Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
&
PATH FINDER
A MAJOR PROJECT
SUBMITTED IN THE FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT
FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
OF
KURUKSHETRA UNIVERSITY, KURUKSHETRA
BY
NAVNEET KUMAR (1504284)
NARENDER KUMAR (1504285)
HAPPY YADAV (1504286)
We thank the INKOTECH Pvt. Ltd for helping in the Research Experiences for
Undergraduates (REU) program and providing this educational opportunity.
We also thank Mr. SACHIN WADHWA for his guidance & helping us in all the
possible ways. We express our sincere thanks towards our guide for his
unstinted support & commitment to make our project see light of today and
the college for use of their facilities.
CERTIFICATE
To find auto break when enter accident area by proximity system when
new world of interesting possibilities opens up. Here is a very simple and
safe, one can seek the help of security proximity system. The project has two
detector. The circuit presented here enables you to detect any object capable
of reflecting the IR beam and moving in front of the IR LED photo detector
The hybrid vehicle brake system includes both standard hydraulic brakes
during this phase of braking; the hydraulic brakes are not used. When more
wheel slip; this is not always picked up by the internal ABS controller
diagnostic.
Here, two more sensors are added to help the system work: these are a
simple: when the gyroscopic sensor detects that the direction taken by the
car doesn't agree with what the wheel sensor says, the ESC software will
brake the necessary wheel(s) (up to three with the most sophisticated
systems) so that the car goes the way the driver intends. The wheel sensor
also helps in the operation of CBC, since this will tell the ABS that wheels on
the outside of the curve should brake more than wheels on the inside, and by
how much.
Sliding Caliper
Fixed Caliper
Pressure Control Valves
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
The transmitter part consists of two 555 timers (IC1, IC2 for driving an
infrared LED. the infrared detector to sense the transmission; To save power,
the duty cycle of the 38kHz a stable multi vibrator is maintained at 10 per
cent.
The receiver part have an infrared detector comprising (IC3, IC4, IC5,
IC7 ) wired for operation and timer, followed by (T1) & (T2) transistor. Upon
reception of infrared signals to pin-2 of IC-4, the 555 (IC4) timer (mono) is
turned ‘on’ and it remain ‘on’ as long as the infrared signals are being
received.
Effectiveness
that ABS:
cars are able to attain braking distances better (i.e. shorter) than those that
would be easily possible without the benefit of ABS. Even an alert, skilled
driver without ABS would find it difficult, even through the use of techniques
In gravel and deep snow, ABS tends to increase braking distances. On these
surfaces, locked wheels dig in and stop the vehicle more quickly. ABS
prevents this from occurring. Some ABS calibrations reduce this problem by
slowing the cycling time, thus letting the wheels repeatedly briefly lock and
unlock. The primary benefit of ABS on such surfaces is to increase the ability
of the driver to maintain control of the car rather than go into a skid —
though loss of control remains more likely on soft surfaces like gravel or
slippery surfaces like snow or ice. On a very slippery surface such as sheet ice
or gravel it is possible to lock multiple wheels at once, and this can defeat
When drivers do encounter an emergency that causes them to brake hard and
thus encounter this pulsing for the first time, many are believed to reduce
acceleration of the vehicle. If, when accelerating, the tire loses traction with
the ground, the ABS controller can detect the situation and take suitable
separately priced option even though the infrastructure is largely shared with
ABS. More sophisticated versions of this can also control throttle levels and
brakes simultaneously.
