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1
ORGANISING COMMITTEE
Advisor
Professor Ir. Dr. Mahyuddin Ramli
Chairman
Associate Professor Dr. Hassim Mat
Editors
Associate Professor Dr. Kausar Hj. Ali
Associate Professor Dr. Nurwati Badarulzaman
Committee Members
Associate Professor Jamel Ariffin
Dr. Ahmad Puad Mat Som
Dr. Azizan Marzuki
Dr. Norazamawati Md. Sani@ Abd. Rahim
Dr. Nor Zarifah Maliki
Abdul Ghapar Oth man
Nor A’zam Shuib
Subramaniam Govindan
2
ITRC CONFERENCE PROGRAMME
DAY 1 – 12 th April, 2011 (Tuesday)
Venue: Conference Hall
School of Housing, Building and Planning (HBP), USM
Registration of Participants
3
08.50
09.00 am
10.00 am -- 09:00
10.30 am
10.00 am
Keynote Address 2
Mrs. Umairah Saad Senior
Human Capital Manager Rapid Penang
Refreshment Break
Lunch
Refreshment Break
5.00 pm – 5.30 pm End of Programme
4
ITRC CONFERENCE PROGRAMME
DAY 1 – 12 th April, 2011 (Tuesday)
Time: 11.00 am - 1.00 pm PARALLEL SESSION 1
HBP Conference Hall
Theme: Transport Operation and Management
5
ITRC CONFERENCE PROGRAMME
DAY 1 – 12 th April, 2011 (Tuesday)
6
ITRC CONFERENCE PROGRAMME
DAY 1 - 12 th April, 2011 (Tuesday)
ABSTRACT: Congestion problems at toll plazas are becoming a pressing issue in Malaysia.
VISSIM, a micro-simulation software, is used to investigate various traffic operations and
management configurations at several toll plaza locations in Malaysia. The study made
simulation models of the selected toll plaza operations. It was found that traffic volumes, toll
booths orientation, storage capacity and types of toll service have influence on traffic
operations and efficiency of the toll plaza. A preliminary table of recommended
configurations for different traffic conditions and toll plaza setup is proposed. A more detailed
study is suggested to enhance the proposed recommendations.
Keywords: Toll Plaza, Simulation, Traffic Operations, VISSIM, Payment System, Traffic
Management
1. INTRODUCTION
Within the decade of 1990 to 2000, toll roads became the preferred financing
model for Malaysian policy makers following the success of the North-South
Expressway project (PLUS) which used the closed-toll road system. Road users pay
for the distance they travel in the closed-toll system at their exit points. Whilst the
PLUS highway served to connect the North and South states of Peninsular Malaysia,
a significant number of toll roads were introduced within the city of Kuala Lumpur, the
economic capital of the country. These toll roads were mostly of the open-toll system
where road users pay a fixed amount when they enter and exit the road system.
Initially, the toll roads received lukewarm acceptance as the city dwellers frowned on
the need to pay for the privilege of using the toll roads. Some journeys required that
users pay several Ringgits per direction using routes that may have more than one
toll plazas. As the city grew and new developments started on the fringes of the city,
the toll roads began to be the preferred routes for commuting traffic. Over the years,
more and more users opted for toll roads in search of faster and smoother journeys
to and from their homes.
The PLUS highway too became a life line to many towns and upcoming cities in
the country. Previously unthinkable inter-city commuting journeys became quite
attractive as the highway provided fast and relatively economically transport option.
The absence of a strong medium distance public transport system virtually forced
commuters to use the toll highway.
2. CONGESTION ISSUE
Toll roads were put in place primarily to offer the following:
i)A quick approach to providing needed infrastructure by utilizing private
investment funding in lieu of the limited resources available to the federal or local
government
ii)Alternative routes for users who are willing to pay against the free but older and
congested routes
As the years went by, more and more users ply the toll roads accepting that
comfort was paramount as oppose to the daily back-breaking slow moving and hectic
traffic. Recently, what was meant to ease congestion is itself a cause of congestion.
The sheer volume of traffic during the morning and evening peak hours has stretched
the present toll system in Malaysia teetering on the brink of ‘failure’ in terms of level
of service and comfort. When previously, congestions may occur on the road link, it is
common these days in Malaysia to have heavy congestion at the entrance or exit of
toll road systems
Various measures such as the use of ‘Touch-N-Go’ cards and Smart Cards for toll
payment system and multiple toll booths for better traffic management have been
introduced to avoid or at least reduce congestion at toll plazas. Presently, however,
those measures are only useful during the off-peak hour periods. It was thought that
better understanding of the cause and effect besides the obvious over-saturated
demand on the toll plaza setup needed to be made.
3. PREVIOUS STUDIES
Polus and Reshetnik (1997) proposed a chart for determining the number of
automatic lanes against desired throughput. Tables of toll booths gate assignments
for various flow scenarios was also proposed by Pratelli and Schoen (2003). An
optimal lane configuration model using Queuing Theory and Mathematical
Programming was presented based on historical data by Kim (2007). Those studies
relied on site specific inputs for their outcomes but the methodologies provide an
avenue for us to develop and compare results. Some simulation approaches to toll
studies were also made Xiuli (1999) and Ito (2004) but not for forecasting toll system
performance.
The one advantage of the toll traffic system despite the ‘subjective’ design
reference is that vehicles will keep on moving along until the system becomes
saturated and even that saturated situation will subside after a certain period until the
next cycle of saturation recurs. This apparently ‘working’ condition however may
camouflage any lacking or improper design that exists in the system. Often, the retro-
fitting approach is applied once the conditions are intolerable to the users. In fact, the
threshold for determining ‘intolerable’ conditions is itself quite dubious and unclear.
Table 1 below shows the input and output parameters that are required and
obtained for a typical simulation run for VISSIM.
Input Output
1.Vehicle Volumes 1.Average delay
2.No of Toll Booths 2. Total delay
3.Size of waiting area 3.Average no. of vehicles
4.Types of payment system processed per booth
5.Traffic access arrangement 4.Total no. of vehicles processed
Figure 1 shows a typical toll plaza layout that can be configured in VISSIM.
Besides actual site layouts, proposed or future layouts may also be configured for
testing as long as the scale or dimensions of the study area with respect to vehicular
sizes are maintained. This flexibility allows for changes in the toll plaza layout to be
studied.
The primary elements within VISSIM that needs to be calibrated to site or local
conditions are speed distribution, vehicle type distribution and if necessary vehicle
dimensions. Once these parameters are established the simulation run can proceed
as the software caters for vehicular interaction automatically. Using probabilistic
conditions, vehicles will select available toll booths randomly subject to space
constraints in the queuing area. Any preset traffic arrangements such as heavy
goods vehicles (HGV) keeping to the left (right-hand drive) of the toll plaza maybe
implemented using a routing module provided in VISSIM. Safety conditions in the
queuing area are maintained via traffic interaction rules which are placed at potential
merging and diverging areas before and after the toll plaza.
Figure 1. Toll Plaza Layout Configured in VISSIM
Figure 2 shows the 3D model screen capture of the toll plaza operation running
using VISSM.
It was hypothesized that toll plaza configurations are primarily related to the
volume of vehicles and type of payment system implemented. Toll plaza
configurations include size of queuing area, toll booth arrangements and traffic
access instructions. Simulation runs were made for several combinations of vehicle
volumes and toll plaza configurations to obtain some preliminary data for analysis.
Case studies of several existing toll plazas on the PLUS highway were made to
establish current operating conditions for reference. The configurations to those
existing toll plazas were then modified within the simulation model and their
operational differences ‘observed’. Table 2 shows the case studies data from site and
simulation runs.
< 5% Manual 1
5-10% TNG 1
< 1000 10-20% 3 Smart Card 1
20-30% Hi-Speed 0
Auto Detect
< 5% Manual 2
5-10% TNG 2
1000-
10-20% 4-6 Smart Card 2
3000 20-30% Hi-Speed 0
Auto Detect
< 5% Manual 3
5-10% TNG 6
3000- 10-20% 6-12 Smart Card 2
5000 20-30% Hi-Speed 2
Auto Detect
< 5% Manual 4
5-10% TNG 8
5000-
10-20% 12-20 Smart Card 4
10000 20-30% Hi-Speed 4
Auto Detect
7. CONCLUSION
The advent of toll roads provided an alternative route choice for smooth, high
speed and safe travel for daily commuter within a city or between cities. As the
number of road users opting for toll roads increase the toll gates become hot-spots
for congestion sometimes to intolerable conditions. Efforts should be made to
facilitate the provisions of toll plazas with anticipated design requirements that will
allow toll gates to be responsive to the traffic demands. While admittedly, over
saturated demand can never be satisfied, the amount of traffic below the saturation
volume can still be catered for if careful considerations are made on time at the right
location. Further studies are necessary but intuitively, not all toll plazas congestion is
caused by over saturated demand. The precise remedy however requires site
specific scrutiny and is locality dependent. The proposed preliminary toll plaza design
table is hoped to be a starting point of reference for such a remedy for Malaysia and
other countries. Simulation modeling in particular the VISSIM package can help
operators and policy makers determine their best option for implementation.
8. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research was funded by Universiti Sains Malaysia via its Research Creativity
and Management Office (RCMO) short-term grant.
9.REFERENCES
Ito, T. (2004) “Simulation-based analysis of traffic jams at toll plaza with ETC
gates”, Proceedings of the Japan/USA Symposium on Fexible Automation ,
Denver, CO, July 19-21
van Dijk, Nico M., Mark D. Hermans, Maurice J. G.Teunisse, and Henk
Schuurman. (1999) Designing theWesterschelde tunnel toll plaza using a
combination of queueing and simulation. In Proceedings of the 1999 Winter
Simulation Conference , pp.1272-79.
Chao, Xiuli. (1999) Design and evaluation of toll plaza systems. Technical
report, Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering, New Jersey
Institute of Technology.
Al-Deek H.M., Mohamed A.A. and Radwan A.E. (1997) Operational benefits of
electronic toll collection: case study. ASCE J. Transpn Engng, vol. 123, 467-
477.
Matstoms, Pontus. (1995) Queue analysis for the toll station of the Öresund
fixed link. Technical report, VTI, SE-581 95, Linköping, Sweden.
Betrò B., Schoen F. and Speranza M.G. (1991) Discrete-Time Point Processes:
Applications to Road Traffic. in Papageorgiou M. (ed.) “Concise
Encyclopedia of Traffic and Transportation Systems”, Pergamon Press, New
York, pp. 101-106.
Betrò B., Schoen F. and Speranza M.G. (1987) Dynamic estimation of queue
behaviour in urban traffic, EJOR 31, pp. 368-375.
Edie L.C. (1954) Traffic delays at toll booths. Journal of the Operations
Research Society of America, vol. 2, 107-138.
025 OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY AND AUTOMATION IN PUBLIC
TRANSPORT THROUGH INTEGRATED TRANSIT MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM (ITMS) – A CASE STUDY OF AHMEDABAD, INDIA
Vivek Ogra 1
Aurobindo Ogra 2
1
Director – Technology & Innovation, Vbsoft India Ltd., Ahmedabad, India
2
Lecturer – Department of Town and Regional Planning
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment
University of Johannesburg, South Africa
1
Email: vivek@vbsoftindia.com; 2 Email: aogra@uj.ac.za
Abstract: Enhancing the efficiency of public transit operations is a continual challenge for
public transport authorities and operators. Key tasks associated with the system involve
number of different people performing individual tasks like: Ticket sales, the cashier, the
ticket inspector on the vehicles, control center operations team etc. The transit operations
have over a period of time moved from standard tickets through manual system or other
informal basis to completely automatic systems involving electronic fare collection systems,
automated vehicle location system, vehicle scheduling, passenger information etc. The
upward transition of infrastructure in terms of quality and availability demanded introduction
of more automated methods and tools to be put in place for transit managers and operators
ensuring high productivity environment which is driven by predictable management system.
The paper discusses a case study of Integrated Transit Management System (ITMS)
adopted for Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS) for City of Ahmedabad, India. ITMS is
expected to meet the corporate objectives of enhancing service standards, bring in
commuter market approaches, better organization of planning and operations; integration of
Para-transit, integration of control, capital improvements, marketing, and automate collection
and payment of transit fares. Based on the initial results, the paper discuss the components
of the ITMS with its aim to provide world class transit experience embarked on the project to
implement which would provide stakeholders and operations with a system to bring in world
class operational efficiency and automation for its transit operations.
The paper discuss how ITMS enables transport organization to automate its financial
characteristics, operational characteristics, better insight into passenger profiles, perform
route analysis to optimize on operational efficiency, service consumption, perform functional
area productivity analysis and thereby creating a sustainable public transport as a preferred
user choice by citizens.
1. INTRODUCTION
Indian cities rely predominantly on public transport and public transit service is
important in order to meet the rapidly growing mass mobility. Most of the cities
represent the public bus transit service as inadequate, operational issues, declining
ridership, declining productivity, persistent losses despite rapidly increasing fares
(Badami and Haider 2007).
2.METHODOLOGY
The paper highlights the role of technology perspective to manage the public transit
activities in a highly coordinated manner leading to a high productivity environment
and reliable services to the users. The analysis of the official documents on BRTS
has been made to identify the dimensions of public transit and technology
applications. The paper focuses on the Integrated Transit Management System
(ITMS) of the technology innovations / applications landscape of Bus Rapid Transit
System (BRTS) of Ahmedabad city in Gujarat, the seventh largest metropolis in
India.
The city of Ahmedabad is the seventh largest metropolis in India founded in 1411
AD as a walled city on the eastern bank of river Sabarmati. As per 2001 census, the
population of the urban agglomeration was recorded as 4.5 million, as compared to
3.31 million in 1995. The city once recognized as the ‘Manchester of India’ on
account of its textile industries, continues to be one of the most important centers of
trade and commerce in western India. The city can be well understood by its
institutional structure and represents the jurisdictions of Ahmedabad Municipal
Corporation (AMC), Ahmedabad Urban Agglomeration (AUA), and Ahmedabad
Urban Development Authority (AUDA) areas.
The AMC covers a jurisdiction area of around 190 sq. km’s, AUA covers 350 sq.
km’s and AUDA covers 1330 sq. km’s. The city continues to be recognized as
having large concentration of economic activities. Of the 4859 factories in the city,
the largest share is chemical and petrochemical industries which accounts to 29% of
the industries, followed by textile industries accounting to 12%. Around 40% of the
city area is under residential, followed by 15% area under industrial.
Of the total population of AUA, around 78% resides in the municipal area. As
observed from the land use and spatial structure, the city continues to be relatively
compact, and due to the rapid urbanization, this has led to the spillover of population
and spread of new settlements outside the city limits (CDP, Ahmedabad 2006).
Figure 1. Spatial Distribution of Residential and Commercial Areas, Ahmedabad
Source: BRTS, Ahmedabad (2006)
transport. resulted
public
The AMTS was
considerable
to cater to
responsibilities
the financial
related to
maintaining the
fleet. The
of effective
additionally
in the
deterioration of operational efficiency and efficient management of services.
In order to address some of the issues associated with public transport, and to
promote sustainable intra and intercity, regional transport facilities, a number of
initiatives were evaluated to provide quality transit services and solutions. The key
stakeholders associated from the Government of Gujarat considered number of
options for providing efficient public transport facilities like introducing: metro rail
system, regional rail system, bus rapid transit system, and regular bus system (ITF
2010; BRTS 2006). For intra city needs, BRTS was considered as the option to be
progressed with for implementation. The BRTS was developed as a strategic
intervention for addressing the issues related to public transport transit besides
environmental, operational, m a n a g e m e n t a n d o t h e r operational issues.
The BRTS started its first operations in 2009, and was awarded with ‘Best Mass
Transit Award-2009’ by
Ministry of Urban
D e v e l o p m e n t ( M o U D ) , Government of India and “Most Innovative Initiatives
Award” in Dec 2010. The system has been in operation since 2009, and carried more
than 90000 passenger daily with its fleet of 55 buses covering 40 kms of BRTS
Besides a well thought planning and scaling of BRTS, the earlier focus remained on
the designing and construction of the BRTS. The system included in its early and
later stages much focus on delivery of superior quality transit through innovative
technology / applications using indigenously developed methods and innovations.
The technology applications adopted for the BRTS are in three broad areas:
5.REFERENCES
Badami, M.G, Haider, M. (2007). An Analysis of Public Bus Transit Performance in
Indian Cities. Transportation Research. Part A 41, 961-981
Bus Rapid Transit System, Ahmedabad (2006). Detailed Project Report, Phase-1 :
GIDB, AMC, AUDA and CEPT University.
Bus Rapid Transit System, Ahmedabad (2010). Monthly BRTS Reports, Accessed
on 10 Jan 2011: http://www.ahmedabadbrts.com/News.html
City Development Plan, Ahmedabad (2006). Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban
Renewal Mission. Ahmedabad : AMC, AUDA, CEPT University.
Guohua, Z., Ming, L. and Jingxia, W. (2007). Application of the Advanced Public
Transport System in Cities of China and the Prospect of its Future Development.
Journal of Transportation Systems Engineering and Information Technology, 7(5)
24-30.
International Transport Forum (2010). Transport and Innovation – Unleashing the
Potential, 26-28 May, Leipzig.
Ogra, V. (2010). Integrated Transit Management System (ITMS), Ahmedabad
Janmarg Limited (unpublished case paper).
Sorensen, C.H, and Longva, F. (2010). Increased Coordination in Public Transport –
Which Mechanisms are Available ?. Transport Policy, 18 (2011) 117-125.
026 PARKING PRICING AND ITS EFFECT ON URBAN TRAFFIC
Hamed Eftekhar 1 And Professor Ir. Dr. Riza Atiq Bin O.K. Rahmat 2
ABSTRACT : These days large cities are facing highly increase in populations and car
dependency. In this condition an efficient urban traffic management system playing very
important role to handle issued problems. Urban traffic management system divided to two
main parts. First one which is considered more yet is; current traffic and second one; quite
traffic (parked vehicles) and its effects on current traffic have been considered less .Parking
management is known as one of the most important tools in urban management. There are
different items regarding to parking management that one of the most important one of them
is parking pricing which has tremendous effects in an efficient urban traffic management
system. In this paper we will discuss on why parking pricing and with an study case (UKM)
will see how we can implement and predict about parking pricing and its affects parking
demand and traffic volume and also mention how parking pricing can be considered as the
second most effective congestion reduction strategy (after peak-period congestion pricing
and before Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT) taxes, fuel taxes and pollution emission fees).
1. INTRODUCTION
As usual usage of automobile during 24jam is almost 1-2 hours and it’s parked for
remain almost 22 hours which requires lots of parking. There are 3 to 6 parking
spaces per vehicle (one at workplace, one at home, and various places such as
street side and shopping’s, school, and parks area) in most communities. Providing
this parking facilities even in an ordinary urban area are costly since there are land,
operation and construction costs that come to almost $500 to $for each parking
space. Sometimes even value of parking spaces is more than vehicles that occupied
them, yet mostly parking facilities are unpriced since there are indirect or hidden
costs such as taxes, lower usage and so one.
There are direct or indirect payments for parking facilities so really free parking
not exists. Direct pricing of marking facilities are more recommended by many
experts and for variety reasons many cities, campuses and commercial buildings
are expanding when and where parking’s priced. Several current trends increase the
justification for parking pricing, including increased urbanization and land costs,
increased concern about vehicle traffic external costs ( congestion, sprawl, accident,
pollution), and improved pricing technologies. However, unpriced parking is well
established, so parking pricing implementation requires overcoming various political,
institutional and technical obstacles. Care is required to address potential problems
and communicate the benefits.
Revenue generation; set the rates to gain maximum revenue. Expand when
and where parking is priced.
a
Motorist convenience; charges only when it’s needed, minimizing cost and
provide discounts and exemptions, such as low monthly passes.
Parking pricing affects transportation system from several aspects such as:
vehicle ownership reduction (especially residential parking pricing); destination
(switch’s to the cheaper parking areas); mode shifts from private vehicle to public
transport, ridesharing, cycling, walking; changes in trip making schedule from priced
to free or underpriced periods; change in parking location (to the cheaper or free
parking lots); and reduce stop duration. Also Demographic, geographic and
economic factors tends to these changes; Greater impacts are likely to result of
drivers lower income, more optional trips, and if the commuters have a better mode,
destination and parking options.
A 2¢ per vehicle-mile VMT fee reduces VMT 4.4% and congestion delay
9.0% (Congestion delay/VMT ratio = 2).
A $0.50 fuel tax increase reduces VMT 4.1% and congestion delay 6.5%
(Congestion delay/VMT ratio ratio=1 .6).
A 1 .0¢ per vehicle-mile emission fee reduces VMT 2.2% and congestion
delay 3.0% (Congestion delay/VMT ratio=1 .4).
Above ratios shown that parking pricing can consider as the second most
effective congestion reduction strategy, less effective than peak period congestion
pricing and more effective than flat VMT fees, fuel taxes and pollution emission fees.
Commercial centers with more than 5000 employees, since beyond this size
surface lots can’t satisfy total parking demand, so costly structured parking
facilities required.
Where they want to encourage commuters to the alternative modes of transit
to reduce traffic congestion, fuel consumption and pollution emissions.
In the areas where environmental protection and livability effort to decrease
impervious surface area and (portion of paced land) and total vehicle travel.
Where development affordability is an important object.
When owners or governments assets need additional revenues.
Generally efficient and fair parking prices are set to equal marginal costs, except
if a subsidy is particularly justified, for example to aim fairly or strategic
development. Marginal pricing also prevents municipality from spending $2 value of
resources to provide parking spaces for which users only worth at $1. Direct parking
payment enable that users to save money if decrease their parking expenditures.
For example if parking packaged with housing so tenants should pay for parking’s
facilities regardless of whether or not they need them, but if residential parking’s are
priced separately so tenants can save money if they decrease their vehicle
ownership. Correspondingly if employee directly pay parking fee so they can save
money by using alternative transit modes, an option not available if unpriced parking
is an automatic employee benefit. Under current parking pricing, saving through
parking costs reduction are dispersed through the economy while in an efficient
pricing returns more savings to individual users who discount their parking
utilization.
Money saving
Money saving (Returned to the individual motorist)
(Widely dispersed through economy)
As it’s shown in above table in an efficient parking pricing motorists affects directly
by saving more money if they reduce or optimize their vehicle ownership and
parking demand.
Returning the equivalent of rent and taxes on parking facilities. For example,
an urban parking program can generate net revenues equivalent to what
would be earned if the facilities were privately owned and paid rent on the
land and taxes on facilities and profits.
Dependant price more parking. Increase where and when parking is priced,
for example, to include smaller commercial districts, residential streets,
evening and weekends and public holydays.
Increase parking charges to the highest feasible rates.
li
li Alternative parking and transport options reduction (for
example limiting
nearby availability of free parking and minimizing public transit service).
l
il
i Use more cost effective pricing systems, such as multi -spaces
meters.
Increase enforcement and fines.
“[Parking] fees are largely associated with positive effects on the local economy over
the long term, though over the short term there may be a drop in the number of
visitors to such an area. The change from negative to positive effect is not only a
matter of years but also of extra measures that increase the attractiveness of the
shopping area (e.g., new shops and/or renovation of existing shopping). In relation
to the parking process, parking fees produce some benefits such as less time spent
looking for a parking space, more efficient use of parking spaces, and promotion of
‘short stay’ parking. (Van der Waerden and Timmermans 2009)”
2. METHODOLOGY
To determine about an efficient parking pricing which is the most important step
before implementing any parking pricing we need a model that can help us since it’s
not possible we try many different prices to achieve the efficient one. What we can
do, is implementing some charges and monitors their effects on parking demand,
revenue and traffic volume. The model which used in this paper is Logistic
regression model that predicts the probability of occurrence of event by fitting data
to a logistic curve. It is a linear model used for binomial regression; making use of
several predictor variables which may be numerical or categorical. It describes the
main features data collection in a quantitative manner. The dependent variable in
the regression equation is modeled as a function of the independent variables,
corresponding parameters ("constants"), and an error term. Logistic regression is
commonly used in medical, social sciences and for predicting customer’s propensity
to purchase a product in marketing. This model in some occasion is being referred
to as linear model Logit or logistic model.
The techniques used for the modeling and analysis of numerical data consist of
values of a dependent variable (response variable) and of one or more independent
variables (explanatory variables or predictors). The error term is treated as a
random variable and represents unexplained variation in the dependent variable.
The parameters are estimated so as to give an accurate data. The best fit is
evaluated by using the least squares method though other criteria have also been
used.
The following functional form is used in this paper to determine the dependent
variables.
The logit function was invented in the 19th century for the description of the
growth of populations and the course of autocatalytic chemical reactions, or chain
reactions (Cramer 2003). It is an important part of logistic regression and is the
inverse of the “sigmoid” or “logistic” function.
15000
10000
0
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
3. CONCLUSION
As it’s shown before at 2009 there were almost 15000 registered vehicles in UKM
that almost 9000 of these vehicles belong to staffs so they will be in university every
day, so we face a severe lake of parking supplies in campus and providing new
parking’s is costly. In this condition our policy about students will be trying to impose
parking charges as well as reduce their private transportation using by almost 50%
to have revenue from parking’s and use it in other purposes such as improving
campus public transportation, considering subsidies for the students who are using
public transportation (KTM or Rapid KL bus) and also providing new parking’s, also
reduce UKM parking demand and traffic volume which is made by students who use
private vehicles.
Based on our achieved graph we have to impose RM4 to RM4.5 per day to get
45-55% reduction in parking demand so under current condition the efficient parking
charge for UKM might be RM4 to RM4.5 per day, but in previous pages also we
discussed that if UKM improve its public transportation also they can impose parking
pricing to anybody who drive to campus whether student, staff, and even visitors
since the main policy regarding to transportation is reducing car dependency and
increase public transportation usage so parking pricing can be consider as one of
the quite but most important strategies to decrease traffic volumes. While motorists
seen their travel cost will be much cheaper when they use public transport rather to
private transport of course they will switch on public transport and as well as this
expenditures be higher (in the presence of wisdom) this swathing percentage will be
larger.
4. REFERENCE
CRAMER, J. S. 2003. The origins and development of the logit model. Cambridge
University Press .
1. INTRODUCTION
In general, construction stages of MRT project consist of two main components.
First component involves the construction of structural infrastructure works such
as superstructure, foundations, piers, beam girders, tunnels and etc. Second
component comprises with mechanical and electrical works such as signalling,
car body, power supply, lifts and escalators and etc. [Duangkamol, 2010]. As
the MRT construction is a complex project, the client should require engineering
consultants to provide services toward the work completion. Many reasons of
using engineering consultant’s service are that the government agency
inadequate of human resource and need more opinion from third parties. The
success of the project depend on the selection of appropriate consultant
because consultant involves in supporting owner’s decision. However, the
consultant service also relies on the service cost that owner provide [FIDIC,
2003].
The expansion of MRT construction in Bangkok, Thailand is increasing in the
recent years. The MRT extension and new lines MRT in Bangkok and vicinity
master plan for 10 years (2010 – 2020) consist of 7 lines with total distance of
154 km [OTP, 2010]. As the result, project consultant procurement should be
increased follow the construction project. Therefore, the government agencies
should concern the good strategy for selecting project consultant procurements.
From the literature review, the strategic contract options for project
consultant procurement can be categorized into two types. There are single and
multiple contract options [NSWG, 2008]. Single Contract option refers to only
one consultant that services all of the works in the project such as project
management services, construction supervision, etc. This option is suitable for
the project that clearly defined scope and unlikely to change after the contract is
awarded. Multiple Contract option consists of two or more consultant teams that
service works in the project such as project management consultant,
construction supervision consultant, independent certificate consultant, etc. The
option is suitable for the project that the construction work commences before
the design can be completed, unclear definition of technology, and high project
change. Each type of contract option should have advantages and
disadvantages in each characteristic of project [NSWG, 2008]. However,
strategic contract options for project consultant procurement should be
concerned with other relevant factors for adopt the suitable contract option.
Because contract option shall be effected to project management until
terminated the contract. Also, the client and the consultant have to work
together until the project completion.
3. METHODOLOGY
This research methodology is classified as the case study. There are four main
steps of developing the decision support system for selecting the strategic
contract options of project consultant procurement.
The first step involves with the pilot study. It aims to obtain factors related to
the strategic contract options for project consultant procurement. The interview
technique was used to obtain the list of variables from 15 experts who have the
responsibility on the decision.
The second step is questionnaire development. The questionnaire is
developed and designed from the list of variables in the first step. Twelve
variables are initially listed as the important factors for selecting the contract
options for project PCP-SMC. These are; 1) Project construction value, 2)
Overall work checking, 3) Payment process, 4) Quality of consultant services, 5)
Communication, 6) Unity of consultant team, 7) Project construction duration, 8)
Project characteristics, 9) Project's complexity, 10) Owner's experiences, 11)
Types of construction contract, 12) Construction area in each contract.
The third step is the identification of main factors for selecting strategic
contract option. Twelve variables that influence to strategic contract option were
selected by experts. From 15 experts, six from twelve variables are ranked as
important factors. These factors will be used to develop the structure hierarchy
for strategic contract option. The definitions of these six factor were listed as the
following.
1)Project Construction Value (PV); the amount of project construction value
is subjected to civil work and M&E work.
2)Project Characteristics (PC) ; the characteristic of the project is
subjected to the structural work such as elevated track /underground
tunnel.
The fourth step aims to identify the weight of six factors that influence the
strategic option. This step shall be identified by 15 existing experts. The
analysis of weights is adopted from the AHP technique. Six reasons for
choosing AHP in this research are; 1) Reliability of result more than other
methods, Because of using comparative analysis of twin. The comparison can
be use for qualitative and quantitative data, 2) The structure of AHP (objective,
goal, criterion, sub-criterion and alternatives) is simulated human decision
process which make easily to understand, 3) Decision making can apply for one
person or group, 4) Aviod decision making by prejudice or bias, 5) The
alternative or result can be compromising and referendum, 6) No need of
experts for controlling the process [Sutham A., 2009].
The AHP application steps can be summarized as follows [Saaty, 1980],
[H.S.C.Pereta and W.K.R.Costa, 2008]
1)State the problem.
2)Determine the qualitative factors that need to be evaluated or compared.
3)Identify the factors that influence the problem.
0)Structure the hierarchy of the criterion, sub-criterion (if need), and
alternatives.
1)Set survey questionnaire matrix and state the question for pairwise
comparisons clearly above each matrix. Also, definition the scale values for
pair-wise. For the scale values, Saaty [1994] has given as Table 1. The number
of decision makers that need for judgement and developing the matrix is
n(n-1)/2 , where n is the elements of n x n matrix. For the matrix, let C1, C 2,..., C n
be the set of activities. The Quantified judgement on pairs of activities Ci, C j are
represented by an n x n matrix. A = (aij), (i, j = 1, 2,...,n) . The rules of entries aij
are defined by aij = α and aji = 1/ α , where α ≠ 0 and aii = 1 for all i.
4)Collect data from experts who have experiences on the find objectives by
entering pairwise comparison judgements of factors with respect to their
impacts on the overall objectives. Then each expert enters pairwise comparison
judgements of objectives with respect to all factors, and force their reciprocals in
the survey questionnaire matrix.
Table 1. The comparison scale [Saaty, 1994]
Intensity of Definition
Importance
1 Two activities contribute equally to the objective
3 Experience and judgement slightly favor one
factor over another
5 Experience and judgement strongly favor one
factor over another
7 An factor is very strongly favored over another
and its dominance demonstrated in practice
9 The evidence favoring one factor over another is
of the highest possible order of affirmation
Reciprocals of If factor i has one of the above nonzero numbers
above assigned to it when compared to it when
compared with factor j, then j has the reciprocal
value when compared with i
7) The next step is the computation of the vector of priorities from the given
matrix by multiplying the n components in each row and taking the nth root. To
normalize, divide each of the nth root by the sum of the nth roots.
The consistency index (C.!.) can be represented by ( max – n)/(n – 1). It shall
ë
apply to determine the consistency ratio (C.R.) which it can be measured for the
goodness of judgements. C.R. can be determined by the ratio between C.!. and
the random index (R.!.). Where, R.!. is depending on the order of the matrix n.
as shown in Table 2. If C.R. is less than or equal to 0.1 judgements are
consistent. If C.R. greater than 0.1 the quality of judgement should be improved.
Table 2. The order of the matrix (n) and the average R.I. [Saaty, 1994]
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
R.I. 0 0 0.52 0.89 1.11 1.25 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.49
From AHP process, one important thing is that questioner should concern
carefully about the fulfillment of pairwise matrix by experts. Especially, the
fulfillment of scale value, the process should be demonstrated clearly step by
step.
39.27
Table 5. An example of comparison of PCP-SMC with respect to the six factors from
an expert
6.ANALYSIS RESULT
According to the weight of the six main factors that indicated from Table 4. The
highest relative factor of PCP-SMC is Project Characteristics (PC). Next is
Quality of Consultant Services (QS), Project Construction Value (PV), Overall
Work Checking in Consultant Team (OC), Communication (CO), and the lowest
factor is Unity of Consultant Team (U C).
Based on the results of the six important factors, it can be concluded that
Project Characteristics may effect contract options between single and multiple
contract. Thus, the client shall concern about contract options carefully. Unity of
Consultant Team shows the lowest factor, it could be pointed that the Unity of
Consultant Team may have less influence on selecting contract options. In
addition, the unity among consultant teams may be insinificant.
7. CONCLUSION
Weight of the six factors in this research could be applied on similar projects.
However, the overall ranking on contract option should be calculated case by
case.
8. REFERENCES
H.S.C. Perera and W.K.R. Costa (2009). Analytic Hierarchy Process for the
selection of ERP systems for manufacturing companies.. The Journal of
Business Perspective l Vol. 12 l No. 4. pp 1 – 11.
