Documente Academic
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2011
Ryan O’Shea
Chapter Outlines
College Physics, 7th Ed. by Serway/Faughn
Page 2
College Physics, 7th Ed. Outlines by Ryan O’Shea
Chapter 1: Introduction
Thursday, September 02, 2010
9:12 PM
Introduction
o Mechanics
3 most fundamental quantities:
Length (L)
Mass (M)
Time (T)
All other physical quantities can be constructed from these three.
o 1.1 Standards of Length, Mass, and Time
1960 - international committee agreed:
SI (Système International) - standard system of units for the fundamental quantities of science
Length = meter
Mass = kilogram
Time = second
-6
10 Micro- µ
-3
10 Milli- m
-2
10 Centi- c
-1
10 Deci- d
1
10 Deka- da
3
10 Kilo- k
6
10 Mega- M
Length
Don't need to know definition of meter
Mass
The SI unit of mass, the kilogram, is defined as the mass of a specific platinum-iridium alloy
cylinder kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres, France
Time
Don't need to know definition of second
o 1.2 The Building Blocks of Matter
Greek atomos means "not sliceable" → atom, once believed to be smallest, ultimate particle, but since
found to be a composite of more elementary particles
Proton - nature's fundamental carrier of positive charge
Number of protons determines elements
Neutron - has no charge and has mass about equal to that of a proton
Acts as glue to hold nucleus together
Quarks - six particles thought to make up protons, neutrons, and more
up, down, strange, charm, bottom, top
o 1.3 Dimensional Analysis
dimension denotes the physical nature of a quantity
In physics, often necessary either to derive a mathematical expression or equation or to check its
correctness:
dimensional analysis - makes use of the fact that dimensions can be treated as algebraic
quantities
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College Physics, 7th Ed. Outlines by Ryan O’Shea
o 1.4 Un
ncertainty in Measuremen nt and Significcant Figures
siignificant fig
gure is a reliaably known digit
d (other thhan a zero useed to locate a decimal poinnt)
in mulltiplying (div viding) two or
o more quan ntities, the nu
umber of sign nificant figurres in the
final product
p (quottient) is the same
s as the nnumber of siggnificant figuures in the leeast accurate
of the factors being g combined, where least accurate meaans having th he lowest nuumber of
signifiicant figures
when numbers are e added (subttracted), the n number of deecimal placess in the resullt should
equal the smallest number of decimal
d placees of any termm in the sum (difference)
o 1.5 Co
onversion of Units
U
Units
U can be trreated as algeebraic quantitties that can ""cancel" eachh other.
Make a fraction witth the converrsion that willl cancel the u units we don't want, and m multiply the
on by the quaantity in questtion:
fractio
.
28.0 28.0 1.74 10
0
.
1.74
4 10 60.0 60.0 62.2 mi/h
h
o 1.6 Esstimates and Order-of-Mag
O gnitude Calcu ulations
orrder-of-magn nitude estimaate - approxim mate value off a quantity
withinn about a factor of 10
~
o 1.7 Cooordinate Sysstems
Cartesian
C coordinate systeem (aka rectaangular coorddinate system m)
fixed reference
r poinnt O, called th
he origin
set of specified axes, or directionns, with an apppropriate sccale and labels on the axess
instrucctions on labeeling a point in space relattive to the orrigin and axess
(x,y)
pllane polar co
oordinates (r,,θ)
( measured counter-clocckwise
angle (θ)
o 1.8 Trrigonometry
siin θ
co
os θ
ta
an θ
Py
ythagorean theorem
t - sid
des of right trriangle
2 2 2
x +y =r
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b Ryan O’Shea . All Rights Reseerved.
