Second Edition MOTORCYCLE DYNAMICS Vittore CossalterHH Motarcycte Dynamics importante notice This book should not be seen as a guide for modifying, designing or manufacturing a motorcycle. Anyone who uses it as such does so at his own risk and peril. Street testing motorcycles can be dangerous. The author and publisher are not responsible for any damage caused by the use of any information contained in this book All rights reserved. No part to this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, ‘or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the author. 2" English edition, 2006 Copyright @ 2006 by Vittore Cossalter ISBN 978-1-4303-0861-4 Design and illustrations by the author.Xi Motorcycte Dynamics 8.3 Motorcycle equilibrium in rectilinear motion at low speed 8.4 Motorcycle equilibrium in rectilinear motion at high speed 8.5 Slow entering in a turn 86 Fast entering ina turn 8.7 The Optimal maneuver method for evaluating maneuverability and handling 8.7.4 Optimal maneuver 8.7.2 An example of an optimal maneuver for an “S" tajectory 8.7.3 An example of an optimal maneuver for a "U" trajectory 8.7.4 Influence of the adherence on the trajectory 8.8 Handling tests 8.8.1 Steady turning test 8.8.2 “U'tumtest 8.8.3 Slalom test 8.8.4 Lane change test 8.8.5 Obstacle avoidance test 8.9 Dangerous dynamic phenomena 8.9.1 High side 8.9.2 Kick back 8.9.3 Chattering 8.9.4 Bounce and weave coupling in cornering 8.10 Structural stiffness 8.10.1 Structural stifiness of the whole motorcycle 8.10.2 Structural stiffness of the frame 8.10.3 Structural stfness of the swinging arm 8.10.4 Structural stiffness of the front fork 8.11 Experimental modal analysis 8.12 Rigid body properties and Mozzi axis, 8.13 Dynamic analysis with multi-body codes List of symbols References Index 298 299 301 303 305 307 307 310 313 314 315 319 320 323 325 326 326 328 329 330 330 331 333 335 335 337 338 341 343 349 3531 Kinematics of Motorcycles The kinematic study off motoreyeles is important, especially in relation to its effects on the dynamic behavior of motorcycles. Therefore, in this chapter, in addi- tion to the Kinematic study, some simple examples of the dynamic behavior of motoreyeles are reported in order to show how kinematic peculiarities influence the directional stability and maneuverability of motoreyeles 1.1 Definition of motorcycles Although motorcycles are composed of a great variety of mechanical parts, including some complex ones, from a strictly kinematic point of view, by consid- ering the suspensions to be rigid, a motorcycle can be defined as simply a spatial mechanism composed of four rigid bodies: * the rear assembly (frame, saddle, tank and motor-transmission drivetrain group), © the front assembly (the fork, the steering head and the handlebars), * the front wheel, * the rear wheel These rigid bodies are connected by three revolute joints (the steering axis and the two wheel axles) and are in contact with the ground at two wheel/ground contact points as shown in Fig, 1-1 Each revolute joint inhibits five degrees of freedom in the spatial mechanis while each wheel-ground contact point leaves three degrees of freedom free. If we consider the hypothesis of the pure rolling of tires on the road to be valid, it is easy tain that cach wheel, with respect to the fixed road, can only rotate around:2 Motorcycte Dynamics + the contact point on the wheel plane (forward motion), © the intersection axis of the motoreycle and road planes (roll motion), «© the axis passing through the contact point and the center of the whee! (spin) revolute joint 1g head handlebar rota 2-from frame forward motion S-from wheel 5 = road revolute joint 4 = rear wheel wheel-ground contact points Fig. 1-1 Kinematic structure of a motorcycle. In conclusion, a motoreycle’s number of degrees of freedom is equal to 3, given that the 15 degrees of freedom inhibited by the 3 revolute joints and the 6 degrees of freedom eliminated by the 2 wheel-ground contact points must be subtracted from the 4 rigid bodies" 24 degrees of freedom, as summarized in Fig. 1-2 A motoreyele’s three degrees of freedom may be associated with three princi motions: © forward motion of the motoreycle (represented by the rear wheel rotation): » roll motion around the straight line which joins the tire contact points on the road plane: * steering rotation, ‘While he drives, the rider manages all three major movements, according to his personal style and skill: the resulting movement of the motoreycle and the corres sponding trajectory (e.g. a curve) depend on a combination, in the time domain, of the three motions related to the three degrees of freedom, This generates one ma- neuver, among the thousands possible, which represents the personal style of the driver, ‘These considerations have been formulated assuming that the tires move without slippage. However, in reality, the tire movement is not just a rolling process. The generation of longitudinal forces (driving and braking forces) and lateral forces requires some degree of slippage in both directions, longitudinally and laterally, depending on the road conditions. The number of degrees of freedom is1. Kinematics of Motorcycles = 3 refore sewen: ¢ forward motion of the motoreycle, © rolling motion, * handlebar rotation, + longitudinal slippage of the front wheel (braking), © longitudinal slippage of the rear wheel (thrust or braking), + lateral slippage of the front wheel, lateral slippage of the rear wheel. RIGID BODIES CONSTRAINTS. Rear frame Revolute joints heelground 5 constrains Front frame is [ From wheel | |] _ front w From Rear wheel Rear Rear wheel 4x6=24 Number of degrees of freedom ~ Fig. 1-2 Degrees of freedom of a motorcycle. 