New South Wales Government (NSWG) (2008). Single and multiple contract
options. Procurement Practice Guide. pp 1 – 2.
Office of Transport and Traffic Policy and Planning(OTP) (2010). Mass Rapid
Transit Master Plan in Bangkok Metropolitan Region. pp 16 – 20.
Office of National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) (2007). PPP
Analysis Report of MRT Blue Line Extension Project.. pp 3 – 5.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Cargo transport is one of backbones in any industrial system (Willis, 2010,
Sgouridis, 2003). Despite it support the transportation of commodities and raw
materials to be processed, it is also important for transportation of the end products
to the local and international markets (FHWA, 2010). Malaysian economy also
depends on cargo transport. Between the years of 2007-2011, transport and
communications sectors are expected to achieve an average annual growth of
5.5%, for overall Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and the total value of transport and
communications GDP is expected to rise to US$17.7bn by 2011, representing 7.4%
of Malaysia’s GDP (Statistic department, 2010).
In addition to the economy grows over the next several decades, the
demand for goods will only increase (Holguin-Veras and Thorson, 2003, Sgouridis,
2003). As truck are dominant in cargo transport, the capability of roads and highway
in cater the volume is be wondering. Based on estimates container throughput and
average daily truck trip (Table 1), the transportation system in Malaysia moved an
average of 10013 TEUs of cargo per days from Port Klang and 8241 TEUs per days
from Port Tanjung Pelepas in 2009. More than half of the TEUs moved was an
import from or export to another country and less than 25 percent was moved within
the local areas (Table 2).
Table 1: Containerized throughput and estimated average daily truck trips from 2 top
seaports, 2009
ports Annual Annual one way trips Average daily
TEUs (assuming 2 TEU per one way
truck) truck trips
Table 2: Statistical data about transportation of cargoes by in Malaysia from 2005 to 2009
Year Types of Traffic Total
National Traffic
traffic
Import Export
2005 805,157 1,342,901 1,276,661 3,424,719
2006 836,579 1,403,946 1,367,625 3,608,150
2007 871,234 1,527,893 1,474,193 3,873,320
2008 909,243 1,629,977 1,598,544 4,137,764
2009 936,222 1,515,743 1,478,354 3,930,319
SOURCE : data compiled by author from Road Transport Department and port website,
December 2010
From the result in Table 1 and 2, it is understandable that the role of cargo transport
as the conveyor of goods is increasing. Though there is a pressure from the
community and environmental group regarding to negative impact in cargo’s
activities (air quality problem, noise pollution, pavement damages, accident problem
and etc), but there is no doubt that cargo transportation has makes significant
contribution to the vitality of nation’s economy (Jonnavithula, 2004).
2.0 METHODOLOGY
As the objective of this study is to analysis the cargo flow in Malaysia from 2005 to
2009, the methodology involves are the general analysis of the cargo growth during
the 2005 to 2009, correlation analysis to determine the strength between the factors
of year, time and district in determining the area that generate and attracting the
cargo demand and lastly projection of future growth of cargo based on historical
trend by using compound growth factor to determine the future cargo demand.
3.0 RESULTS
3.1 ANALYSIS OF CARGO FLOW FROM 2005 TO 2009
Cargo traffic flow can be represented in many different ways, depending on the
mode, type of vehicle, and commodity (Jean-Loup and Kalinowska, 2008). A
common representation that usually being measure is in terms of number of vehicles
where one twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU) represent a standard of 20-foot
container.
In general, there are four controlling factors that impact cargo demand
(FHWA, 2010). These factors can be broadly grouped into the following categories
which were economic structure, industry supply chains and logistics, cargo
infrastructure/modes and cargo traffic flows. Every factor has an impact on the cargo
demand analysis, for example cargo demand has a direct correlation with the type
and amount of economic activity in a region and types of modes that carry cargo
provide different types of service.
From the analysis of cargo flow from 2005 to 2009, it can be seen that
vehicles registration (including van for commercial goods) on average has increased
1.2 times (fig. I). This situation is concurrent with the data publish by Road Transport
Department in Table 2. Majority of these movements are contributing from the
international trade activities (import and export).
This analysis is done to know the strength of relationship for each preliminary
element (volume, district, year and time) and this analysis is taking example of
Selangor state. Selangor is choosing because it is where port klang, the bussiest
port in Malaysia, located. The analysis is consisting of correlation between the
volume versus time, volume versus years and volume versus district. This analysis
is done in order to know the factors that influence the demand of cargo truck at one
area. The fist analysis is correlation between the volume and time. This analysis is
based on the data provide by public work department (PWD). This analysis is done
to know either the peak hour suggested in the report is representing the real peak
hour for truck traffic. From the result, R2 for Pearson’s correlation is 0. 286, which
indicates that the peak hour time provide in the report did not representing the peak
hour for truck traffic.
The second analysis is correlation between year and volume. This analysis
is done to know either year (usually related with economic indicators) is related with
the demand for truck cargo. From the result, the value of R 2 is 1.00, indicates that
years and the demand for truck cargo has strong relationship. This result also
proves that economy is one of the factors affecting the cargo demand as more
active the economy, more trucks are needed to transfer the goods.
The last correlation analysis is between the volume and the district. This
analysis is done to find out either district is play an important role in generate the
demand for truck cargo. The R2 for this analysis is 0.521, and from the guideline
provide by Cohen, 1988, this result is consider as medium, which means that some
of the district is responsible for generating truck cargo and some are not.
From the overall result provide by correlation analysis, it can be understand
that years and district play an important role in generating and attracting the cargo
demand.
In this method, the growth factor is calculated based on the historical traffic
information to the baseline traffic data. This technique are frequently used by the
department of transportation and other planning agencies, to establish rough
estimates of growth for a variety of demand and are certainly applicable to
establishing the cargo traffic for the cargo component of a transportation plan,
program, or project design.
In forecast of truck cargo by trip, compound growth method has been done in
this analysis. By assuming that cargo flow grows in a compound fashion, the annual
growth factor will be the ratio of the flow in the second and first raise to a power
which is the inverse of the number of years between the first and second
observations. The formula of the growth factor is as follow:
AGF = (F 2/F1)1/(Y2-Y1)
Where F 1 is cargo flow in year Y 1 and F 2 is cargo demand in year Y 2. This also can
be expressed as a compound annual growth rate by subtracting 100 percent from
the AGF.
F3 = F 2*AGF (Y3-Y2)
If more than two years of historical data are available for the variable to be forecast,
this data can be used to solve a power regression according to the formula:
Where n is the number of years from the first observation and Constant and AGF
are found from the linear regression. In this case, with an R-square of 0.7972 (Fig.
2) the coefficients therefore are:
7,000,000
F(Y) = 3,424,726*(1.035) (n)
6,000,000
5,000,000
4,000,000
3,000,000
2,000,000
1,000,000
0
projection of cargo flow from2 2005 to 2020
R = 0.7972
year
Table 3: Statistical data about projection of cargoes transport in Malaysia from 2005 to 2020
Years from Compound
Year Traffic Ln(Traffic) 2005 Regression
2005 3,424,719 15.04653 0 3,424,726
2006 3,608,150 15.09871 1 3,544,591
2007 3,873,320 15.16962 2 3,668,652
2008 4,137,764 15.23567 3 3,797,054
2009 3,930,319 15.18423 4 3,929,951
2010 no data no data 5 4,067,500
2015 no data no data 10 4,830,914
2020 no data no data 15 5,737,610
SOURCE : data compiled by author from Road Transport Department and port website,
December 2010
From the figure 2 and table 3, it can be concluded that the cargo truck growth is
projected will up to more than 5 million in 2020 and since the value of R
2 is 0.7972
(near to 1.0), then the result is consider acceptable.
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
As currently, the development of cargo planning model in Malaysia have a limitation
in practical and reliable tools. One of the limitations is due to the complexity in cargo
data collection. Because of lacking in data collection, the following problems are
observed: loss of the cargo flow volume, increase of delivery costs, lack of
coordination in usage of modes of transport, and etc.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Field, M., (2002), Going the Distance- the Challenge of Moving Highway
Cargo From Origin to Destination in the 21st century , CargoTtransportation
Policy.
Holguin-Veras, J., and Jara-Diaz, S. (1999), Optimal Space Allocation And Pricing
For Priority Service At Container Ports , Transport Research Part B 33 (2),
81–106
2. correlation
between
volume
versus
year
Correlations
volume year
volume Pearson Correlation 1 1.000**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 9 9
year Pearson Correlation 1.000** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 9 9
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level
Rah mat 4
1. INTRODUCTION
Many cordon pricing issues are still controversial both at a theoretical and
empirical level. From a theoretical point of view, the vast literatures of cordon
pricing have proposed a number of valuation techniques methods, and models
to separately determine various aspects of the wider effects of cordon pricing
which can be composed in two categories, short-term, long-term changes.
For a Mashhad city pricing zone involving a flat toll, an estimate of traffic
impact can be made with the knowledge of traffic demand before and after
restricted zone implementation. This article deals with traffic effects after the
cordon was introduced in Mashhad city. Furthermore, the impacts of mode and
parking attributes on mode choice, and cordon and parking charges on
commuters have been investigated.
The restricted area of the toll zone is around 530 hectare square meters and
its border length is 8.30 km. From the latest studies on September 2010, 70000
vehicles entering inside the zone with 5 km2 but due to the inadequate road
capacity just 35000 permission was issued (Mashhad, 2010c). The Existence of
business, religious and cultural, educational and service centres is causing the
uptake trip very high in downtown area which is about 20 percent of daily trips
generation in Mashhad city. In addition, the increase average speed of 10 to 20
km per hour of urban traffic and subsequently 40 percent reduction in emissions
of carbon-dioxide produced by vehicles are as a result of cordon changing
scheme (Mashhad, 2010c).
Charges were two categories over the day. The fee for passing a control
point was TN 1 2000 per day (corresponding to US Dollars 2.0) between 7:00 and
21:30 (While London initially charged £5 per day, between 7:00 and 18:30, later
raised to £8 per day and Stockholm was Euro 1.1, 1.6, and 2.2, respectively
depending on the time of day). Fees were not levied in nights, Friday (as a
casual weekend) and public holidays. The drivers that pass the borders into the
zone without any legal justification will be penalized.Various exemptions (for e.g.
taxis, buses, residential commuters who live inside the CBD) were free-of -
charge.
Figure 1. The Mashhad traffic restricted area. The solid black line is the charging cordon.
1The toman is a superunit of the official currency, Rial. 1 toman (TN)= 10 rials (IRR) and
1000 tomans =1 U.S. dollar ($)
In our assessment of the proposed cordon pricing scheme, we want to cover
three major objectives which based on two different surveys. In order to collect
information on commuter's travel pattern and their effects on traffic volume, the
first survey was carried out before (September 21) and after (September 28)
implementation of cordon charges on Monday in the summer of 2010. During the
period of 7.30–22.30, traffic counts were done in the entrance section of
restricted zone in four major roads connected to the CBD. Total types of all
vehicles were estimated entering cordon area.
In addition, on 14 to 16 August 2010 a random sample size of 580
respondents was selected to perform a comprehensive survey to identify the
responsiveness of drivers` behavior to mode and parking attributes, and cordon
and parking fees in Mashhad city during the seasonal cordon introduction. This
was a face-to-face interview from the drivers traveling inside the cordon zone.
Data are collected by personal interviews with drivers on their departure from
some parking locations in and outside the CBD.
4. RESULT
4.1 Effects on traffic volumes
In the 21st September 2010, after implementation of cordon pricing it was found
that average daily traffic flow during weekday in the restricted zone fell in volume
by 7.6% from over 73069 under 67511 and the number of all vehicle types
dropped by 13.6% from 61446 to 53123.
The traffic volume result has been a significant change in the composition of
Mashhad traffic, as measured by vehicle number driven within the charging zone
(see Table 1). Passenger cars, which was reported for almost more than 47% of
city centre traffic before the charge was imposed, now represent almost 33%, a
drop of 36%. In addition, in the case of private user the congestion levels of vans
and private buses have decreased by 24.8 and 11.9 percent respectively versus
trucks have risen slightly. In relative terms, as other vehicles were free of charge
there have been a sharp rise in motorcycle and bicycles (around 20%), taxis (up
17%) and public buses (around 27%) but the maximum is on minibus with 53.1%
increase.
The basic concept of the drop in traffic volume and congestion is that some
commuters have decreased their number of trips on cordon roads; some have
switched the commuting time to free charged hours while others have switched
to public transport (taxis, minibuses, and buses) for some or all of their trips.
These outcomes do indicate that the cordon charge would have a clear negative
impression on car users’ expenditure in the CBD. On the other hand, public
transport users are more increased by the introduction of the cordon charge as
expected.
Table1. Impact of the cordon fee on Number of vehicles in the congestion charging zone
in Mashhad
Vehicle Type No. of vehicles Cordon percentage
Before After charge change
Bicycles and
12718 (20.7%) 15206 (28.6%) Free 19.6%
Motorcycle
Passenger car 34560 (56.2%) 22050 (41.5%) TN 2000 -36.2%
Taxi 8714 (14.2%) 10227 (19.3%) Free 17.4%
Van 2558 (4.2%) 1923 (3.6%) TN 2000 -24.8%
Minibus 508 (0.8%) 778 (1.5%) Free 53.1%
Public bus 2071 (3.4%) 2629 (4.9%) Free 26.9%
Private bus 101 (0.2%) 89 (0.2%) TN 2000 -11.9%
Trucks 216 (0.4%) 223 (0.4%) TN 2000 3.2%
All vehicles 61446 (1 00.0%) 53125 (1 00.0%) -13.5%
Generally, the decrease in hourly traffic volume was largest in the afternoon
peak period (22.4% between 17:30 and 18:30), and somewhat lower in the
morning peak period (18.7% between 9:30 and 10:30) (see Figure 2). Declining
in equivalent number of passenger cars during the restricted cordon hours have
proofed but around 35% rising between 20:30 to 21:30 indicates shifting in
commuting times in the evening. These reveal that a more portion of arbitrary
trips is made during the afternoon peak rather than in the morning. These kinds
of trips may belong to non-work purpose instead of work trip purpose whose
arrival times fixed more than departure time to work.
Figure 2. Distribution of traffic volume passing across the restricted boundary before and
8000
after implementation of cordon charges
7000
6000 7:30-
8:30-
5000 9:30-
4000 10:30-
11:30-
3000 12:30- Before After
16:30-
2000 17:30-
18:30-
1000 19:30-
0 20:30-
21:30-
8:30
9:30
10:30
11:30
12:30
13:30
17:30
18:30
19:30
20:30
21:30
22:30
4.2 Effect of attributes on mode choice
In order to get a realistic picture of the changes in mode shifting, investigation of
driver's responsiveness to mode and parking choice attributes was conducted in
August 2010. On the one hand, the face to face survey was focused on drivers
who have traveled to the CBD including cordon fees with/without their private
cars and so the changes in switching to other modes are likely to happen.
Search time, walk/ egress time, parking fee, in-vehicle and cordon fee are the
five attributes using to estimate their effects on mode and parking choice. They
are defined as:
Search time: The time spent searching and queuing for the parking space,
Walk/ egress time: The time spent walking from parking to the final destination,
Parking cost : The total parking fee and
In-vehicle cost: The total cost paid for using public transport services to access
the CBD
28.7
41.2 40.1
64.0 56.0
31.4
29.9 30.1
18.0 25.7
28.9 29.8 39.9
18.0 18.3
5. CONCLUSION
Urban cordon pricing is one of the effective solutions to eradicate the traffic
congestion problem excruciating most large cities. Since the Mashhad city had
been facing congestion as well as pollution from vehicle noise and exhaust
fumes, a seasonal restricted zone for implementation of cordon charges
schemes have been defined on March 2007. The aim of this research is not only
to investigate the traffic effect but the behaviour of drivers to mode and parking
choice attributes, and cordon and parking charges in cordon area of Mashhad
city.
Traffic was sensitive to changes in cordon, and had clear negative effects on
car users. An interesting outcome concerns the magnitude of this change. This
research showed that even though the average charge in Mashhad was
relatively low but the cordon fees resulted in reductions of traffic congestion in
the former periods compared to the expected effects of other measures that are
discussed in other cities.
On an average, there was a decrease in passenger cars over 36% for the hours
of cordon with the charge of TN 2000 per entry in Mashhad, whilst London
initially charged £5 (TN 8000) per day and the number of private cars coming
into central London dropped 34% between 2002 (before the charge) and 2003
(Leape, 2006b). Furthermore, the traffic in Stockholm was reduced around 22%
compared to 12 months before and after the first month of trial implementation in
2005 and 2006 with Euro 1.1, 1.6, and 2.2, respectively depending on the
time of day (Eliasson et al., 2009).
• The experiences from Mashhad show that in-vehicle cost affects the least
and cordon fee includes the most impression on mode choice.
There are potential recommendations for economic and environmental
benefits to be gained by introducing Mashhad cordon charge scheme. The first
is establishing fully electronic with non-stop toll lanes from vehicles crossing
cordon area. For better public satisfaction, having time-differentiated charges
supporting traffic management objectives is the second proposal. Finally,
considering maximum limit of one chargeable crossing within specific time in per
hours or month where every single crossing have to be paid for.
6. REFERENCES
ARMELIUS, H. & HULTKRANTZ, L. (2006) The politico-economic link between
public transport and road pricing: An ex-ante study of the Stockholm road-
pricing trial. Transport Policy, 13, 162-172.
LIAN, J. I. (2008) The Oslo and Bergen toll rings and road-building investment -
Effect on traffic development and congestion. Journal of Transport
Geography, 16, 174-181.
MASHHAD, R. (2004) Methods to deal with traffic problems during certain date.
Mashhad traffic studies during certain date. Mashhad transportation and
traffic organization, Report from Behin Taradod consultant.
MAY, A. D., LIU, R., SHEPHERD, S. P. & SUMALEE, A. (2002) The impact of
cordon design on the performance of road pricing schemes. Transport
Policy, 9, 209-220.
MUN, S.-I., KONISHI, K.-J. & YOSHIKAWA, K. (2003) Optimal cordon pricing.
Journal of Urban Economics, 54, 21-38.
ODECK, J. & BRÅTHEN, S. (2002) Toll financing in Norway: The success, the
failures and perspectives for the future. Transport Policy, 9, 253-260.
OLSZEWSKI, P. & XIE, L. (2005) Modelling the effects of road pricing on traffic in
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772.
ROTARIS, L., DANIELIS, R., MARCUCCI, E. & MASSIANI, J. (2010) The urban
road pricing scheme to curb pollution in Milan, Italy: Description, impacts and
preliminary cost-benefit analysis assessment. Transportation Research Part
A: Policy and Practice, 44, 359-375.
SANTOS, G. & BHAKAR, J. (2006) The impact of the London congestion charging
scheme on the generalised cost of car commuters to the city of London from
a value of travel time savings perspective. Transport Policy, 13, 22-33.
SCHADE, J. & SCHLAG, B. (2003) Acceptability of urban transport pricing
strategies. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and
Behaviour, 6, 45-61.
1. INTRODUCTION
There are many researches carried out to predict travel time over the past
decades. There are a few prediction techniques adopted, such as statistical
modelling (Chen et al., 2003 and Van Lint et al., 2008), regression analysis (Cohen
and Southworth, 1999, Li, 2004, and MacDonald, 2008), Fourier transform (Ng and
Walker, 2010), and econometric modelling (Peer et al., 2009). In terms of variables
considered in modelling, Cohen and Southworth (1999) investigated the effect of
incidents on travel time in terms of mean and variance of time lost. They estimated
the mean and variance of delays due to freeway incidents, debris and vehicle
breakdown as a function of volume to capacity ratio. Chen et al. (2003) also
investigated the effects of incidents on travel time for weekdays. Results suggested
that incidents induced more variability during off peak periods. Li (2004) investigated
more factors such as incident occurrence, time of day, day of week and weather on
the CityLink freeway in Melbourne, Australia. The findings indicate that around 50%
of variability is influenced by the investigated factors. MacDonald (2008) used five
months data (exclude incident-related data) to develop functions in predicting day to
day variability for United Kingdom’s roadway. He showed that standard deviation of
travel time per km as cubic function of mean travel time per km is appropriate to
describe the day to day variability in highway.
This study makes a novel attempt to investigate the travel time variability on the
highways in Malaysia, specifically in Klang Valley region. The objectives of this
study are two-fold. First, the travel time variability with respect to time is analysed by
plotting the graphs employing data obtained from the detectors on the field. This
provides some insight on how the travel time on the highways changes for different
time of a day and a week. Second, regression models are developed to predict the
travel time on the highways by relating it to some significant contributing factors,
specifically the time of a day, the day of a week, incident occurrence, traffic flow,
weather, and holidays. Middle Ring Road II is adopted as the case study. Results
show that the travel time varies with respect to the time of a day and day of a week.
The factors mentioned above are found to be statistically significant in affecting the
travel time variability.
2. METHODOLOGY
The study area chosen for the study is Middle Ring Road II (MRRII) which is a 2-
way highway connecting regions near boundary of Federal Territory of Kuala
Lumpur and Selangor. The total length of the highway is 35 km started at Sri
Damansara Interchange at the North and end at Jalan Bandar Tasik Selatan at the
South. The highway penetrates through a few busy towns such as Kepong,
Setapak, Ampang, and Cheras. The stretch of the road where the travel time is
derived is shown in Figure 1 which is about 30 km of the entire highway. The study
period is from 1st February 2006 to 31st July 2006 in which 2 specific periods are
defined for data analysis purposes, namely morning (7am-9am) and evening (4pm-
8pm) peak periods. Weekdays are the working days from Monday to Friday while
Saturday and Sunday are defined as weekends. Whenever there is no public
holiday or school holiday, the day is considered as normal day.
?t m (2)
= =
j
M
The traffic flow and speed data is collected from the ITIS Transport Management
Centre (TMC) (CHKL, 2010) who has detectors installed on the road. The detectors
record data at every 3-minute intervals. The mean traffic flow is computed using the
following equation:
M J
∑ ∑
q
i n t e r v a l
,
jm
mj
= 1 1
=
q ˆ ___________________________________(1)
=
M
where interval
q j,m indicates the mean traffic flow for interval j and hour m . Since an
hours in the specific period. For example, if morning peak period is considered,
interval
M 3 ; qq N wher e q i is the 3-m inut e int er val tr affic flow f or det ec tor i
=
j,m i
= ∑
∀ i
and N indicates the total number of detectors on the stretch of the highway.
The mean travel time for the specific period is computed using the following
equation:
M J
∑ ∑
t
i n t e r v a l
jm
,
where interval
t j,m indicates the mean travel time for interval j and hour m . Since an
hours in the specific period. For example, if morning peak period is considered,
M 3 ;= ? i
t j interval
m =
,
i
∑ L vi i
stretch i and N indicates the total number stretches defined for the highway per
direction, i.e. N 18 .
=
There are a few independent variables considered for the travel time variability
model. The daily (24-hour) rainfall data is collected from Malaysia Meteorological
Department (MMD, 2010). Based on rainfall intensity, the storm severity is
categorized into 4 categories, in which level 0 defines sunny day, level 1 defines
light storm, level 3 defines medium storm, and level 4 defines very heavy fall. The
incident log report is obtained from ITIS TMC in order to understand whether there
are incidents happening on the highways. The number of incidents per day is used
as the input for the travel time variability model by assuming that the effect on the
traffic condition is the same regardless of incident type and severity. The effect of
public or school holiday is surveyed by retrieving the information from the online
calendar. The indicator of public or school holiday will be defined as 1 and 0 for
normal days. For day of week, indicator for weekday is defined as 1 and weekends
are input as 0. The mean travel time computed in eqn. (2) is normalized and used as
the dependent variables in the model.
Linear regression models are statistical models which are helpful in exploring the
relationships between the dependent variables and the independent variables. In
this study, the Best Subsets Regression method is employed to predict the travel
time based on a few variables mentioned above. Hypothesis testing needs to be
carried out to study the significance of the variables considered. For each of the
variable, t-statistic is adopted in the test while for the overall model, F-statistic is
adopted. The setting of the hypothesis testing is as follows:
H 01 2 ?
: 0
? =?
k
?=
(3)
=
H: β ≠
0 for at least one j
1 j
By comparing the p-value, the significant of the variables could be obtained. For any
variable that has p-value lesser than the pre-determined level of confidence, the null
hypothesis in (3) is rejected and this indicates that the variable is significant.
80
The travel time variability models developed for southbound traffic during
morning and evening peak period are shown in eqns. (4) and (5):
computed using eqn. (2) and eqn. (1) respectively; Inc , P, D, and S represent
incident, public holiday, day of the week and school holiday variables respectively.
The values in the bracket under the variables indicate the t-statistic and p-value
respectively, (t-statistic, p-value), while the bracket at the end of the equations
indicate the R2 and F-statistic respectively, [ 2
R , F-statistic].
The hypothesis testing shows that both models and their independent variables
are statistically significant at 95% confidence level. Eqn. (4) shows that the travel
time on the morning peak periods is most affected by the day of the week. Travel
time increases during weekdays and if there is incidents occur on the highway.
Nevertheless, the travel time reduces during public holidays. In the evening peak
(Eqn. (5) is referred), it is observed that the travel time is longer during weekdays
and school holidays. It is marginally affected by the mean traffic flow on the
highway. It is interesting to note that there is negative relationship between mean
travel time and mean traffic flow. This implies that the traffic condition on the
highway is in the “forced flow” condition which is over capacity. This has restricted
the vehicle flowing smoothly which cause longer travel time.
The travel time variability models for northbound traffic for morning and evening
peak periods are shown in eqns. (6) and (7) respectively:
lnt ˆ 2.98
= + 0.000059 q ˆ × + 0.0530 Inc 0.150 P 0.156 D (6)
×− × + ×
lnt ˆ 4.39
= − 0.000248 q ˆ × − 0.166 P 0.0799 D
× + × (7)
83
where the symbols take the same definition as above-mentioned. The hypothesis
testing shows that the models are statistically significant and all the variables
investigated qre also significant at 95% confidence level. Both models show that
they are sensitive to the day of the week and public holiday indicators, and traffic
flow. It is observed that the travel time is longer for weekdays, which has higher
impact on the morning peak periods compared to evening peak periods. The mean
travel time reduces during public holidays and the impact is about the same for both
peak periods. Eqn. (6) shows that the mean travel time increases with the traffic
flow. Heavier traffic flow induced longer mean travel time if the traffic condition on
the highway is under “balanced” flow condition. The opposite is observed for eqn.
(7) which indicated that the traffic flow condition during the evening peak period is
under “forced flow” situation.
The travel time variability of MRRII is studied for a period of 6 months using the
data obtained from the loop detectors. According to the results obtained, the day of
the week variable has the greatest impact on the travel time variability. In average,
the travel time during weekdays is higher than during weekends. This indicates that
the highway is used by daily commuters who generate work trips. This could also
explain why the mean travel time is shorter during public holidays. The occurrence
of incidents increases the travel time during morning peak period for both sides of
the highway. This is because bottlenecks created from the incidents have worsened
the traffic condition on the highways. It is also observed that the traffic condition
during the evening peak periods is worse compared to morning peak period for both
directions. The negative relationship between the mean travel time and traffic flow
indicates low level of service of the highway. This is supported by Figure 2A and 2B
respectively as the peak of the plots occur in the evening peak periods. Weather or
storm level has no effect on the travel time variability.
4. CONCLUSION
84
that the interaction effect between the variables is not included in the regression
models. For example, the mean traffic flow on the highway might be influenced by
the time of the day, but such interaction is not considered. The traffic management
agencies could adopt the findings in this study to plan for an efficient traffic
management strategies that mitigate traffic congestion on MRRII especially during
evening peak periods. In the future study, the travel time variability with respect to
distant will be investigated to observe the bottleneck points that create congestion.
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
6.REFERENCES
Chen, C., Van Zwet, E., Varaiya, P., & Skabardonis, A. (2003). Travel time reliability
as a measure of service. Transportation Research Record 1855 , pp. 74-79.
Cohen, H., & Southworth (1999). On the measurement and valuation of travel time
variability due to incidents on freeways. Journal of Transportation and Statistics,
2(2), pp. 123-131.
City Hall Kuala Lumpur (CHKL) (2010). Integrated Transport Information System
(ITIS), Transport Management Centre, Bukit Jalil, Kuala Lumpur.
Li, R., (2004). Examining travel time variability using AVI data . Technical report,
Institute of Transport Studies, The Australian key Centre in Transport
Management, Monash University. < http://www.sidrasolutions.com/documents/ >
[Accessed 1st Auguest 2010].
Peer, S., Koopmans, C., & Verhoef, E. (2009). Predicting Travel Time Variability for
Cost-Benefit-Analysis.
<http :// www. internationaltransportforum .org/Proceed ings/rel iabil ity/Peer. pdf>
[Assessed 1st August 2010].
85
Van Lint, J. W. C., van Zuylen, H. J., & Tu H. (2008). Travel time unreliability on
freeways: Why measures based on variance tell only half the story.
Transportation Research Part A , 42 (1), pp. 258-277.
86
009 YES WE CAN !
REDUCE ROAD CONGESTION AND CO2 EMISSION BY INTRODUCTION
OF A NEW INTERMODAL LOGISTICS CHAIN
2,
MC, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
natasagb@gmail.com
Keywords : EU common transport policy, Balkans, intermodal logistic chain, reduce road
congestion, CO2 reduction
1. INTRODUCTION
Internalization of external transport costs are seen as an important instrument of
stimulation of intermodal transport observed in the White Paper of the European
Commission (COM 2001). European common transport policy consists in reforming
national policies of member states with an aim to shaping a new European Union
common policy. The goal of the process is to develop a common market in the field
of transport services and to do so, may be a solution should be to develop a
common transport policy for south-east Europe and to the declared aims which
could contribute economic growth, stability and cohesion in this part of Europe. The
EU strategies for the region have a social dimension such as the EU Roadmap on
enlargement for the Balkans (Tilling 2007). “European Commission has prepared
the following steps:
87
2.Liberalization of transport operation services and opening access to
infrastructure.
Creation of the demand for intermodal logistic chain using short sea shipping and
railways would underline two main objectives such as reduce road congestion and
reduce of CO2 emission. The realization of both objectives consequently will reach a
final aim of increasing profit and give a better contribution on the environment by
reduction of greenhouse gas emission.
1.1 Brief history of a common transport policy for the European Union
A common transport policy starts from 1999 when the Stability Pact for SE
Europe was set up by European Commission. EU today is a promoter of intra-
regional cooperation, with special interest in transport section.
The main objectives for the road transport are to improve quality, apply existing
regulations more effectively by tightening up controls and penalties. The World Bank
document “Railway Reform in the western Balkans (2005)” contains a list of
recommended railway reform measures to be implemented by each western Balkan
country such as staff reductions, privatization of freight operator and closing loss
making local lines .
Objectives for the sea and inland waterway transport are to develop the
infrastructure, simplify the regulatory framework by creating one-stop offices and
integrate the social legislation in order to build veritable “motorways of the sea”.
Proposed measures are a key part of intermodality, which allow a way round
bottlenecks between France and Spain in the Pyrenees or between Italy and the
rest of Europe in the Alps, as well as between France and the United Kingdom and
looking ahead between Germany and Poland. The Commission has proposed a new
legislative framework for the ports which is designed to lay down new, clearer rules
on pilotage, cargo-handing, stevedoring etc; to simplify the rules governing
operation of ports themselves and bring together all the links in the logistics chain
(Pilsoo 2003).
Objectives for the intermodality are to shift the balance between modes of transport
by means of a proactive policy to promote intermodality/combined transport by rail,
sea and inland waterway. In these connection major initiatives is the “Marco Polo”
community support program to replace the current program. Proposed measure is to
open all appropriate proposals to shift freight from road to other more
88
environmentally friendly modes. The aim is to turn intermodality into a competitive,
economically viable reality, particularly by promoting motorways of the sea (COM
2001).
“REBIS” is a network and a study that includes the mail rail and road connections
between the five capitals of the region, as well as the cities of Banja Luka,
Podgorica and Pristina; the linking of these cities with the capitals of the neighboring
count ries and t o the ports of the Adr iatic Sea and t he river Danube
(www.seerecon.org).
89
1.3 Social impact
The European Union found out that transport has a determinant impact on
regional development and regional cohesion. South-East Europe countries are
more sensitive because facing more or less critical levels of socio-economic,
stability and having a rich history of ethno-political problems.
Most countries in the region have very high (30%) rate of unemployment reached
also as a result for transiting, the Balkan conflicts etc. For example: a sector as
railways transport where 50% of labor force has left their jobs within last ten years.
The current plans to liberalize rail transport in the region will have a further impact
on jobs – and with no chance of resorting to voluntary departures or early retirement
schemes.
Regarding seaports, the intention is to select a few ports of regional interest for
future investments. This is another critical impact on port-dependent communities
and domestic economies. Here are some key questions such as:
What are the job opportunities for the people who leave the transport industry?
What are the measures to retain the active population in the labor market-training
and job opportunities?
The trade unions should be involved as a social partners in the process of reform
and some other aspects must be pointed out: South-East Europe countries have
young democracies and so less transparency and social dialogue. Assistance of
European Union on South-East Europe countries also as a pressure to implement
social dialogue, consultation and information mechanisms. International financial
institutions – often a barrier for the reform process because of “chain of blame”
social dialogue at national level Consultation of trade union on the European Union
regional transport policy for south-east Europe (De Placio, 2005).
