Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
1. Why a Project?
2. Introduction
3. Principle
4. Chronology
5. Circuit Detail
- Circuit Description & Working
- Circuit Layout
- Component List
6. PCB Details
- PCB Description
- PCB Layout
7. Assembling
8. Conclusion
9. Reference
10. Ideas which could not be implemented
WHY A PROJECT?
By doing project student display’s his spirit of inquiring creating & criticizing
way of solving a problem through understanding of existing situation, independent
thinking and ability to understand basic fact.
INTRODUCTION
The Auto Dipping Device for a head light is intended to automatically change the
Headlight Circuit to either driving beam or dip beam given a particular set of road
conditions, without the intervention of the driver. The present practice is to operate
the dip switch manually.
The function of the headlight is to illuminate the road ahead of the automobile so as
to reveal objects ahead from a safe distance; at the same time it should cause
minimum discomfort and glare for drivers coming from the opposite side.
Manual dipping is not being done satisfactorily in India due to a variety of reasons,
which includes sheer physical strain involved in operation of the dipper switch
hundreds of times every night. (The total for a single night will be 1000 if we consider
8 hours of traveling and one encounter every one-minute and could exceed this
number if one travels on roads with dense traffic). The other reason includes a
general tendency of paying more attention to steering control at the cost of dipping
during a critical vehicle meeting situation especially in the case of heavy loaded
vehicles. More reasons are the physiological and psychological state of a driver,
which is influenced by a variety of factors like working hours, economic issues and
social factors etc. Another major cause is 'ego problem', which makes each one wait
till the other person initiates dipping, which may not happen.
“The Indian roads are all essentially very narrow, tortuous in their alignment
and suffer from many inadequacies, vis-à-vis the present day motor traffic
which has registered a phenomenal increase during the post-Independence
period. The other conditions of the roads like poor shoulders, narrow culverts
and bridges, sharp and numerous curves and steep gradients which limit the
sight distance, numerous low level causeways and submersible bridges are
perennial hazards. All the above tell on the nerves of the driver, causing
fatigue and leading to errors and misjudgment while driving”.
All the above indicate the importance of dipping of headlights in a country like India,
so as to avoid the problem of glare which impairs the visibility which is vital for safe
driving in a meeting situation during the night. This leads to the conclusion that an
Auto Dipping Device can go a long way towards safety enhancement.
An Auto Dipper is a device capable of changing over the circuit of head light without
the intervention of the driver given a particular set of objective road conditions. Its
primary aim is to reduce the dazzle for the observer approaching ahead of the
vehicle while ensuring that the user will not be put to inconvenience.
The basic function of an auto dipper is to maintain the head lamps in either driving
beam or meeting beam automatically depending on the opposing traffic.
It has to bring into operation the driving beam if there is no oncoming vehicle.
Necessarily this means the auto dipper must be immune to the signals from; street
lamps, moonlight, road reflectance, solar radiation during the late dusk and early
dawn.
AUTOMATIC DIP BEAM
It has to bring into operation the meeting beam from both headlights whenever an
oncoming vehicle approaches to within about say 250 meters with its headlights in
driving beam until the vehicle is about to pass. The auto dipper, after bringing into
operation the dip beam, should logically be capable of continuing the operation of the
headlights in dip beam, if the headlights of the oncoming vehicle were also shifted to
the dip beam.
Our project is designed based on the above conceptual framework and is believed to
cater to the actual road conditions in a way convenient to the user and is expected to
relieve him from the repetitive task of operating the dipper switch. The auto dipper is
not to replace the human judgment but only to assist the user and the ultimate
control is left with the user.
PRINCIPLE
A circuit is designed which uses a LDR(light dependent resistor) to sense the light
emitted by the vehicle coming from the opposite direction. This light sensed by the
LDR is used to send signals to the circuit to trigger the command to a upper or the
dipper circuit depending on the amount of light emitted by the vehicle coming from
opposite direction.
CHRONOLOGY
The following steps have been followed in carrying out the project:
4. Prepare the list to components along with their specification estimate .the cost
and procure them after carrying out market survey.