Given the required reliability it is illustrative to see the choices made in the
design of the ABS system. Proper functioning of the ABS system is considered
of the utmost importance, for safeguarding both the passengers and people
outside of the car. The system is therefore built with some redundancy, and is
designed to monitor its own working and report failures. The entire ABS
general working of the ABS system consists of an electronic unit, also known
as ECU (electronic control unit), which collects data from the sensors and
drives the hydraulic control unit, or HCU, mainly consisting of the valves that
The communication between the ECU and the sensors must happen quickly
and at real time. A possible solution is the use of the CAN bus system, which
has been and is still in use in many ABS systems today (in fact, this CAN
standard was developed by Robert Bosch GmbH, for connecting electronic
control units!). This allows for an easy combination of multiple signals into
one signal, which can be sent to the ECU. The communication with the valves
of the HCU is usually not done this way. The ECU and the HCU are generally
very close together. The valves, usually solenoid valves, are controlled
directly by the ECU. To drive the valves based on signals from the ECU, some
circuitry and amplifiers are needed (which would also have been the case if
The sensors measure the position of the tires, and are generally placed on the
endanger its proper working, for example an inductive sensor. These position
The hydraulic control unit is generally located right next to the ECU (or the
other way around), and consists of a number of valves that control the
pressure in the braking circuits. All these valves are placed closely together
and packed in a solid block. This makes for a very simple layout, and is thus
very robust.
The central control unit generally consists of two microcontrollers, both active
controller which would reduce durability. The software that runs in the ECU
has a number of functions. Most notably, the algorithms that drive the HCU as
wheel spin. This is the obvious main task of the entire ABS-system. Apart
from this, the software also needs to process the incoming information, e.g.
the signals from the sensors. There is also some software that constantly
tests each component of the ABS system for its proper working. Some
also added. As mentioned before the ABS system is considered hard real-
time. The control algorithms, and the signal processing software, certainly fall
in this category, and get a higher priority than the diagnosis and the testing
software. The requirement for the system to be hard real-time can therefore
microcontroller that can operate fast enough is therefore the key, preferably
with a large margin. The system is then limited by the dynamic ability of the
valves and the communication, the latter being noticeably faster. The control
• Pump
• Valves
• Controller
Speed Sensors
The braking system needs some way of knowing when a wheel is about to
lock up. The speed sensors, which are located at each wheel, or in some
There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the ABS. On
• In position one, the valve is open; pressure from the master cylinder is
• In position two, the valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from the
master cylinder. This prevents the pressure from rising further should
In position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from the brake.
Pump
Since the valve is able to release pressure from the brakes, there has to be
some way to put that pressure back. That is what the pump does; when a
valve reduces the pressure in a line, the pump is there to get the pressure
back up.
Controller
The controller is a computer in the car. It watches the speed sensors and
ELSC71-1A 3D radar will produce a data map of the field of view with the
range, azimuth, elevation, velocity, and signal amplitude for each object
The range
is found from a beat signal with amplitude. The velocity is found by Doppler
frequency, and the elevation angle is found by taking the phase difference
avoid. Targets which seem to be moving relative to most of the field of view
and given an especially wide berth. We may be able to use the amplitude of a
Vision
The vision system will consist of several video cameras, each rigidly mounted
to the vehicle. We will know the rigid transformations describing the position
and orientation of each camera and the radar system with respect to the
vehicle coordinate system and the other cameras, at every instant of time.
We also know the internal parameters of each camera, which can be obtained
In this case, a point in space, X, projects onto each camera. Most points will
be attached to the same rigid surface, the terrain. Some will be on opposing
vehicles, which can be modeled as separate rigid bodies moving in an
independent manner. Still other points in space will belong to miscellaneous
objects which may or may not be rigid, such as birds or clouds. For objects
within the range and field of view of the radar, the vision system will know
the approximate depth and velocity of locations in space. This greatly
simplifies various vision tasks, since the relative change in pose between two
instants of time is known. This provides a great deal of information for tasks
such as feature tracking, motion estimation/segmentation, and geometric
reconstruction. Objects beyond radar range will also need to be detected,
tracked, and potentially identified, but since geometric information
may not be easily obtained, we will use image-based techniques, such as
color segmentation and 2D recognition. We will also investigate the efficacy of
more advanced Level Set tracking methods [Cremers].
Detection of Other Challenge Vehicles
The initial detection of a potential vehicle will occur in both the vision and
radar systems. The radar will indicate the presence of an obstructing object in
its depth map, assuming the object falls within the field and depth of view.