90
- Fuel consumption and CO2 emissions should fall by at least 10% for cars and 5%
for heavy vehicles as a result of better vehicle maintenance and driving for fuel
efficiency
- Further reductions in fuel consumption of 10-20% should result from improvements
to road infrastructure, better use of transport modes, IT systems, higher car
occupancy rates and freight loading factors
- Further reduction of carbon emissions associated with fuel production should be
achieved
- By 2020, fuel cell vehicles and low carbon or hydrogen fuels should start
contributing to carbon reduction, provided sustained research efforts are begun
now - By 2020, Euro 5 and 6 vehicles should be well established in the vehicle fleet
Research has been conducted and there are some measures which have
environmental impact of transports: regulations on the use of vehicles and the
effective enforcement of those regulations; demand management approaches which
reduce the need to travel or the use of less sustainable modes: pricing measures;
soft options such as travel plans and informational and behavior change campaigns
and land use planning (EEA 2003).
Research on climate change for the United Kingdom Government From the Tyndall
Center for Climate Change Research (Bows at al. 2006; Banister et al. 2006) has
shown that limiting carbon emissions from transport in order to achieve sustainability
targets will be extremely difficult to achieve. These environmental aspects of
transport cover the full life cycle of transport.(Banister et al. 2000). The largest
impacts come from transport use, but the effects from development and construction
of infrastructure and vehicles, as well as the waste from the disposal, and to the
environmental costs of transport.
The Transport and Environment Reporting Mechanism report for 2008 from the
European Environment Agency , concludes that “ the current economic turmoil may
lessen the demand for transport, but the transport sector still contributes significantly
91
to rising emissions of greenhouse gases, noise exposure, air pollution,
fragmentation of habitat and impacts on wildlife.
Growing transport volumes have driven emissions up by 27% between 1990 and
2006 (excluding the international aviation and marine sector), so transport issue is
moving up into many political agenda and more research in this area is being
conducted. The world’s total energy consumption is expected to increase at an
average annual rate of 1.7% to 2.0% (EEA 2005; EEA 2006). The transport sector
will represent 63% of the increase in global oil demand over the period 2004 to 2030
and in non-OECD countries transport will be the biggest contributor to oil demand
growth. (Transplus).
92
those could be easily improved switching in a rail transport where that is possible or
still better switching into a intermodal logistic chain.
2. PROJECT IDEA
The project idea is to create unaccompanied combined transport chain of
intermodal transport units in South East Europe between Bari Logistic Center and
Logistic Railways Terminals in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Romania,
Montenegro, Croatia and Bulgaria avoiding the road traffic and reduction of CO2
using short sea shipping by Ro/Ro vessels and block trains. The European
Commission has developed policy measures to shift the balance between transport
modes with special focus on promoting intermodal transport. The type of transport
has been strongly advocated because of environmental concerns and safety
reasons to avoid road congestions.
93
harmonization in terms of technical specifications for infrastructure, signaling,
telecommunications and rolling stock as well as certain operational rules (CEC
2001; CEC 2006) This group should create common intermodal policy.
3. CONCLUSION
It is necessary to recognize that the environmental and social implications of the
transport need to be constantly and carefully monitored.
The starting point is to find sustainable transport and welcome the development of
infrastructure changing as a policy instrument to contain and reduce congestion and
reduce environmental impacts. Kreutzberger (Kreuntzberger et al 2003) state that
the environmental performance of intermodal transport is substantially better than
that of unimodal road transport when looking at every use and CO2 emission and
this is even more outspoken when also local emissions, accidents, congestion and
noise are integrated. As regards of the automatic link between economic growth and
growth in freight transport, the solution is not in reduction of transport but in
redistribution between modes. This is a reason why a project idea could have
success. In this case we are not only talking about redistribution between modes
(Ogorelc 2003) of transport but also implementing a new corridor. Fair and efficient
pricing, better investments and some of policy tools that can help to achieve this.
Enlargement of the European Union is set to trigger larger exchanges of goods and
so need for additional investments in transport infrastructures. It’s well known south-
east Europe transport system distinguishes itself by extremely fragmented transport,
i.e. 5000 km of border. Italy, especially South Italy, with its geographical position and
also cultural, political, humanitarian, historical connections could have prestige and
favorable role between European Union and Balkans. Furthermore, implementation
of legal regulations under supervision could produce different positive
consequences on transport, environment, production, crime control, protection and
defense etc. The European Commission is supporting the idea that transport costs
should reflect the true impact on environment and society and is relentlessly pushing
towards the so called internalization of external costs as a policy instrument in order
to establish fair and efficient pricing of different transport modes.
REFERENCES
Banister.D and Hickman.R (2006) “How to design a more sustainable and fairer built
environment ” IEEE Proceedings of the Intelligent Transport System 153(4). 276-291
94
Banister.D , Stead.D, Steen.P, Akerman.J, Dreborg.K, Nijkamp.P and Scheicher-
Tappeser.R (2000) “European Transport Policy and sustainable mobility ”; London
E&FN Spon
COM (2001) White paper:European transport policy for 2010:time to decide. 370
De Placio (2005) See the 2005 report of the High level Group co-ordinated by
Loyola de Placio “Networks for peace and development-extension of the major
trans- European transport axes to the neighbouring countries and regions , on the
basis of which the European Commission will issue a Communication in autumn
2006
95
Report 03, European Environment Agency, Copenhagen (June 2009)
www.eea.europa.eu/pubblications/transport-at-a-crossroads
ETRAC (2010), “European road transport 2020:a vision and strategic research
agenda ”, Sixth Framework Programme Research Advisory Council.
www.ertrac.org
Kreutzberger, E., Macharis, C. ,Vereecken, L. ,Woxen ius, L., 2003 Is intermodal freight
transport more environmental friendly than all-road freight transport ? A review
in:7th Nectar Conference “A New Millennium. Are things the Same? Umea
Sweden 13-14 June 2003
Ogorelc A. (2003)“ European Union Common Transport Policy “; Nase more” 50. 5-6
The World Bank document “Railway Reform in the western Balkans (Decembe2005)”
ec.europa.eu/.../rail/.../2005worldbankwesternbalkansrailwaysreport.pdf
www.seerecon.org/infrastructure/sectors/transport/documents/REBIS/RebisFRFin
al.pdf (01/02/2010)
96
021 COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF TRIP DISTRIBUTION IN
SKUDAI TOWN, MALAYSIA
J. Ben-Edigbe 1, A. Pakshir 2
1, 2 Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81300 Skudai, Johor, MALAYSIA
Corresponding Author email: edigbe@utm.my
1
ABSTRACT: The estimation of future traffic flows in Skudai town hinges on trip distribution
as well as trip generation, modal choice and network assignment. Growth factors and
synthetic methods are often employed in the matrix of elements in inter-zone and intra-zone
movements. Growth factor methods assume that future trip-makings will remain substantially
same even though the volume of trips may increase in line with prevalent growth rates.
However, synthetic models argue that socio-economic factor as well as travel cost would
affect future trip makings. Given the disparity, the study carried out in Skudai Town Malaysia,
explored the hypothesis that future transport network will not have travel resistance as the
present network as suggested in growth factor methods. In essence, year 2009 home to
work trips produced by the residents of Skudai Towns were evaluated and distributed into
zones accordingly, then future trips for 2014 were approximated using growth factor and
gravity (synthetic) models. Trip matrices results were analysed and compared. In the growth
factor method, random irregularities in the observed travel pattern are enlarged in the
predicted pattern. In the gravity model, the common impendence function for Skudai Town is
unsatisfactory even though the model takes into account competition for trips. The study
concluded that notwithstanding its sensitivity to changes in the separation between zones,
gravity model is best suited for responsive trip distribution, it can be argued.
1. INTRODUCTION
Travel forecasting models are used to predict changes in travel patterns and the
utilization of the transportation system in response to changes in regional
development, demographics, and transportation supply. Modelling travel
demand is a challenging task, because Different modeling technique often
results in different outcomes, so it is important to assess the merits and demerits
of the two well established modeling techniques for trip distribution as the
second steps from four steps of transportation planning process (average growth
factor and gravity model) and one that is required for rational planning and
evaluation of transportation systems.
97
trips may increase in line with prevalent growth rates. However, synthetic models
argue that socio-economic factor as well as travel cost would affect future trip
makings. Both have commonalities in terms of independent parameters,
however, growth factors relies on historic growth rate for prediction while gravity
model relies on socio-economic variables or friction factor. Whilst the
advantages and disadvantages of these methods have been discussed by many
scholars, it is unclear which approach would assess future trips in a growing
town that is experiencing substantial changes in land use patterns.
Given the disparity between the growth factor and gravity model methods,
the study carried out in Skudai Town Malaysia, explored the hypothesis that
future transport network will not have travel resistance as the present network as
suggested in growth factor methods. Skudai Town, Johor is a rapidly expanding
suburb of Johor Bahru, the capital of the state of Johor in Malaysia.
To Kuala Lumpur
To Kluang
To Batu Pahat
To K
Kelapa Sawit
Kulai
Seelong
Senai Ulu Tiram
To Pontian
SKUDAI Kempas
To Pontian
Tampoi
Johor Bahru
Gelang Patah Pasir Gudang
Nusajaya
Tg. Pelepas
To Singapore
•
•
98
Malaysia has been identified Skudai Town and Senai as a logistics hub for the
future development growth. The accessibility to these areas is important to the
mobility of people and transportation of goods and also for future expansions of
urban communities. Skudai town has forty local districts. The total land area is
18,957 acres with a population of is 40,566 (2000), assuming a generalised
growth rate of 3% over 10 years along national line, Skudai population for the
year 2010 is estimated at 55000. It is home to the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
(UTM).
Trip distribution models strive to predict the number of trips that will be made
between a pair of zones and describe the destination-choice phase of the
sequential demand analysis procedure. Synthetic and growth factor methods are
basic techniques used to determine trip distribution. The more general trip
distribution model can be expressed as:
(1)
Where; =Trip from zone i – j; =Production; =Attraction;
= impedance function
Production and attraction are the basic commonality factor in the various models
of trip distribution, model interpretation of impedance function differ in their
characterisation and the way they are assumed to affect trip distribution.
99
productions of flows from zone are first balanced and then attraction. The
relative growth factor rate can be estimated as follows:
Thus;
Constant Factor, (2)
Fratar, (4)
F
Furness,
5
)
W
he
re;
A
=
fut
ur
e
att
ra
cti
on
,a
=
pr
es
en
t
att
ra
100
cti
on
;P
=
fut
ur
e
pr
od
uc
tio
n,
p
=
pr
es
en
t
att
ra
cti
on
101
Tri
pr
od
uc
tio
n(
an
tri
att
ra
cti
on
( )
in
ea
ch
zo
ne
ar
tw
pa
102
ra
et
er
from four parameters, friction factor (fij) and socio-economic factor ( Kij) are
others parameters. To make predictions the forecast zone trip end totals Pi ,
103
Aj, Fij
and
Kij
factors are input into the relevant models and the appropriate
iterative procedure to satisfy the trip end constraints carried out. Note that
travel patterns are determined by the calibration of gravity model that is
directly related to the friction factor and socio-economic factor.
ax
im
is
0
)
105
Most studies in the past have used travel time as the measure of
separation of ten with some questions unresolved. Travel time depends on
traffic conditions and modes of transport and so it is not a unique figure for
any pair of zones. If trip frequencies for different modes of transport are
calculated separately, different travel times may be used in the gravity
model.
In any case, since, gravity model is driven by attraction rates; the choice
of Furness Method is ruled out because it is driven by production rates,
hence Fratar method is the preferred method for comparative assessment
because it is also driven by attraction rates. In sum equations 4 and 6 were
used to assess trip distribution in Skudai Town.
Further, Skudai town was divided into 6 zones which represent one group
per zone. Particularly Zone 1 is Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Zone 2 consist of
Taman Jaya,Taman Nesa, Taman Sri Putri, and Taman Sri Skudai. Zone 3
consists of Taman Bukit Gemilang, Taman Damai Jaya, Taman Harmoni 1,
Taman Harmoni 2, Taman Sutera Utama, Taman Ungku Tun Aminah, Taman
Seri Orkid and Taman Mutiara Rini.
Zone 4 is the largest area including Taman Seri Orkid, Taman Dato’ Yunus
Sulaiman, Taman Lima Kedai, Bandar Selesa Jaya, Taman Jaya Mas, Taman
Melawati, Taman Nusa Bestari 2, Taman Nusa Bestari Jaya, Taman Nusa Jaya
Mas, Taman Timur, and Taman Industri Jaya.
While for zone 5 also including Taman Mutiara Rini, Taman Berjaya, Taman
Pulai Bayu, Kampung Baru Skudai, Taman Desa Skudai, Taman Desa Skudai
Fasa 3, Taman Pulai Flora, Taman Pulai Utama, Taman Skudai, Taman Skudai
Baru, Taman Skudai Indah, Taman Skudai Jaya, Taman Skudai Ria, and Taman
Universiti. Finally is zone 6 which consist of Taman Teratai, Taman Sri Pulai and
Taman Sri Pulai Perdana. A summary of estimated zone population and
employment for the 2010 is shown below in Tables 1 and 2. In circumstances
where a zone is described as 4, 4a and 4b say; it’s merely indicative of the
multiple roles of the zone. There are no exclusively residential zones in Skudai
town.
3. DATA COLLECTION
Data obtained from local authority Johor Bahru Central Municipal Council (MPJBT)
were examined and verified by way test surveys. Other relevant data were collected
by way of home interview surveys. As shown below in Table 2, travel time from
residential zone to working zone is computed as a function of distance and speed. It
is pertinent to bear in mind that the computed travel times do not take into account
intersection delays as to be expected. Travel times shown in Table 2 are link based.
Estimated trip generation for the year 2009 and their corresponding growth factors
are shown in Table 3 below.
Trip generation data presented in Table 3 and link travel times are analysed
using fratar and gravity methods. By using fratar method the estimated growth
factors are relied on, however, caution should be exercised when interpreting
growth factor findings because of the conflicting figures. Historic population and
employment growth trends were used in fusion with literature obtained from
library and government sources. Nonetheless, the averaging techniques used in
deriving the figures make them acceptable with some degree of acceptable
confidence.
Table 3 Trip Generation in the year 2009 (100
Zone 1 3a 4a 4b 5a ∑Pj Gf
2 3 2 3 2 3 13 2.3
3 25 16 23 19 26 109 6.2
4 8 5 7 6 8 34 4.3
5 16 10 15 12 17 70 5.1
6 5 3 5 4 5 22 1.6
∑A i 57 36 53 43 59 248
Gf 5.03 5.05 5 5.02 5.02
Care should also be taken when using the friction factors presented in Table 4
below, because delay at intersections that should otherwise be were not taken
into account. The table mere assumes that travel time is inversely proportional to
friction factor, this assumption is debatable. Take note that socio-economic
impedance factors that represent the socio-ecomic constraints associated with
trip making was assumed to be same overtime, hence taken as 1.
Table 4 Friction Factors versus Travel Time
TT 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 15 21
FF 26 21 18 15 14 12 11 10 9 8 7 5
Note: TT – travel time; FF = friction factor
Year 2009 home to work trips produced by the residents of Skudai Towns
were evaluated and distributed into zones accordingly, then future trips for
2014 were approximated using growth factor and gravity (synthetic) models.
Trip matrices results were analysed and compared. In the growth factor
method, random irregularities in the observed travel pattern are enlarged in
the predicted pattern. In the gravity model, the common impendence function
for Skudai Town is unsatisfactory even though the model takes into account
competition for trips.
Note that
Hence and
The resultant trip distributions are shown below in table 5. The most
advantage of the growth factor techniques is that to express the numerous
particular travel relationships that exist in any urban area. In addition, the
Fratar method shows defect in territories with land use change by applying
compounded growth rate generously to all zones. Although the model is
simple and easy to apply, the assumption that travel resistance is unchanged
Table 5 Predicted 2014isTD
with time Based on the
questionable. Fratar
Thus, Method
this model(100)
is good for zone snap shot picture
of what’s happening not prediction that would be relied on for town planning
or future land use. The five year forecast presented in table 5 would have to
be compared with results obtained using synthetic method for validity. Given
that Skudai Town is small, with nearly precise information; one would expect
the results from Gravity model to have a close resemblance to that shown
here in Table 5. However, in an urban area like Johor Bahru or Kuala
Lumpur, a large disparity in outcome would occur.
Zone 1 3a 4a 4b 5a
2 7 5 7 4 7
3 155 100 142 118 161
4 35 22 30 26 35
5 82 52 76 61 86
6 8 5 8 6 8
Table 8.The friction factor derived for the calibrated model (see table 6) are
assumed to remain unchanged with time, however if Kij
factors are found
necessary they should be altered to take into account changes in the socio-
economic relationships which gave rise to their original use. In the study,
socio-economic factors are taken as 1. The higher the friction factor, the
smaller the travel time and vice versa. In table 7, matrix figures for the first
iteration are presented. After three iterations the differences between the
6
given and estimated parameter lie within 95 % to 105% range, hence they
are acceptable. The summary of predicted trip distribution for year 2014 is
shown below in Table 8.
Trip distributions in zones 2, 4 and 6 do not differ significantly for the two
estimation techniques employed probably because of small traffic volume
between the production and attraction zone as to be expected in suburban
areas. However, when there is a surge in traffic volume, significant differences
become obvious as clearly demonstrated in zones 3 and 5. Although gravity
model tends to overvalue near trips and undervalue far trips, nevertheless, there
calibrating ingredients contained within allow for considerable manipulation in
other to obtain a good fit to existing conditions.
5 CONCLUSION
Based on the hypothesis that future transport network will not have travel
resistance as the present network as suggested in growth factor methods. The
study concluded that notwithstanding its sensitivity to changes in the separation
between zones, gravity model is best suited for responsive trip distribution, it can
be argued. Further, that the wide use of a common impedance function for an
entire suburban area is unsatisfactory because the effect of separation probably
differs for zones having different economic or social characteristics. The use of
adjustment factors is intended to overcome this problem but for most trip
purposes a greater degree of stratification seems to be the best solution
REFERENCES
Nicolas J. Garber, Lester A. Hoel (2009) Traffic and Highway Engineering 4th
Edition, Thomson Learning Academic, Ontario Canada
John W. Dickey. (1975) Metropolitan Transportation Planning, 2nd edition. Publisher:
McGraw-Hill Education, North-Holland, New York USA
Martin Rogers, (2003). Highway Engineering Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell | ISBN:
0632059931 1st edition, Maiden Massachusetts USA
U.S. Department of Transportation, (1977). Federal Highway Administration Urban
Mass Transportation Administration
Coombe, D. (1996). “Induced Traffic: What Do Transportation Models Tell Us?”
Kluwer Academic Publishers Printed in the Netherlands
Cochran, W.G (1977). “Sampling Techniques” Third ed. Canada: John Willey & sons
Inc. New York USA
Burton, M. J. (1985). “Introduction to Transportation Planning”3rd Edition
Hutchinson & CO. Ltd London England
Institute of Transportation Engineering (1991) “Trip distribution” 5th edition
Washington D.C. Institute of Transportation Engineering
041 TRAFFIC FLOW IMPROVEMENT AT SIGNALISED INTERSECTIONS
BY COORDINATING SIGNAL PHASES IN BATU PAHAT, MALAYSIA
zareda86@gmail.com
ismaily@uthm.edu.my
erwans@uthm.edu.my
ABSTRACT: The transportation systems are getting advanced every year. It is frequently
observed in a rapidly growing city such as in Malaysia, that high traffic flow and long queues
at intersections occur during peak hour cause by traffic growth year by year. Signalised
intersections are an essential part of a road network, particularly in urban areas where traffic
congestion has always been a major problem. When it is properly timed, the traffic signal
increases the traffic handling capacity of an intersection. This study for the coordination at
signalised intersection considers the traffic flow improvement at the approaches. The
capacities of signalised intersection depend on the timing plan (cycle length, phase split and
offset) and travel time. The study is focused at Jalan Bakau Condong signalised intersection
which located along FT005 Jalan Batu Pahat-Muar, and to determine the Level of Service of
the intersection using Sidra analysis. Result of this study is based on the SIDRA Intersection
software shows the best performance of time- space diagram for one way street progression
by existing phasing sequence and proposed data to build the synchronization of the study
location. Therefore, cycle length of 100 seconds (daily traffic volume) and 140 seconds
(traffic volume based on the traffic growth) is the accurate time for a platoon of vehicle to
move without stopping along the synchronise intersection with different minimum travel time
and average speed according to the peak hours. Other than that, the operating cost and
pollutant emission is much lower for the coordinated cycle than uncoordinated cycle. To
some extent, suggestion can be made to the authority to rectify traffic signal cycle at
selected intersections.
1. INTRODUCTION
The traffic growth has been recognized as a serious problem in all large
metropolitan areas in the country, with significant effect on the economy, travel
behaviour, land use and a cause of discomfort for millions of motorists. Although
traffic congestion is not a new problem in urban areas, it has been extended to
suburban areas sooner than expected. The number of vehicles in Malaysia has
been seen to have increased tremendously at the rate of 8% annually over the
past few decades without sign of slowing down. Table 1 shows the statistics of
vehicles registered in Malaysia from 1996 to 2007.
Table 1. Statistics of New Vehicles Registration in Malaysia (RTD, 2007)
To achieve this aim, the study was carried out to perform traffic flow
characteristics and LOS analysis at four signalised intersection in the study area,
to analyse travel time to cross through the four intersections, to obtain the
efficient cycle length of traffic light for each intersection from the SIDRA analysis,
to develop time space diagram on one way street for the signal progression for
the purpose of traffic signal coordination.
2. METHODOLOGY
The scope will focus on the objectives of the study of traffic flows based on the
coordination of the signalised intersection. The initial approach will be the
collection of geographical and traffic data of all locations. Preliminary data such
as the number of lanes, distances between intersections, phasing sequence,
signal timing, traffic light cycle time and traffic volumes, and travel time be
collected so as to assist in the planning for further work. Figure 1 through 3
show the equipment used in this study.
Figure 1. CCTV Camera
Manually traffic flow counting method will be used to define the traffic flow at
the arterial road and peak hour for this arterial road. Camera video or CCTV was
used to record each vehicles passing through the intersection. Travel time along
several segments from the arterial was estimated using Chasing Car Method. All
the data obtain at the study location will be transfer in SIDRA Intersection
software. The test site consists of four signalized intersections spaced 0.5 km,
0.7 km and 0.8 km for each segment from KM 127-129 at federal route (FT005)
Jalan Batu Pahat- Muar. The layout of Jalan Bakau Condong is as shown in
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Segment length of Jalan Bakau
Year 5 Intersection
F 1 IntersectionE2 IntersectionD3Intersection 4 E
Based on the result in Table 2, the worst level of service happened at the
fourth year (2014). It is use to define forced or breakdown flow. This condition
exists wherever the amount of traffic approaching a point exceeds the amounts
which can transverse the point. Further studies will focused on the worst case for
all intersection at the forth year (2014).
The best solution for this matter was using the 100 second cycle time because of
reduce level of service of each intersection (Table 3).
The best solution for this matter was using the 140 second cycle time
because of reduce level of service of each intersection (Table 4).
Table 4. Level of Service for different cycle at the 4 th year (2014)
Jalan Balau/ Jalan Seraya/ Jalan Melunak/ Jalan Cengal/
Cycle
Jalan Mat Akil Jalan Mustafa Jalan BHP Jalan Rugayah
Time (s)
Intersection Intersection Intersection Intersection
100 F E C E
120 F E D E
140 E E D E
160 F E D E
180 F E D E
3.3 Delay
In SIDRA intersection software, the output for stop and delay are measures in
term of time. Table 5 presents different time for uncoordinated and coordinated
cycle. The delay for uncoordinated cycle is much higher than coordinated cycle.
Table 5. Delay
Intersection Uncoordinated Coordinated
Uncoordinated Coordinated
cycle (next 4 th cycle (next 4 th
cycle (sec) cycle (sec)
year) (sec) year) (sec)
Jalan Balau/
50.17 39.02 66.82 63.96
Jalan Mat Akil
Jalan Seraya/
28.28 22.18 35.84 34.90
Jalan Mustafa
Jalan Melunak/
14.88 14.01 20.54 25.26
Jalan BHP
Jalan Cengal/
37.96 31.48 50.37 49.51
Jalan Rugayah
According to data in Table 6, it shows that the driver have to spend more of their
time to travel along this area on evening peak hours than the morning peak hour.
It is occurred because the nearby residential committee to the arterial road
would like to go to the shopping complex which is located in the middle in this
area. Besides that, this arterial road is one of their short cut routes to travel to
Muar or Tongkang Pechah which the place that the committee in the Batu Pahat
live mostly.
Table 6. Average travel time for morning and evening peak hour (Batu Pahat/ Muar)
Travel time (s) Travel time (s)
Intersection Segment length (km) (average) (average)
(morning peak hour) (evening peak hour)
0-1 1.2 135.46 143.95
1-2 0.7 74.54 85.65
2-3 0.5 56.63 65.21
3-4 0.8 100.23 104.48
Referring to Table 7, it shown that there must be lower traffic flow in this road
by this time than the way to Muar because the travel time to pass the entire
segment was lower than the travel time to pass the segment in opposite ways. It
is occurred because the committee whose stayed near this road were preferred
to take the others road to go to their office at Batu Pahat or to Kluang.
Table 7. Average travel time for morning and evening peak hours (Muar/ Batu Pahat)
Segment Travel time (s) (average) Travel time (s) (average)
Intersection
length (km) (Morning peak hour) (evening peak hour)
4-3 0.8 75.12 78.28
3-2 0.5 45.22 50.14
2-1 0.7 65.16 83.53
1-0 1.2 116.25 121.15
3.5 Fuel Consumption and Emission
In estimating the fuel consumption, current cost of fuel in Malaysia presently was
RM1 .85 per litre (currently taken the latest update, 5 November 2010). Using the
fuel consumption and emission value calculated for light and heavy vehicle in
each lane of movement or approach road are calculated by aggregating the
value for the lanes that belong to the movement or approach. The fuel
consumption, fuel and pollutant emissions result for all movement are given in
Table 4.14 through Table 4.17. The light and heavy vehicle mass are assumed
as 1400kg and 11000kg (Akcelik, 2002).
Table 8. Fuel consumption, cost and pollutant emissions result for all approaches (cycle
time-coordinated)
Operating Carbon Carbon
Fuel NOX
Cost Dioxide Hydrocarbons Monoxide
Intersection (total) Consumption (total)
(total) (total) (kg/h) (total)
(RM/hr) (total) (L/h) (kg/h)
(kg/h) (kg/h)
Jalan Balau/
421.39 236.2 591/1 1.060 42.32 1.265
Jalan Mat Akil
Jalan Seraya/
257.95 153.0 383.0 0.666 27.65 0.840
Jalan Mustafa
Jalan Melunak/
196.83 128.8 322.8 0.527 22.90 0.721
Jalan BHP
Jalan Cengal/
357.57 214.1 536.5 0.929 39.31 1.177
Jalan Rugayah
*latest updated for Ringgit Malaysia (RM) currency, 5 November 2010
Table 9. Fuel consumption, cost and pollutant emissions result for all approaches (cycle
time-coordinated) at 4 th
year
Operating Carbon Carbon
Fuel NOX
Cost Dioxide Hydrocarbons Monoxide
Intersection (total) Consumption (total)
(total) (total) (kg/h) (total)
(RM/hr) (total) (L/h) (kg/h)
(kg/h) (kg/h)
Jalan Balau/
357.57 214.1 536.5 0.929 39.31 1.177
Jalan Mat Akil
Jalan Seraya/
350.50 190.2 476.3 0.847 32.73 0.995
Jalan Mustafa
Jalan Melunak/
302.76 178.5 447.0 0.762 30.31 0.956
Jalan BHP
Jalan Cengal/
488.69 265.6 665.5 1.181 46.17 1.384
Jalan Rugayah
*latest updated for Ringgit Malaysia (RM) currency, 5 November 2010
The different value shows that the proposed data including the coordination
parameter can save the operating cost including tyre, oil, repair and
maintenance as a factor of the cost of fuel. The operating cost and pollutant
emissions results between the existing data (non coordinate) and proposed data
(coordinate) shows in Table 8 and Table 9. The different amount between
existing data and proposed data of pollutant release in air shows that, the
signalised coordination was a better way to help in decreasing the toxic gas in
the air. Hence, it helps to reduce the green house effect to the environment.
In coordinated systems, all signals must have the same cycle length. This is
necessary to ensure that the beginning of green occurs at the same time relative
to the green at the upstream and downstream intersections. There are some
exceptions, where a critical intersection has such a high volume that it may
require a double cycle length, for instance, but this done rarely and only when no
other solution is feasible.
All the existing signal controller are designed for an isolated and working on
fixed system operation and the offset will added in the controller. Table 10 and
11 show the offset time which calculated based on the ideal offset formula.
Table 10. Ideal offset for peak hour
Parameter
Offset
Q (veh) L (m) S (km/hr) h (sec) Loss (sec)
(sec)
1 21 - 33.48 2 2
2 13 700 33.48 2 2 47.27
3 17 500 33.48 2 2 17.76
4 19 800 33.48 2 2 46.02
For the data obtained, the bandwidth efficiency can be calculated by our own
since all the value needed is obtained. From the time-space diagram above, the
bandwidth efficiency for this area are 15% (bandwidth-15 seconds) for 100
seconds cycle time and 13% (bandwidth-18 seconds) for 140 seconds cycle
time. According to McShane et al. (1998), the bandwidth efficiency of 40% to
50% is considered good. In this study, the bandwidth obtained was half
comparing to the good efficiency. So, we can conclude that this segment area
able to brought half from the full platoon to drive through by this area without any
stopping and delayed.
4.CONCLUSION
The proposed data (100 seconds and 140 seconds) for the cycle length was
success time to implement the coordination between the intersections. Based on
the result and analysis, the design of time- space diagram shows a platoon of
vehicle can have a movement from first intersection to the forth intersections
without stopping. This shows that the effect if coordination between the
intersections can safe several time to accelerate at the minimum speed without
having stop and reduce delay at the intersection. Therefore, the benefit of
synchronization can help to improve a very effective at reducing congestion. In
fact, it also can avoid queuing at the approach delays.
5.REFERENCES
Akcelik, R. (2002), aaSIDRA Traffic Model Reference Guide , Akcelik & Associates
Pty
McShane, W.R., Roess, R. P., and Prassas, E. S (1998). Traffic Engineering , 2nd
Edition, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
INTRODUCTION
Sustainability is on top important issue of 21th century due of its extension and
centrality to global environment, energy, economic, and security involved. Increase
average of temperature of earth surface by 0.74 ± 0.18ºC during years 1906-2005
made north hemisphere and land warming faster than other area and ocean, and
caused the forest decrease throughout the world, sea level to rise up by 3.1± 0.07
mm from 1993 to 2003. The world which faces with increases in average global
temperature from 1.4 to 5.8°C by the year 2100 and increase of 26% in carbon
dioxide (CO2) concentrations in the atmosphere since the industrial revolution; If
these activities continue at the present manner, this concentration will increase three
times by the year 2100. Indicator shows changes in plants, insects, birds and fish
have been influenced by green house gases and weather conditions. After
increasing world green house gases, societies would think about review in activities
which result into this situation. Rio conference convened with aim of rethinking on
main issues of our only earth. Researches indicate that there is a positive correlation
between increases in atmospheric concentrations of green house gases and a
growth in the earth's average surface temperature (Moniz 2008).
During the last two decades (1984–2004) primary energy has grown by 49% and
CO2 emissions by 43%, in an average annual increase of 2% and 1.8% respectively
(Pérez-Lombard et al. 2008). Urban area complex with its built environment,
transportation and services use up 75% of the world’s energy resources and sent
out the waste material, pollution, green house gases and climate-changing (Al-
Hosany & Elkadi 2002). New trend in built environment is toward paying attention to
sustainability in design, construction, and maintenance. Refinement and energy
saving are about main part of sustainability. This motives for urban compaction,
shorter journeys and walking and cycling, support economic viability, enhance social
sustainability; and encourage social interaction (Carmona et al. 2003). Since 2007,
the US Green Building Council (UGBC) has started to consider neighborhoods as
sustainable communities instead of focusing on individual buildings for conservation
and efficiency movement; this trend includes colleges and universities as well (Clark
Ii & Eisenberg 2008). They are developing criteria everywhere for certifying project
in new Neighborhood program (LEED 2008).
CITY FORM
A research on fossil fuel emissions with urban ecosystem indicates that
developmental density coupled with investments in transportation systems has a
large impact on CO2 emissions, and a great potential for decreasing future CO2
emissions with policies that promote efficient urban form. This study demonstrates
there is a relation between urban density and road extension and use of energy. The
finding can be used to complement land use and transportation policy improvements
(Pataki et al. 2009). This means cities can reduce environment impacts by short
journey through compact transportation systems, so today the arguments are well
known for increasing the density of development and creating more compact city
forms, consequently ensuring a mix of uses, the containment of urban ‘sprawl’ and
achieving social and economic diversity and vitality. Effectively, most of the
arguments now in popular had been made decades ago, namely for urban
containment, compact forms, efficient use of land, a mix of building types, and
proximity to facilities, transport and work. Yet, despite the familiarity, there are
something new. The arguments for compact forms and higher density in the 1990
and present decade are promoted in terms of sustainability. Basic factors for
compact urban forms are: convenience, connectivity, and comfort. Sustainable cells
of city require the creation and/or regeneration of clustered, pedestrian, and transit-
oriented communities of variety of sizes (large to small) defined by areas that
conserve green or amenity land. In the way of compact city form, multi level covered
walkway network connect work, home and business places together during 24 hours
accessibility in city with high density (Jenks & Dempsey 2005). Today trend is
looking for residents of pedestrian-friendly, mixed-use, high-density communities,
with short and fast accessibility to public transportation instead of driving several
miles from far suburbs. “One of the best ways to reduce vehicle travel is to build
places where people can do more with less driving,” says lead author Reid Ewing,
associate and research professor at the National Center of Smart Growth at the
University of Maryland in College Park, Md. “Customer is looking for smaller
housing units and mixed-use communities projected in compact living environments”
(Binsacca 2008).
