine
environments (chlorides, O2)
– 316L stainless steel commonly
used for instrument tubing
– Particularly susceptible at
supports and fittings.
• Primary mitigation is materials
selection (higher PREw)
– Tungum, 6Mo, super-duplex
• Alternative mitigation methods
(coating, cleaning), not easy or
practical.

104
 Instrument tubing
(316 SS and super-duplex)
316 SS tubing super-duplex tubing

316 SS (pitting/crevice corrosion) super-duplex (no

105
pitting)
 Crevice corrosion under
clamps/supports
• Pitting and crevice
corrosion of 316ss
piping
– Clamps
– Plastic retaining
blocks

106
 External chloride stress
corrosion cracking
• Mechanism same as internal chloride SCC however:
• Numerous variables influence susceptibility therefore
guidance differs
– Material, stress, chlorides, oxygen and temperature
– No absolute guidance available, seek expert advice

Chloride SCC is
characterised by trans-
granular crack paths

107
External stress corrosion
cracking
• UK HSE:
– Coat 22Cr duplex >80°C
• NORSOK M-001 SCC temp limits:
– 22Cr duplex >100°C
– 25Cr super-duplex >110°C
• Recent testing has shown failures at
80°C
– now recommend 70°C as limit
• Reliant on external coatings to act as
barrier (isolate from environment)
• Beware solar heating - can raise
external temperature above threshold
limits!
– SCC failure of 316L

108