rya
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College Physics, 7th Ed. Outlines by Ryan O’Shea
o Dynamics - study of motion and of physical concepts such as force and mass
o Kinematics - part of dynamics that describes motion without regard to its causes
o geocentric model - Earth is center of universe; accepted by Aristotle, Ptolemy
o heliocentric model - Earth and other planets revolve in circular orbits around the Sun
2.1 Displacement
o frame of reference - choice of coordinate axes that defines the starting point for measuring any quantity
o displacement of an object (∆x) - its change in position
∆x ≡ xf - xi
o vector quantity - is characterized by having both a magnitude and a direction
o scalar quantity - has only magnitude, not direction
2.2 Velocity
o speed = scalar, velocity = vector
o average speed -
o average velocity - vector quantity, = displacement (∆x) / time (∆x)
̅
o curved path vs. straight path to same point = higher avg speed, lower avg velocity
o Graphical Interpretation of Velocity
position vs. time graph - plots positions of points an object moves as a function of time elapsed
average velocity of object during the time interval ∆t = slope of straight line joining the initial
and final points on a graph of the object's position vs. time
if direction or speed changes, avg velocity may be unique between any two points
o Instantaneous Velocity
speed and direction at a particular instant in time
instantaneous velocity v = limit of average velocity as the time interval (∆t) becomes infinitesimally
small
lim →
Slope of line tangent to position vs. time curve at "a given time" is defined to be the
instantaneous velocity at that time.
Instantaneous speed = magnitude of instantaneous velocity
2.3 Acceleration
o acceleration - changing of an object's velocity with time
o average acceleration during time interval (∆t) = change in velocity (∆v) divided by ∆t
≡
2
meter per second per second (m/s )
o acceleration is a vector quantity
o When the object's velocity and acceleration are in the same direction, the speed of the object increases with
time. When the object's velocity and acceleration are opposite in direction, the speed of the object decreases
with time.
o Instantaneous Acceleration
instantaneous acceleration a = limit of the average acceleration as the time interval goes to zero
∆
≡ lim∆ → ∆
velocity vs. time graph - plots velocity of an object against time
Cha
apter 3: Vectors & 2-Dim
mensional Motion
n
Mond day, Septembe
er 13, 2010
6:48 P
PM
Relatio
ons between components
c
o Ax = A cosθ
o Ay = A sinθ
o A2 = Ax2 + Ay2
o tanθ = Ax / Ay
only corrrect 1/2 the time
t - when vector
v is in 1sst or 4th quaddrant, otherw
wise, add 180°
Adding g Vectors Alg
gebraically
o R A B
Rx = Ax + Bx
Ry = Ay + By
3.3 Displacem
ment, Velocitty, & Accelerration in 2 Diimensions
displaccement = chaange in positioon vector
o ∆ ≡
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anoshea.com
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College Physics, 7th Ed. Outlines by Ryan O’Shea
o meters
average velocity during time interval ∆t = displacement / ∆t
∆
o ≡
∆
o meters per second
instantaneous velocity = limit of avg velocity as ∆t goes to 0
∆
o ≡ lim
∆ → ∆
o meters per second
average acceleration during time interval ∆t = change in velocity / ∆t
∆
o ≡
∆
o meters per second per second
instantaneous acceleration = limit of its average acceleration vector as ∆t goes to 0
∆
o ≡ lim
∆ → ∆
o meters per second per second
3.4 Motion in 2 Dimensions
projectile motion - special case of 2D motion
o horizontal and vertical motions are completely independent of each other
o initial velocity now has two components
where θ0 - projection angle,
v0x = v0 cosθ0 | v0y = v0 sinθ0
2D Kinematics Formulas
o
Dimension Formula
x vx = v0x + axt
1 2
x ∆x = v0xt + ( /2)axt
2 2
x vx = v0x + 2ax∆x
y vy = v0y + ayt
1 2
y ∆y = v0yt + ( /2)ayt
2 2
y vy = v0y + 2ay∆y
o v0x = v0 cosθ0 | v0y = v0 sinθ0
o Projectile motion is special case of these formulas
in projectile motion, ax = 0 (if air resistance is negligible), so vx remains constant
for x-motion, 1st 2 formulas can be simplified
a. vx = v0x = vo cosθ0 = constant
b. ∆x = v0xt = (v0 cosθ0)t
in projectile motion, ay = -g
for y-motion,
a. vy = v0 sinθ0 - gt
1 2
b. ∆y = (v0 sinθ0)t - ( /2)gt
2 2
c. jvy = (v0 sinθ0) - 2g∆y
3.5 Relative Velocity