Ecological issues that creates global warming, energy and renewable energy since
long has been cited by government throughout the word; now acts is strongly
needed, specially with related to cities, that are mentioned as main contributor to
sustainability and focal point within which significant solution can be found (Jenks et
al. 1996).
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
In recent decades, the world has been facing an energy crisis, and energy
resources have became scarcer. With increasing growth in various areas of human
life, the need for holistic approach is increasing day by day. Societies need to
rethink sustainable developments that fulfill present and future generation needs
with rational use of resources.
It is recommended that urbanism and policy makers should start make land use
have acceptably lower impact on environment. They must focus on human scale in
urban land use development. This can support the promoting of transportation that
uses energy resources other than fossil fuel with no more waste than plant’s
restorative ability and will cause less problem for public health and well-being
(Heberle & Opp 2008).
METHODOLOGY
The study area for this research is 155 neighbourhoods of Subang Jaya. The
average land area of the neighborhoods is 75 Hectare, with 0.28 Hectare (minimum)
and 766 Hectare (maximum). Demographic data including residents, workers,
students and gender characteristics and economic conditions (vehicle ownership)
were based on published data from official Malaysia population census of year
(2000). Spatial data including distance and area were obtained from query from land
use and streets map of municipal. Data was gathered from survey and query via
GIS map figure 1.
Recent data of 211 countries throughout the world was used by author. These data
are 40 dependent and independent indicators including CO 2 emissions, SO 2
emissions, urban SO2 concentration, urbanization, percentage of population living in
urban area and rural area, urban and rural population growth annual, population
density, rural population density of people/km2 of arable land, percent of forest and
agricultural land, oil consumption (bbl/day per 1,000 people), expenditure and
revenues budget, largest city population per capita, areas under protection, Forest
area, agriculture land, and traditional fuel consumption. Variables including CO2
emission, urban SO 2 concentration, and oil consumption were selected as
dependent variables.
ANALYSIS
The influence of distance to train station on density, diversity, apartment proportion,
car ownership, motorcycle ownership, street system design, and employment was
measured by author figure 2.
Figure 2 Influence and coefficient of train station on factors of sustainable design
Figure 3 coefficients between distance from train station and accessibility to facilities
in neighborhoods
SO2
Oil Consumption
The analysis by linear regression on Data from 211 countries shows population
density has negative effect on CO2 emission and rural population influence s CO2
emission positively figure 5.
CONCLUSION
By efficient land use planning that reduces trip distance, increases vehicle
efficiency, transport system changes that provides public with low energy
consumption and support active modes, and finally reduce people activities
participation by use of technology and changes in behaviours can reduce energy
use considerably (Krumdieck et al. 2010). Cameron (2004) says model mobility as
the vehicle kilometres travelled (VKT) is a strong function of vehicle ownership
(Krumdieck et al. 2010). The current study shows:
1-Car ownership and motor cycle ownership increase if distance of neighborhood
from train station increase.
6-Lengths of highways and railways good transported make oil consumption and
SO 2 decrease and road goods transported has opposite coefficient as well. 7-
Population density generally shows decrease influence on CO 2 but rural
population has positive effect on CO2 emission.
REFERENCES:
Al-Hosany, N. & Elkadi, H. 2002. Sustainability approaches for incarceration
architecture. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 6, 5, 457-470.
Binsacca, R. 2008. Builder March availble at:
http://www.ecohomemagazine.com/news/compact -
cure.aspx?printerfriendly=true , 1-3.
Carmona, M., Health, T., Oc, T. & Tiedell, S. 2003. Public Places – Urban Spaces.
33.
Chapin, F. S. & Kaiser, E. J. 1979. Urban Land Use Planning.
Clark Ii, W. W. & Eisenberg, L. 2008. Agile sustainable communities: On-site
renewable energy generation. Utilities Policy 16, 4, 262-274.
Ferriter, E. (2008). The sustainability of New Urbanism: Case studies in Maryland.
United States -- Delaware, University of Delaware. Ph.D.: 257.
Heberle, L. & Opp, S. M. 2008. Local Sustainable Urban Development in a
Globalized Word. 14, 86,.
Jenks, M., Burton, E. & Williams, K. 1996. The Compact City A Sustainable Urban
Form? . Oxford Bookes University, Oxford UK, 57, 84, 172, 173, 208,.
Jenks, M. & Dempsey, N. 2005. Future Forms and Design for Sustainable Cities.
ISBN 0 7506 6309 X, P24 pp163 -300 p p 113- 226 p 113.
Krumdieck, S., Page, S. & Dantas, A. 2010. Urban form and long-term fuel supply
decline: A method to investigate the peak oil risks to essential activities.
Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice 44, 5, 306-322.
LEED 2008. LEED for Neighborhood Development Rating System. 1st available at;
http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=148,
Moniz, J. E. 2008. Climate Change In Energy Pathways for the Mediterranean. P3.
P11.
.
Pataki, D. E., Emmi, P. C., Forster, C. B., Mills, J. I., Pardyjak, E. R., Peterson, T.
R., Thompson, J. D. & Dudley-Murphy, E. 2009. An integrated approach to
improving fossil fuel emissions scenarios with urban ecosystem studies.
Ecological Complexity 6, 1, 1-14.
Pérez-Lombard, L., Ortiz, J. & Pout, C. 2008. A review on buildings energy
consumption information. Energy and Buildings 40, 3, 394-398.
054 The Assessment of Significant Aspects and Impacts at Highway
Construction towards Sustainable Development
ABSTRACT
At dense rural areas, the environmental impacts resulting from highway construction
activities need a proper planning and management to mitigate the impact to the environment.
Awareness or knowledge in minimizing the water, air and noise pollution which effect
surrounding flora, fauna and human beings for transport improvements underlies any
behavioral response. For this study, the Trans Eastern Kedah Interland highway is chosen
which involves the construction of 115km highway that compromises new alignment and
upgrading of existing road. The aim of study is to determine the key potential significant
aspects and impacts of the activities at the highway construction as well as implementing
“good green environmental practice” towards sustainable development. The ISO 14001
Environmental Management System (EMS) is providing a framework for organizations to
systematically review and improve operations for better environmental performance. By
assisting an organization in achieving economic goals, an EMS can also be integrated with
other management functions. An assessment of environmental impacts related to the
highway construction activities was carried out to determine the significant aspects
associated with the activities at highway construction site and their impact to the
environment. In assessing the significance of environmental impacts in this research study
where the technique used is numerical scoring. There will be discussion to establish action
plans and guidelines for mitigation of the environmental impacts at highway construction
towards sustainable development. The results are analyzed quantitatively and presented in
statistical diagram. Minimizing the environmental pollutions are a beginning to adopt new
paradigm and advanced integrated environmental, health and safety (EHS) practices to
support the project team commitment to a better environment.
Keywords : Highway construction, ISO 14001, EMS, significant impact, significant aspects,
sustainable development.
1. INTRODUCTION
132
impacts of the activities at the highway construction as well as implementing
“good green environmental practice” towards sustainable development.
The site chosen for the research study is the Trans Eastern Kedah
Interland Highway involves the construction of a 115km highway that
compromises new alignment and upgrading of existing road. The project
route traverse through jungle and forest areas and the terrain is generally
mountains. The roadworks include highway construction of flexible pavement
for carriageway and lateritic/ graveled for shoulder.
Figure 1: Slope had been left out without any protection after site clearing
work.
133
Many environmental problems caused by highway construction site
activities are reported. Although the highway construction activities provide
spaces for human activities and social functions contribute impacts to the
environment. Most highway construction involves a drastic change in both
physical and biological components of the natural environment. Land clearing
results in the exposure of topsoil to erosive rain and earthwork activities
enhance formation of loose soils.
The ISO 14001 standard is part of the ISO 14000 series that was
developed and released by the International Organization of Standardization
(ISO) to provide organizations worldwide with a common approach to
environmental management (Tibor & Feldman, 1996). An integral part of the
ISO 14001 EMS is through identifying significant environmental aspects and
impacts. Becoming proactive in managing the environmental aspects of a
highway construction project will make a good business sense, as it will bring
benefits to an organization.
135
1.4 Issues and challenges in Malaysia Highway Construction
Developing country like Malaysia, sustainable highway construction
trend tends to focus on the relationship between highway construction and
human development while marginalizing environmental aspects. Environment
encompasses physical and non-physical medium such as air, water, noise
pollution and solid waste.
Figure 2: Cutting work in progress and air pollution is kept to acceptable limit.
136
Greater adoption and use of environment-friendly planning techniques
and designs in property projects will go a long way towards promoting green
practices in the country. It will be more effective if highway constructions
voluntarily adopt green and environment friendly designs and concepts in
their projects rather than depend on legislation to make it mandatory for them
to incorporate pro-environment design features in the projects (Stars 23rd
May, 2009).
137
Figure 3: Warning measures has been put.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 Assessing Significant Impacts
A scoring method which is self-assessment method was then chosen
to assess significant aspects and impact of the highway construction
activities. The highway construction environmental objectives and targets
were identified and significant were further refined and developed into a
formal set of environmental objectives. Determining where control or
improvement is needed, identifying significant environmental aspects and
139
associated impacts were necessary. Ascertaining the legal needs and
requirements to which the organization subscribes and setting up the
objectives and targets to achieve them.
Legislation The Environmental Quality Act (EQA), 1974 (Act 127) and
(Act 672), was set up as the governing environmental
legislation in Malaysia
Local impact The severity of the environmental impact on a local scale
Impact on external The severity of the environmental impact to the community
community within a boundary of 115km from the facility
Regional/ Global Impact The severity of the environmental impact on a regional/
global scale
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Policies/ Directives Is the impact governed under any Malaysian or international
policy or directive?
Management Cost The cost managing the impact
Public Satisfaction/ If an impact arises, how does the public respond?
Demand and Competitive
Advantages
Frequency of occurrence What is the frequency of the occurrence?
Severity if Impact How serious is the impact?
The main score is determined for all keys criteria after which the score is
multiplied together with the score for frequency and seriousness. The scores
are then added up together and the significance of the impact is determined
from the following ranges:
“Very significant” : V is equal or above 65 (V > 65)
“Significant” : V is equal or above 30 but not more than 65 ( 30< V <
65)
“Non-significant” : V is below 30
The calculation for the impact assessment is then carried out using the
frequency and seriousness of the criteria as shown below:
Calculation
•
Frequency (F)
•
Seriousness S)
•
Frequency x Seriousness
•
Legal Requirement (LR)
•
Local Impact (LI)
•
Regional/ Global Impact (GI)
•
External Community (EC)
•
Policies/ Directives (P/D)
•
Management Costs (MC)
•
Public Satisfaction/ (CS)
•
Total T)
•
Significance level
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The formula will be as below:
T = F*S (LR+LI+GI+EC+P/D+MC+CS)
The total value resulting from the collection of elements T determine the level
of significance and can therefore indicate that the impact was very significant,
significant or non-significant.
3. INITIAL RESULT
Table 2: Significant Impact at Demolition Work
Activities/ Sub- Environmental Environmental Legislation
activities Aspects Impact Requirements
142
Table 3: Significant impacts for Earthwork
Activities/ Sub- Environmental Environmental Legislation
activities Aspects Impact Requirements
The baseline air quality monitoring was conducted at one monitoring station
established at Kampung Landai. The monitoring of ambient air quality should
be carried out close to sensitive receptors such as rural settlements
especially those with schools or clinics adjacent to the highway alignment. A
total of one air monitoring stations was proposed as the road construction at
143
these areas was expected to generate dust and affect nearby sensitive
receptors. The air monitoring will only be carried out when construction
begins at these locations. The locations of the proposed air monitoring
station were
Analysis of the dust emission which has been identified as one of the aspects
which effect the air pollution using the scoring method is calculated as below:
T = F*S (LR+L1+GI+EC+P/D+MC+CS)
T= 4*1 (4+2+2+2+3+3+2)
T= 72
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3.1.2 Environmental Aspect: Wastewater Discharge
Environmental Impact: Water Pollution
Source of impact: The sewage, sullage and sanitation that comes from
waste, causes water pollution.
From monitoring results there are seven parameters which are dissolved
oxygen (DO), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD5), Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD), Ammonia cal Nitrogen (NH3-N), Total Suspended Solids
(TSS), pH, and E-coli. Water samples were obtained by the grab sampling
method and preserved for further analysis in the laboratory.
145
Table 5 : Baseline Water Quality Analysis Results
Parameter
Station Temp pH BOD COD TSS Oil & NH3- DO E-coli Turbidity WQI &
Time Gas N Class
PWQ1 28.5 7.2 <2 6 <2 ND(<2) 0.6 5.1 100 <1 91.09
Class II
PWQ2 28.6 7.4 <2 7 4 ND(<2) 0.1 4.9 20 <1 89.03
Class II
PWQ3 28.6 7.1 <2 7 18 ND(<2) 0.4 4.9 500 <1 85.93
Class II
PWQ4 28.7 7.0 <2 8 4 ND(<2) 0.6 4.9 900 <1 89.16
Class II
PWQ5 28.7 7.7 <2 <2 <2 ND(<2) 0.1 5.0 ND <1 90.55
Class II
PWQ6 28.8 8.0 <2 <2 <2 ND(<2) 0.1 4.8 200 <1 89.47
Class II
PWQ7 27.4 7.9 <2 6 12 ND(<2) <0.1 4 2000 16 83.85
Class
DOE - 5.5- <50 <100 <100 <7 - 5- <400 <200
Std. 9.0 7
Source: Environmental Science (M) Sdn. Bhd
Note:
•All result are expressed in mg/l except for pH value,
temperature (oC), E-coli (count/1 00ml) and Turbidity (NTU)
The samples were collected from monitoring stations. All results referred to
baseline of highway construction project as shown in table 5. The Water
Quality Index as shown in table was computed and it falls within Class II.
Class II represent water bodies of good quality. Most existing raw water
supply sources come under this category. In practice, no body contact
activity is allowed in the water for the prevention of probable human
pathogens.
T = F*S (LR+L1+GI+EC+P/D+MC+CS)
T= 3*2 (4+3+3+4+2+4+2)
T= 132
146
132 > 65 that means it is very significant
*result analysis is still in progression
4.DISCUSSION
Malaysia continuously supports initiative in implementing sustainable
highway construction development strategies including green growth.
Highway construction plans in Malaysia have long recognized the need for
green strategy by way of conservation, promoting green network and
sustainable highway transportation. Making a commitment to highway
construction designs will help to support low emission for the public involving
the widest possible range of contractors in green growth with green
infrastructure.
5.CONCLUSION
A method to identify and evaluate the environmental aspects and
impacts at highway construction was developed that started with sustainable
development of the process followed by the identification and evaluation of
environmental aspects and impacts. To evaluate the significance of the
environmental impacts, a specific criterion was chosen which directly
corresponds to its environmental aspect. These criteria included elements
such as environmental perspective and business perspective.
147
Therefore, significant aspects are the ones that will be the focus of
management efforts to improve the environment. The associated aspect
needs to be managed if an impact is significant. The identification and
evaluation process is important because the aspects and impacts identified a
significant will be used in the development for other elements of the EMS.
6. REFERENCES
CIB, (2002). Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction in Developing
Countries. The International Council for Research and Innovation in
Building and Construction (CIB). UNEP-ITEC, Discussion Document.
South Africa.
Ahmad Husseini, (2001). Industrial environmental standards and their
implementation in the world. In : International seminar on environmental
managament 2001 (EM 2001). Kuala Lumpur Malaysia.
OECD, (2001). Encouraging Environmental Management in Industry. Report
on the OECD business and Industry Policy Form on Environmental
Management: Challenges for Industry, 27 September 2000.
Shan, L.Y. and Tam, W.Y. 2002. Implementation of environmental
management in Hong Kong Construction Industry. International Journal of
Project Management. Vol 20, pp.535-543.
Sheldon, C., & Yoxon, M., (1999). Installing environmental systems . UK:
Earthscan Publications Ltd
Sumiani Y., (2001). ‘An Overview of the Environmental Management
Framework for Industries and Life Cycle Assessment’ Proceedings on 4th,
SEA Regional Conference on Higher Engineering Education Network
(RECHEEN 2001) Kuala Lumpur, 15-17 April 2001.
Sumiani Yusoff (2004). “New Approaches for the Sustainability of Malaysian
Industries” in Issue 2/2003 IMPAK, Department of Environment, Ministry
of Science, Technology and the Environment, Malaysia. ISSN: 1394-
0724.
Sumiani Yusoff (2004). “Sustainability of ISO 14001 in Malaysian Industries”.
Paper presented on Environmental Management and Certification: Cross
Cultural Studies and Comparisons, Environmental Management Practices
Network Workshop, Roligheden, Copenhagen, 25-26 May, 2004.
148
Sumian i Y., (2006). “Greening of Malaysian Industries through Implementing
ISO 14001”, Journal of Industrial Technology, Vol. 15(2) (2006).
Starbizweek, The Star (23rd May, 2009).
Tibor, T., & Feldman, I., (1996). ISO 14000- A guide to the new
environmental management standards. USA: Irwin.
Welfrod, R (2000). Corporative environmental management 3: Towards
Sustainable Development . London: Earthscan Publications.
149
THEME :
ROAD SAFETY
150
012 INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECTS OF RAINFALL AND TRAFFIC ON
ROAD ACCIDENTS
ABSTRACT: This study investigates the effect of rainfall and traffic performance on crash
risks. Road traffic performance can be described in terms of traffic mobility and roadway
safety. Traffic flow and speed are the two important indices used to quantify the traffic
performance while number of accidents is used as a performance index for roadway safety.
Severe weather condition such as rainfall affects the traffic performance and road safety.
During and immediately after the rainfall, the friction between tyres and road surface is
reduced, roads become submerged and visibility is deteriorated. Previous studies have
revealed that traffic condition changes significantly during rainfall and as a consequence,
traffic delay and accidents are increased which result in significant economic costs. For this
study, 93 km long section of The Pacific Motorway in Queensland, Australia is selected.
Hourly rainfall data from nearby weather stations, 5- minute interval traffic flow and speed
data along with crash information for the years 2009 and 2010 are used to analyse the effect
of rainfall and traffic on road accidents. Statistical analysis based modelling approach named
decision tree analysis is applied to develop the relationship among rainfall, traffic
performance and crash risks. The outcomes of the research will aid to improve the roadway
safety by considering traffic movements and severe weather condition.
Keywords: Rainfall, Traffic flow, Vehicle speed, Road accidents, Road safety.
1. INTRODUCTION
Traffic performance and safety can deteriorate due to different natural and man-
made causes. Among the natural causes, adverse weather condition impedes
normal traffic movements and roadway safety. Adverse weather like rainfall is
considered as one of the hindrance against safe and normal service for the road
traffic. During adverse weather condition, road users may experience reduce
visibility, lesser friction between tyres and the road surface and also submersion of
the roadway. All these affect drivers’ behaviour and traffic movements on a roadway
and as a result, significantly impact on traffic mobility and road safety (Goodwin,
2002) and changes the normal pattern of travel demand and results in mode shift
(Faouzi et al., 2010).
This study investigates the relationship among rainfall, traffic performance and
crash risks. Road traffic performance can be described in terms of traffic mobility
151
and roadway safety. Traffic flow and speed are the two important indices used to
quantify the traffic performance while number of accidents is used as a performance
index for roadway safety. Statistical analysis method, decision tree, is used in this
study to evaluate how traffic performance parameters and rainfall affect road
accidents occurrence.
The rest of the paper is organised as follows: section 2 reviews the relevant
literature while section 3 describes the study area and data. The features of
accidents and traffic during rainy condition are explained in section 4 and then in
section 5, evaluation of the relationship among accidents, traffic and rainfall is
described thoroughly by detailing the model, analysis results and discussion.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Previous studies have found notable reductions in traffic volume and vehicle speed
during rainy condition in different locations. Smith et al. (2004) found 25%-30%
volume reduction during heavy rainfall using one year data while Agarwal et al.
(2005) found 5%-10% reduction during light rainfall using two years data of U.S.
region.
In context of vehicle speed, Maze et al. and Agarwal et al. (2005) got quite similar
percentage (about 1% - 7%) of speed reduction on the freeways while Hranac et al.
(2007) revealed that light rain decreased free flow speed and speed at capacity at a
rate of around 2% - 4% and 8% - 10% respectively, and this reduction was higher
with the higher rain intensity.
Some previous studies have found that the reduction in volume and speed due
to rain calculated using HCM2000 method are not accurate (Agarwal et al.,2005 ;
Kyte et al.,2000). This may be because HCM 2000 method is based on research
carried using limited data from city of Toronto. So, more research in this area is
needed to increase the accuracy of rainfall impacts on traffic volumes and speeds.
It is obvious from different studies that road users are prone to accidents during
rainy conditions (Koetse and Rietveld, 2007; Eisenberg, 2003; Abdel-Aty and
Rajashekar, 2006). Chung et al. (2005) found that average frequency of accidents
on Tokyo Metropolitan Expressway during wet weather is 1.5 accidents per hour
which is significantly higher than the average frequency of 0.85 accidents per hour
during other times.
152
Keay and Simmonds (2004) found that rain increases accidents on freeways in
Melbourne (Australia) by up to nearly 5% depending on time of the day. The
database used for accident analysis in this study is restricted to accidents that
involved some sort of injury and required medical attention, not the damage-only
accidents. Changnon (1996) found that the impact of rain on road accidents also
varies spatially i.e. different impact in cities and rural areas. This may be because
of the differences of traffic volume and roadway conditions.
For this study, 93 km long section of the Pacific Motorway in Queensland (Australia)
connecting Brisbane and Gold Coast is selected as a case study. To analyse the
effect of rainfall on traffic parameters and accidents, both traffic and accident data
along with rainfall data is needed. So, hourly rainfall data from nearby weather
stations, 5-minute interval traffic flow and speed data collected by the detectors
along with crash information for the years 2009 and 2010 are used. In this study, all
types of accidents (damage-only, only injury or both) are considered for analysis.
Figure 1 shows the Pacific motorway (A) and three nearby three weather stations:
153
4. RAINFALL, TRAFFIC PARAMETERS AND ROAD ACCIDENT
In order to find out the effect of rainfall, traffic parameters i.e. traffic flow and vehicle
speed on road accidents, the one year dataset is used for analysis. Statistical
software Minitab is used for the analysis. This analysis reveals the following results:
Speed- Flow diagram during accident and non-accident times shows that traffic
1.9% 8.8%
flow is in the free flow condition and vehicle travel on a free flow speed. But speed
during non-accident conditions has higher value during accident conditions, and in
Rainfall intensity
00 mm/hr
both cases, during rainfall time, speed are slightly less than non-rain time.
> 00 - 03 mm/hr
> 03 - 05 mm/hr
Figure 3. Speed – Flow 89.3%
diagram on different rainfall in accident time
Rain amount
140
0 mm >0 - 1mm
>1 - 2 mm
120 >2 - 3 mm
>3 - 4 mm
100
80
60
40
20
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Rain amount
140
0 mm >0 - 1 mm
>1 - 2 mm
120 >2 - 3 mm
>3 - 4 mm
100
80
60
40
20
Where Y, is the target variable (dependent variable) and the vector x consists of the
predictor variables (independent variables) x1, x2, x3,..,xk etc.
For this study, accident number is considered as a target variable while rainfall
amount, traffic flow and vehicle speed are taken as predictors. Traffic flow and
speed at the time of accident and 5 minutes before the accident at the incident
location, at the nearest upstream location and at the nearest downstream location
are used as independent (predictor) variables for the modelling purpose.
Corresponding rainfall amount at the same time and location is also used as a
predictor variable.
155
5.2 ANALYSIS
DTREG statistical software package is used to analyse the dataset of about one
year (308 cases including accident occurring and non-accident occurring situation)
and to check proposed model which relate accident with rainfall and traffic
performance.
The output of the analysis results shows that the decision tree consists of total 71
nodes including 36 terminal nodes. Each node is built up by meeting the criteria of
specific value of flow or speed or rainfall and each node shows the probability of
accident for the specific criteria. Terminal nodes of each branch show whether the
accident occurs or not for the combination of predictor variables. By observing the
accident probability value of the terminal nodes, it is understandable that for which
combination e.g. flow, speed or rainfall, there will be an accident or no-accident. For
example, if one terminal node represents accident = 0, that means, there will be no
accident for this combination and if accident = 1, that means, there will be an
accident for the combination of flow and / or speed and / or rainfall. Accident value
between 0 and 1 represents the probability of accident occurrence for this
combination or branch.
The following figure shows the details of the decision tree model:
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The analysis output (Table 1) shows the importance percentage of each predictor
in the decision tree model. This describes priority levels of the variables to predict
the accident occurrence. The importance percentage of each variable is evaluated
by the most important variable whose importance percentage is taken as 100. It is
shown that flow at the location of incident 5 minute before the accident has got the
highest importance and rainfall has the least importance among the predictors.
Compared to speed, flow variable is more important for the prediction of accident
occurrence.
In the decision tree analysis, the first and primary branch is built up by the criteria
of speed at the location of incident at the time of accident makes the other branches.
But it is observed that accident probability is more for the speed less than 102 km/hr
at the location of accident. The decision trees are added further with the criteria of
the flow at the location before 5 minutes of accident occurrence. Again it can be
seen from the decision tree that accident probability is higher for comparatively
lower value of traffic flow at the location of incident. For example, for
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flow<=128veh/hr, incident probability is 0.833 whereas it is 0.50 for flow>128veh/hr.
The branches are further extended by the speed at the location before 5 minutes of
accident. It is noteworthy that node 10 shows that if the speed at the location before
5 minutes of accident is less than 76.5 km/hr by satisfying the upper criteria of
branches, the probability of accident is 1 i.e. there must be an accident. The
branches are further built up by the criteria of downstream flow at accident time
followed by upstream flow, upstream speed before 5 minutes of accident
occurrence.
Rainfall criteria are shown in the end nodes, node 38 and node 39. The criteria
used for rainfall effect is whether rainfall amount is less than or higher than 0.5 mm.
If the rainfall amount is more than 0.5 mm, after meeting previous criteria, accident
probability is 1 i.e. accident will happen. On the other side, there will be no accident
if the value is less than 0.5 mm.
There are few combinations of speed and flow for which, there will be an
accident on the roadway. For example:
1.Speed at the location > 102.5 km/hr + flow at the location 5 minutes before <=
258 veh/hr + speed at the upstream 5 minutes before > 97.5 km/hr.
2.Speed at the location <= 102.5 km/hr + flow at the location 5 minutes before >
129 veh/hr + speed at the upstream 5 minutes before <=76.5 km/hr.
3.Speed at the location <= 102.5 km/hr + flow at the location 5 minutes before <=
129 veh/hr + flow at the downstream <=4630 veh/hr.
6. CONCLUSION
This paper analyses how the traffic performance parameters and rainfall affect the
accident occurrence by using the decision tree analysis method has been found that
road accident probability on the studied freeway depends significantly on the
condition of traffic performance parameters: traffic flow and vehicle speed rather
than rainfall. Also, this study reveals the combination of flow, speed and rainfall for
which the road users on the roadway are prone to accidents. The analysis result
indicates that speed at the location, flow at the location 5 minutes before and speed
at the upstream 5 minutes before or flow at the downstream has the significant
contributing effect for occurrence of accident.
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The findings of the study can be used to reduce road accidents by considering
the known combination of traffic flow, speed and rainfall and controlling traffic to
avoid these hazardous conditions resulting in accidents. Future research direction
will be conducted on how to improve the road traffic performance on the freeway by
adopting different traffic control measures in order to reduce crash risk probabilities.
7. REFERENCES
Faouzi, N.-E. E., Billot, R., Nurmi, P. & Nowotny, B. (2010) Effects of adverse
weather on traffic and safety: state-of-the-art and a European initiative. SIR WEC
2010: 15th International Road Weather Conference .
Goodwin, L. C. (2002) Weather Impacts on Arterial Traffic Flow. Prepared for the
FHWA Road Weather Management Program.
Hranac, R., Sterzin, E., Krechmer, D., Rakha, H. And Farzaneh, M. (2007) Empirical
Studies on Traffic Flow in Inclement Weather. Federal Highway Administration, U.S.
Department of Transportation, Washington, DC.
Keay, K. & Simmonds, I. (2005) The association of rainfall and other weather
variables with road traffic volume in Melbourne, Australia. Accident Analysis &
Prevention, 37, 109-124.
159
033 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SMART MOTORCYCLE SAFETY
VEST (SMS-V) FOR MOTORCYCLIST IN MALAYSIA
ABSTRACT : This paper describes the design and development of Smart Motorcycle Safety
Vest (SMS-V) for motorcyclist in Malaysia. SMS-V is the reflex of light shirts and fitted with
red and bright yellow LEDs which become the third light for brake and signals. According to
statistics of road accidents in Malaysia, accidents involving motorcyclists has a high number
and it increases every year. As a result, many young people died and some have suffered
permanent disabilities and this is a great loss to society and country. Therefore, there should
be an alternative effort to ensure that this group is not a victim in the accident. Basically, the
accident on the motorcycle is happened because most of motorcyclist are not concerned
about safety where the mistakes that frequently happen is wearing dark colored clothing.
According to the research experimental works, a motorcycle can only be known by the
headlight and taillight of motorcycle at a distance of less than 180 meters. If a vehicle such
as car and lorry at a speed of 90km/h faced with a motorcyclist, the vehicle only has 6
seconds to be alert to the presence of motorcyclists. Instead, this product able to assist road
users about the presence of a motorcyclist at a distance of 500 meters, which is three times
better than normal conditions. Based on motorcycle registration statistics released by the
Malaysian Road Transport Department, as at January 2010, a total of 8,940,230 motorcycles
were registered in Malaysia. If SMS-V is used only 50% of the number stated above,
roughly, it will become a fashion and give a great impact to the motorcyclists in Malaysia as
the product itself offers an interesting look. Hence, it is believed that this research is able to
reduce the number of road accidents which often happen to motorcyclists in Malaysia.
Keywords : Safety Vest, Motorcyclist, Third Light, Light-Emitting Diode (LED), Malaysia
1. INTRODUCTION
Road accidents have caused huge losses to the country. It involves an injury,
suffering and death but the histories of road accidents seem endless in
Malaysia. Thus, the desire to travel safely and smoothly remains as intention of
the government and the individual road users. Therefore, currently many
different efforts have been developed to avoid vehicle crash on the road
especially that involve with motorcyclists.In Malaysia, 96% of injuries and deaths
from accidents are caused by driver carelessness. Figure 1 shows the example
of motorcycle accident in Malaysia.
The invention basically is well suited for motorcycle rider, where the safety
vest (SMS-V) equipped with the third safety brake LED light, left and right signal
LED light and LED taillight that is more transparent to road users. The reason
why LED light is used because most of the road accident happens due to
160
visibility where the road user could not see the presence of the motorcyclist in
front or next to them.
Obviously, the major factor to road accidents is the result of failure of the
road user himself when on the road. Table 1 shows the Statistics of Road
Accidents in Malaysia referred to the Kurikulum Pendidikan Pemanduan from
Road Transport Department of Malaysia (JPJ) where the number of road
accidents involving motorcyclists has a high number and it increases every year.
As a result, many young people died and some have suffered permanent
disabilities. This is a great loss to society and country as they are the heirs and
human capital for national development.
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2. METHODOLOGY
In the Stage 1, the materials and components are assemble to build up the
transmitter and receiver controller circuit using the RF technology. The
transmitter controller circuit is located under the seat of motorcycle and the
receiver is attached at safety vest. Then, in Stage 2, the white, yellow and red
LED strip is attached at safety vest. In addition the LEDs are connected with the
receiver controller box. In Stage 3, the field testing is conducted in order to
investigate the performance of SMS-V and the field testing was conducted at
night. Besides that, the testing has been done to compare the effect of both woth
and without SMS-V. Analysis is carried out to verify the performance of SMS-V.
The analysis is aligning with the reliability and functionality of the RF controller
box in the SMS-V.
162
b. Refer to the [http ://www.themalaysian. blogspot.com/2006/08/fatal-road
accidents-ranking-malaysia.html, August 2006.], most of these
transportation deaths and injuries occur on the nation’s highways. The
United Nations has ranked Malaysia 30th among countries with the
highest number of fatal road accidents, registering an average of 4.5
deaths per 10,000 registered vehicles.
c. According to Hafiz Muhammad Atiq et. all, nowadays vehicle detection
and shape recognition based on optical sensors has becoming an area of
active research among researcher and development departments of civil
defence, traffic police and universities. A successful vehicle detection
and shape recognition algorithm will pave the way for vehicle recognition,
vehicle tracking and safety improvements.
163
such as a motorcycle, and a receiver module adapted for mounting to a
safety helmet. The transmitter module is configured to continuously
transmit a transmission signal when a brake of the vehicle is disengaged
and discontinue transmission of the transmission signal when a brake of
the vehicle is engaged. The disadvantage of this invention is the limited
application, of only giving a breaking signal to the road users. By having
the breaking light warning system on the helmet could cause the system
to be very unreliable due to riders occasionally turns their head left or
right looking for direction or just distracted by the road objects.
164
Stage 1
The intention of stage 1 is to build up a transmitter and receiver
controller for the SMS-V. The controller basically using the radio frequency
(RF) technologies with the frequency employed is 40MHz. Transmitter
controller box as shown in Figure 3 is powered by two AA 1 .5V batteries.
This controller need to be attached at the motorcycle and the best place is
under the seat of motorcycle.
Figure 4 shows the situation before and after the transmitter controller
box connected with the motorcycle wiring system. In addition, this controller
box connected is placed under the motorcycle seat suit for the reason to
provide a convenient and easiness to the motorcyclist. Besides that, if the
transmitter controller box is kept under the motorcycle seat, it will prevent the
controller from any damage.