This project is very useful in car head light automatically. During night time, car head
light upper dipper changes automatically. The 9 Volt supply is fed in a controlling
circuit of IC 555. In this project IC 555 is used as a switch. One light dependent
resistance (LDR) is also used to act with light intensity. The resistance of the L.D.R
increases or decreases on the intensity of light. When light falls on L.D.R its
resistance decreases and in darkness the resistance increases. In the circuit IC 555
is used as a timer. Pin No.2 of the IC is earthed through 10 k preset which keeps the
flip-flop system of the IC at a high state. Pin No. 3 of the IC is the output pin and
remains at a low state. The IC does not operate until light falls on the LDR. When
light falls on L.D.R., the resistance of the L.D.R. decreases, as a result of
which, Pin No. 2 of the IC gets positive voltage, the Pin No.2 is trigger pin which
can trigger the required circuit ON. When light falls on the LDR the Upper circuit
gets switched OFF while the Dipper circuit gets switched ON and the vice- versa
CIRCUIT LAYOUT:-
COMPONENT LIST:-
Components Total Qty. Details
Battery 1 9V
IC 1 555 Timer
Capacitor 1 4.7Kohm
Wire - -
9 VOLT BATTERY:-
A nine-volt battery, sometimes referred to as a PP3 battery, is shaped as a rounded
rectangular prism and has a nominal output of nine volts. Its nominal dimensions are
48 mm × 25 mm × 15 mm (ANSI standard 1604A). PP3 actually refers to the type of
connection or snap that is on top of the battery . The PP3 connector (snap) consists
of two connectors: one smaller circular (male) and one larger, typically either
hexagonal or octagonal (female). The connectors on the battery are the same as on
the connector itself -- the smaller one connects to the larger one and vice versa.
The battery has both the positive and negative terminals on one end. The negative
terminal is fashioned into a snap fitting which mechanically and electrically connects
to a mating terminal on the power connector. The power connector has a similar
snap fitting on its positive terminal which mates to the battery. This makes battery
polarization obvious since mechanical connection is only possible in one
configuration. The clips on the 9-volt battery can be used to connect several 9-volt
batteries in series. One problem with this style of connection is that it is very easy to
connect two batteries together in a short circuit, which quickly discharges both
batteries, generating heat and possibly a fire. While this is a danger, the same thing
can be done with multiple 9 volt batteries to create higher voltage (they can snap
together). The wiring usually uses black and red wires, red for positive, and black for
negative.
Inside a PP3 there are ordinarily six alkaline or carbon-zinc 1.5 volt (nominal) cells
arranged in series. These are either AAAA cells, or special flat, rectangular cells. The
exact size of the constituent cells varies from brand to brand -- some brands are
slightly longer than others -- as does the manner in which they are joined together.
Some brands use soldered tabs on the battery, others press foil strips against the
ends of the cells.
Very cheap versions may contain only five 1.5 volt cells. Rechargeable NiCd and
NiMH batteries have various numbers of 1.2 volt cells. Lithium versions use three 3.2
V cells - there is a rechargeable lithium polymer version. There is also a Hybrio NiMH
version that has a very low discharge rate (85% of capacity after 1 year of storage). .
Internal Schematics:
Schematic Symbol:
Nr. Name Purpose
4.5 to 15
Supply voltage (VCC)
V
Output current
200 mA
(maximum)
Operating temperature 0 to 70 °C
CAPACITOR:-
The fundamental relation for the capacitance between two flat plates separate be a
dielectric materiel is given by C=0.08854KA where
C= capacitance in p:f.
K= dielectric constant
A=Area per plate in square cm.
D=Distance between two plates in cm
RESISTORS:-
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its
terminals that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance with
Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity
Colour Code:
VARIABLE RESISTORS:-
Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with connections at both ends and a
wiper which moves along the track as you turn the spindle. The track may be made
from carbon, cermet (ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of wire (for low
resistances). The track is usually rotary but straight track versions, usually called
sliders, are also available.
Variable resistors may be used as a rheostat with two connections (the wiper and
just one end of the track) or as a potentiometer with all three connections in use.
Miniature versions called presets are made for setting up circuits which will not
require further adjustment.
Variable resistors are often called potentiometers in books and catalogues. They are
specified by their maximum resistance, linear or logarithmic track, and their physical
size. The standard spindle diameter is 6mm.
Some variable resistors are designed to be mounted directly on the circuit board, but
most are for mounting through a hole drilled in the case containing the circuit with
stranded wire connecting their terminals to the circuit board.
Multiturn Preset:
A photo resistor or light dependent resistor or cadmium sulfide (CdS) cell is a resistor
whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It can also be
referenced as a photoconductor.
Photo resistors come in many different types. Inexpensive cadmium sulfide cells can
be found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, street lights, clock
radios, alarms, and outdoor clocks.
They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a small
incandescent lamp or light emitting diode to control gain reduction.
Lead sulfide and indium antimonite LDRs are used for the mid infrared spectral
region. Ge:Cu photoconductors are among the best far-infrared detectors available,
and are used for infrared astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.