Simultaneously, the vision system will detect the presence of one or more
lights of the specified alert-light color in an invariant color space (such as
HSV). When this occurs, the car-detection software module will attempt to
find periodic flashing, which will positively indicate the presence of an
opposing vehicle. The other vehicle’s position in space can be updated by
tracking the image-plane coordinates of its lights and other areas-of-interest
on the image of the vehicle, as well as by using radar data if any.
its field of view. We rely on the vision system to detect negative obstacles,
positive obstacles which are significant but too small for the radar to resolve,
and obstacles which are outside of the radar’s field of view or which could not
the image with very regular appearances. Rocky and sandy surfaces will
Since the system will know the time of day, its orientation, and the lighting
Classification of Terrain
Understanding of the type of surface on which the vehicle is traveling is
essential for determining a safe speed and control technique. Paved roads or
dry lakebeds will allow aggressive control at high speed, while rocky or
uneven terrain must be traversed with more care. The radar system might
provide some information regarding the terrain type from the amplitude of the
signal return, but generally we expect better data from the vision system. Our
whereby the signals from the cameras and the radar are jointly interpreted to
provide an estimate of the terrain type in the field of view. A statistical model
will be trained using recorded data from the cameras and radar, and the
Other inputs to the model will be time of day and weather, both of which will
short-range control and path generation. In particular, the control system will
need to know the boundaries of the beaten trail, which will provide the safest
route through the terrain in the absence of other obstacles. Determining these
the images. From initial experiments with off-road trail video, we have
spatial frequency. In general, a beaten path will be smoother since it will have
material.
Route Planning
After the Route Definition Data File is provided, a nominal minimum-cost
route from each waypoint to the next will be computed based on map data
function of latitude and longitude across the permitted corridor between and
around each waypoint pair, and this information will be stored for
At all times after the vehicle passes the Departure Line, it should have an
estimate of its current location and heading, and nominal desired headings
version of the wavefront-propagation path planner to find the optimal
obstacle-free trajectory that will take it to a point on the sensor horizon with
This second algorithm will be adapted to the local planning problem in that it
will more finely differentiate (x,y,theta) space and take more account of the
vehicle’s field of view, the vehicle will slow down, in anticipation that the route
permits, the vehicle will turn to shift its field of view and possibly find another
route. If the vehicle can neither turn nor progress forward, it will come to a
In any case, at each instant the planner should provide a desired speed and
heading. PID control loops for the steering and accelerator/brake will then
attempt to correct the current speed and heading. The planner is responsible
for providing the PID controller with a “desired” trajectory that is within the
limits of the actuators and the vehicle dynamics, e.g. the planner should not
Though lot of literature survey has been done for this work. Problem was the
industry generated and for its solution a thorough literature survey has been
done, from that we find out that there is lot of scope of improvement in
are as follows:
Overview
between vehicles. This Automatic Vehicle Control (AVC) system has been
(ATC) systems, following the new American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
and efficiently merge streams of traffic where guideway sections join, and to
data link mounted within the guideway structure allows continuous, high-
figures depict a typical alignment and the partitioning of the control function
guideway to the next. The fiber network extends to a central System Control
status and oversight of the system's behavior. Within this modular, three-
level computing hierarchy, PRT 2000's™ AVC system provides the functions
AVP autonomously monitors the position and speed of each vehicle, the state
of its doors and door locks, and the state of its in-vehicle switch. The AVP
braking engaged unless it receives periodic indication that its processors are
operating correctly and the suite of safety checks they perform are all
All devices vital to safety are handled directly by AVP hardware and software.
scheme provides for safe and reliable operation. AVO access to the door locks,
the in-vehicle switch, and the parking brakes is via request to AVP. AVP
service between all stations in the system. This requires commanding the
propulsion system to move the vehicle along the mainline guideway and
within the stations, operating the in-vehicle switch to pursue a route to the
maximized while observing all necessary constraints for safety and ride
are not invoked within AVP, which serves as the fail-safe monitor for the PRT
AVO controls the route that a vehicle takes to reach its destination by
commanding its in-vehicle switch assembly either left or right each time the
the wayside controllers provide the basis for AVO's positioning of the switch.