165
Basically, the user has to take only six wires from the existing wiring in
motorcycle and then connect the six wires to the transmitter controller box as
shown in Figure 5. It is good to know that, most of the motorcycles in
Malaysia have the wiring under the seat, thus it is easy to attach the
transmitter controller box under the motorcycle seat. The installation of the
transmitter controller box can be completed approximately less than five
minutes. In addition, the controller box is only need to be installed during the
first time used and it is permanently connected.
166
3V DC
4.5V DC
12V DC Brake
(Red LED)
Left Signal
Action Receiver Control
Circuit
Motorcycle
Right Signal
Action circuit
(6 wires from
motorcycle
circuit connect Left Signal Right Signal
Brake (Orange (Orange
Action with transmitter
controller LED) LED)
circuit)
Stage 2
The invention of SMS-V has the strip LED which is sewed within the
vest. It has third safety brake LED light, left and right signal LED light and
LED tail light powered by a light weight rechargeable battery that offers high
intensity thus excellent visibility to the motorcycle riders. The invention
comprises of strip LED sewed within the vest, battery, receiving controller
circuit and transmission control box. The transmitter controller box is placed
under the rider seats, which connected directly to the motorcycle signal
which is brake light, left turn signal and right turn signal. Whenever the riders
operates the brake, left or right signal, the transmitter controller box is trigger
and transmit a corresponding signal to the receiver controller vest which is
located inside the SMS-V.
Referring to Figure 8, it can be seen that SMS-V comprises a flexible
strip LEDs yellow, red and white attached in front of the SMSV. Number 1
and 6 represent the LED taillight, number 7 and 8 represent right signal LED
light, number 9 and 10 represent the left signal LED light and number 11 and
12 represent the brake LED light. In addition, number 2, 3, 4 and 5 is an
additional for front light. Besides that, for the rear side of the SMS-V, number
Front 13, 14, 15 and 16 represent the LED taillight, number 17, 18 and 19, 20
Rear
represent the left and right signal respectively and number 21 to 24
represent the brake light.
Figure 8. The front and rear of the Smart Motorcycle Safety Vest (SMS-V)
Basically while the rider use brake, left or right signal, the transmitter
control box will trigger and transmit the respective signal to receiver control
box. Then, the receiver control box will respond accordingly. While the rider
wearing SMS-V and turn on the switch at the receiver control box, the tail
light (no 1, 6, 13, 14, 15 and 16) and front light (no 2 -5) will turn on. During
riding, while the rider pulls the front brake, the SMS-V brake light (no 11, 12,
21 - 24) will turn on. While the rider push the right or left signal, the SMS-V
right (no 7, 8, 19 and 20) or left (9, 10, 17 and 18) signal will blink. In
addition, the LED attached to the vest will blink in the same frequencies with
the motorcycle signal.
Table 2: Time to Alert for Other Vehicles with Varying the Speed of Other Vehicle during
With and Without Using SMS-V
Without SMS-V With SMS-V
Distance : 150 meter Distance : 500 meter
Speed of the Speed of the
Time to alert Time to alert
Other Vehicle Other Vehicle
50 km/h 10.8 second 50 km/h 36.0 second
60 km/h 9.0 second 60 km/h 30.0 second
70 km/h 7.7 second 70 km/h 25.7 second
80 km/h 6.8 second 80 km/h 22.5 second
90 km/h 6.0 second 90 km/h 20.0 second
100 km/h 5.4 second 100 km/h 18.0 second
110 km/h 4.9 second 110 km/h 16.4 second
120 km/h 4.5 second 120 km/h 15.0 second
Table 2 shows the distance with varying speed of vehicle for two different
conditions which are with and without SMS-V. It shows that by using SMS-V,
the time taken for a lorry or a car to alert to the motorcyclist is greater than
without using the SMS-V.
.170
Figure 9: Difference in Distance between With and Without SMS-V
Figure
40 10: Different in Distance between With and Without SMS-V
35
3. CONCLUSION 30
25
20 there are several advantages of the invention which are very
In conclusion,
15
important in ensuring
10
the developed Smart Motorcycle Safety Vest (SMS-V) Se...
to
Se...
function as an5alternative way to reduce the number of motorcycle accidents in
0
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
4. REFERENCES
Hafiz Muhammad Atiq, Umar Farooq, Rabbia Ibrahim, et al. (2010). Vehicle
Detection and Shape Recognition using Optical Sensors: A Review.
Proceedings of the Bizarre Fruit Postgraduate Conference. pp 107 – 123.
University of Salford.UK
Yun Luo, Jeffrey Remillard, and Dieter Hoetzer (2010). Pedestrian Detection in
Near-Infrared Night Vision System. 2010 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium
University of California, San Diego,CA, USA. June 21-24, 2010.
Marco Pieve, Francesco Tesauri, & Andrea Spadoni (2009). Mitigation Accident
Risk in Powered Two Wheelers domain: Improving effectiveness of Human
Machine Interface Collision Avoidance System in Two Wheelers. Humans
System Interaction 2009- University of Catania, Catania, Italy, May 2 1-23, 2009.
Marco Pieve, Francesco Tesauri, & Andrea Spadoni (2009). Mitigation Accident
Risk in Powered Two Wheelers domain: Improving effectiveness of Human
Machine Interface Collision Avoidance System in Two Wheelers. Humans
System Interaction 2009- University of Catania, Catania, Italy, May 2 1-23, 2009.
ABSTRACT: Malaysia possesses the most complete and modern roads and highway
infrastructure that links the whole country. In the interest of safety, the government remains
constantly vigilant to possible hazards along the roads and highways. In Malaysia, there are
three typical types of road safety barrier which are widely used, namely wire rope, w-beam
guardrail and concrete barriers. Wire rope safety barrier is seen as the best solution to keep
vehicle damage to a minimum as well as to reduce the risk of serious injury. Wire rope
barrier has recently used in Malaysia due to the low cost of maintenance, repair time, and
ease of construction. However, to date, there is lack of study on traffic barriers especially
wire rope. Therefore, this study is carried out to conduct hypothesis testing using statistical
approach to verify either wire rope is safe or not. Another purpose of this study is to analyze
the accident characteristic based on the police reports which involve with traffic barriers.
Data collection consists of accident data and field work measurement for both federal and
expressway selected roads. The SPSS statistical software is used to analyze the accident
data. As expected, the result shows with sufficient evidence that wire rope is safer than
guardrail in term of accident casualties. Based on the inspection of the guardrail and wire
rope installation, most of the stretches generally complied with the JKR and the REAM
specifications. Finally, this pioneer study may be applicable for future research on traffic
barriers as well as in any justification of accident countermeasure along Malaysian roads.
1. INTRODUCTION
Malaysia is facing a serious road accident problem. Every year for the last 5
years, more than 6000 people were killed on its road (MOT, 2006). There is a
need to provide highway design engineers with a choice of safe and effective
guardrail and medium barrier systems. The application of traffic barriers should
result in safer highways. However, traffic barriers have sometimes been
misused, perhaps due to a misconception of their function. They are not installed
to protect roadside objects or prevent accident occurrence, but to protect vehicle
occupants from possible serious injury (REAM, 2006). Roadside barriers are
designed to enhance the safety of the road infrastructure by containing errant
vehicles and reducing the severity of off-path collisions (REAM, 2006). However,
in Malaysia, there are lack of study on traffic barriers especially wire rope.
Usually in Malaysian road, there are three types of road safety barrier which are
widely used, namely wire rope, w-beam guard rail and concrete median but
which one have perform better in term of safety and how much it’s installation
comply with the specification?
2. METHODOLOGY
Table 1. Road ID
Location Road ID Safety Barrier Type
Kuala Perlis – Changloon 1 2
Kuala Perlis – Changloon 2 1
Muar by-pass 3 1
Jasin 4 2
Alor Gajah 5 2
i.Statistical Analysis
Graphical analysis is carried out to depict the accident characteristic when using
wire rope and w-beam guardrail as the road safety barrier. The accident data
from 2007 to 2009 is taken and analyzed.
150
fatal
100 serious injury slight injury
100
50
62.5 61.54
25 0 23.08 12.5 0 15.38
0
Where, X1, X2, X3 and X4 are the number of fatal, serious injury, slight injury,
and damage only, respectively.
Two types of hypothesis testing are carried out namely T-Test or mean analysis
and also F-Test or analysis variance. Of these, variance analysis is more
specific to the location of barrier.
Table 2 shows the statistical summary for both types of safety barriers. Two
tailed t-test is used to compare means between wire rope and guardrail. The
null hypothesis for t-test is that means for the two types of barriers are the
same for fatal, serious injury and slight injury accidents.
H0:µWR=µGR
Where µi is the mean of group i, in this case barrier type i and the alternate
hypothesis is that means for two barrier types are significantly different.
H1 :µWR≠µ GR
Table 4 shows the statistical summary for location study based on Road ID.
Analysis variance F-Test is used to compare the value of means between
Road ID. The null hypothesis for f-test is for all Road ID are the same for
fatal, serious injury and slight injury accidents.
H0:µ1=µ2 =µ3=µ4=µ5
H1:µ1=µ2 =µ3=µ4=µ5
Table 6. The Descriptive Statistic for Serious Injury Accident based on Road ID
Table 7 shows the descriptive statistic for slight injury accident based
on Road ID. The mean value for Road ID 3 and5 is subset, so there have no
different of slight injury accident but for Road ID 1, 2, and 4, there have
different mean of slight injury accident. Road ID 4 is the highest value of
slight injury accident and the second highest is Road ID 1. From the result, it
show that, the location which have the highest and the second highest slight
injury accident use w-beam guardrail as road safety barrier. So, it can be
assumed that wire rope is safer than guardrail.
Table 7. The Descriptive Statistic for Slight Injury Accident based on Road ID
From the hypothesis testing, it’s clearly show that the fatal accident,
serious injury and slight injury accident is less at location using wire rope.
The fatal accident is the highest at Road ID 4 which is Jasin (PLUS
Expressway) and the second highest is Road ID 1 which is Kuala Perlis-
Changloon Highway. Both of road use w-beam guardrail as road safety
barrier.
4. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, based on the graphical analysis, it shows that locations with wire
rope installation are safer than guardrail with respect to the number of accident.
Moreover, statistical analyses show that guardrail gives higher risk to the road
users’ safety compared to wire rope. Several recommendations for further
investigation are as follow:
i) The deflection of vehicles crashing into WRSBs needs to be better
understood to reduce the likelihood of serious secondary collisions.
ii) Detailed barrier location (the actual side of the road on which it is located);
iii) Detailed target crash analysis (which target crashes are relevant to the
barrier length);
iv) And other available detail such as, whether there appears to be significant
differences in effect between installation lengths, and if there exists a
minimum threshold length for effectiveness and impact of barrier distance
from travel lane.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
6. REFERENCES
BCO Ventures Sdn. Bhd. (2010). Brifen Wire Rope Safety Fence System. Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia.: Trade Brochure
Che Ali, C.H., (2010). Improving the Design and Installation of Traffic Barriers along
Major Roads in Malaysia. Proc. of conference on traffic barriers. REAM.
Inov Fence Sdn. Bhd. (2010). Wire Rope Guardrail System. Selangor, Malaysia:
Trade Brochure.
Nor Esnizah, I. (2008). Accident Prediction Model Federal Route 50 (Batu Pahat –
Ayer Hitam). University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia. Thesis B.s.c.
Statistical Report Road Accident, Royal Malaysian Police. (2007 to 2009). Get on 23
August 2010 from Kangar Traffic Police Station.
Statistical Report Road Accident, Royal Malaysian Police. (2007 to 2009). Get on 06
September 2010 from Muar Traffic Police Station.
Statistical Report Road Accident, Royal Malaysian Police. (2007 to 2009). Get on 20
September 2010 from Melaka Contingent Police Headquarter.
Appendix
Table A. Top-Fourty Accident Ranking by Weightage (Guardrail)
Serious Slight Damage
KM Fatal TOTAL APW ln(APW) rank ROAD ID
Injury Injury Only
205 4 0 2 119 125 49.4 3.89 1 5
195 2 0 2 145 149 42.6 3.75 2 5
196 3 1 3 56 63 34.6 3.54 3 5
185 3 0 3 30 36 26.4 3.27 4 4
184 2 3 0 24 29 25.8 3.25 5 4
197 2 0 4 47 53 24.6 3.20 6 5
202 1 2 3 40 46 22.4 3.10 7 5
10 1 5 0 4 10 21.8 3.08 8 1
199 2 0 4 31 37 21.4 3.06 9 5
217 0 0 0 97 97 19.4 2.96 10 5
209 2 0 0 37 39 19.4 2.96 11 5
207 2 0 1 28 31 18.4 2.91 12 5
179 2 0 1 27 30 18.2 2.90 13 4
210 0 0 4 71 75 17.4 2.85 14 5
198 2 0 0 27 29 17.4 2.85 15 5
178 2 0 0 25 27 17.0 2.83 16 4
3 1 2 3 12 18 16.8 2.82 17 1
181 1 2 1 17 21 16.2 2.78 18 4
221 0 0 0 77 77 15.4 2.73 19 5
11 2 0 1 13 16 15.4 2.73 20 1
189 1 1 2 20 24 14.6 2.68 21 4
191 1 1 4 11 17 14.4 2.66 22 4
4 0 3 4 11 18 14.4 2.66 23 1
193 1 0 1 36 38 14.0 2.63 24 5
204 1 0 2 30 33 13.6 2.61 25 5
201 1 0 1 31 33 13.0 2.56 26 5
211 1 0 0 33 34 12.6 2.53 27 5
220 0 0 1 59 60 12.6 2.53 28 5
182 1 1 0 16 18 12.2 2.50 29 4
8 2 0 0 1 3 12.2 2.50 30 1
194 1 0 1 26 28 12.0 2.48 31 5
187 1 0 1 23 25 11.4 2.43 32 4
218 0 0 0 56 56 11.2 2.41 33 5
216 0 0 0 53 53 10.6 2.36 34 5
219 0 0 0 52 52 10.4 2.34 35 5
212 0 0 0 51 51 10.2 2.32 36 5
5 1 0 1 17 19 10.2 2.32 37 1
203 0 0 2 41 43 9.8 2.28 38 5
200 1 0 1 13 15 9.4 2.24 39 5
174 0 0 4 23 27 7.8 2.05 40 4
183
Table B. Top Fourty Accident Ranking by Weightage (Wire Rope)
Serious Slight Damage
KM Fatal TOTAL APW ln(APW) rank ROAD ID
Injury Injury Only
0 6 2 8 70 86 62.4 4.13 1 3
16 0 3 0 21 24 13.2 2.58 2 2
8 1 1 0 11 13 11.2 2.41 3 3
7 1 0 1 9 11 8.6 2.15 4 3
2 0 0 0 39 39 7.8 2.05 5 3
5 0 1 2 15 18 7.6 2.02 6 3
35 1 0 0 1 2 6.2 1.82 7 2
21 0 1 1 10 12 5.8 1.75 8 2
9 0 0 1 17 18 4.2 1.43 9 3
3 0 0 1 16 17 4.0 1.38 10 3
18 0 0 2 12 14 4.0 1.38 11 2
22 0 1 0 5 6 4.0 1.38 12 2
14 0 1 0 2 3 3.4 1.22 13 2
17 0 0 1 12 13 3.2 1.16 14 2
37 0 1 0 1 2 3.2 1.16 15 2
27 0 1 0 0 1 3.0 1.09 16 2
1 0 0 0 12 12 2.4 0.87 17 3
6 0 0 0 11 11 2.2 0.78 18 3
31 0 0 0 9 9 1.8 0.58 19 2
11 0 0 0 7 7 1.4 0.33 20 3
43 0 0 1 2 3 1.2 0.18 21 2
29 0 0 0 5 5 1.0 0.00 22 2
36 0 0 1 1 2 1.0 0.00 23 2
23 0 0 1 0 1 0.8 -0.22 24 2
25 0 0 0 4 4 0.8 -0.22 25 2
33 0 0 0 4 4 0.8 -0.22 26 2
4 0 0 0 3 3 0.6 -0.51 27 3
30 0 0 0 3 3 0.6 -0.51 28 2
40 0 0 0 3 3 0.6 -0.51 29 2
20 0 0 0 2 2 0.4 -0.91 30 2
28 0 0 0 2 2 0.4 -0.91 31 2
10 0 0 0 1 1 0.2 -1.60 32 3
12 0 0 0 1 1 0.2 -1.60 33 2
13 0 0 0 1 1 0.2 -1.60 34 2
15 0 0 0 1 1 0.2 -1.60 35 2
19 0 0 0 1 1 0.2 -1.60 36 2
24 0 0 0 1 1 0.2 -1.60 37 2
34 0 0 0 1 1 0.2 -1.60 38 2
38 0 0 0 1 1 0.2 -1.60 39 2
39 0 0 0 1 1 0.2 -1.60 40 2
184
037 PREDICTION OF ACCIDENT TREND AT TWO-LANE FEDERAL
HIGHWAYS USING STATISTICAL APPROACH
Cik Wan NORBALKISH Jusof 1, ISMAIL Yusof 2 and Mohd ERWAN Sanik 3
1. INTRODUCTION
185
‘hazardous location’ and ‘high accident location’ often used as a synonym to
blackspot. A blackspot was originally a road location of limited area with a high
concentration of accidents. This definition has progressively evolved as several
researches now recommend including the concept of potential for improvement
(McGuigan, 1981; Elvik, 1988; Hauer, 1996).
2. METHODOLOGY
Four main stages in the methodology are data collection, analysis of accident
data and identification of blackspot location, field work, and the development of
an accident prediction model.
186
B.6 Data Collection
In this study, data collection involves two types of data namely primary data
and secondary data. Secondary data are accident data obtained from the
Royal Malaysian Police (RMP). Accident data was collected from the Batu
Pahat Traffic Police Station, Batu Pahat Public Work Department, Bukit
Aman RMP Headquater and Jabatan Keselamatan dan Jalan Raya (JKJR).
The accident database is extracted from the POL27 and the accident record
collected from the year 2007 until May 2010. Meanwhile, primary data
includes geometrical data and field work data, specifically from field
observation and Metrocount data.
187
1 depicts the Metrocount equipment used in the field work. The
measurements of lane width, shoulder with and number of access point are
carried out manually at the study locations. Figure 2 shows the odometer
used to measure the road geometry.
Figure 1. Metrocount
Figure 2. Odometer
188
B.10 Accident Prediction Model and Sensitivity Analysis
In this study, Microsoft Excel and Minitab statistical software are used in
analyzing all data and developing an APM, furthermore to validate the
coefficients and the model. The dependent variable for this model is the
APW and the explanatory variables are the 85th percentile speed, hourly
traffic volume, lane width, shoulder width, total number of access point, and
type of road geometric (straight, hilly, curvy). Later, the sensitivity analysis is
carried out on the model to determine the effect of each independent
variable on the dependent variable; for instance, the effect that changes in
speed will have on the APW.
The blackspot locations are determined with the ranking of the APW. The data
obtained from 9 selected locations which have been installed with the
Metrocount equipment are analyzed using the Microsoft Excel before preceded
with the development of the APM by using multiple regression method.
Furthermore, sensitivity analyses based on the developed model is carried out to
check the differences if changes in value made on the independent variables.
189
Figure 3. Accident Statistic for 2007-May 2010
190
b)Accident and Casualty at FT005
191
3.3 Accident Data by Hours of the Day
Figure 7 through 9 show the total number of accident for every 2 hours
beginning midday to midnight throughout the year from 2007 to May 2010.
The analyses are carried out for every route and the largest number of
accidents recorded at 14:01 to 18:00 or 2:01 to 6:00 p.m. This pattern might
happened because the period especially 4:01 to 6:00 p.m. is the peak hours
where the density of traffic is high on roads and since the federal roads are
at the rural area, speeding may also being a factor contributes to accident
occurrence.
192
Figure 8. Accident by Hours of the day at FT005
The calculation for APW is carried out using Equation (1) and ranked using
the Microsoft Excel.
Where, X 1, X2, X3 and X 4 are the number of fatal, serious Injury, slight injury
and damage only, respectively
193
3.5 Selected Study Location
Using Equation (1), APW for every kilometer in a route is calculated and the
sections are accordingly ranked. From rank 1 to 5 of every route, 8 sections
have been selected for further investigation. Table 1 shows the list of
selected sections in every route with regards to type of accident and APW
values.
194
Figure 10. Accident statistic at study locations
(2)
Where,
APW = accident point weightage
HTV = hourly traffic volume
85th PS = 85th percentile speed
AP = number of access points per kilometer
ST = straight road geometry
a) From the analysis, the developed model has an R-squared of 0.994 and
adjusted R-squared of 0.993, which means 99.4% and 99.3% of the variation
in the number of accidents has been explained the regression line. Table 2
shows the range of explanatory variables values can be used for this model.
195
Table 2. Range of values for independent variables in Accident Prediction Model developed
Factor Range of Values
Hourly Traffic Volume (HTV) 494 - 2415veh/hr
85 th Percentile Speed (85 th PS) 60.8 – 98.3 km/hr
Number of access points (AP) 0 – 14
Lane width (LW) 3.4 – 4.2 m
Shoulder width (SW) 0.35 – 2.8 m
4. CONCLUSION
This study used the APW from the HPU to determine the black spot locations
before ranking them in one kilometer at each location. Further analysis of this
study is to develop predictive model relating accident weighting point with the
selected independent variables has been achieved. Multiple regression
techniques are used to build the model. The model is as shown in Section 3.8.
The result of the sensitivity analysis provide sufficient evidence to support the
hypothesis that the independent variables include Hourly Traffic Volume, 85th
Percentile Speed, total number of access points, lane width and shoulder width
are related to the accident weighting point. It can be conclude that for instance:
196
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thanks the Batu Pahat Police Station and the Jabatan Kerja
Raya, Batu Pahat Branch for their cooperation in getting the data.
6.REFERENCES
Armour, M. & Cinquegrana, C. (1990). Victorian study of single vehicle rural
accidents. Proceedings of the 15 th Australian Road Research Board Conference,
Part 7. pp 79-91. Australian Road Research Board.Melbourne
Berhanu, G. (2004). Model relating traffic safety with road environment and traffic
flow on arterial roads in Addis Ababa. pp 697-704. Adis Ababa University
Hadi Mohammed A., Jacob Aruldhas, Lee-Fang Chow, and Joseph A. Wattleworth
(1995). Estimating Safety of Cross-Section Design for Various Highway Types
Using Negative Binomial Regression. Transportation Research Record, 1500 ,
169-177
Kutner M.H., Nachtsheim C.J., Neter J. & Li W. (2005). Applied Linear Statistical
Models . 5th edition
McGuigan D.R.D. (1981). The Use of Relationship between Road Accidents and
Traffic Flow in ‘blackspot’ Identification. Traffic Engineering. V12, N1, pp 448-
453
Mohd Shafii, Subiah Sulaiman, Norliah Saidin, PM Radin Umar, R.S, P/PPP Ruslan
Khalid, PPP Ooi I.B, Ir Sabudin Mohd. Salleh, Sanusi Ismail (1995). Interim
Guide on Identifying, Prioritizing and Treating Hazardous Locations on Roads in
Malaysia . Kuala Lumpur: Percetakan Ibu Pejabat JKR Malaysia
Murray, C. & Lopez, A.D. (1996). The Global Burden of Disease . World Health
Organization, Harvard School of Public Health: World Bank, Boston.
Reurings M., Janssen T., Eenink R., (SWOV), Elvik R., (TOI), Cardoso J., (LNEC),
and Christian S., (KfV), (2005). Accident Prediction Models and Road safety
Impact Assessment . RI-SWOVWP23- R1 -V2
Treat, J.R., Tumbas, N.S., McDonald, S.T., Shinar, D., Hume, R.D., Mayer, R.E.,
Stanisfer, R.L. & Castellan, N.J. (1997). Tri-level Study of the Causes of Traffic
Accidents. Report No. DOT-HS-034-3-535-77 (TA C)
197
038 CENTERLINE RUMBLE STRIPS: A REVIEW OF APPLICATION AND
EFFECTIVENESS
Mohd Hanifi Othman 1, Zaiton Haron 2, Khairulzan Yahya 3, Haryati Yaacob 4 ,
Shamila Azman 5
1,2,3,4,5
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81300, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
mohdhanifi@ymail.com
zaitonharon@utm.my
khairulzan@utm.my
haryatiyaacob@utm.my
shamila@utm.my
ABSTRACT: Centerline Rumble Strips (CRS) is one form of traffic safety devices that work
to prevent the occurrence of head-on-crashes and opposite direction sideswiped crashes
caused by inattentive driver as a result from fatigue, sleepy or drowsiness factor. CRS are
installed extensively in developed countries such as USA, Japan and Canada in order to
reduce the accident rates. This paper discusses the installation of CRS practices in these
countries including type, design, and installation guidelines. This paper also reviews on
effectiveness of CRS in reducing head-on-crashes caused by inattentive drivers and the
application of the CRS. It was found that CRS could be introduced in Malaysia as it is not
only economical, but also very effective in reducing the head-on-crashes caused by the
inattentive driver. This is possibly a method that can be considered by the relevant
authorities in order to reduce the high accident rates in Malaysia.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Rumble strips has been used as part of traffic calming devices, as an early warning
to drivers to improve their driving and hence to reduce accident at hazardous
location. The most common device used in Malaysia is transverse rumble strips
(TRS) which is generally consist of yellow thermoplastic lines (3mm to 7mm thick)
laid across the carriageway. TRS designs are uniform for the entire country
according to specifications set in REAM -GL8/2004 (Guidelines on Traffic Control
Devices and Management), Part-4, pavement marking and Delineation. One form of
rumble strips that work to prevent the occurrence of head-on-crashes and opposite
direction sideswiped crashes caused is Centerline Rumble Strips (CRS). This an
unfamiliar feature here but they are installed extensively in developed countries
such as USA, Japan and Canada. The primary purpose of CRS (Figure 1.1) is to
warn inattentive drivers whose vehicles are crossing centerlines of two-lane, two-
198
way roadways to avoid potential crashes with opposing traffic. CRS give warning to
the drivers in the form of vibration and sound created when vehicles passess
through it. There are two types of crashes are considered correctable by CRS i.e
head-on collision (HOC) and opposite-direction sideswipes (ODS) which often
referred as cross-over or cross-centerline crashes.
In Malaysia, the authorities sometimes use pavement marker for mitigating HOC
and ODSC accidents. Function of pavement marker is similar to CRS and its able to
deflect light for safety at night. However, according to Hirasawa et al (2005) the
costs for pavement marker are twice the cost of CRS. A typical pavement marker is
shown in Figure 1.2.
199
2.0 HEAD-ON COLLISION (HOC) AND OPPOSITE DIRECTION SIDE
COLLISION (ODSC)
HOC typically occurs when a vehicle crosses the median and crashes with a vehicle
traveling in the opposite direction (typically called a cross-median crash or median-
crossover crash) as shown in Figure 2.1. While ODSC is also involves collisions
from the opposite direction but with impact is on the surface of the vehicle side. A
HOC can occur when a vehicle inadvertently travels the wrong way in the opposing
traffic lanes. Neuman et al. (2008) also reported that HOC is typically the result of
inadvertent actions by a driver potentially in combination with other adverse
circumstances such as weather conditions or motorist fatigue.
Figure 2.1: Oncoming vehicle in wrong lane that can resulted HOC
Torbic et al.(2009) stated there are seven characteristic of typical crashes due to
drowsiness/fatigue; (i) Crashes occur during late-night hours—Most crashes
involving drowsiness/fatigue occur from midnight to the pre dawn hours with a small
200
peak in the middle of the afternoon. This is consistent with human sleeping patterns;
(ii) Crashes happen at high speed—Because more long trips occur on higher speed
roadways, there is likely a higher proportion of drowsiness/fatigue crashes on
roadways with speed limits of 55 to 65 mph (88 to 105 km/h); (iii) Crashes are likely
to be serious—Injury and fatality rates are higher for drowsiness/fatigue crashes
than with other types of crashes. The higher rates could be a factor of the crashes
happening at higher speeds; (iv) Single vehicle leaves the roadway—A majority of
drowsiness/fatigue crashes involve single vehicles leaving the roadway. Rear-end
crashes and head-on crashes may also be increased due to drowsiness and
fatigue.; (v) No attempt to avoid crashes—Evidence of avoiding actions such as skid
marks or brake lights are less likely in drowsiness/ fatigue crashes than in other
types of crashes; (vi) Driver is alone in vehicle—Drowsiness/fatigue crashes often
involve single-occupant vehicles.
According to Torbic et al. (2009) there are three populations that have higher risk of
being involved in a drowsiness/fatigue-related crash: (i) Young people, especially
young men—Drivers under age 30 are four times more likely than other drivers to be
involved in a drowsy-driving crash. Men are five times more likely than women to be
involved in a drowsy-driving crash; (ii) Shift workers—The information concerning
shift workers and drowsiness/fatigue-related crashes has come from self reporting
and interviews rather than crash reports; but due to changing sleeping patterns, loss
of sleep, and more driving done in the early morning hours, it is assumed that there
is a greater risk of drowsiness/fatigue crashes among shift workers; (iii) People with
untreated sleep apnea syndrome and narcolepsy—The total number of
drowsiness/fatigue crashes involving drivers with sleep disorders is low, but the risk
is higher among drivers with untreated sleep disorders than among other drivers.
The most significant effectiveness of CRS had been recorded by the Delaware
Department of Transportation, US. From their investigation on HOC three years of
before and six years of after installation of CRS on Route US 301, showed that CRS
had decreased crashes by 90 percent. Crashes caused by drivers crossing over the
centerline rumble strips decreased by 60 percent. The benefit/cost ratio for CRS
installations was estimated to be 110. Investigation in California on the effects of
201
CRS in no-passing zones showed that crash data from three years of before and
after CRS installation had reduced by 11 percent and fatalities reduced by 77
percent. However, the situation is different in Minnesota where they installed CRS at
two sites on rural roads with 55 mph speed limits. A review of three years of before
and after crash data found no reduction in HOC (Russell and Rys, 2005).
Table 3.1 shows the numbers of head-on collisions in 2002 and 2003, before and
after installation of center rumble strips at 24 locations in Hokkaido, Japan. The
number of accidents for “before” is that for the two years before installation and the
number of accidents for “after” is from the day of installation to December 31, 2004.
HOC before installation was numbered 42 at 24 locations, and after installation was
numbered 15 respectively. To compare the accident rate of before and after, the
figure for after was extrapolated, which yielded a figure of 18.8 collisions. The
accident reduction rate was calculated to be 55.2% (Hirasawa et al., 2005). On the
other hand, Russell and Rys (2005) thought that crashes in reality are a rare
occurrence and, for a given roadway segment, several years of data or several
combined databases are generally required to apply sophisticated statistical
techniques that produce statistically significant results indicating that a treatment
resulted in an effect caused by the treatment and not by chance.
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Table 3.1: Number of accidents before and after installation of CRS in Hokkaido, Japan
(Hirasawa et al., 2005).
Route Length Date of Number of HOC
installed construction
(m) Before From Extrapolated
installation installation after
(2 years) to Dec. 1, installation
2004 (2 years)
Hirasawa et al. (2005) concluded in their study that the CRS has the following
advantages:- (i) A high degree of warning is given to drivers who deviate to the edge
of the road. (ii) Two-wheel vehicles can travel more safely on sections with CRS
than on those with center poles or chatter bars. (iii) Rumble strips do not hinder
snow removal. (iv) The costs are low (half of that for center poles, and one-third of
that for chatter bars). (v) Because the rumble strips are not installed where the
wheels of vehicles pass, they cause very little tire abrasion and they do not affect
the traveling speed and (vi) They can be highly effective against head-on collisions
in cold, snowy regions like Hokkaido. Russell and Rys (2005) also reported a study
in Pennsylvania found that there was a movement of vehicles away from the CRS
203
on the order of several inches and thus would increase the separation of opposing
vehicles and potentially increase safety.
Anunda et al. (2008) however showed that CRS cannot be really effective and there
are no effects observed due to type of strip. This is because the effects of
drowsiness or sleepy which are missing as a result of vibration and noise can be
reappear during 5 min after hitting CRS.
CRS are installed in the form of milled, rolled, and raised (Finley and Miles, 2007).
Milled rumble strips are installed on both new and existing concrete and asphalt
roadways by a mechanical milling device while rolled rumble strips are depressions
on asphalt roadways formed by steel pipes welded onto a roller at a uniform spacing
applied only on new or reconstructed asphalt surfaces. Raised rumble strips are
rounded or rectangular markers or strips adhered to the roadway including traffic
buttons, profile markings, preformed thermoplastic, or raised sections of asphalt
pavement. Raised rumble strips can be applied to any roadway; however, typically
they are restricted to warmer climates because cooler climate regions may require
snowplowing that may damage the rumble strips and/or the snowplowing equipment
(Makarla, 2009).
In order to tackling the problem of HOC and ODSC accidents, CRS is located in the
middle of the road that separates the opposite direction as shown in Figure 4.1.
However, CRS dimension size is different because in general, the transportation
departments use the size of its own design. Figure 4.2 (a) and (b) shows an
example of typical dimensions used CRS in the USA.
204
Figure 4.1: Typical CRS installation (Torbic et al., 2009).
(a)
205
(b)
Figure 4.2: Typical design of CRS in USA (Torbic et al., 2009)
Apart from rectangular shaped, CRS can also be found in football shaped as
shown in Figure 4.3 (Gardner et al., 2007).
In general, each place has its own installation guidelines as a result from
investigation by their transportation agency. However, commonalities in the
guidelines are as follows: 1)Roadway type—Rural two- or three-lane undivided;
2)Crash history—All documents address numbers of crashes or crash rates and
indicated that CRS should be used on sections where some number (unspecified) of
cross-over crashes have occurred (Russell and Rys, 2005).