measurements of velocity depend on the reference frame of the observer
o aka coordinate system
o stationary frame of reference vs. moving frame or reference
o notation: A = Car A, B = Car B, E = observer stationed on Earth
= position of Car A as measured by E (in a coordinate system fixed w/ respect to Earth)
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College Physics, 7th Ed. Outlines by Ryan O’Shea
= position of Car B as measured by E
= position of Car A as measured by observer in Car B
Laws of Motion
force - a push or pull on an object (vector)
contact forces - result from physical contact between two objects
field forces - forces that occur in a field and are not caused by physical contact
Fundamental Forces
a. Strong Force - holds nuclei together
b. Electromagnetic Force
c. Weak Force - arises in certain radioactive decay processes
d. Gravity (weakest)
4.2 Newton's First Law
o an object moves with a velocity that is constant in magnitude and direction, unless acted on by a
nonzero net force
o net force - vector sum of all external forces exerted on the object
o Mass and Inertia
inertia - tendency of object to continue in original state of motion
mass - measure of the object's resistance to changes in its motion due to a force
4.3 Newton's Second Law
o acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force acting upon it
o acceleration of object is inversely proportional to its mass
o the acceleration a of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely
proportional to its mass
o
a = acceleration
m = mass
ΣF = sum of all forces
o Units of Force & Mass
newton - force (SI)
2
1 N ≡ 1 kg x m/s
pound - force (customary)
1 N = 0.225 lb
o The Gravitational Force
gravitational force - mutual force of atraction between any two objects in the Universe
Newton's law of universal gravitation states that every particle in the Universe attracts every other
particle with a force that is directly proportional to the product of the masses of the particles and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
r = distance
universal gravitation constant
-11 2 2
G = 6.67 × 10 N·m /kg
o Weight
magnitude of the gravitational force acting on an object of mass m near Earth's surface
g = acc of gravity
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College Physics, 7th Ed. Outlines by Ryan O’Shea
w = mg
Newtons
4.4 Newton's Third Law
o forces in nature always exist in pairs
o If object 1 and object 2 interact, the force F exerted by object 1 on object 2 is equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction to the force F exerted by object 2 on object 1
o action & reaction force always act on different objects
o Earth exerts force F on all objects, so any stationary object exerts force F′ on Earth, ground exerts normal
force n upward on object, which exerts force n′ on ground
F F′
n n′
4.5 Applications of Newton's Laws
o tension - magnitude of force exerted along a rope, is constant at all points in the rope
o free-body diagram - shows all forces acting on an object
o Objects in Equilibrium
objects either at rest or moving with constant velocity
4.6 Forces of Friction
o friction - resistance encountered by an object as it interacts with its surroundings
o static friction - when friction stops an object from moving, static friction opposite & equal to the force
being exerted on the object
f
o kinetic friction - friction force for an object in motion
f
o magnitude of the force of static friction between any two surfaces in contact
µs - dimensionless constant called the coefficient of static friction
n - magnitude of normal force exerted by one surface on the other
impending motion - when object is on verge of slipping
o magnitude of the force of kinetic friction acting between two surfaces
µf - dimensionless constant called the coefficient of kinetic friction
Chapter 5: Energy
Monday, October 04, 2010
6:01 PM
Conservation of momentum - the more momentum an object has, the more force has to be applied to stop it in a
given time
6.1 Momentum & Impulse
o the linear momentum of an object = product of mass & velocity
≡
SI Unit: kg · m/s
o Newton's Second Law of Motion:
∆ ∆ ∆
∆ ∆ ∆
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College Physics, 7th Ed. Outlines by Ryan O’Shea
o Impulse = Force × Time
≡ ∆
o impulse-momentum theorem - the impulse of the force acting on an object equals the change in
momentum of the object