1.2 The geometry of motorcycles ns per This kinematic study refers to a rigid motoreyele, ie. one without s i and schematized as two toroidal solid. © p wheelbase, © d_fork offset: perpendicular distance between the axis of the steering head and the center of the front wheel: © = easter angle; © R, radius of the rear wheel, © Rp radius of the front wheel: J, radius of the rear tire cross section, © ff radius of the front tire cross section Some important geometric parameters can be expressed in terms of these variables © pp =(R, ~4,) radius of the front torus center circle: © py =(Ry —ty) radius of the rear torus center circle, © a, =Rysine—d normal trail; © a=d,/cose=Rytane-d cose mechanical trail4° Motorcycfe Dynamics ‘The geometric parameters usually used to describe motoreyeles are the following: ethe wheelbase p ; the caster angle « ; the trail a ‘These parameters are measured with the motorcycle in a vertical position and the steering angle of the handlebars set to zero. b~ caster angle — Ry= radius of the front wheel = radius of rear wheel radius of the torus: of revolution intersection point ~ of the steering head axis with the road Sy forward offfet ay = = normal trail \ ‘by ~ normal rear teail Fig. 1.3 Geometry of a motorcycle. The wheelbase p is the distance between the contact points of the tires on the road. The caster angle © is the angle between the vertical axis and the rotation axis, of the front section (the is of the steering head). The trail a is the distance between the contact point of the front wheel and the intersection point of the steering head axis with the road measured in the ground plane. Together these parameters ate important in defining the maneuverability of the motorcyele as perceived by the rider. It is not practi al, however, to examine the elifects produced by only ‘one geometric parameter, independently of the others, because of the strong interaction between them. Here we will present some consid- erations regarding the way in which these parameters influence the kinematic and dynamic behavior of motoreycles. The value of the wheelbuse varies aecording to the type of motorcyele. It ranges fiom 1200 mm in the case of small scooters to 1300 mm for light motoreyeles (125 ce di: Jacement) to 1350 mm for medium displacement motoreycles (250 ce) up to1. Kinematics of Motorcycles = 5 1600 mm, and beyond, for touring motoreycles with greater displacement In general, an increase in the wheelbase, assuming that the other parameters remain constant, leads to; * an unfavorable increase in the flexional and torsional deformability of the frame. These parameters are very important for maneuverability (frames that are more deformable make the motoreycle less maneuverable), * an unfavorable increase in the minimum curvature radius, since it makes it more difficult to turn on a path that has a small curvature radiu © inorder (o turn, there must be an unfavorable increase in the torque applied to the handlebars, © a favorable decrease in transferring the load between the two wheels during the acceleration and braking phases, with a resulting decrease in the pitching mo- tion; this makes forward and rearward flip-over more difficult, + a favorable reduction in the pitching movement generated by road unevenness, favorable increase in the directional stability of the motorcycle The trail and caster angle are especially important inasmuch as they define the geometric characteristics of the steering head. The definition of the properties of maneuverability and directional stability of motorcycles depend on them, among others. ‘The caster angle varies according to the type of motoreycle: from 19° (speediray) to 2I-24° for competition or sport motorcycles, up to 27-34° for touring motoreycles. From a structural point of view. a very small angle causes notable stress on the fork during braking. Since the front fork is rather deformable, both flexionally and torsionally, small values of the angle will lead to greater stress and therefore greater deformations. which can cause dangerous vibrations in the front assembly (oscillation of the front assembly around the axis of the steering head, called wobble). ‘The value of the caster angle is closely related to the value of the trail. In general, in order to have a good fecling for the motorcyele’s maneuverability, an increase in the caster angle must be coupled with a corresponding increase in the trail The value of the tail depends on the type of motoreycle and its wheelbase. It ranges from values of 75 to 90 mm in competition motoreyeles to values of 90 to 100 mm in touring and sport motoreyeles, up to values of 120 mm and beyond in purely touring motoreyeles 1.3 The importance of trail One of the peculiaritics of motorcycles is the steering system, whose function is essentially to produce a variation in the lateral force needed, for example, to change the motoreyele’s direction or assure equilibrium According to this point of view , the steering system could hypothetically be made up of two little rockets placed perpendicular to the front wheel which, when appropriately activated, could, although not without significant if not insurmount- able difficulties for the rider, generate lateral thrusts, that is, perform the same function as the stecring system6 — Motorcycte Dynamics From a geometrical point of view, the classic steering mechanism is described by three parameters: © the caster angle z : © the fork offset d : © the radius of the wheel Ry ‘These parameters make it possible to caloulate the value of the normal trail ay, Which is the perpendicular distance between the contact point and the axis of the motorcycle's steering head. This is considered positive when the