206
Only California policy contains a specific, weighted average number based on a
value for various levels in five categories: 1) number of total crashes, number of
deaths, fatal accident rate, death rate, and total accidents per mile. The five
categories are summed at a value of 40 (plus a cross-over fatality during 1998)
which triggers an investigation of the site;1) Speed—50 mph or greater;2) ADT
threshold—1,500 to 3,500; 3) Lane width—No less than 10 ft, with 11 or 12 ft more
common;4) Pavement type—Primarily asphalt in good condition with minimum
depths of 2.5 in. to 2.75 in.;5) Noise—Consider noise; and 6) Coordination—
Coordinate with all other project tasks and install CRS last (Russell and Rys, 2005).
The cost per linear foot of roadway for CRS installation varied from $0.20 to $0.60,
excluding traffic maintenance. This has led Delaware Department of Transportation
(Del-DOT) to claim a benefit–cost effectiveness of 110 to 1 this means that for
every dollar Del- DOT spent, society has saved $110 in medical costs, insurance,
legal fees, long-term care, property damage, and other expenses related to serious
accidents and fatalities (Gardner et al., 2007).
There are problems regarding CRS arising from other road users such as bicyclists.
Bicyclists claim vehicles on roads with CRS hesitate moving left and create a
potentially dangerous situation for them. Bicyclists are particularly concerned on
winding roads and roads with no shoulder. This effect needs more study and
certainly should be considered in any decision to use CRS (Russell and Rys, 2005).
In addition, the sound produced by the CRS for alerting drivers can also cause
external noise toward roadsides and its effect on roadside residences should be
considered. Many responses noted it should be considered, but no definite numbers
were presented except in Transportation Association of Canada (TAC) report that
states CRS terminated 200 m before residential or urban areas produce tolerable
noise impacts on residents and that at 500 m the noise is negligible (Gardner et al.,
2007). In Sweden, there is a rule rumble strips should not be used within a distance
207
under 100 m to areas where a maximum of 70dB (A) was imposed (Breyer, 2010).
Other methods to control noise of CRS are through the dimension and type of CRS
itself. Kansas Transportation Department conducted a study on centerline rumble
strips focusing on how states were constructing and placing milled centerline rumble
strips, and the associated noise and vibration produced by different rumble strip
patterns. A study reported the relationship between the dimensions and produced
sound which are as follows: (i) A one unit increase in the rumble strip depth (in.) is
associated with a 4.494 dBA increase in the sound level difference. (ii) A one unit
increase in the rumble strip spacing (in.) is associated with a 0.394 dBA decrease in
the sound level difference. (iii) Milled rumble strips are associated with a higher
sound level difference when compared to rolled rumble strips. (iv) A concrete
pavement surface is associated with a lower sound level difference when compared
to an asphalt pavement surface. (v) A wet pavement surface is associated with a
lower sound level difference when compared to a dry pavement surface (Torbic et
al., 2009). With this, the dimensions of CRS can be adjusted to the distance from
CRS location and residential areas.
8.0 CONCLUSION
From this review, it was found that the advantages of CRS out weight its
disadvantages. CRS is simple and inexpensive to install, effective in reducing HOC
and ODSC accidents, and has a high ratio of benefit/cost. While its disadvantages,
such as creating danger to bicyclists, and noise problems to surrounding residents
can be overcome from time to time. Thus, CRS is now increasingly used in
developed countries like USA, Japan and Canada. Therefore, in order to tackle the
high accidents rates problems particularly in term of HOC and ODSC accident
caused by inattentive driver for this country, the relative authorities should start to
use SRS as one of the traffic safety devices.
9.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
208
10. REFERENCE
Anunda, A., Kecklunda, G., Vadebyb, A., Hjälmdahlb, M. & Åkerstedta, T. 2008. The
alerting effect of hitting a rumble strip—A simulator study with sleepy drivers.
Accident Analysis and Prevention, 40, 1970–1976.
Hirasawa, M., Motoki, A. & Saito, K. 2005. Study on development and practical use
of rumble strips as a new measure for highway safety. Journal of Eastern
Asia Society for Transportation Studies, 6, 3697-3712.
Neuman, T. R., Nitzel, J. J., Antonucci, N., Nevill, S. & Stein, W. 2008. Guidance for
Implementation of the AASHTO Strategic Highway Safety Plan: Volume 20:
A Guide for Reducing Head-On Crashes on Freeways . Transportation
Redearch Board. Washington DC
Russell, E. R. & Rys, M. J. 2005. Centerline Rumble Strips . Transportation
Research Board. NCHRP Synthesis 339. Washington D.C
Torbic, D. J., Hutton, J. M., Bokenkroger, C. D., Bauer, K. M., Harwood, D. W.,
Gilmore, D. K., Dunn, J. M. & Rochento, J. J. 2009. Guidance for the Design
and Application of Shoulder and Centerline Rumble Strips . Transportation
Research Board. NCHRP Report 641. Washington D.C
209
039 SHOULDER RUMBLE STRIPS: A REVIEW OF APPLICATION AND
EFFECTIVENESS
Mohd Hanifi Othman 1, Zaiton Haron 2, Khairulzan Yahya 3, Haryati Yaacob 4 ,
Shamila Azman 5
1,2,3,4,5
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81300, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
mohdhanifi@ymail.com
zaitonharon@utm.my
khairulzan@utm.my
haryatiyaacob@utm.my
Shamila@utm.m
ABSTRACT : Malaysia is among highest accident rates countries if measured from the
aspect ratio of accidents per capita of population. Among the main causes of accidents are
fatigue and drowsiness experienced by driver, especially during long term and monotonous
journey. One approach taken by other countries to solve the problem is Shoulder Rumble
Strips (SRS). Shoulder Rumble Strips is one form of traffic safety devices that work to
prevent the occurrence of single vehicle run of road (SVROR) accidents caused by
inattentive driver as a result from fatigue, sleepy or drowsiness. This paper discusses the
installation of SRS practices in USA. The reviews focus on type, design method, installation
guidelines and performance of SRS in reducing SVROR type of accident. Other related
issues that arise by the application of SRS are also discussed. It was found that SRS is an
economical and effective approach and it should be introduced in Malaysia in order to
reduce the number of SVROR accident.
Keywords : Shoulder rumble strips, single vehicle run of road (SVROR) accident, inattentive
driver
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Road traffic accidents which involves cars, motorcycles and public transport
is a major problem in Malaysia. According to the Malaysian Institute of Road
Safety (MIROS), the rate of road accidents in Malaysia is one of the highest
compared to other countries in the world. A ten-year road traffic statistic
showed that the total number of accidents had raised from 215,632 cases in
1997 to 363,314 cases in 2007. This is equivalent to 3.73 deaths for every 10
000 registered vehicles in the same year (Kee et al., 2010). Based on the
accident data collected by Malaysian traffic police, SVROR accidents
constituted a significant proportion of serious injury cases (25.7%) and fatal
cases (38.6%) of the total road traffic collisions in 2006 (Abidin et al., 2009).
SVROR occurs when vehicles are likely to leave the road and collide with
objects (poles, posts, trees, walls, bridge supports or fences) within the road
210
shoulder or could involve contact with an embankment, slope or ditch (Abidin
et al., 2009). According to research, SVROR occurred due to factors of
sleepiness, fatigue and drowsiness and the factors contributed were
extremely high proportion which is 91.2% (Liu and Subramanian, 2009).
In USA, at least 100 000 accidents were reported in 1995 due to drowsiness
and fatigue. According to Perillo (1998) sleepiness reason when driving
caused approximately 1500 deaths and 71000 injuries per year in USA.
Drowsiness impairs driver’s performance by changing reaction times and
even small changes in reaction time can cause serious consequence,
particularly at higher speeds (Torbic et al., 2009). SRS a one method which
have been increasingly used by some developed countries to prevent driver
drifting their vehicles from travel lane as a result from inattentive, distracted,
drowsy, or fatigue. SRS was firstly used in New Jersey, also dubbed as the
singing shoulder as it generated sound and vibration when it is crossed by
vehicles which can alert an inattentive driver to correct their trajectories
(Perillo, 1998). However, SRS should not be expected to function as a
solution from the following: vehicles mechanical problems; evasive
maneuvers to avoid objects in travel lane; or driver error due to medical
condition (e.g., heart attack or seizures) (Torbic et al., 2009). Currently,
Canada, Japan, New Zealand and several other countries have also begun
to install SRS extensively.
211
While raised type RS patterns include “formed” and “raised”. Installing
method for “formed” SRS is by adding the formed SRS into Portland Cement
Concrete (PCC). Perillo (1998) stated that “formed” SRS were installed in the
late 1980's in several locations by being formed in the surface of fresh PCC
but is no longer a popular choice now due to the commonly used asphalt
shoulder. Instead, "Raised” rumble strips is the most commonly found in
Malaysia but in form of Transverse Rumble Strips. The design can be made
from a wide variety of products and installed using several methods. Carlson
and Miles (2003) adds this type may consist elements such as pavement
markers, a marking tape affixed to the pavement surface or asphalt material
placed as raised bars on the shoulder surface. In Malaysia, the materials
typically used are thermoplastic. "Raised" SRS is only suitable for places with
no snow. If this type of RS installed in snowy places, it may be damaged by a
snowplow blade passing over the SRS (Carlson and Miles, 2003). Some
researchers speculate that freeze-thaw cycle as a result from water collects
in the SRS grooves might damage the pavement. Once again, Carlson and
Miles (2003) noted that: “Tests show that vibration and the action of wheels
passing over the rumble strips in fact knock debris, ice, and water out of the
grooves”. Figure 2.5 shows example of raised SRS used on asphalt
shoulder.
Figure 2.1: Milling process to install “milled-in” SRS (Hirasawa et al., 2005)
212
Figure 2.2: Machine to install “milled-in” SRS (Hirasawa et al.,2005)
Figure 2.3: Milled SRS(Hirasawa et al .,2005) Figure 2.5: Rolled SRS with the roller device
(Morena, 2002)
213
inside edge of the SRS; (ii) Length (B) - Dimension of the SRS measured
lateral to the travel way. Sometimes also known as transverse width; (iii)
Width (C) - Dimension of the TRS measured parallel to the travel lane; (iv)
Depth (D) - the vertical distance measured from the top of pavement surface
to the bottom of a SRS which refers to the maximum depth of the cut or
groove. (v) Spacing (E) - distance measured between SRS patterns.
Typically this dimension is measured from the center of one rumble strip to
the center of the adjacent rumble strip, or it could be measured from the
beginning of one rumble strip to the beginning of the adjacent rumble strip;
(vi) Recovery Area (F) - Distance from the inside (i.e., left) edge of the rumble
strip to the outside edge of the shoulder. The recovery area can also extend
beyond the edge of the shoulder to the nearest roadside object; (vii) Gap (G)
- Distance, measured parallel to the roadway, between groups of rumble strip
patterns. Gaps are designed primarily to allow bicyclists to navigate to the
other side of the rumble strip pattern without having to encounter a rumble
strip; (viii) Height (H) - This dimension is not depicted in Figure 3.1 , but it
refers to the vertical distance measured from the pavement surface to the top
of a raised rumble strip. This dimension corresponds to the depth dimension
of milled, rolled, and formed rumble strips. The road pavement must be thick
enough to be installed SRS. New York Department of Transportation set the
minimum thickness is 60 mm thick (Perillo, 1998); (viv) Lateral Clearance (I) -
Distance from the outside (i.e., right) edge of the rumble strip to the outside
edge of the shoulder. This is the portion of the shoulder to the right of the
rumble strips available for bicyclists to ride along the shoulder without
encountering the rumble strips. The lateral clearance can also be measured
to the nearest roadside object rather than the outside edge of the shoulder;
(x) Departure Angle ( α) - Angle at which a motor vehicle departs from the
roadway. This angle is a function of the steering angle and the curvature of
the roadway. Design of SRS is not necessarily in rectangular shape, SRS
also can be found in football shapes as shown in Figure 3.2.
214
(a)
(b)
215
top of a solid base with posted speed limit of 50 mph or greater. SRS should
not be installed if any of the following conditions exist: (i) The asphalt is old
and appears vulnerable to raveling if the grooves are cut; (ii) Shoulder
thickness is less than 3 3/4 in. (Minessota Department of Transportation,
2010)
Since the past ten years many countries including USA are actively using the
SRS based on finding from several researches that highlighted the
effectiveness of the SRS. The researches came to conclusion that SRS is an
effective traffic safety device. There is a significant reduction in the total
number of SVROR accident from the period 1991-1993(before/during
installation) as compared to the period 1996-1997(after installation). The New
York State Department of Transportation reported that their 5071 shoulder-
kilometers of SRS have reduced SVROR accidents due to driver inattention,
fatigue, and/ or drowsiness by 65 percent. The effectiveness of SRS can be
explained from Table 5.1 and Figure 5.1.
.
Table 5.1 : Before-After Data for Installation of Shoulder Rumble Strips in
New York State (NYSTA) (Perillo, 1998)
Figure 5.1 : SVROR accident reduction from 1991 to 1997 in New York
216
State (NYSTA) (Perillo, 1998)
Cost of installation of milled SRS reported by the New York State Thruway
Authority is shown in Table 6.1. These costs are dramatically declining over
the years due to the increased of numbers of installation and technological
advances. The cost of installation is also depends on the size of a project.
The bigger the project could cost for a meter SRS decreases. Therefore, the
reduction of prices was due to the increasing of large scale of SRS
installation.
217
7.0 BICYCLIST ISSUE
RS also have some risks causing accidents to bicyclists. Researchers has been
trying to find a solution to this problem by finding the size of RS based on principle
providing a minimum of vibration to the bicyclist, but at the same time able to alert
inattentive or drowsy drivers. The researchers recommended the adoption of two
new “bicycle-tolerable” rumble patterns, one for non-freeway facilities operating near
55 mph (89km/hour) and the other for those operating at 45 mph (72 km/hour)
(Carlson and Miles, 2003).
Figure 7.1: Design that takes into account the needs of bicyclist to cross the
SRS (FHWA, 2000)
218
Figure 7.2 : SRS in Highway 36 in western Kansas (a suggested cross-state bicycle
route)(Kansas Cyclist, 2010)
Sound from the SRS is considered necessary to alert drivers but it also
annoying to local residents. SRS installed have caused complaints from
localities. The noises are more significant at night due to lack of background
noise (Estrada, 2008, November 9). Finley and Miles (2007) suggested that
velocity of the vehicle, size of vehicle, and type of rumble strips (RS) are
factors that influence the magnitude of exterior noise level produced by RS.
They found RS generated additional exterior noise by 13 percent more than
the highest noise level measured on smooth roads. They also reported that
exterior noise is higher at high speed and lower at low speeds (70mph and
55mph speed has been used in the study). Regarding vehicle size, they
found that heavier vehicle (commercial van as a sample) generated less RS
exterior noise compared to lighter vehicle (sedan car as sample). The results
of the study also supported the claim made by Perillo (1998) and Makarla
(2009) that "milled" and "rolled" RS produces the most powerful sound.
Finley and Miles (2007) also stated the change in the exterior noise level was
also affected by the pavement type (chip seal versus hot-mix asphalt.
219
Bendtsen et al. (2004) however suggested that condition of stripes may also
have influenced sound generated. He found that the RS noise level can be
lowered by the followings: (i) the distance between the individual stripes is
increased; (ii) the width of the individual stripes is decreased; and (iii) the
thickness of the individual stripes is reduced. The Transportation Association
of Canada proposed that SRS must be located at least 200m from residential
areas. Miska (2009) come up with more strict suggestion by insisting
distance between rumble streets to nearby residences must be 500 m in rural
environment and 200 m in urban environment.
9.0 CONCLUSION
SRS is one form of traffic safety devices that work to prevent the occurrence
of SVROR accidents caused by inattentive driver due to fatigue, sleepy or
drowsiness. It is successfully applied in USA and other countries. This paper
discussed types, design method, installation guidelines, and other related
issues that arise by the application of SRS such as impact on bicyclist and
noise annoyance to the neighborhood. Although there are some negative
aspects to their installation, the positive aspect appear to far outweigh the
negative one. This can be seen from the effectiveness of SRS in reducing
SVROR accidents, good aspect of benefit/cost ratio and easy installation
process. Although some issues might arise such as problems to the bicyclist
and noise annoyance, but these minor issues of SRS already have their
solutions as discussed earlier in the paper. Thus, in order to tackle the high
accidents rates particularly in term of SVROR accident caused by inattentive
drivers, authorities are recommended to use SRS as one of traffic safety
devices.
220
10.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
11.0 REFERENCES
Bendtsen, H., Haberl, J., Sandberg, U. & Watts, G. 2004. SIL VIA Deliverable
12: Traffic management and noise reducing pavements
Recommendations on additional noise reducing measures .
EUROPEAN COMMISSION DG TREN - GROWTH.
221
Transportation, Kansas State University, University of Kansas. Report
No. K-TRAN : KSU-00-4P2.
Hirasawa, M., Motoki, A. & Saito, K. 2005. Study on development and
practical use of rumble strips as a new measure for highway safety.
Journal of Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, 6, 3697-
3712.
222
Torbic, D. J., Hutton, J. M., Bokenkroger, C. D., Bauer, K. M., Harwood, D.
W., Gilmore, D. K., Dunn, J. M. & Rochento, J. J. 2009. Guidance for
the Design and Application of Shoulder and Centerline Rumble Strips .
Transportation Research Board. NCHRP Report 641. Washington D.C
223
042 INVESTIGATION OF TYPE OF DAMAGES OCCURRED ON
MALAYSIAN FEDERAL ROAD ROUTE ONE (FT01) AT SELANGOR
Nurul Elma Kordi1, Intan Rohani Endut1,2, Bahardin Baharom1,2 and Md Yunus Ab
Wahab1
Malaysia Institute of Transport (MITRANS), Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450
1
Selangor, Malaysia
nurulelma@gmail.com
intan@salam.uitm.edu.my
bahardin@salam.uitm.edu.my
ywahab@dynatest.com
ABSTRACT: The attention of damages on flexible pavements due to the increased of legal
load limit is quite important for the authorities obtain some guide and evidence to decide
whether to allow the increase of legal load limit or to maintain the legal load limit. Among the
heavy trucks' operators, they want to increase in axle load from the current legal limit of 12
tons per axle. The ideas are to avoid delivery delays of goods to customers, encounter the
higher chargers of storage and also make the win-win situation between transporters and
their customers as it will enable the industry players to become more competitive, especially
among the neighboring countries. This paper’s aims are to identify and discuss the
seriousness of the type of damages occurred due to the increased of legal load limit and the
effects of increased of legal load limit on Malaysian Federal Road. By applying the Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) computer program for statistical analysis, the
seriousness of failure and the major group of distress can be determined. The findings have
been identifying major of pavement damages is fatigue cracking, followed by longitudinal
cracking and patch deterioration. Mostly, the level of seriousness is moderate.
224
1.INTRODUCTION
This paper reports part of an ongoing research study. The main research is
mapping all types of damages in Malaysian Federal Road Route One (FT01) and
identify the types of damages occurred due to the increased of legal load limit.
For each type of damages, the possible causes and potential rehabilitation
options will identify as well.
The aim of this present paper is to report a study on the analysis of the major
types of damages on FT01 at Selangor, the seriousness of the types of damages
on FT01 at Selangor and the effects of increased of legal load limit on Malaysian
Federal Road. In order to achieve the set aim, the study observed, identifies and
discusses the type of damages and the criteria that affect the failure of pavement
performance.
2.PROBLEM STATEMENTS
Road has played an important role in the trade and transportation system
throughout the world, and it becomes a rapid increase in the pavement
infrastructure development in Malaysia. Among the operators of heavy trucks,
they want to increase the axle load from the current legal limit of 12 tons.
President of Pan Malaysia Lorry Owners Association (PMLOA), Er Sui See said
lorries running on heavier loads had been doing so for more two years ago
without causing any problem. These lorries did not pose a risk to other road users
or damage on roads (The Star, 2010). The ideas to increase the axle load limit
are to avoid delivery delays of goods to customers, encounter the higher charges
of storage and also make the win-win situation between transporters and their
customers as it will enable the industry players to become competitive, especially
among the neighboring countries.
Although there are many potential benefits to increasing the legal weight limit
225
for trucks, many argue that it will only be more damaging to the infrastructure. On
behalf Work Ministry, heavy vehicle is one major factor contributed to
deterioration of the road. There were 19.3 million registered vehicles on the
Malaysia’s road, and the government spent RM5 billion between 2001 and 2010
to keep sustaining all the Federal roads (New Strait Times, June 2010). The
investigated has been done, and the result shows the total of heavy vehicle
breakdown three times more than light vehicles and this situation will give big
impact on traffic congestion (Berita Harian, 2010). The major factors of damages
on the pavement because of what need to be investigate.
The permission from heavy trucks’ operators to increase the axle load still
argues the responsibilities’ authorities because they need some guides and
evidence to ensure no problems occur on the pavements in the future. From the
findings, it will give some guide and evidence to decide whether to allow increase
the legal load limit or maintain the legal load limit.
3. LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1 Axle Load Limits
Damage is primarily caused by the heavier axle loads associated with large
commercial vehicles (Paul & David, 1997). There were 19.3 million registered
vehicles on the Malaysia’s road, and the government spent RM5 billion between
2001 and 2010 to keep sustaining all the Federal roads (New Strait Times, June
2010). For this reason, every country legislated for a maximum axle load limit and
maximum gross vehicle weight. Table below summarizes the maximum single
axle load applying among the various countries. From the Table 1 below, it shows
the highest axle load limit is Malaysia, and the lowest is Thailand. Different load
limits among Thailand and neighboring countries might also cause problems for
transshipment of goods across national borders and complicate international
trade negotiations (Transport Sector, 2008). The international standard of axle
load limit is 13 tons.
226
ASEAN member countries 10
Hawaii 10.9
New York 10.2
Texas 9.1
Washington 9.1
Since 1974, the legal weight limit for trucks in the U.S. has been 356 kN.
Due to increases in truck traffic, there is a need to raise this limit to make the
trucking fleet more efficient. There has been a proposal in the U.S. to increase
the limit to 431 kN. In order to satisfy the federal bridge formula, this weight
needs to be carried by adding an axle to the rear of the trailer. To quantify the
effects of this change in axle configuration on pavement damage, Peter & Tim,
2008, was utilizing the M-E Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG). The results
showed no change in design life for a variety of pavement cross-sections if the
overall weight of the traffic stream was held constant.
A weight limit change will improve truck safety by reducing the number of
trucks needed for delivery and hence reducing total truck miles driven (Runyan,
2010). For example, a 2009 study by the Wisconsin DOT study looked at truck-
related accident data in the state during 2006. Runyan (2010) says that from that
data, a reasonable estimate is that that if a law like SETA had been in place in
2006, it would have prevented 90 truck-related accidents in the state that year.
That follows actual data from the United Kingdom, which raised its gross vehicle
weight limit to 97,000 pounds for six-axle vehicles in 2001. Since then, fatal truck-
related accident rates have declined by 35%, as actual truck vehicle miles
travelled declined substantially. Table 2 shows the list of advantages and
disadvantages of increased axle load.
227
3.2 Types of Distress
Probably, the most common reason pavement damages are a loss of base,
subbase or subgrade support from things like poor drainage or spring thaw
(WAPA, 2011). It also due to excessive deflection of the pavement due to an
unstable base or due to repeated traffic loads heavier than what the pavement
was built to withstand (Querycat, 2011). For example, patch is replaced or adds
the new materials to the portion of pavements surface that has been damages
because of fatigue cracks, potholes and others. However, sometimes the patch is
not done properly by the contractor. If the patch not done properly, it will expand
more damages called patch deterioration and block cracking as well.
Indicator of structural failure, cracks allow moisture infiltration and make the
pavement roughness. If this cracking is not addressed then it will expand more
damage such as potholes (Pavement Interactive, 2010). Table 3 below shows the
types of damages that have been grouped into cracking, surface deformation,
and surface defect and patching and potholes. There have 19 types of damages
on flexible pavement.
228
Rutting is defined as longitudinal deformation in the wheel paths, which occur
after repeated application of axle loading. It may occur in one or both wheel paths
of a lane. It can be categorized as either traffic load associated deformation, wear
related or the combination of both. The causes include traffic load, age of
pavement and deformation of the entire pavement structure or instability in the
form of one or more pavements. Rutting will make the road surface rough, patchy
and bumpy, which can lead to safety problems. The unit use to measure rut
depth is the millimeter (mm). Plotting rutting and number of year will give us the
following graph (Figure 1) which will assist the pavement authorities to decide as
to when to start rehabilitation or maintenance work on the pavement. If the
authorities only accept rutting below than 12.0 mm; the authorities will need to
maintain the surface at year five (Mohd Isa et al., 2005).
Figure 1: Prediction
Graph of Rutting Based on the Developed Model
(Source: Mohd Isa et al., 2005)
4. METHODOLOGY
4.1 Data Collection
The data was collected at all Federal Road Route One (FT 01) in Selangor.
There has divided into three districts, which is Hulu Langat (Kajang – Semenyih -
Beranang), Gombak (Rawang – Selayang Baru – Batu Caves – Jalan Ipoh –
Jalan Kucing) and Hulu Selangor (Serendah -Ulu Yam- Kuala Kubu Baharu –
Kalumpang - Tanjung Malim (border Selangor and Perak)). The road has been
observed about 92 kilometers. Location FT01 in Selangor has been chosen
because earliest federal road in Malaysia and Selangor is highest having
industries locations compare to other states. Every type of damages and the
seriousness of type’s damages were identified followed the Distress Identification
Manual for the Long-Term Pavement Performance Program (2003). The
229
seriousness of types of damages is depending on their severity levels, which are
low, moderate and high. Usually, every type of damages has their own
measurement (unit of measure) to define their severity levels.
230
From the observations, fatigue cracks always occur at left lane which vehicle
that bring the heavy loads usually used this road. This mean that, fatigue crack
can occur due to repeated heavy vehicles. Longitudinal cracking and patch is
badly deteriorated especially on Hulu Langat District compare to Hulu Selangor
and Gombak. Longitudinal cracking always occur at the middle of between two
tires (not in the wheel path). At several place, longitudinal crack occurred along the
way. The primarily causes of longitudinal cracking are improper construction
practices, followed by a combination of heavy load repetition and loss of
foundation support due to heave caused by swelling soil ( Ardani et al. , 2003).
Mostly patch at Hulu Langat has a high severity level. Figure 2 until Figure 4
shows the high seriousness types of damages occurred at several locations
around Hulu Langat, Gombak and Hulu Selangor.
(a) (b)
Figure 2: High Seriousness of Fatigue Cracking happened at Hulu Langat District (KM 340)
(a) (b)
Figure 3: High Seriousness of patch deterioration happened at Gombak District
(KM 410)
231
(a) (b)
Figure 4: High Seriousness of fatigue cracking, potholes and rutting happened at Hulu
Selangor District (KM 456)
The characteristics for seriousness of damages are divided into three scales
which are low, moderate and high. Table 6 below shows the percentage of
seriousness types of damages around the FT01 around Selangor. It shows the
major level of severity types of damages occurred is moderate which is 65.5%.
However, 21.1% high seriousness types of damages still happened at several
locations especially at left lane and stopping point such as junctions and traffic
light.
6. CONCLUSION
From the observation along the Federal Road Route One at Selangor, it can
be concluded that the major distress always occurs are fatigue crack, longitudinal
cracks and patch deteriorations. From the literature review, the possible causes
of these damages are because of repeated loading, poor construction and less
quality material used.
232
for heavy vehicle), curve, junction, u-turn junction, traffic light and bus stop.
From the literature review and observation, the effects of increased of legal
load limit on Malaysia Federal Road will increase the possible of damages.
However, the damages can be reducing by an increase number of tires per axle
(tandem axle) and increase the number of axles because greater surface contact
area between tire and pavement will reduce pavement damages. Also, increase
the speed will be decreasing the load duration.
7.ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors expressed their gratitude to Malaysian Logistics Council (MLC)
for initiated the grants awarded by the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE). The
authors would also like to express their appreciation to Mr. Osama Mahmoud
Yasenn, Mr. Elmi Alif Azmi and Mrs. Nuryantizpura Mohd Rais for their
assistance in observation types of damages along Federal Road Route One. The
authors acknowledge with thanks the kind permission of the Director of
MITRANS, Prof Madya Sabariah Mohamad for this paper to be published and
presented.
8. REFERENCES
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (1993),
“AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures”, Washington, D.C.
Berita Harian. (2010, July 30). Tiada Kompromi Lori 6 Tayar Masuk Lebuhraya, pp.
2.
John, S. M. & William, Y. B. (2003). Distress Identification Manual for the Long-Term
Pavement Performance Program (4th revised ed.). U.S. Department of
Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, 6300 Georgetown Pike.
Marshek, K. M., Chen, H. H., Connell, R. B. & Saraf, C. L. (1986). Effect of Truck
Tire Inflation Pressure and Axle Load on Flexible and Rigid Pavement
Performance . Transportation Research Record N1070, Transportation Research
Board, Washington DC.
Mohd Isa, A. H., Ma’soem, D. M. & Hwa, L. T. (2005). Pavement Performance
Model For Federal Roads . Proceeding of the Eastern Asia Society for
233
Transportation Studies, Vol. 5, pp. 428-440
New Strait Times. (2010, June 22). Fewer Potholes with New Type of Asphalt, pp.
14.
Paul, C. & David, C. (1997). The Design and Performance of Road Pavements (3rd
revised ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill 1997.
Pavement Interactive (2010). Pavement Distress . Retrieved from Error! Hyperlink
reference not valid.
Peters, K. & Tim, D. (2008). Effects of Increasing Truck Weight Limit on Highway
Infrastructure Damage . Retrieved from http://road-transport -
technology.org/HVTT10/Proceeding/Papers/PapersWIM/paper123.pdf
The Star. (2010, July 27). Heavy Vehicle Banned , pp. 12.
The Star. (2010, May 5). Tolled Roads are Better Maintained , pp 11.
234
076 USING FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS TO DETERMINE THE
INCREASING OF AXLE LOAD FACTOR DUE TO INCREASING AXLE
LOAD LIMIT
ABSTRACT Increasing axle load limit is one of the important issues nowadays in Malaysia.
This paper takes a case study which is an across section at Lingkaran Luar highway to study
the increasing of damage caused by increasing axle load. This paper uses axle load factor to
describe damage increasing since axle load factor compare the damage caused by the
arbitrary load to the standard axle load. This paper introduce the method of using finite
element analysis to calculate axle load factor, it also suggest using of falling weight
deflectometer to determine the modulus of elasticity for the analysis. It was found that
increasing axle load limit will cause a rapid increasing in axle load factor. This increment in
the damage percentage can reach four times of the increment of axle load limit increment
percentage.
2 Student , Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia Institute of Transport, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor,
MALAYSIA Tel: +60193692471 , E-mail: eng.osama.alhusyni@gmail.com
235
1- INTRODUCTION
the human body. When the efficiency of transportation system increased the whole
society will get the benefit and if its efficiency decreased the whole society will be
affected.
In Malaysia, it is very obvious that traffic volume and traffic loading is increasing due
to the economic development of the country. On the other hand the pavement
very important not only to plan for constructing new pavement, but also to study,
preserve and upgrade the existing pavement. One of the current issues related to
this, is that the local container hauliers want to increase axle load limit to decrease
their transportation cost. This will allow them to meet the high maintenance costs
and turnaround of their vehicles. Unfortunately this will increase the damage caused
by their vehicles to the pavement. This paper will concentrate on a case study at
Lingkaran Luar highway, to predict the damage increasing due increasing axle load
Finite element method has been proven to be useful in pavement analysis; this
paper will use the finite element method to determine the value of axle load factor.
This factor is being used to describe the damage caused by certain loading
comparing to the damage caused by standard axle load. The axle load factor that
Another objective of this paper is to compare the axle load factor determined by
using different rutting and fatigue models. The models that will be compared are
2- OBJECTIVES
236
The objectives of this paper are
0- METHODOLOGY
A.PAVEMENT ANALYSIS MODELS
Flexible pavement is a complex structure contains different materials with
different behaviour. This explains why it is not easy to have a perfect
mathematical description to model its behaviour.
and in-situ plate loading test. The determination of elasticity modulus using
triaxial compression test or in-situ plate loading test is time consuming and
number of the samples that can be obtained from the site [4].
237
For the CBR test, there are many experimental equations have been
developed to use the CBR value to determine the elasticity modulus of the
(Shell relationship)
(Poulsen & Stubstad , 1980)[5]
(Powel et al., 1984)[6]
relationship between and , moreover, the test was not suitable for
correlation for this type of materials can lead to large errors [4].
Due to the above mentioned reasons, it is suggested that the falling weight
properties evaluation including elastic moduli for the different layers. The
determined.
Figure 1. Falling weight deflectometer [Dynatest]
The modulus
Layer of elasticity in Layer thickness
MPa in mm
continuum. The solid continuum domain is divided into sub domains. Each sub
domain is divided into a number of finite elements. These finite elements assemble
to the whole problem during the analysis. These elements are connected by
common nodes at their common ends. The analysis gives an approximate solution
of the problem for different boundary conditions and under various loading types
using energy or stiffness formulation [7]. Finite element models have been used
intensively pavement analysis and design. There are three types of models which
have been used for multilayered pavement structure analysis and design: three-
dimensional (3-D), plane strain, and axisymmetric [7]. For our case study,
axisymmetric model was used, since it is adequate and to reduce analysis time.
Even though using the finite elements three-dimensional models can solve all the
problems that can be solved using two-dimensional models, three dimensional
models are very expensive to be used in terms of computational time and data
preparation [8].
complex and the distribution is affected by the type of the tire. There are a lot of
inconsistencies in the data collected from different experimental studies
evaluating the contact pressure distribution between pavement and tire [9].