special case: for single constant forces:
kg · m/s
o the magnitude of the impulse delivered by a force during a time interval is equal to the area under the
force vs. time graph
∆ ∆
6.2 Conservation of Momentum
o sum of momenta in a system is always the same (conserved)
o Forces F21 & F12 are opposites:
o 2
o Law of Conservation of Momentum - when no net external force acts on a system, the total momentum of
the system remains constant in time
o recoil - result of action, reaction, and exchange of momemtum
6.3 Collisions
o inelastic collision - momentum is conserved; kinetic energy is not
perfectly inelastic - objects collide and stick together
o elastic collision - momentum & kinetic energy are conserved
o Perfectly Inelastic Collisions
o Elastic Collisions
Momentum is conserved:
Kinetic Energy is conserved:
simplified to:
6.4 Glancing Collisions
o Law of Conservation of Momentum can be broken into components
x-component: m1v1ix + m2v2ix = m1v1fx + m2v2fx
y-component: m1v1iy + m2v2iy = m1v1fy + m2v2fy
o e.g. Glancing collision: object 1 moves at angle θ to the horizontal; object 2 moves at angle φ to horizontal
x-component: m1v1i + 0 = m1v1f cosθ - m2v2f cosφ
y-component: 0 + 0 = m1v1f sinθ - m2v2f sinφ
o If collision is elastic, we can write another equation for conservation of energy:
6.5 Rocket Propulsion
o thrust - force exerted on a rocket by ejected exhaust gases
M + ∆m = mass of rocket + mass of fuel
(M + ∆m)v = momentum of rocket
ve = exhaust speed, relative to rocket
v - ve = exhaust speed, relative to earth
∆ ∆
Instantaneous thrust = Ma = M =
∆ ∆
8.1 Torque
o Forces cause accelerations, torques cause angular accelerations
o Forces:
Magnitude
Position
Direction
o Definition of Torque
F is force acting on object; r is position vector from center of rotation to point of application of force
F
τ = rF
N·m
rate of rotation of an object doesn't change, unless the object is acted on by a net torque
for torque on angle, calculate component perpendicular to position vector
τ = rF sin θ
thermal physics - study of termperature, heat, and how they affect matter
10.1 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
o thermal contact - when energy can be exchanged between 2 objects
o thermal equilibrium - if 2 objects are in thermal contact and there is no net energy exchange (same
temperature)
o heat - exchange of energy between two objects because of differences in their temperatures
thermometer - device calibrated to measure temperature of an object
o Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics/Law of Equilibrium
if objects A & B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third object C, then A & B are in thermal
equilibrium with each other
temperature - the property that determines whether or not an object is in thermal equilibrium with
another
10.2 Thermometers and Temperature Scales
o Celsius temp scale
freezing point - temperature of ice-water mixture = 0°C
boiling point - 100°C
o Constant-Volume Gas Thermometer & Kelvin Scale
gas thermometer - offers a way to define temperature and relate it directly to internal energy
-23
Boltzmann's constant - kB - 1.38×10 J/K)
total translational kinetic energy of system of molecules is proportional to the absolute temperature of
the system
internal energy (U) of monatomic gas
root-mean-square (rms) speed
2
13.6 Damped Oscilations
B is bulk modulus
o speed of a longitudinal wave in a solid rod:
Y is Young's Modulus
o Speed of Sound in Air
steady state circuits - all currents are constant magnitude and direction
18.1 Sources of Emf
o emf - work done per unit charge, in Volts
o ∆
r - resistance; R - load resistance
= terminal voltage when current is zero, called open-circuit voltage
o
18.2 Resistors in Series
o current is the same in all resistors in series
o ⋯
equivalent resistance of a series of resistors is algebraic sum of the individual resistances and is
always greater than any individual resistance
18.3 Resistors in Parallel
o for resitors connected in parallel, potential differences across the resistiors are the same because each is
connected directly across the battery terminals
o because charge is conserved, the current I that enters the "split point" must be equal to the total current I1 &
I2 leaving that point
I = I1 + I2
o inverse of the equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel is the sum of the inverses of the resistances, is