As there name indicated it is a forward biased P-N junction which emits visible
light when energized. Charge carrier recombination tacked place when elections
from the N- side cross the junction and recombine with the heeds on the P side Now
electrons are in the higher conduction hand on the N side whereas holes are in the
lower valance band on the P side During recombination some of the energy
difference is given up in the form of heat and light (i.e.proton) in the case of
semiconductor materials like gallium arsenate (Ga As) Gallium phoshide (Gap) and
Gallium arsenate phoshide (GaAsP) a greater percentage of energy is released
during recombination and is given out in the form of light LED’s emit no light when
the are reverse biased.
A light-emitting diode (LED) is an electronic light source. The LED was first invented
in Russia in the 1920s, and introduced in America as a practical electronic
component in 1962. Oleg Vladimirovich Losev was a radio technician who noticed
that diodes used in radio receivers emitted light when current was passed through
them. In 1927, he published details in a Russian journal of the first ever LED.
All early devices emitted low-intensity red light, but modern LEDs are available
across the visible, ultraviolet and infra red wavelengths, with very high brightness.
LEDs are based on the semiconductor diode. When the diode is forward biased
(switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes and energy is released in
the form of light. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light is
determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. The LED is usually small in
area (less than 1 mm2) with integrated optical components to shape its radiation
pattern and assist in reflection.[2]
LEDs present many advantages over traditional light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size and faster switching.
However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat
management than traditional light sources.
Applications of LEDs are diverse. They are used as low-energy indicators but also
for replacements for traditional light sources in general lighting and automotive
lighting. The compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and
sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are useful in
communications technology.
SWITCHES:-
Since the advent of digital logic in the 1900s, the term has spread to a variety of
digital active devices such as transistors and logic gates whose function is to change
their output state between two logic levels or connect different signal lines, and even
computers, network switches, whose function is to provide connections between
different ports in a computer network. The term 'switched' is also applied to
telecommunications networks, and signifies a network that is circuit switched,
providing dedicated circuits for communication between end nodes, such as the
public switched telephone network. The common feature of all these usages is they
refer to devices that control a binary state: they are either on or off, closed or open,
connected or not connected.
PCB DETAILS
PCB DESCRITION:-
PCBs are rugged, inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require much more
layout effort and higher initial cost than either wire-wrapped or point-to-point
constructed circuits, but are much cheaper and faster for high-volume production.
Much of the electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs
are set by standards that are published by the IPC organization.
Conducting layers are typically made of thin copper foil. Insulating layers dielectric
are typically laminated together with epoxy resin prepreg. The board is typically
coated with a solder mask that is green in color. Other colors that are normally
available are blue, and red.
PCB LAYOUT:-
ASSEMBLING
There are a few steps followed before really starting the assembling process. These
steps consists of,
• PCB layout preparation
• Screen Printing
• PCB Etching
• Drilling
• Soldering
Screen printing is a printing technique that uses a woven mesh to support an ink-
blocking stencil. The attached stencil forms open areas of mesh that transfer ink as a
sharp-edged image onto a substrate. A roller or squeegee is moved across the
screen stencil, forcing or pumping ink past the threads of the woven mesh in the
open areas.
Screen printing is also a stencil method of print making in which a design is imposed
on a screen of silk or other fine mesh, with blank areas coated with an impermeable
substance, and ink is forced through the mesh onto the printing surface. It is also
known as "silk screening" or "serigraphy".
Line art and text may be printed onto the outer surfaces of a PCB by screen printing.
When space permits, the screen print text can indicate component designators,
switch setting requirements, test points, and other features helpful in assembling,
testing, and servicing the circuit board.
Screen print is also known as the silk screen, or, in one sided PCBs, the red print.
Lately some digital printing solutions have been developed to substitute the
traditional screen printing process. This technology allows printing variable data onto
the PCB, including serialization and barcode information for traceability purposes.
PCB ETCHING:-
Etching, also known as chemical milling, is the process of using acids, bases or other
chemicals to dissolve unwanted materials such as metals, semiconductor materials
or glass. This process has been used on a wide variety of metals with depths of
metal removal as large as 12mm (0.5 in). Selective attack by the chemical reagent
on different areas of the workpiece surfaces is controlled by removable layers of
material called masking or by partial immersion in the reagent. It has applications in
the printed circuit board and semiconductor fabrication industries. It is also used in
the aerospace industry to remove shallow layers of material from large aircraft
components, missile skin panels, and extruded parts for airframes.