However, the area of contact may be represented by two half circles with a
Unfortunately this area is not axisymmetric and cannot be used for axisymmetric
equivalent area of 0.5227L2 was used. This assumption has been used for the
small [10].
surface layer, unbound aggregate base layer, and natural soil subgrade layer. Under
usual conditions, the stress distribution will be similar to the one in Figure 8. Rapid
shifting from compression to tension in the top and bottom of the pavement is
caused by moving wheel load. The repetition of this action develops tensile strain
will cause fatigue cracks. In accordance with elastic layer theory, the maximum
strain located at the bottom of the surfacing layer [9]. Thus most pavement design
models are based on strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer to forecast the
performance of fatigue cracking. In addition, rutting is caused by cumulative vertical
After finite element analysis complete there are two response parameters that will
be considered. The first one is the maximum horizontal tensile strain at the bottom
of asphalt layer which is responsible for fatigue failure. The second is the maximum
compressive strain at the top of the road base layer which is responsible for rutting
failure. The figures below shows the horizontal strain and vertical strain distribution
to (number of repetitions to failure of arbitrary load and pressure )with the same
The table below shows the calculated axle load factor based on fatigue criteria for
the case study. We can see that axle load factor will increase rapidly by increasing
axle load. This indicates that increasing axle load will increase the fatigue failure by
a percentage higher than increasing axle load percentage.
Also it can be seen that for fatigue criteria the shell model will give the highest axle
load factor value and American institute model will give the lowest values.
Table 2 axle load factor based on fatigue criteria for Lingkaran Luar highway cross section
AI model
1.00 1.18 1.37 1.58 1.74
Shell model
1.00 1.33 1.73 2.20 2.59
Indian model
1.00 1.22 1.46 1.72 1.92
Table 3 axle load factor based on rutting criteria for Lingkaran Luar highway cross section
AI model
1.00 1.32 1.76 2.26 2.81
Shell model
1.00 1.28 1.66 2.07 2.52
Indian model
1.00 1.33 1.77 2.28 2.85
From the above table it can be concluded that increasing axle load limit on
Lingkaran Luar highway will cause increasing of rutting failure. Axle load factor will
be increased. This increment of axle load factor will be much higher than the
increasing percentage of axle load. And by increasing 50% on axle load the axle
load factor and the rutting damage will increase by more than 150%.
Also it can be seen that, although Indian model will give the highest axle load factor
based on rutting criteria all other models will give a very close value for the axle load
factor based on rutting criteria.
The axle load factor will be taken as the highest between the axle load factor based
on fatigue and based on rutting criteria. And worth mentioning that although the axle
load factor based on Indian model gives the highest values, and the shell model give
the lowest, the axle load factor determined by the three models will almost be the
same, even though when specific criteria considered like fatigue only, they will be
different.
Table 4 axle load factor based on rutting and fatigue criteria for Lingkaran Luar highway
cross section
8.16 ton 9 ton 10 ton 11 ton 12 ton
AI model
1.00 1.32 1.76 2.26 2.81
Shell model
1.00 1.33 1.73 2.20 2.59
Indian model
1.00 1.33 1.77 2.28 2.85
The highest axle load factor based on fatigue criteria will be given by Shell
model. The highest axle load factor based on rutting criteria will be given by
the Indian model. And overall the axle load factor based on both criteria will
have almost a similar value for Indian and American models, and the lowest
values for Shell model.
6-ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writers would like to thank DYNATEST ASIA PACIFIC SDN. BHD . in
Malaysia for their help and for the data provided.
7-REFERENCES
1- Boussinesq, J. (1885). Application des potentiels á l'étude de l'équilibre
et du mouvement des solides élastique. Paris: Gauthier-Villard.
2- Burmister, D. M. (1943). The Theory of Stresses and Displacements in
Layered Systems and Applications to the Design of Airport Runways.
Proceedings, Highway Research Board, Vol. 23, 126-149.
3- Burmister, D. M. ( ). The General Theory of Stresses
and
Displacements in Layered Soil Systems. Journal of Applied Physics, Vol.
16.
4- Lacey, G., Thenoux, G., & Rodríguez-Roa, F. (2008). THREE-
DIMENSIONAL FINITE ELEMENT MODEL FOR FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
ANALYSES BASED ON FIELD MODULUS MEASUREMENTS. Arabian
Journal for Science and Engineering, Vol. 33, 1B–66-61B–66.
5- Sukumaran, B., Willis, M., & Chamala, N. (2005). Three Dimensional
Finite Element Modeling of Flexible Pavements. Paper presented at the
Advances in Pavement Engineering (GSP 130), Austin, Texas, USA
6- Poulsen, A., & Stubstad, R. N. (1980). fastlæggelse af E-moduler for
underbundsmaterialer ved målinger i marken. Interne Notater
108,statens vejlaboratorium,vejdirektoratet.
7- Cho, Y.-H., McCullough, B., & Weissmann, J. (1996). Considerations on
Finite-Element Method Application in Pavement Structural Analysis.
Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research
Board, 1539(-1), 96-101.
8- Fang, H., Haddock, J. E., White, T. D., & Hand, A. J. (2004). On the
characterization of flexible pavement rutting using creep model-based
finite element analysis. Finite Elements in Analysis and Design, 41(1),
49-73.
9- Helwany, S., Dyer, J., & Leidy, J. (1998). Finite-Element Analyses of
Flexible Pavements. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 124(5), 491-
499.
10- Huang, Y. H. (2004). Pavement analysis and design: Pearson/Prentice
Hall.
11- Lay, M. G. (2009). Handbook of Road Technology: Taylor & Francis.
12- Mulungye, R. M., Owende, P. M. O., & Mellon, K. (2007). Finite element
modelling of flexible pavements on soft soil subgrades. Materials &
Design, 28(3), 739-756.
THEME :
2hafezi23@eng.ukm.my
3omran.club.2010@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Operating time and cost are the main parameters used by both passengers
and operators of a land public transportation. A relative good public transportation bus line
network is to provide easy access and cheaper in cost to the users. This article represents
survey behaviour of passengers and operations of a bus line network. The data obtain in city
of Tehran, Iran was used in this study. Data such as waiting time, fare, and number of buses
used in the operation were compared. Waiting time included wait time in bus stop for bus
arrival and time block in bus. Fare is payment of each passenger from original station to final
destination. Operator viewpoint prefer to use minimum number of buses for service with
highest efficiency. High performance level has been shown by using statistical analysis for
the above-mentioned parameters in a bus line network as long as a specific lane has been
devoted for bus services. It was found operators of transportation service want to reduce
their operating cost and increase their service performance. It has been highlighted
passenger who used bus lane pay less fare and less time for waiting and journey time.
Keywords: Bus line network, efficient bus lane, operating cost, waiting time
1. INTRODUCTION
Buses are the most widely used in transit technology today because bus
networks are easily accessible and cheaper than other kinds of public
transportation. They are operated in nearly all cities with transit service
and in a majority of them are the only transit modes. There exist two types
of public transportation in Tehran: Bus network and Subway network. Due
to the limited subway lines, passenger demand for using the bus network
is higher. Studies of improving the performance of bus services are
important because of the increasing demand patterns of passengers. On
the other hand, operating cost of bus services is lower than other types of
public transportation. Verifying the case of cost is important in
optimization public transportation. Generally, cost is divided into two
parts: direct costs and indirect costs (Ibeas et al. 2010). Furthermore, the
cost of bus service includes operating cost and the cost of users which if
they are minimized can increase efficiency (Wirasinghe & Vandebona
2010), an objective for all societies to achieve (Meignan et al. 2007).
Overall, the evaluation of bus service can conducted from three points of
views: travellers, operators and authorities (Chen et al. 2009). One of the
specifications to improving performance is the devotion of a specific lane
for their services. And, this can be implemented in three major ways:
mixed traffic lanes (MTL), regular bus lane (RBL), and exclusive bus lane
(EBL) (Vuchic 1981). In MTL, bus routes are dedicated to urban mixed
traffic. In other words, buses move alongside other motor vehicles and
non-motorized vehicles in a street. In RBL, there is a specific lane for bus
services during peak period traffic where the route is separate from other
vehicles. Besides this, a contra-flow bus lane can allow buses to travel in
the opposite direction to other vehicles (RBLs). Finally, in EBL there is an
exclusive bus lane for the use of the buses separated from other traffic at
all times of a day. In this paper we present the result of survey behaviour
of passengers and operations of a bus line network in MTL and EBL.
3. METHODOLOGY
Usually, when the width of the street is less than 2 lanes for traffic, bus
service is implemented alongside other vehicles duration their mission. All
classes of vehicles are allowed use on the street. The location of bus
stops is designed outside of the route on sidewalk because when the bus
stops at the station, it blocks one of the lanes and other vehicles can use
the other lane to carry on with their journey.
The travel direction is one-way and there will be more delays of bus
service during peak-periods traffic. For street tracks width that are wide
that allow traffic congestion, the exclusive bus lanes are used. The bus
service is implemented in independent alignment. Vehicle classes using
this alignment are buses and emergency vehicles for their mission such
as: ambulances, fire trucks and police vehicles. Roadways are physically
252
separated from other traffic with fences, curbs or greenery. For
alignments on a side street, the location of bus stops is on the sidewalk
and for those alignments located in the middle of the street such as Bus
Rapid Transit (BRT), bus stops are embedded inside exclusive bus lanes.
Usually, the travel direction is two-way.
From the route information of the bus line to be studied in this paper, the
distance and layout table between bus stops given in Table 1 can be
derived. This bus line is composed of two parts.
Route between origin station to bus Number 8 and also route between
bus Number 16 to destination station is Mixed Traffic Lanes. And the
remainder of the route which is between bus Number 9 and 15 is the
exclusive bus lane.
253
the bus stop for the arrival of bus, third, wait time for boarding and
alighting and fourth, bus transportation (Meignan et al. 2007; Yan & Chen
2002). If distance between bus stops is equal or near equal, it has some
advantages, such as: passengers who walk to bus stop can choose the
nearest bus stop. Also, optimizing bus stop spacing can minimize social
costs (Ibeas et al. 2010). The waiting time for passengers at the bus stop
for the arrival of the bus follows from two important issues: period
frequency bus mission from first bus stop (origin) and delay function along
highway. Generally, the origin and destination bus mission took more time
for boarding and alighting passengers from bus. But, during peak-hours
traffic this issues can cause large delays. Due to passenger demand for
using the bus network is higher and often the capacity of the bus is near
full. Finally, passengers after boarding the bus should wait for arrive to
their destination. The journey time is a complex function that will include
many terms that are out of the scope of this paper.
The third component is fleet buses. For this the following have to be
noted: adjustment to number of bus needed, organization of the fare
system and optimization of bus stops. The fleet size is important factor in
operating costs. Optimum use from existing buses at different times of the
254
day for their mission can increase bus service reliability (Chen et al.
2009; Lam et al. 2009). By using the touch-n-go card, paying fare time
can be reduced, and subsequently, decrease the total delays in bus
mission. Optimization of the bus stops includes spacing and framework.
Figure 2. Simulation results for Tehran bus-network, measure of the load of passenger.
255
For selecting the number of buses needed for a bus line, some
conditions have to met, for instance, the geographical and length of
route, bus type and passenger demand. One way of lowering the
waiting time for the bus arrival on long routes is to increase the
number of buses. Another way is use buses with more capacity, such
as, articulated bus or Double-decker bus. During peak-hour traffic
periods, passenger demand for using the buses is more than during
non peak-hour traffic. Figure 2 plots the simulated distribution of one
bus load of passenger for a day.
This measure results in one month of the bus trips. Obviously, the
peak periods are at 07:30, 13:30 and 17:30 hours which are
commonly observed in urban traffic. This measure allows the location
of overloaded and unused buses. To solve these problems, a
rescheduling of the bus service during peak periods is conducted.
is the journey time for bus mission from origin to destination station, can
calculated by below formula:
(1)
The above parameters are defined below: is the number of bus stops
is the average speed on the total of route is the average time block in
each bus stop
256
is the distance between origin terminal to first bus stop
is the distance between destination terminal to last bus stop
Figure 3. Simulation results for Tehran bus network, measure of journey time
257
This figure indicates the time of loading and unloading passengers
at the first and last bus stops is more than at the intermediate stations
due to the higher number of passenger for boarding and alighting,
respectively. Furthermore for MTL ways, the average journey time
between each bus stop is more than EBL ways.
258
The average speed of bus in different parts of the route during
peak-hour traffic is shown in Figure 4. At period-hour traffic, the
average speed of bus is reduced significantly. According to the
statistics, the average speed of bus at peak-hour traffic is reduced to
around 62% as compared to non peak-hour traffic. The average speed
of the bus is around 8 and 13 kilometres per hour for MTL and EBL
ways, respectively. Considering the relationship between speed and
velocity, if bus stop spacing is of equal amounts, the bus operator can
run with symmetric average speed in different parts of the route.
Usually, the direct routes in designing bus routes are used not
because of diminished acceleration of buses. This figure shows that
average speed in EBL way is more than that of MTL way.
Overall, the behaviour function of delays is linear. The waiting time for
bus arrival at the last bus stop is sum total delays occurring in the past
bus stops. Delays of bus mission include cases such as delay at
departure from first station, traffic congestion and passenger volume.
The bus departure from the first station has to be according to
schedule. Rest crews should be planned, so they finished before
starting on the new mission.
259
Figure 5. Delays between two bus missions
The average of travel time delay in each bus stop is between 151
and 31 seconds for MTL and EBL ways, respectively.
4. CONCLUSION
260
stops, can compensate delays at the last stations. This approach reduces
total delays in bus mission . This approach has been applied and
validated on a real case study in a bus-network in the city of Tehran.
Probably, it is also a useful tool for many other bus companies in large
cities of the developing world.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the Fara Tarabar Mahdi bus company for providing the test
data and their valuable opinions.
6.REFERENCES
Chen, X., Yu, L., Zhang, Y. & Guo, J. (2009). Analyzing urban bus service
reliability at the stop, route, and network levels. Transportation Research
Part A: Policy and Practice 43(8): 722-734.
Hwe, S. K., Cheung, R. K. & Wan, Y.-w. (2006). Merging bus routes in Hong
Kong's central business district: Analysis and models. Transportation
Research Part A: Policy and Practice 40(10): 918-935.
Ibeas, Á., dell'Olio, L., Alonso, B. & Sainz, O. (2010). Optimizing bus stop
spacing in urban areas. Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and
Transportation Review 46: 446-458.
Lam, S.-W., Tang, L.-C., Goh, T.-N. & Halim, T. (2009). Multiresponse
optimization of dispatch rules for public bus services. Computers &
Industrial Engineering 56(1): 77-86.
261
Meignan, D., Simonin, O. & Koukam, A. (2007). Simulation and evaluation of
urban bus-networks using a multiagent approach. Simulation Modelling
Practice and Theory 15(6): 659-671.
Oudheusden, van, D. L. & Zhu, W. (1995). Trip frequency scheduling for bus
route management in Bangkok. European Journal of Operational
Research 83(3): 439-451.
Yan, S. & Chen, H.-L. (2002). A scheduling model and a solution algorithm
for inter-city bus carriers. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and
Practice 36(9): 805-825.
262
016 STUDY ON ORGANIZING AND IMPROVING WALKWAYS IN CITY
CENTRE OF YASUJ, IRAN
2omran.club.2010@gmail.com
3hesam.hafezi@gmail.com
ABSTRACT:
Nowadays, encountering different issues of civilization and living in cities and towns have
created a lot of problems. One of the essential factors in formation, development and
survival of cities and one of the necessities of civilization is the seriously paying attention to
the needs and requirements of human in cities. Among the important requirements of
human, walking and walkways are most important factors which have been forgotten these
days. In fact it is because of paying more attention to the city transportation and its
development. Paying attention to organizing and providing spaces for passers-by particularly
in cities centre, is the most important factors in forming and developing social life of cities.
This indicates that face-to-face encounter between people as passers-by in cities are
regarded as an important issue for such plan. This research considers the method of
sampling including number of passers-by and personal characteristics such as sex and age.
The research methodology is based on observation, questionnaires, comparison of results
obtained, and the analysis of source study and life history. The article tools include
observation, interviews and life history. The conclusion of this study will be about the
identifying, improving and organizing the factors influencing the problem of passers-by in
cities centre which are as the quality of walkway. Furthermore, the role and efficiency of land
use related to walkway and the role of roadway accessing to walkway are considered in
conclusion.
Keywords: Organizing, Improving, Walkway, Passers-by, Roadway, City Centre, Land Use,
Vehicle
1. INTRODUCTION
The city is the place where people live, communicate and interact. In this place
feeling safe in street is considered to be the understanding of social respect
among people. Therefore the safety of people as passers-by is more important
than the damages caused by accidents. All people of city, either those who use
personal cars or those who use public transportation as the mode of transport
and sometimes walking are also important (Behbahani 2001). So paying
attention to passers-by means respect to all members of the society and not
limited numbers of people. Facilitating the transportation system is not
263
emphasized, but providing facilities for public transporting and organizing the city
life needs of them are the important objective and goal of planning and designing
the cities roads. Getting information about the passers-by characteristics are
necessary for designing various transporting networks and the services which
should be provided for them. If the buildings have more access to continuously
connected networks which are light, safe and secure, nice, different and distinct,
the passers-by will be encouraged and there will be more people who replace
walking instead of using cars or any public transportation. This fact will cause
less traffic and fewer problems in public transportation.
Before the industrial revolution, people built the cities by the rivers and the
cities shape and texture were based on the geography and the direction of the
rivers. The size of cities also was based on the people ability for travelling and
movement of animals. Therefore all cities and roads were formed based on
social and psychological needs of their people. As the cities become
industrialized and the human need for spaces in cities was ignored, people as
passers-by faced a lot of problems that caused western countries to solve these
problems and to study about it (Soltanzadeh 1992). From 1905 to 1910 a French
engineer called “O. Henard” put forward the plan of making “unleveled
intersection” and various subways and bridges which become popular afterward
(Razaviyan 2002).
In 1928 another civil engineer called “K. Stein” used the theory of
neighborhood unit in more complete form in designing Radburn and suggested
the complete separation of roadway and walking spaces (Ahmadi 2004). An
Iranian citizen imagine street as a straight direction which is covered with
asphalt. Street with canal shape for car movement is not similar in meaning with
a place called city. The consequences of this issues leads to this fact that
walkway and passers-by not to be considered as a important factor in the
urbanity and this is a main problem in cities of Iran (Doroor 2002).
264
In recent two decades planning and organizing of walkways have been
received great attentions by urbanity engineers. Although the western countries
have studied about passer-by and walkways since last five decades and
unfortunately this studied has been started since one decade in Iran (Ahmadi
2004).
The 10th section of designing and planning regulations in Iran set by the
ministry of civil and buildings in 1997 which is called “The walkways” including a
series of rules for applying in city designing. These rules are useful for
improvement of walkway. In 2009 J. Spilkova and M. Hochel, published a paper
about economy of walkway movement. They studied that movement principle is
depends to the particular layout of harmony between actively of land use and
passers-by. Also, powerful attractors such as shaping mall and environmental
quality of walkway are necessary to fluent movement. Also walking is
economically and environmentally the best way of commuting, but the needs of
passers-by are not well addressed (Spilkova & Hochel 2009).
Today people unwontedly use their personal cars for doing their works in
their city; this will bring environmental, social, economical and health problems
all together. Therefore it is important to understand such issue and make the
public understand it too and try to find solutions (Hosseiniyan 2004).
265
appearance of city, decreasing pollution also increasing safety and developing
green area. The second leading objective is to identify the influential and
practical factors in movement of passer-by in walkway by determining its social
aspect and its capacity with defined targets. The third leading objective is to
analyze and investigate the problematic issues and to introduce the solutions for
attracting the passers-by. The forth leading objective is to pay attention to the
city centres which are the main parts of cities. Therefore the quality of walkway
are important in seeing and understanding the socially internal life. In fact the
more increase in quality of services and spaces of the passer-by, the better
understanding and discovering people’s psychologist, culture and visions. Thus,
for providing above such conditions for the movement of people as passers-by
and also for improving and using the people’s cultural and visual values, the
centre of Yasuj (one of cities in Iran) has been selected. The areas which are
going to be studied are limited to the walkway of Motahhari and Taleghani
streets which are between Jomhoori Street (late Municipality) and the Clock
square as shown in Figure 1.
in this area for going to work, to do shopping, having fun and walking. The city has been built around thes
266
The aim of this study is to focus on the quality of walkway in Yasuj city
centre, because the quality of walkway is important in seeing and understanding
the socially internal life. The low quality of walkway in particular the lack of
harmony between walkway and the passer-by is most important to scrutiny in
this study. Four basic and important principles for evaluation and the study of
communication and coordination between passers-by and walkways are
necessary. These important principles that studied are expressed as the
following Table 1.
The proportion of
walkway to
behaviours’
passers-by
267
Activities of passers- Essential activities
by Optional activities
The amount of space Width of walkway
to stand Useful width of
Capacity of The amount of space
walkways walkway
to sit
The amount of space
for walking
Variety of activities
Environmental
variation in
Variety of space
Visual variety
Sensory perception Vision or visual perception
improved of Hearing perception
Smelling sense
Tactile sense
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1.1. Characteristics of Yasuj city centre
The study area is divided into to five parts as shown in Figure 2. Beginning
and end of each part is apparent with special marks. Concepts of field
studies have been observed locally with the highest accuracy as possible.
Concepts of field studies in five parts are explained in five aspects including
walkway width, the coverage of walkway floor, land use neighbouring
walkway and traffic volume and the level of performance of passers-by.
Width of the walkway is one of the important factors affecting the number of
passers-by using walkway. Walkway width doesn’t have same value in different
parts which is ranging from the 3.90 to 5.20 m in the beginning to the end. Width
of walkway space is divided to both live and dead space and this is a very
important topic.
269
c) Land use neighbouring (land use spectrum)
In the axis of walkway there are varieties of land use that may be in harmony in
some cases. Land use usually are scattered with inattention to rules of
neighbourhood. Land use the eight have been divided to 8 categories including
1 - Food 2 - commercial Integrated 3 - different stores 4- Miscellaneous services
5 - banks 6- Educational Building 7-office buildings 8- residential buildings.
Distribution to Land use is not uniformly and it is not in order along the walkway.
270
the methodology of study. The results of the current study could provide
appropriate approach to find out the solutions for the problems studied.
2. METHODOLOGY
Referring to the subject and the different in human races, cultural, economical,
social, physical and internal dimensions this study will be conducted by
analytically and descriptively. Field study includes observation, surveys, map
consideration, data collection and questionnaires. Library study It is the aim to
analyze, describe and to identify the data by SPSS software and Goller-
scorecard to recognize the functions and relations of factors. Although people as
passers-by are the major focus but there are also some margins to be
considered.
In this way, field observations and perceptions of the effects of each factor
based on this study is compare what is existing and what it should be taken.
It also discusses about the results obtained from this study using
international experiences and insights based on urbanity and standards
considered for valuation of the factors.
b)A questionnaire method
In this approach through a questionnaire about important factors filled by
passers-by the factors affecting and its effects on walkways and passers-by
studied has determined and valued.
After the observation and investigation of area conditions with the collection
of questionnaires, one of the mathematical way called matrix Guler ( Guller-
scorecard) approach was used for evaluation and determination of
significance coefficient for each factor. Based on the matrix method, each
horizontal row and each column represents a particular rule indicates how to
use vertical rules with a range of degrees including very good, good,
moderate, weak and very weak with the points of five to one respectively
271
have been graded. The matrix method provides the possibility to
determination of the significance coefficient for each factor. The
multiplication of the degree of importance of each factor in the place of
observation (based on the average of most people and researchers)
determines the points of each factor regarding to its importance. This trend in
each of the specific factor and their subsets was performed and finally the
desired level of harmony between walkway and walking will expressed. In
order to clarify how the determination of the significance coefficient, a
sample of matrix created is presented Table 3.
Climate protection * * 2
* * 3
Providing green space
* * 3
Providing immunity
Elimination of * * 3
contamination
* * 3
Observation scale
In this section according to the principles and fundamental issues raised also
subsets of basic issues, the assessment of all issues which included 20,
important and effective factors were conducted with the same matrix Guler
and with the determination of significance coefficient for each factor, the
percentage of every factor conducted in walkways was 41.7%, for total of 20
important factors (percent of finale result line Table 4). With consideration of
significance coefficient in the walkway and provided good conditions the total
points required for obtaining a good degree of walkway are 240 of 20 factors
whereas Degree of observance factors studied are 102, so this register that
272
there are more problems about environmental quality of walkway in this
research area.
5 4 3 2 1
Weather protection 2 * 4 10 40
Provided of green space 3 * 9 15 60
Removal of pollution 3 * 6 15 40
Provided of light 3 * 6 15 40
Obstacle removal 2 * 6 15 40
Attention to human scale 3 * 9 15 60
Limited of visibility and speed 2 * 6 10 60
Total percent observe factors 47.6
Capacity sidewalks 3 * 9 15 60
Afoot activities (elective &
1 * 1 5 20
essential)
The amount of space to stand 1 * 2 5 40
The amount of space to sit 3 * 3 15 20
The amount of space for walking 3 * 6 15 40
Street obstacles and organizing
2 * 6 10 60
equipment
Total percent observe factors 40
Variety of activities 2 * 4 10 40
Space diversity 2 * 4 10 40
visual diversity 2 * 4 10 40
Total percent observe factors 40
vision or visual perception 3 * 3 15 20
Understanding Hearing 2 * 4 10 40
sense of smell 3 * 6 15 40
tactile perception 2 * 4 10 40
Total percent observance factors 37.5
finale result 47 102 240 41.7
With regard to assessing and implementing the desired axis and according to
the evaluation factors and results and also the status quo and understanding
can be concluded that the assumptions considered correct and numerical results
obtained from each of the factors in its assumptions are true rate.
3. CONCLUSION
273
It is important to consider the situation of all passers-by in providing access.
Organizing and improving according to the walkway’s accessibility for people
should be done according to the different situations of weak people of the
society including old people, children, pregnant women and disabled and those
who carry kids. Walking is the really natural right of each human being including
all ages and situations (Mirdamadi 1995).
The assessment of all issues which included 20, important and effective
factors were conducted with the same matrix Guler and with the determination of
significance coefficient for each factor, the percentage of every factor conducted
in walkways was 41 .7%,for total of 20 factors ( percent of observance studied
factors in finale result line table x ) . With consideration of significance coefficient
in the walkway and provided good conditions the total points required for
obtaining a good degree of walkway are 240 of 20 factors whereas Degree of
observance factors studied are 102, so there are more problems about
environmental quality of walkway in this research area.
274
- Location and construction of health services over the walkway without
direct access to the walkway.
4. References
Doroor, A. (2002). The cover of streets . Technical & Social Journal, 21.
Hosseiniyon, S. (2004). View and vision in the highways . Municipality Journals, 48.
Tavasoli, M. (2000). City designing, concepts and principles . Abadi Journals, 25.
275
075 DEVELOPING A METHODOLOGY TO EVALUATE IMPACT OF ROAD
INFRASTRUCTURES ON DIFFERENT MODAL TRIPS – A SCENARIO
BASED STUDY
Mukti Advani, 2B.Kanagadurai
1
Abstract:
Present study focuses on pedestrian crossing infrastructures which are majorly constructed
on the basis of number of commuters crossing the road and the delay caused to motorised
vehicles due to such crossings. However, most road crossing infrastructures developed for
pedestrian crossings increases the crossing time of pedestrians no lesser than 3 to 4 times
compare to at grade signalised road crossing time. A methodology has been evolved to
evaluate the decision regarding the choice among different pedestrian crossing facilities
to be provided. For this evaluation, sustainability of different types of vehicles also has been
considered to give them priority. Three different scenarios have been developed based on
different sustainability factors which are based on vehicle occupancy and space occupied on
road. Study includes careful observation of existing facilities provided for crossings on a
corridor of Delhi and applied to test the methodology.
1 Introduction
Increase in number of vehicle population has lead to traffic congestions along with
the delays at intersections. In order to facilitate the faster movement of vehicles in
Delhi, road infrastructure facilities such as flyovers, signalised junctions, subways,
and foot-over-bridges are being developed. In the past eight years 37 flyovers have
been completed and currently more than 16 flyovers and rail over bridges are under
construction. Apart from these; another 20 flyovers and over-bridges are in the
planning stage. The major arterial roads are being made as through roads with less
number of intersections in order to provide faster movement and reduced the traffic
congestions. While planning for such road infrastructure facilities to decongest, it is
necessary to provide sufficient space and accessibility facilities for sustainable
modes such as cycle and walk trips. Indian Road Congress (IRC 103-1988)
provides guidelines for pedestrian facilities. This mentions two types of grade
separated pedestrian facilities i.e. (i) Pedestrian subways and (ii) Foot over bridges
(FOB). To make the movement of pedestrians more comfortable on such roads, the
concept of foot over bridges (FOBs) with escalators was also being introduced in
eight such FOBs currently under construction and seven more at the planning stage
(DelhiLive, 2010).
276
Since, each trip made by public transport involves walking; facilities provided for
walking along the roads (i.e. footpaths) and crossings at the interchanges are the
most important part of the road infrastructure. However, UTTIPEC (2009) mentions
that in Delhi; 40% roads do not have any footpath. Further, the study on walkability
for pedestrian facilities by Parida at. el, (2008) shows that at least 40% of the
studied pedestrian facilities are not suitable for walking and would need
improvement. On the other hand the accident data shows that nearly half of fatal
accidents in Delhi involve pedestrians. This indicates that there is a need of
reviewing existing facilities to identify the gap between facilities provided and their
suitability for commuters. Present study includes the suitability of pedestrian
crossing facilities provided on the study corridor.
277
Table 1: Different road infrastructure in study corridor
Sr. Structure type Chainage Chainage Pedestrian Remark
No and name at the at the end and cycle flow
. start per 5 minutes
1 Foot over 0 50 meter 170 Stairs, ramp and
bridge ‘A’ pedestrians, 3 escalator provided.
Maharani bagh cyclists No at-grade
crossings unless
heavy congestion
observed - 56
pedestrians at grade
2 Foot over 900 meter 950 meter 40 pedestrians Stairs and ramp
bridge ‘B’ (26 school provided. No at-
children) grade crossings
possible due to
railing
3 Lajpat nagar 1.4 km 2.6 km
Flyover
4 3-arm 1.7 km - 73 pedestrians 28 pedestrians and 5
Subway ‘A’ (67 school cyclists at grade
children)
5 3-arm 1.9 km - 9 20 pedestrians at
Subway ‘B’ grade
6 3-arm 2.3 km - nil 18 pedestrians and 8
Subway ‘C’ cyclists at grade
7 Subway ‘D’ 2.9 km - 92 pedestrians No at-grade
and 1 cyclist crossings possible
due to railing
8 Moolchand 3.3 km 3.8 km
underpass
9 Crossing facility 5 pedestrians No at-grade
above under crossings possible
pass
10 Crossing facility 3 pedestrians No at-grade
above under crossings possible
pass
11 Subway ‘E’ 4.0 km 4.1 km 70 pedestrians No at-grade
+ 2 cyclists crossings possible
due to railing
12 South ex. 4.2 km 4.8 km No at-grade
Flyover1 crossings possible
due to railing
13 Subway ‘F’ 5.1 km 5.15 km 303 No at-grade
pedestrians crossings possible
due to railing
14 South ex. 5.5 km 5.6 km
Flyover2
15 Subway ‘G’ 5.9 km 6.95 km 104 No at-grade
AIIMS pedestrians crossings possible
due to railing
16 AIIMS 6.1 km 6.7 km
cloverleaf
Flyover
17 Safdarjung 7.0 km 7.05 km 77 pedestrians
‘H’subway
278
Table 1 shows that there are 12 crossing facilities provided by design to the
pedestrians and/or cyclists. However, pedestrian counts at these locations shows
that wherever at-grade crossings are possible; pedestrians have chosen this for
crossing the road compare to the subway crossing. Pedestrian flow at Foot-over-
bridge at Maharani bagh location has observed as 170 ped/5 min. Crossings at this
location has been restricted through railing on both the sides of FOB. This railing
has been broken and at the time of congestion pedestrians observed to be crossing
through this opening. All 3-arm subways provided are at the interchanges below the
single 1.2 kilometre long elevated flyover. In one of these 3 subways; it has been
observed no pedestrians at all. However, at the same location there is a pedestrian
flow of 18 along with the 8 cyclists has been observed in 5 minutes duration. This
indicates that the first preference for crossing the road remains at-grade level.
However, through enforcement which has been applied by designing railings,
flyovers and underpasses. This shows that existing facilities can be further modified
through design and location to make them more suitable for the commuters. Since,
each public transport user is also a pedestrian; facilities for pedestrians will further
help in higher public transport use.
279
Table 2 presents a broad comparison of impact of different infrastructures on
private, public and other non mortised traffic modes.
Table 2: Impact of road infrastructure on sustainable modes
infrastructure Effect on cars and two- Effect on pedestrian, cyclist, cycle
wheelers rickshaws and bus commuters
(Sustainable modes)
Flyover and Under Red signal avoided for Extra physical effort for
pass main stream commuters walking and riding bicycle on
i.e. primarily motorised flyover
private vehicles
For perpendicular movement,
limited access points
Shifting of bus stops which
may result in longer walking
distance for bus commuters
Clover leaf flyovers smooth driving at major No at-grade crossings by
intersections design; increase in crossing
discomfort
Foot over bridge Smoother driving Crossing with additional
physical effort
Subway Smoother driving Crossing with additional
physical effort
An attempt has also been made to conceptualise a methodology to evaluate
different options of the road infrastructure facilities.
280
pedestrians and vehicle drivers/users including increase in vehicle
operating costs inflicted by increased delays .”