PRT 2000's off-line passenger stations allow vehicles to travel directly from
their origin to their destination, bypassing all intermediate stations along the
way. As the vehicle approaches its destination station, AVO manages its
entrance to the station, assigns it a berth and precision aligns it. AVO applies
the parking brake and holds the vehicle at zero speed until passenger
boarding completes, then coordinates the exit of the vehicle from the station
AVS provides automatic and System Control Operator (SCO) initiated system-
wide monitoring and control capabilities. There are three sets of related
responsibilities.
specify the current best path to reach each destination. In most cases, all
vehicles are given the same direction for a given destination, corresponding to
the quickest path. However, in situations where there are multiple paths to
specified for each station, based on demand. AVS controls audible and visual
interfaces with patrons throughout the course of their interaction with the
active log of vehicle status, trip summary data, faults, and alarms. To the
degree it can, AVS may also initiate certain automated fault recovery
redundant traction motors fail, AVS will automatically recall the vehicle from
service after completing the current trip. As part of its system monitoring
information to and accepts controls from the SCO to modify the automatic
safety and security, and responding to patron requests for assistance. At the
same time, when an abnormal situation arises, AVS provides "human- in-the-
System Control Center, the wayside and the vehicles, providing the platform
for AVP, AVO, and AVS functions. This hardware operates in conjunction with
resident software and interfaces with other equipment to provide the required
Vehicle Controller
hardware and software faults. The vehicle controller monitors and controls a
Each vehicle controller can sense and drive a vehicle's switches, annunciators,
time, with the active VCS controlling actuators and VCOM communication. The
only after insuring its own health and that of its partner. If either both VCSs
or the VCOM is deemed unhealthy, the watchdog module will stop the vehicle
Within the vehicle controller there is also a set of non-redundant hardware for
Wayside Controller
station signs, audio and other building equipment are provided, as depicted in
processors provide two redundant pairs that manage all the AVO and AVS
to a watchdog module only when it considers both itself and its corresponding
processor to be healthy.
The watchdog module monitors the heartbeats from the four safety
processors, and selects one pair to monitor the safe operation of the system.
If, through the absence of heartbeats, the watchdog module determines that
neither processor pair is healthy, the watchdog shuts down the VCOM region
ensure that when VCOM messages cease, the vehicle is brought to a stop,
Two distinct data communications services are provided by the PRT 2000™
AVC system. Data exchange between the vehicle controller and wayside
range and high-speed data rates required to manage the system. This fiber-
optic link is also used by the System Control Center to communicate with all
the waysides.
Timothy A. Springer (1991) examined the initial step in leukocyte
driving force for rolling is the hydrodynamic force of the bloodstream acting on
the adherent cell; rapid formation and breakage of adhesive bonds are
required for the adhesive contact between the leukocyte and the vessel wall to
be maintained and to be translated along the vessel wall during rolling .Rolling
contact zone in the direction of flow and the average step distance, it has
been estimated that as few as two adhesive bonds between the cell and the
The selectin glycoproteins are limited in expression to vascular cells and are
of applied force on kinetics are known for several of the molecular interactions
the shear stress at the vessel wall. The velocity of rolling cells varies little in
vivo or in vitro despite wide variation in wall shear stress). This stability in the
independent of wall shear stress, which varies widely depending on tissue and
within a single tissue, wall shear stress can vary markedly; e.g., it ranges
cellular and molecular level have been measured. Most measurements come
from studies of the dissociation rate constants for "transiently tethered" cells.