The process is known to have been used by craftsmen in Europe in the middle ages,
where it was applied to the decoration of armour. One such craftsman, Daniel Hopfer
(circa 1470-1536) of Augsburg, Germany, is credited with being the first person to
apply the method to printmaking.
The vast majority of printed circuit boards are made by bonding a layer of copper
over the entire substrate, sometimes on both sides, (creating a "blank PCB") then
removing unwanted copper after applying a temporary mask (eg. by etching), leaving
only the desired copper traces. A few PCBs are made by adding traces to the bare
substrate (or a substrate with a very thin layer of copper) usually by a complex
process of multiple electroplating steps.
There are three common "subtractive" methods (methods that remove copper) used
for the production of printed circuit boards:
1. Silk screen printing uses etch-resistant inks to protect the copper foil.
Subsequent etching removes the unwanted copper. Alternatively, the ink may
be conductive, printed on a blank (non-conductive) board. The latter
technique is also used in the manufacture of hybrid circuits.
2. Photoengraving uses a photomask and chemical etching to remove the
copper foil from the substrate. The photomask is usually prepared with a
photoplotter from data produced by a technician using CAM, or computer-
aided manufacturing software. Laser-printed transparencies are typically
employed for phototools; however, direct laser imaging techniques are being
employed to replace phototools for high-resolution requirements.
3. PCB milling uses a two or three-axis mechanical milling system to mill away
the copper foil from the substrate. A PCB milling machine (referred to as a
'PCB Prototyper') operates in a similar way to a plotter, receiving commands
from the host software that control the position of the milling head in the x, y,
and (if relevant) z axis. Data to drive the Prototyper is extracted from files
generated in PCB design software and stored in HPGL or Gerber file format.
"Additive" processes also exist. The most common is the "semi-additive" process. In
this version, the unpatterned board has a thin layer of copper already on it. A reverse
mask is then applied. (Unlike a subtractive process mask, this mask exposes those
parts of the substrate that will eventually become the traces.) Additional copper is
then plated onto the board in the unmasked areas; copper may be plated to any
desired weight. Tin-lead or other surface platings are then applied. The mask is
stripped away and a brief etching step removes the now-exposed original copper
laminate from the board, isolating the individual traces.
The additive process is commonly used for multi-layer boards as it facilitates the
plating-through of the holes (to produce conductive vias) in the circuit board.
DRILLING:-
Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with tiny drill bits made of solid tungsten
carbide. The drilling is performed by automated drilling machines with placement
controlled by a drill tape or drill file. These computer-generated files are also called
numerically controlled drill (NCD) files or "Excellon files". The drill file describes the
location and size of each drilled hole. These holes are often filled with annular rings
to create vias. Vias allow the electrical and thermal connection of conductors on
opposite sides of the PCB.
When very small vias are required, drilling with mechanical bits is costly because of
high rates of wear and breakage. In this case, the vias may be evaporated by lasers.
Laser-drilled vias typically have an inferior surface finish inside the hole. These holes
are called micro vias.
SOLDERING:-
Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by
melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a relatively low
melting point. Soft soldering is characterized by the melting point of the filler metal,
which is below 400 °C (752 °F).[1] The filler metal used in the process is called solder.
Some examples of solder types and their applications are tin-lead (general purpose),
tin-zinc for joining aluminium, lead-silver for strength at higher than room
temperature, cadmium-silver for strength at high temperatures, zinc-aluminium for
aluminium and corrosion resistance, and tin-silver and tin-bismuth for electronics.
There are two main components used while soldering. These are explained below.
SOLDER:
A solder is a fusible metal alloy with a melting point or melting range of 90 to 450 °C
(200 to 840 °F), used in a process called soldering where it is melted to join metallic
surfaces. It is especially useful in electronics and plumbing. Alloys that melt between
180 and 190 °C are the most commonly used.
The word solder comes from the Middle English word soudur, via Old French
solduree and soulder, from the Latin solidare, meaning '‘to make solid’'. Solder can
contain lead and or flux but in many applications solder is now lead free.
SOLDER IRON:
A soldering iron is a tool used for applying heat to two adjoining metal parts such that
solder may melt and flow between those parts, binding them securely and
conductively.
A soldering iron is composed of a heated metal tip and an insulated handle. Heating
is often achieved electrically, by passing a current, supplied through an electrical
cord or a battery, through a heating element. Another heating method includes
combustion of a suitable gas, which can either be delivered through a tank mounted
on the iron (flameless), or through an external flame.
Some heat up and cool down in a few seconds, but others take minutes.
The soldering process is as described below:
Good soldering is a skill that is learnt by practice. The most important point in
soldering is that both parts of the joint to be made must be at the same temperature.