front wheel's contact point with the road plane is behind the point of the axis intersection of the steering head with the road itself, as presented in Fig. 1-4. As we have previously scen, the trail measured on the road is related to the normal trail by the equation a=a,oose ‘The value of the trail is most important for the stabil cially im rectilinear motion. ty of the motoreyele, espe- loftward rotation of the front wheel lateral force Vatiae ~ slippage velocity > positive trail Fig. 4-4 Stabilizing effect of the positive trail during forward movement. To develop this concept, let us consider motoreyele driving straight ahead, at constant velocity J” , and let us suppose that an external disturbance (for example, an irregularity in the road surface or a lateral gust of wind) causes a slight rotation of the front wheel to the left. For the time being, let us ignore the fact that the mo- toreycle starts to turn to the left and that because of centrifugal forces, begins at the same time to lean to the right, concentrating our attention. instead on the lateral friction foree F* generated by the contact of the tire with the ground. In other words, let us suppose that the motorcycle is driving at constant veloci Vand that the front wheel contact point also has velocity 1” in the same direction, The vector I” may be divided into two orthogonal components + the component @/ Ry, which represents the velocity due to rolling: it is placed in the plane of the wheel and rotated to the left at an angle whieh depends on the steering angle: © the component yj, Which represents the s ing velocity of the contact point with respect to the road plane1. Kinematics of Motorcycles = 7 A frictional fore, F , therefore acts on the front tire. F is parallel to the velo of slippage but has the opposite sense, as illustrated in Fig. 1-4. Since the trail is positive, friction force F generates a moment that tends to align the front wheel The straightening moment is proportional to the value of the normal trail leftward rotation of the front wheel i.) _ sé. Viigo = slippage velocity Ne n tive trail Fig.1-5 Destabilizing effect of the negative trail during forward movement. If the value of the trail were negative (the contact point in front of the intersec- tion point of the steering head axis with the road plane) and considering that friction force F is always in the opposite direction of the velocity of slippage, a moment around the steering head axis that would tend to increase the rotation to the left would be generated. In Fig. 1-5 one can observe how friction force F would amplify the disturbing effect. seriously compromising the motorcycle’s equilibrium. Figure 1-5 demonstrates that the road profile can make the trail negative, for exam= ple, when the wheel goes over a step or bump. eS positive trail Fig. 1-6 Motorcycle with a high value of trail. Small trail values generate small aligning moments of the lateral fiction force en if the rider has the impression that the steering movement is easy, the steering, mechanism is very sensitive to irregularities in the road, Higher values of the tail (obtained with high values of the caster angle as shown in Fig. 1-6) increase the stability of the motoreycle’s rectilinear motion, but they drastically reduce maneu- verability. Consider, for example, “chopper” type motoreyeles which became very popular8 — Motorcycfe Dynamics following the success of the well-known film, “Easy Rider”. These motoreyeles have caster angle values up to 40°, making them more adaptable to straight high- ways than to curving roads, disturbance disturbance disturbance i x i +e f nonaif SO ‘moment stabilizing effect destabilizing effect indifferent effect © contact point # intersection of the steering head axis with the road plane Fig 1-7 Summary of the effect of trail during forward movement. During curvilinear motion, road gripping is assured by the lateral frictional forces, which are perpendicular to the line of intersection of the wheel plane with the road. The front and rear lateral forees create montents around the steering head axis that are proportional respectively to distanees 4, and by , which are related to the wheelbase and the trail by the equations Gy, = cose b, =(p+a)oose Where Gy represents the normal front trail and 8 may be considered the normal trail of the rear wheel, This simple consideration shows how the wheelbase and the trail are intimately connected to each other and should therefore be considered together. It is not entirely correct to define a trail as small or large without reference to the motorcyele's wheelbase. As a comparison parameter, we could use the ratio between the front and rear normal trail: Ry =e In general the normal front trail is approximately 4-8% of the value of the rear one. The value of this ratio for racing motorcyeles is approximately 6%; for sport and super sport motoreycles it is from 6 to 6.5%; and for touring motoreycles, which are more or less similar to sport motoreycles, it varies from 6 to 8%. “Cruiser” motorcycles (heavy, slower motoreyeles) are charaeterized by values of 5-6% and have trails that are modest in comparison with the wheelbase. This is probably due to the necessity of making the motorcycles maneuverable at low velocities. Since the load on the front wheels is high due to the weight of the mo- toreycle, the choice of a small trail lowers the value of the torque that the rider must apply to the handlebars to execute a given maneuver. In addition, it is worth pointing out that these motorcycles are normally used at rather low velocities, and they do not therefore need long trails, which, as previously noted, assures a high directional stability at high velocities.