Transient tethers occur when leukocytes in a hydrodynamic flow chamber
interact with a substrate, i.e., the lower wall of the flow chamber, that bears
projects in order that efforts were wisely and profitably directed. Showed that
This project was based on photo diodes and photo transistor. Photo diodes
project had been divided in two part, First part transmitter section and second
in IRED (photo diode) driver stage at the output. This module emits
modulated infrared light. IRED is connected in series for more range and
wider directivity. The module can transmit IR rays up to few meters without
When a vehicle comes nearly person, circuit is energized. The output of IC-
555 is square wave from Pin No. 3. T1 gets biasing current to out put of IC-
555 and the IR-LED is connected to T1 collector with R5. The transmit IR
signal form the transmitter is sensed by the receiver sensor. The same
time delay circuit, op-amp with noise filter, and an output section. The
section. The receiver uses infrared modules IR-signal from the transmitter is
sensed by the sensor and its output PIN 1 goes low and switched IC-3. IC-3 is
worked on astable pulse which receives at Pin No. 2. Its output at Pin No 6
wired for operation in Amp.mode and timer, followed by pnp (T1) & npn (T2)
transistor. Upon reception of infrared signals to pin-2 of IC-4, the 555 (IC4)
timer (mono) is turned ‘on’ and it remain ‘on’ as long as the infrared signals
The op-amp are in the set state. Pin 6 of IC-5 are high. The computer reads
aeroplane passes in front of the radar, IC-3 are received input pulse, and pin
6 of IC-3 goes high and IC-4 receives input pin-2 form T2. IC-4 is worked as
Hz. IC-5 works as a switching, collector of T4 is low , IC-5 take input plus at
pin-2 and output goes at pin-6 (high). As soon as The computer reads its
collector of T5, a software inside the computer starts ticking. After a are
also. This fact is displayed on the screen. Pin-2 of PC is high output, The
computer is switched the gun. If, aeroplane is passed signal, second receiver
The same arrangement can be turned into a burglar alarm by just modifying
the software.
safe, one can seek the help of security proximity system. The project has two
detector. The circuit presented here enables you to detect any object capable
of reflecting the IR beam and moving in front of the IR LED photo detector
The hybrid vehicle brake system includes both standard hydraulic brakes
during this phase of braking; the hydraulic brakes are not used. When more
The sensors can become contaminated with metallic dust and fail to detect
wheel slip; this is not always picked up by the internal ABS controller
diagnostic.
Here, two more sensors are added to help the system work: these are a
simple: when the gyroscopic sensor detects that the direction taken by the
car doesn't agree with what the wheel sensor says, the ESC software will
brake the necessary wheel(s) (up to three with the most sophisticated
systems) so that the car goes the way the driver intends. The wheel sensor
also helps in the operation of CBC, since this will tell the ABS that wheels on
the outside of the curve should brake more than wheels on the inside, and by
how much.
Given the required reliability it is illustrative to see the choices made in the
design of the ABS system. Proper functioning of the ABS system is considered
of the utmost importance, for safeguarding both the passengers and people
outside of the car. The system is therefore built with some redundancy, and is
designed to monitor its own working and report failures. The entire ABS
general working of the ABS system consists of an electronic unit, also known
as ECU (electronic control unit), which collects data from the sensors and
drives the hydraulic control unit, or HCU, mainly consisting of the valves that
vehicle speed or the vehicle spacing in a following control mode with the
started in the following control mode. The controller cancels the deceleration
spacing value
vehicle. Vehicle spacing sensor to sense actual vehicle spacing from the
the actual vehicle speed of the controlled vehicle in accordance with a desired
with the actual vehicle speed and the actual vehicle spacing, the controller
comprising,
and determining the desired vehicle speed to bring actual vehicle spacing
desired vehicle speed to decrease the actual vehicle speed of the controlled
vehicle, and mode change control section to cancel the following control of the
it detects the risk of a crash, and automatically applies the brakes if it judges
that the car may have trouble avoiding an object. The Collision Mitigation
Brake System (CMS), a world first, also automatically tightens seatbelts just
before a collision. Honda has fitted it to its new top-of-the-range sedan, the
Inspire, which went on sale in June. The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and
advanced safety vehicles (ASVs), and some of these are now approaching the
stage where they are ready for practical use. Automakers are looking to
risks.