The solder will flow evenly and make a good electrical and mechanical joint only if
both parts of the joint are at an equal high temperature. Even though it appears that
there is a metal to metal contact in a joint to be made, very often there exists a film of
oxide on the surface that insulates the two parts. For this reason it is no good
applying the soldering iron tip to one half of the joint only and expecting this to heat
the other half of the joint as well.
When the iron is hot, apply some solder to the flattened working end at the end of
the bit, and wipe it on a piece of damp cloth or sponge so that the solder forms a thin
film on the bit. This is tinning the bit.
Melt a little more solder on to the tip of the soldering iron, and put the tip so it
contacts both parts of the joint. It is the molten solder on the tip of the iron that allows
the heat to flow quickly from the iron into both parts of the joint. If the iron has the
right amount of solder on it and is positioned correctly, then the two parts to be
joined will reach the solder's melting temperature in a couple of seconds. Now apply
the end of the solder to the point where both parts of the joint and the soldering iron
are all touching one another. The solder will melt immediately and flow around all the
parts that are at, or over, the melting part temperature. After a few seconds remove
the iron from the joint. Make sure that no parts of the joint move after the soldering
iron is removed until the solder is completely hard. This can take quite a few seconds
with large joints. If the joint is disturbed during this cooling period it may become
seriously weakened.
The hard cold solder on a properly made joint should have a smooth shiny
appearance and if the wire is pulled it should not pull out of the joint. In a properly
made joint the solder will bond the components very strongly indeed, since the
process of soldering is similarly to brazing, and to a lesser degree welding, in that the
solder actually forms a molecular bond with the surfaces of the joint.
It is important to use the right amount of solder, both on the iron and on the joint. Too
little solder on the iron will result in poor heat transfer to the joint, too much and you
will suffer from the solder forming strings as the iron is removed, causing splashes
and bridges to other contacts. Too little solder applied to the joint will give the joint a
half finished appearance: a good bond where the soldering iron has been, and no
solder at all on the other part of the joint.
Remember it is much more difficult to correct a poorly made joint than it is to make
the joint properly in the first place. Anyone can learn to solder, it just takes practice.
After the printed circuit board (PCB) is completed, electronic components must be
attached to form a functional printed circuit assembly, or PCA (sometimes called a
"printed circuit board assembly" PCBA). In through-hole construction, component
leads are inserted in holes. In surface-mount construction, the components are
placed on pads or lands on the outer surfaces of the PCB. In both kinds of
construction, component leads are electrically and mechanically fixed to the board
with a molten metal solder.
After the board has been populated it may be tested in a variety of ways:
• While the power is off, visual inspection, automated optical inspection. JEDEC
guidelines for PCB component placement, soldering, and inspection are
commonly used to maintain quality control in this stage of PCB manufacturing.
• While the power is on, in-circuit tests, where physical measurements (i.e.
voltage, frequency) can be done.
• While the power is on, functional test, just checking if the PCB does what it
had been designed for.
To facilitate these tests, PCBs may be designed with extra pads to make temporary
connections. Sometimes these pads must be isolated with resistors. The in-circuit
test may also exercise boundary scan test features of some components. In-circuit
test systems may also be used to program nonvolatile memory components on the
board.
In boundary scan testing, test circuits integrated into various ICs on the board form
temporary connections between the PCB traces to test that the ICs are mounted
correctly. Boundary scan testing requires that all the ICs to be tested use a standard
test configuration procedure, the most common one being the Joint Test Action
Group (JTAG) standard.
When boards fail the test, technicians may desolder and replace failed components,
a task known as "rework".
CONCLUSION
Our equipment has been designed using the most modern LSI chips available
in the market which can take the voltage fluctuation of greater degree.
REFERENCE
www.aaroncake.net/circuits
www.wikepedia.com
www.circuitstoday.com
Op-Amp and their linear integrated circuit- By R.A.Gaikward
Electronic Devices And Circuits- By Nashelsky & Boysted
Network Analysis- By Van Valkenburg
Power Electronics- By P.C. Sen
www.alldatasheet.com
IDEAS WHICH COULD NOT BE IMPLEMENTED
A circuit which would give details about the vehicle coming from the opposite
side. The detail like it is at what distance from the driver, his speed of
approaching and the intensity of the light.
A circuit which would automatically trigger the upper headlight circuit even if
the vehicle is approaching him from opposite side in case the other driver
does not give response to our generosity.
A circuit which would send signals to the driver when he takes reverse his
vehicle and is about to hit something.