always less than the smallest resistance in the group
⋯
18.4 Kirchhoff's Rules and Complex DC Circuits
o Kirchhoff's Rules
1. junction rule - The sum of the currents entering any junction must equal the sum of the currents
leaving that junction
2. loop rule - sum of the potential differences across all the elements around any closed circuit loop
must be zero
19.1 Magnets
o magnets have poles, north & south
o like poles repel each other, unlike poles attract
o positive & negative charges can exist independent of one another, magnetic poles cannot
o soft magnetic materials - (iron) easily magnetized, tend to lose their magnetism easily
o hard magnetic materials - (cobalt, nickel) difficult to magnetize, tend to retain their magnetism
o magnetic field surrounds any moving electric charge
o magnetic field line - direction the north pole of a compass points
19.2 Earth's Magnetic Field
o geographic North Pole of Earth corresponds to a magnetic south pole; geographic South Pole of Earth
corresponds to a magnetic north pole
north pole of a magnet points north b/c its attracted to the south pole, vice-versa
o dip angle - angle between the direction of the magnetic field and the horizontal
e.g. if a 3D compass needle points directly down, the dip angle is 90 degrees
o magnetic declination - difference between true north and magnetic north from any point on earth (varies)
19.3 Magnetic Fields
o when a charged particle is moving through a magnetic field, a magnetic force acts on it
no force on stationary charged particle
o F = qvB sin θ
B - magnitude of magnetic field
o ≡
SI Unit: tesla (T) = Weber (Wb) per square meter
cgs unit: gauss (G)
4
1 T = 10 G
force on a charged particle moving in a magnetic field has its maximum when the particle's motion is
perpendicular to the magnetic field
o direction of force obeys right-hand rule
point fingers of right hand in direction of velocity
curl fingers in direction of magnetic field
thumb is not pointing in the direction of the force
19.4 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
o magnetic field lines
on plane of the page - use arrows
pointing into page - use X symbol
pointing out of page - use dot
o F = BIƖ sinθ
formula for magnetic force acting on a wire carrying current I along a length l, in a magnetic field of
magnitude B
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College Physics, 7th Ed. Outlines by Ryan O’Shea
I - current
l - length of wire
reduces to F = BIl when the current and magnetic field are at right angles to each other
19.6 Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field
o particles move in helical path in a magnetic field:
o
cyclotron equation
19.7 Magnetic Field of a Long, Straight Wire and Ampere's Law
o right-hand rule #2 - point thumb of your right along a wire in the direction of a positive current. Your
fingers then naturally curl in the direction of the magnetic field B
o
-7
μ0 = permeability of free space - 4π × 10 Tm/A
o Ampere's Law and a Long, Straight Wire
∑ || ∆
Ampere's circuital law, marked as "skip" in book
19.8 Magnetic Force between 2 Parallel Conductors
o Parallel conductors carrying currents in the same direction attract each other
o Parallel conductors carrying currents in opposite directions repel each other
19.9 Magnetic Fields of Current Loops ad Solenoids
o Magnetic field at center of coil of N circular loops of radius R, carrying current I, is given by
o Solenoid/electromagnet - wire bent into a coil of several closely spaced loops
Magnetic field inside a solenoid:
B = µ0nl
n - turns of wire per unit length (N/l)
Exterior field at the sides of the solenoid is nonuniform, much weaker than the interior field, and
opposite in direction to the interior field
19.10 Magnetic Domains
o An individual atom should act as a magnet because of the motion of the electrons about the nucleus
Electrons cancel out each other by revolving in opposite directions
Magnetic effect produced by the electrons orbiting the nucleus is either zero or very small for
most materials
o Ferromagnetic - materials whose electrons don't fully cancel out each other's magnetic fields
Nickel, cobalt, iron
Domains - large groups of atoms with spins that are aligned, formed by strong coupling between
atoms of ferromagnetic materials
Permanent magnet - once the external field is removed, the domains remain aligned