3.2.3 STABLIZATION IN DRIVING
Wall shear stress in postcapillary venules varies widely within and between
which leukocytes roll in vivo has been shown to be almost constant within a
wide range of wall shear stress, i.e., force on the cell. Similarly, rolling
velocities on purified selections and their legends in vitro tend to plateau. This
bonds per rolling step. We also find an increase in the number of microvillus
tethers to the substrate. This explains (a) the lack of firm adhesion through
selections at low shear stress or high legend density, and (b) the stability of
rolling on selections to wide variation in wall shear stress and legend density,
predict the threshold wall shear stress below which rolling does not occur. This
The Automatic Braking System (ABS) supplies the advanced tool required for
When manual control is used, the unwinding rate must be reduced to crawl
grade.
By taking into consideration both the location of the defect and the limitations
optimal speed curve to the defect. It then automatically slows down the drive
selected defect location. The status of the unwinding, e.g. the length to the
Braking, the operators have the additional facility of virtually unwinding the
reel in advance. With the help of the defect classification and high resolution
images, operators are able to easily determine the severity of the defects and
Points and can provide something for a camera to aim it if you want the
3. options: (Add any of the following values; i.e. for options 2 and 4, this
passes.
passes.
.
An obstacle detection device for a vehicle includes an area determining
section for determining a detection area extended forward of a running
vehicle and provided for detecting an obstacle, a split section for splitting the
area into a plurality of small split zones, a detecting section for detecting an
obstacle in each of the small split zones, inferring section for an inferring a
path of the vehicle in the obstacle detection area, and a judging section for
judging a rank of danger of an obstacle in the detection area. The obstacle
can be properly detected so that the vehicle can take a responsive and
appropriate action for avoiding the obstacle.
Fortunately, the new Pathfinder has real character, even though the styling is
hardly beautiful. Like every new mid-size SUV, it is bigger inside and out,
more powerful, and heavier, and it features a third-row seat.
Unlike the old Pathfinder, the new one uses body-on-frame construction. It
has upper- and lower-control-arm front and rear suspension, with coil springs
and antiroll bars at both ends. Ground clearance varies between 8.5 and 9.2
inches, depending on the model.
The Pathfinder is the first recipient of the latest VQ V-6 engine. Displacing 4.0
liters (in-stead of 3.5), it has been tuned to produce good midrange torque,
with 80 percent of the peak 291 pound-feet being available below 2000 revs.
It also makes 270 horsepower and mates to a five-speed automatic
transmission.
The base XE comes reasonably well equipped, but the SE adds running
boards, an easy-clean cargo area, and an eight-way power driver's seat. A
six-disc in-dash CD changer, a moonroof, and dual-zone climate control are
included in options packages. The upscale LE has cheesy wood-grain trim,
leather seats, a power passenger's seat, and full length curtain air bags. A
navigation system and DVD entertainment system are optional.
This impressive mid-size SUV rides nicely, steers well, and has good passing
performance, although the V-6 lacks the low-down steam of a big American
V-8. The five-speed automatic is well matched to the engine, and it's pretty
good on back roads. You'll definitely notice the 4400-to-4800-pound bulk as it
pummels into deep dips. Off-road, the awd systems will conquer most The
mid-size-SUV market is crowded, but the Pathfinder is up near the top. The
CHAPTER 4: Future scope of AUTOMATIC BRAKING AND PATH FINDER
When we heard that the new Path-finder would bear a strong family
Fortunately, the new Pathfinder has real character, even though the styling is
hardly beautiful. Like every new mid-size SUV, it is bigger inside and out,
more powerful, and heavier, and it features a third-row seat.
Pathfinder, the new one uses body-on-frame construction. It has upper- and
lower-control-arm front and rear suspension, with coil springs and antiroll
bars at both ends. Ground clearance varies between 8.5 and 9.2 inches,
depending on the model.
The Pathfinder is the first recipient of the latest VQ V-6 engine. Displacing 4.0
liters (in-stead of 3.5), it has been tuned to produce good midrange torque,
with 80 percent of the peak 291 pound-feet being available below 2000 revs.
It also makes 270 horsepower and mates to a five-speed automatic
transmission.