(IRC-103, 1998)
As mentioned above; two conditions (i and ii) indicates that grade separated
pedestrian facilities should be provided for uninterrupted flow of vehicular flow.
However, third conditions include the delay costs for both pedestrians and vehicle
drivers/users. Present study develops a methodology to compare this delay cost for
pedestrians and vehicle users. This also involves the sustainability factor for
different types of vehicles. Sustainability factors have been calculated based on
vehicle occupancy and space occupied by different vehicles on road. However, time
delay remains the prime focus of evaluation in all developed scenarios. Total time
taken for crossing by each commuter has been estimated to drive an optimum
solution for a given facilities. Pedestrian crossing flow and main road vehicle flow
has been observed first and then the total time saving has been calculated for this
traffic flow. To check the suitability of different crossing facilities, these two have
been compared. Finally, one with the higher time saving has been chosen for priority
infrastructure. This methodology assigns higher weight-age for sustainable modes
through sustainability factor (SF) consideration. TSMRC = Time Saving of Main
Road Commuters
Therefore,
TSMRC = Time required to cross the distance without any stopping (FOB or Subway
provided) - Time required crossing the distance in case of at-grade signalised
crossing
281
Sust ainabi lit y f act or s. TSM RC =
where;
i = vehicle type i.e. car, motorised two-wheeler, bus, auto, taxi
j = number of vehicles of type i
SF=Sustainability Factor
TSCC =
where;
i = vehicle type i.e. pedestrians, cyclists, cycle rickshaw
j = number of vehicles of type i
SF = Sustainability Factor
If TSMRC > TSCC; Provide Subway or FOB
If TSCC > TSMRC; Provide safe at-grade crossing facility
Further, these equations have been modified based on sustainability factor
(scenario 1) and as a which is a function of vehicle occupancy (scenario 2) and
space occupied on road (scenario 3).
Since, time required for road crossing in case of signalised intersection depends on
the actual signal design and signal cycle timings for each arm of the intersection;
delay time may vary accordingly. HCM (2000) states that when pedestrians
experience more than a 30 seconds delay, they become impatient and engage in
risk taking behaviour. Therefore, in present case assuming that signals have been
designed ideally i.e. pedestrian waiting time is no more than 30 seconds and the
average are 15 seconds. Similarly, for motorised vehicles, average wait time is 15
seconds and delay time due to signalised intersection including acceleration-
deceleration time is 10 seconds. Therefore, total delay is considered as 25 seconds.
The estimation of time saving for traffic on selected corridor (i.e. ring road) for main
road traffic (TSMRC) and road crossing commuters (TSCC) has been calculated for
different scenarios which are based on different sustainability factors as listed
below:
282
Scenario 1: Time delay calculation considering the sustainability factors as: Non
motorised vehicles=1, Private Motorised vehicles =0, Public Motorised vehicles=0.5
Table 3 presents the calculation for scenario 1 regarding the time saving of main
road commuters.
Table 4 presents the time saving details of crossing commuters (TSCC) at different
locations within the study corridor.
Table 4: Comparison of time saved by main road commuters (TSMRC) and crossing
commuters (TSCC)
Decision
Pedestrians
Crossing Time based on
plus cycle Sustainability TSMRC
Structure saving TSCC
flow (5 Factor (SF) value of
(seconds)
minutes)
1525
Foot over
At grade
bridge ‘A’
173 2595 1 2595 crossing is
At Maharani
proposed
bagh
Foot over
40 600 1 600 -
bridge ‘B’
Subway 'A' 73 1095 1 1095 -
Subway 'D' 93 1395 1 1395 -
283
Subway ‘E’ 72 1080 1 1080 -
Subway ‘F’ At grade
South Ex 303 4545 1 4545 crossing is
area proposed
Subway ‘G’ At grade
South Ex 104 1560 1 1560 crossing is
area proposed
Subway 'H' 77 1155 1 1155 -
Scenario2: Time delay calculation considering the sustainability factors as a
function of vehicle occupancy as: Non motorised vehicles=1, Private motorised
vehicles = (vehicle occupancy)/vehicle capacity, Public motorised vehicles = more
than 20=1, between 20 and 10=0.5, less than 10=vehicle occupancy/capacity. Table
5 presents the calculation for scenario 2.
Table 5: scenario 2 based on vehicle occupancy
Average Vehicle TSMRC
Sustainability
*Traffic Traffic Vehicle capacity Time
Time Factor (SF)
*Vehicle Counts counts occupancy saving
saving (vehicle
type (16 (5 considering
(seconds) occupancy/vehicle
hours) minutes) SF
capacity)
(seconds)
Small car 64659 337 8425 1.3 5 0.26 2190
Big car 43129 225 5625 1.3 5 0.26 1462
Scooter 9179 48 1200 1.2 2 0.26 312
Motor cycle 63734 332 8300 1.2 2 0.6 4980
Auto 2.5 4
26488 138 3450 0.62 0
rickshaw
Bus 7274 39 975 43.2 54 0.8 975
Mini bus 542 3 75 29.6 37 0.8 75
LCV and - -
3543 18 450 0.5 225
goods auto
HCV & MCV 2315 12 300 - - 0.5 150
bicycle 507 3 75 - - 1 75
Rickshaw - -
84 1 25 1 25
and other
Total 28900 9639
*average load factor considered for bus is 0.8
Scenario 3: Time delay calculation considering the sustainability factors as a
function of space occupied on road by different vehicles and vehicle occupancy.
Table 5 presents the calculation sustainability factor for the scenario no 3.
284
Motor cycle 1.00 1.2 0.83 0.46
Auto rickshaw 1.35 2.5-1 (driver) 0.9 0.42
Bus 24.25 60 0.40 0.74
Mini bus 18 29.6 0.61 0.60
LCV and goods 0.50
- - 0.5
auto
HCV & MCV - - 0.5 0.50
bicycle - - 1 1
Rickshaw and 1
- - 1
other
Table 6 presents the time delay calculation for scenario 3.
Table 6: scenario 3 based on space occupancy on road and vehicle occupancy
*Traffic Traffic Time
Time
*Vehicle Counts counts Sustainability saving
saving
type (16 (5 Factor (SF) considering
(seconds)
hours) minutes) SF
Small car 64659 337 8425 0.08 674
Big car 43129 225 5625 0 0
Scooter 9179 48 1200 0.40 480
Motor 0.46
63734 332 8300 3818
cycle
Auto 0.42
26488 138 3450 1449
rickshaw
Bus 7274 39 975 0.74 721.5
Mini bus 542 3 75 0.60 45
LCV and 0.50
goods 3543 18 450 225
auto
HCV & 0.50
2315 12 300 150
MCV
bicycle 507 3 75 1 25
Rickshaw 1
84 1 25 25
and other
Total 28900 7612.5
Subways provided at south extension are most used crossing facilities and therefore
more commuters are putting higher effort for crossing the road. It has been
285
suggested to provide an at-grade crossing facility which will reduce the physical
effort requirements of the sustainable modes i.e. primarily pedestrians.
6 Conclusion
Suitability of road infrastructure for sustainable modes of travel is at the priority
concern. Easy, comfortable and safe movement for pedestrians and non motorised
vehicles can be provided by proper design of road environment. Since; pedestrians,
cyclist and cycle rickshaw trip involves physical energy, comfort and limitations of
human body have to be incorporate by design. Each alternate way of crossing the
road should be compared to the direct crossing at road. Present study develops a
methodology to do such comparison among different alternatives of road
infrastructures. This methodology is based on scenario of vehicle occupancy and
space occupied on road. However, this can be further modified to include different
group of people based on gender, age, disability to prioritise sustainable modes.
References:
CRRI (2010) ‘Traffic studies and estimation of travel demand for phase III of
Delhi metro’ Final Report.
286
• Elvik (2000) ‘Which are the relevant costs and benefits of road safety
measures designed for pedestrians and cyclists?’ Accident Analysis and
Prevention, Volume 32, page: 34-45.
IRC (1988), Indian road Congress – code 103, Guidelines for Pedestrian
facilities’, New Delhi, India, 1988.
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078 PRACTICAL EVALUATION METHOD FOR PEDESTRIAN LEVEL OF
SERVICE IN URBAN STREETS
ABSTRACT: Streets are prominent indicators for liveability of our communities and they
should be for all people. But lots of them are designed just for cars and selected users. The
intention of this paper is to encourage planners and engineers to design complete streets, or
streets that consider the needs of all urban residents. This article presents several indicators
from various guidelines which consider different pedestrian needs to introduce complete
street level of service for pedestrian and finds out existing streets failures. This evaluation
method can be used for different types of streets and shows their designing weakness for
pedestrian. So this unique implemental pedestrian level of service (PLOS) is useful for
improving existing streets and produces a complete guideline for designing new streets in
case of pedestrian.
Keywords : pedestrian, indicators, level of services, urban streets
1. INTRODUCTION
A measure for describing existing conditions for each user in streets can be defined
as level of service (LOS). These conditions can be travel time, speed, traffic
interruptions, convenience, free maneuver, safety and comfort. Highway capacity
manual (HCM, 2000) introduced pedestrian level of service as follows. PLOS A is
free flow and maximum speed, PLOS F is no movement and PLOS E is congested
situation. Highway capacity manual is criticized by many researches for considering
pedestrians behaviour like vehicles (Landis et al, 2001; Mcleod, 2000). Comfort,
aesthetic and convenience are considered by various researches in case of PLOS
(for instance, Bradshaw, 1993; Jaskiewicz, 2000; Khisty, 1994; Landis et al., 2001;
Leslie et al., 2004; Hines and Steinman, 2004). Ease of Crossing Street, choosing
suitable speed and convenience for passing others, climate control, weather
protection, transit shelter, arcades, walking distance, grades, directional signing,
sidewalk ramps and pathway directness can be defined as pedestrian level of
service (Henson, 2000). Philips, et al (2001) considered pedestrian level of comfort
and safety instead of expected density of the facilities, width and pedestrian volume.
This paper presents level of service for pedestrian, using several indicators from
288
various guidelines which consider different pedestrian needs and finds out existing
streets failures. Different types of streets and their designing weakness for
pedestrian can be evaluated by this unique implemental model. So this pedestrian
level of service (PLOS) is useful for improving existing streets and produces a
complete guideline for designing new streets in case of pedestrian.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 Data and case studies
The data that are used in this study were selected from 20 guidelines (1- City of
Ottawa (Canada, 2008), 2- Calgary City (Canada, 2008), 3- street design guidelines
for Landcom (Australia), 4- city of Whittlesea (Australia, 2009), 5- New South Wales
(Australia, 2001), 6- city of Charles Sturt (Australia, 2009), 7- city of Chicago (USA,
2007), 8- Portland pedestrian design guideline (USA, 1998), 9- city of Ashland
(USA, 1999), 10- design guideline for streets and sidewalk (Minneapolis, USA,
2008), 11- Charlotte’s Streets (USA, 2007), 12- subdivision and development street
standards (Pima County, USA, 2005), 13- neighborhood street design guidelines
(Oregon, USA, 2000), 14- Aurora Urban street standards (USA, 2007), 15- street
design guidelines for healthy neighborhoods (USA), 16- accessible sidewalks and
street crossing (USA), 17- pedestrian design guidelines (India,2009), 18- street
design manual (New York,USA,2009), 19- Mn/DOT road design manual
(Minnesota,USA,2010) and 20- mobility master plan bicycle and pedestrian design
gu idel ines(Tacoma, USA,2009)) in various developed countries. This selection from
different parts of world can help to evaluate pedestrian indicators in different socio-
economic context. This study also uses 20 factors as pedestrian indicators. Two
case studies are used in this research. One of them is a street in Setia Tropika area
in Johor Bahru Malaysia and the other one is Canberra road in Sembawang area in
Singapore. Both of these case studies are collector urban streets. 1790 m of Setia
Tropika and 724 m of Canberra road were observed in this research.
2.2 Analysis
This study evaluates (1) slower traffic speed, (2) buffer and barriers (curb and
furnishing zone), (3) fewer traffic lane, (4) shorter crossing distance (curb
extension), (5) mid block crossing, (6) social space (café), (7) landscape and tree,
(8) facility (fire hydrant), (9) furniture (trash receptacle), (10) footpath pavement ,(1 1)
289
marking (crosswalk), (12) pedestrian refuge and median, (13) corner island, (14)
sidewalk on both sides, (15) advance stop bar, (16) width of footpath, (17) driveway,
(18) lighting, (19) signing and (20) bollards as pedestrian indicators for PLOS. So
mathematically PLOS can be defined as follows. Refer Eq. (1)
This formula is right when it is assumed that all indicators have the same priority for
PLOS. But to have more reliable results for PLOS, priority of indicators should be
considered. So the formula can be changed as follows. Refer Eq. (2)
This coefficient can show the strength of each pedestrian indicator in case of PLOS
so the priority and importance of each indicator can be indicated by pedestrian
indicator coefficient. This coefficient can be calculated by evaluating the importance
of indicator for different guidelines. So mathematically this coefficient can be defined
as follows. Refer Eq. (3)
D = Depth of evaluation
Depth of evaluation can show the quality of evaluation for each indicator in different
guidelines. For instance guideline A just suggests that indicator I should be
considered in sidewalks but guideline B has more research about this indicator and
290
presents some descriptions and guideline C indicates standards and complete
instructions for indicator I. So depth of evaluation should be different for each
indicator in various guidelines. Depth of evaluation can be defined as follows.
Table 1 presents depth of evaluation for each indicator and guideline (D chart) and
Table 2 shows number of guidelines that evaluate indicator i with depth of evaluation
j( . So, the coefficient of each pedestrian indicator can be defined as in
= (1×7) + (2×0) + (3×10) = 37, = 38, = 15, = 28, = 32, = 14, = 38,
= 17, = 16, = 32, = 22, = 32, = 15 = 39, = 9, = 56,
=23, = 31, = 24, = 18
291
And PLOS degree can be defined as follows.
Now all coefficients of pedestrian indicators and s are calculated so PLOS can be
evaluated by PLOS formula. Refer Eq. (2) and Eq. (4)
PLOS= (37 × 1) + (38 × 0.79) + (15 × 0.5) + (28 × 0) + (32 × 0) + (14 × 0) + (38 ×
0.62) + (17 × 0) + (16 × 0.25) + (32 × 0.78) + (22 × 0) + (32 × 0) + (15 × 0) + (39 × 1)
+ (9 × 0) + (56 × 0.78) + (23 × 1) + (31 × 0) + (24 × 0.5) + (18 × 0) = 244.72
So PLOS% = (244.72 / 536) × 100 = 46 Therefore PLOS grade for this street is C
292
For Canberra PLOS = 351.45 So PLOS% = (351.45 / 536) × 100 = 66 Therefore
PLOS grade for this street is B
3. CONCLUSION
Streets are prominent parts of our society and they belong to all people not just to
cars and drivers. This study tries to introduce complete streets for pedestrian. This
implemental evaluation of pedestrian level of service (PLOS) can help to evaluate
factors that influence walking trips based on different guidelines. This study
considers lots of pedestrian indicators and 20 guidelines in developed countries so
more indicators and guidelines can enhance accuracy of PLOS that is achieved by
this method. This PLOS presents existing street failures and also indicates
improvements issues to achieve higher PLOS degree. Therefore this method is a
way to have complete street that consider all needs of pedestrian. Improvements
issues for case studies are defined as follows.
293
effective coefficients. Figure 1 indicates the coefficient for each pedestrian indicator
in this study.
60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Table 1. D chart
Guidelines Indicators
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
1 1 2 1 2 2 3 1 1 1 3 2 1 2 1 1
2 1 2 2 1 1 1 3 1 1
3 1 1 1 2 1 1 3 3 1 1 1
4 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 2
152 3 4 3 1 1
5 6 7 8 9 1011121314151617181920 3 1
6 3 1 1 1 3 2 2
7 1 3 1 2 of
Coefficient 2 pedestrian
2 2 2
indicators 3 3 2 1 2
8 3 3 3 1 2 3 3 3 1 1 1 3 3 3 2 3 2
9 3 3 1 2 2 1 3 1 1 3 3 3 1 2
10 3 3 1 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3
11 3 2 3 3 2 1 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 2 1
12 3 2 1 3 2 3 3 2 1
13 1 1 2 3 2
14 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 3 1 1
15 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 3 3 1
16 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 3 1 2 2 3 1
17 3 3 3 1 3 3 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2
18 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 2 1 3 1 2
19 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 1
20 3 3 3 2 3 1 2 1 1 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 2
294
D = 3 (Complete) D = 2 (Semi complete) D = 1 (Not complete)
Table 2. Nij
chart
Depth of Indicators
Evaluation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
1 7 4 4 4 3 7 3 9 5 6 7 3 2 1 2 5 11 4
2 8 1 6 7 2 10 1 4 1 3 7 5 1 4 3 7 2 7
3 10 6 3 4 5 1 5 2 1 8 3 5 1 13 2 16 5 4 3
Table 3. PI i data for Setia Tropika, Johor Bahru and Canberra Road, Sin gapor
295
PI3= 1 No lane<=2
(4) Shorter crossing distance (curb extension) Set i a t r opi ka
No on street parking
Standard: 1-For any crosswalk where on street parking is
No curb extension
considered whenever possible in pedestrian oriented areas
2-Should not block the bike line and turning bus and truck PI4=0
Canberra road No on
street parking
No curb extension
PI4=0
296
If distance between trees is various
P2=F1+F2.../ N1+N2+...
NI=number of intersections with second condition
I= number of total intersections
P3=NI/I PI7=(P1 +P2+P3)/3
(8) Facility (Fire hydrant) Set i a t r opi ka
There is no need for fire hydrant
Standard: 1-Located in furnishing zone when zone is 1.2m or PI8=0
behind the sidewalk with a min of 1.8 m clear for pedestrian Canberra road C=9
N=(724-31-36)/45=14
P=9/14=0.64
P I8=0.64
W=1.5 N=1367×1.80=2460.6
PI10=2014.5/2460.6=0.82
297
P=C/N PI11=1 P>=1 PI11=P P<1
(12) Pedestrian Refuge and Median Set i a t r opi ka
C=0 There is no crossing section
Standard:1- N=20 P=0/20=0
A:Refuge: min 1.8 m width and 6 m length PI12=0
B:Median: min width for median 1.8 m but 2.7 m preferred
and vegetated medians shall be a min 3 m wide ,max width Canberra road C=1
N=4 P=1/4=0.25
PI12=0.25
299
N= (total crosswalk + total median crosswalk sections that P=0/70=0
street needs)*2PI20=0
P=C/N PI20=1 P >=1 PI20=P P <1
300
4. REFERENCES
Landis, B., Vattikuti, V., Ottenberg, R., McLeod , D., & Guttenplan , M. (2001).
Modeling the roadside walking environment: A pedestrian level of service .
Washington, D.C: National Research Council.
Leslie, E., Saelens, B., Frank, L., Owen, N., Bauman, A., Coffee, N., et al. (2004).
Residents’ perceptions of walkability attributes in objectively different
neighbourhoods: a pilot study. Health & Place .
Steinman, N., & Hines, K. (2004). A Methodology to Assess Design Features for
Pedestrian and Bicyclist Crossings at Signalized Intersections . Paper
presented at the 83nd Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research
Board.
Abstract: Bus is one of transportation modes in intercity traveling. Many reasons are laid behind the
preference of bus an intercity transport, such as income, trip purpose, travel, travel time. This paper
presents the outcome of a study on intercity bus passenger travel characteristics with particular
emphasis on university students. A case study was conducted for the intercity bus services between
Kuala Lumpur and Penang. The stated preference method was employed in this study and a special
questionnaire was developed for the purpose. The survey was held on intercity terminal of Parit
Buntar and Butterworth. Regression analysis was applied in the data analysis to get the logit model
between bus preferences with the variable that influence the transport mode preference. The variable
used in this study are travel time and fare. Sensitivity analysis also applied in this study to get the bus
preference sensitivity toward the attribute value of changes.
Keywords: intercity bus, travel characteristics, stated preference, fare, travel time attribute, logit
model, sensitivity.
1. INTRODUCTION
Intercity public transport service in Malaysia is served by three types of transport mode
service; intercity bus, intercity train (express train) and intercity flight (domestic flight). In
Malaysia, bus becomes popular due to its flexibility compare to the rail transport, in terms of
time departure schedules, frequencies and the bus routes coverage. Schedule of departure for
bus is more flexible and the network is wider than the train. Another reason reported is
because of its cheap fare compare to air transport, which makes bus more affordable to those
with low income.
However, bus transportation service today starts to face high competition against the rail
transport. The main reason is both of air and rail transport offer many interesting factors to
attract the intercity travelers. For example, Keretapi Tanah Melayu Berhad (KTMB)
improved their level of service by shorten its travel time using Electric Train Services
between Ipoh-KL Sentral-Seremban. Besides, air transportation service like AirAsia tries to
eliminate people’s perception of high cost air transportation by selling cheaper ticket at the
off peak times. V. Correnti at al. (2007) argued that in the main complexity in dealing with
fare, especially by air, lies in handling the large number of ticket categories that is part of the
revenue management strategy adopted by airlines Moreover, lack of safety and comfort level
will gradually make the number of users choosing intercity bus reduced time by time. To
face the competition, Malaysia government supports the intercity bus transport development.
It is proven by the construction of intercity terminal in Bandar Tasik Selatan which is
integrated with the feeder transportation in order to increase the accessibility of that terminal.
Now, Intercity bus transport management in Malaysia is seems to be an interesting issue
since The Land Public Transport Authority (SPAD) just have been implemented in 2011. In
the past year, without any authority control, it is difficult to set the rules and control. Unlike
rail transport which is managed under Keretapi Tanah Melayu Berhad (KTMB), and air
transport which is managed under Malaysia Airports Holdings Berhad (MAHB).
2. CHARACTERISTIC OF INTERCITY PUBLIC LAND TRANSPORTATION IN
MALAYSIA
This paper presents the stated preference analysis of the mode choices probability of two
types of intercity land transport in Malaysia; intercity bus and rail. Generally, bus or rail
mode has its different specific characteristics that affect the intercity travelers’ choice of
their transportation mode. Train is preferred by some people because of the accessibility to
the train station is better than bus, and quite comfortable. However, the travel time is longer
than the bus because of its track. Moreover, the track does not cover some cities as an Origin
or Destination in Peninsular Malaysia such as Kuantan, Pahang. On the other hand, bus
routes have access to all cities in Peninsular Malaysia and the fare price is also affordable for
long journeys. It offers more comfort and less travel time than the train. But accessibility to
the terminal is sometimes poor. This is because the bus terminal is usually located around the
border of the city.
By looking at the characteristics of these two modes of land transport, it can be seen that
general factors that can support the preference of a transportation mode for intercity traveling
are: the travel time, costs, accessibility to the terminal/station, safety and comfort. Intercity
travel mode choice models are based on the utility maximization hypothesis which assumes
that an individual’s mode choice is a reflection of underlying preferences for each of the
available alternatives and that the individual selects the alternative with the highest
preference or utility (Chandra R. Bhat, 1995).
Therefore, this research is necessary to study the intercity bus users’ characteristic and to get
the specific understanding on bus preference (probability and sensitivity) against the train as
its competitor in terms of cost and travel time.
The preference of mode and the trend of intercity travel characteristic could be known by
studying the behavior of individual users associated to the modes. A survey was conducted
to study the intercity bus services between Kuala Lumpur to the north, corridor of Malaysia
to derive the passenger intercity travel characteristics in Malaysia. The destination in the
survey is KL-Parit Buntar, Penang corridor. The survey was held on intercity bus terminal in
Parit Buntar and Butterworth, Penang, Malaysia.
A special questionnaire was developed and evaluated for the purpose of collecting the data.
Primary data is used in this research. Random intercity bus passengers were interviewed with
several questions about their socio-economic characteristic and travel characteristic. The
passengers’ travel characteristics analysis includes; gender, marital status, monthly income,
monthly expenditure for transportation, expenditure for intercity transport, intercity travel
frequency, feeder service, feeder transport travel time to terminal, intercity mode service
preference, intercity bus mode choice reason, and intercity travel trip purpose.
Socio-economic data obtained is used to describe the effect of socio- economic characteristic
of intercity bus preference, since the authors argued that there is some influence of user’s
socio economic characteristic in preference of bus. In line with Chen (2002), he discovered
in his research that some information such as passengers’ age, personal income, number of
travel companions, in-vehicle time and cost, reliability of air transport, the comfort and
safety of the railway, and the quality of the intercity coach influenced passengers’
transportation mode-choice behavior when considering a long distance travel.
A research was carried out by Rao et. al, (1998) about the choice of access mode to rail using
the Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model and Multinomial Logit (MNL) model.
Throughout the research, they found that the passengers’ information of gender, age,
household income, household size, travel allowance, waiting time, travel time, and travel
cost significantly influenced commuters’ mode-choice behavior.
Steven et al. (1999) stated that the mode choice usually determines how people travel. In
their analysis six mode choice options were considered including car alone (driving privately
operated vehicles), motorcycle (riding in privately operated vehicles), train (express train),
bus (express Bus), plane, and others.
In this research, authors had conducted an analysis of mode choice between intercity bus and
intercity train with nine scenarios of both travel time and fare. A field survey was conducted
and a stated preference method was employed, emphasizing on the Coridor of Kuala
Lumpur-Penang. Another survey was conducted at the inter-city bus terminal of Parit Buntar
and Butterworth, Penang to identify the probability and sensitivity of the bus preference on
the specific OD. This survey are done in 4 days includes weekdays and weekend.
In selecting suitable model to forecast travel demand, two different criteria are taken into
consideration: (1) the number of individuals represented by the model and (2) the data used.
For the first criteria, two classes of model can be produced by using the number of
individuals represented by the model. The first is called aggregate or first generation models,
which are also known as zonal level models. The first generation models represent the
behavior of more than one individual, or perhaps an ‘average’ individual. The second is
called disaggregate or second generation models, which are sometimes also referred to as the
behavioral approach. The second-generation model had been applied by Ortuzar and
Willumsen (1994) to represent the behavior of each individual.
Subsequently, a set of questionnaire was given to the respondents to analyze their preference
towards bus in some given scenarios by offering some parameter that can influence in
deciding intercity travel mode. Several evaluated parameters that mostly affect the users’
preference towards transport mode for intercity travel are travel time, fare, terminal
accessibility, safety and comfort level. Froidh, (2008) in Y.-H Cheng (2010) stated that uses
have been proven to be an alternative for price-sensitive passengers. A price war can
probably have a greater impact on bus operators. Authors are keen to know about the
capability of the bus when entering the price competition with the train in the existing travel
time and vice versa (travel time competition with the existing fare). Thus, regression analysis
for transport mode choice was described by using the stated preference or the probability of
bus preference toward train. The scenarios given in the questionnaire were exploited to
estimate the bus sensitivity toward the attribute changes made. The data processing
performed by Binnomial Logit Model, and the attributes involved emphasizes on travel time
and travel costs.
Figure 6 shows that 44.44% of the respondents usually spend less than RM50 for one way
intercity travel, 38.89 % of them spend RM30-45, and 16.67% of them allocate more than
RM100 to 150 for intercity traveling. From Figure 7, it is found that 3 8.89% of them usually
spend less than RM30 for one way traveling, but 44.44% of the respondent usually spends
RM30-45 for one way traveling. The rest of them spend between RM45 up to RM105.
Based on intercity transport expenditure of the respondent in Figure 6, and fare of intercity
bus in Figure 7, an interesting point was found is although mostly intercity travelers have
limit of transport budget; 44.44%% of them are willing to take the bus with the fare around
RM30-45, which was implied that mostly bus user (students) enjoyed the standard coach bus
services (second class service).
Traveling frequency has a strong relationship with traveling purpose. Work travel and non-
work travel are the two major groups of intercity traveler based on objectives demand of
traveling between cities. The behavior of the traveler for each group in their trips is slightly
different. Based on High (2009), non-work travel includes travel for personal and family
business, school activities, religious activities, health care, and social and recreational
activities. Moreover, working purpose travel characteristics usually does not take long
enough time (only 1-2 hours), daily, and traveler is usually the people who live in the rural
areas. Recreational and social purposes trips such as visiting family in the village yard or
celebrating religious events are usually performed as weekly and seasonally events. This
type of trip is typically done during the weekend, school holidays, public holidays and
festive season holiday. In line with V. Correnti et al (2007), people usually do intercity
traveling during weekend or festive season. The demand will be higher during holidays, such
as school holidays and public holidays. Otherwise on weekdays it will go off peak.
Figure 8: Intercity travel frequency Figure 9: Reasons of intercity bus preference
Respondent's reason of Intercity Transport
Respondent's
The respondent Intercity
belongs to Travel Frequency
category of non-work travel, related to the Preference
answer on their
intercity travel frequency. Figure 8 shows that 33.33% of the respondents travels monthly,
27.78% of respondent travels
38.89% 27.78%weekly, while 38.89% of the respondent
11.11%travels twice a year
11.11%
22.22%
(or more). Many study had prove that travelers behavior in doing long-distance trip
Weekday
substantially differ from routine trip patterns. The different appear not only in the set of its
available modes, but also in the travelers characteristics. Long-distance travel accounts a
small number of total trips for a substantialEvery
share of all passenger Km-traveledMoreand
Safety
the Comfortable Travel Time F
emissions created. month 55.56%
33.33% twice a year (or more)
Intercity land public transport in Malaysia is dominated by bus and train. Author have
argued, these two types of land transport (bus and train) are constantly compete against each
other in mainly four reason i.e, comfort, travel time, fare, or safety. Figure 9 shows that the
reason why choosing intercity transport mode. The most important reason to consider is
travel time (55.56%). The second important reason to consider is comfort (22.22%). The fare
and safety just being considered after comfort and they were in the same portion of important
(11.11%). The travel time of intercity bus is shorter than train. That is becoming the
considerable reason to make bus likely prefer comparing to the train. In relation with fare, V.
Correnti et.al (2007) noted that price elasticity varies by the purpose of travel, being higher
for leisure travelers.
Respondents’ attitudes and perceptions of transport modes may affect their preference and
choices (Outwater et al. 2003) in Lang Yang et al. (2009). Feeder transport service to the
intercity terminal also affects the intercity traveler interest on choosing their intercity
transport mode. 83.33% of the respondent argued to state that feeder service is important in
deciding what intercity mode they prefer. Crisalli (1999) stated that once they decide to use
public transport, they have to consider the access/egress mode, the access/egress time,
waiting time, the number of transfer, transit fare, and transit pass ownership, and the
schedule flexibility. If public transports were not available for the trip, they should take their
private car. However, for long trip, driving own car for intercity traveling was not so
desirable for certain people, since they should consider fee, toll, transit pass ownership,
schedule flexibility and the number of people who shared the trip with them (Lang Yang et
al, 2009). In fact, waiting time is one of important factors in influencing the passenger mode
choice. However, Crisalli (1999) state in his modeling that waiting time is not a well-defined
attribute for public transportation compared with frequency, and its coefficient is
insignificant. The number of transfers is also insignificant.
Figure 11
(a) Feeder transport access mode (b) Feeder transport access mode (c) Feeder transport average
from intercity bus terminal to Intercity Bus Terminal access/egress time to/from
intercity terminal
In this study case of KL- Parit Buntar, Penang corridor, the feeder transport access mode is
dominated by public transport. Figure 11(a) proved that intercity bus user prefer
commuter bus (22.22%) and motorcycle (22.22%), private car (16.67%) and taxi
(16.67%) as their feeder transport for access to the intercity bus terminal. The rest 22.22%
of respondent used not sure and prefer to answer others. It is also similar with feeder
transport egress mode in Figure 11(b), many respondents choose public transport such as LRT
(50%), commuter bus (33.33%), or taxi (5.56%). Only small amount of them prefer to wait
and be picked up by private car (5.56%) or motorcycle (5.56% ).
Related to the access and egress transport service based on the respondent’s perception,
most of respondents argued that the accessibility of intercity bus is sometime important
(44.44%), 3 8.89% of them think it is important and 11.11 % of them state it is very
important (Figure 12).
Figure 12: Intercity traveler Perception on distance Figure 13: Intercity Bus Respondent’s Preference
effect toward intercity mode choice ( Intercity Bus Competitors)
Figure 13 shows that the train is the competitor of intercity bus in Malaysia. 61.11% of the
respondents prefer train as an alternative transport compare to bus, while 27.78% of
respondents prefer to use the car alone. Terry Dinan and Austin (2004) stated that as the
travel distance increases, private cars lose their competitive advantage. When the traveling
distance is over 300 km, air transportation possesses irreplaceable advantages over the other
modes. Due to lower prices and the services provided on bus (video games, onboard movies,
magazines, and newspapers), intercity buses have about a 30–40% market share in Taiwan,
even with their unreliable traveling time.
In this study case of Kuala Lumpur to Parit Buntar-Penang corridor, the distance is around
326.7 km. In line with Lee and Chang (2006), it was a common belief in transport that rails
are dominant mode in long distance travels whilst the automobile is a significant travel mode
for journeys of short to medium. To deal with this condition, intercity bus and rail service in
Malaysia get the greater market share than the car (Figure 13). 5.56% of the passengers
prefer to use motorcycle or plane as their alternative mode.
The existing condition was reviewed. Travel time for intercity bus (executive class) for OD:
Kuala Lumpur to Penang is 5.5 hours; Bus Fare is RM 63 (U$D 20.60). Travel time for
intercity train is 8 hours; Train (i.e., Senandung Malam Train) fare is RM 49 (U$D 16.03).
From the regression analysis, the value for the utility was derived.
Y= 0.351761-0.029664372 X 1 -0.321124793 X 2
Whereas;
X1 = Fare (RM)
∆
Y = Utility
The purpose of sensitivity analysis is to determine how the sensitivity and probability of
intercity bus preference toward fare and travel time changes.
In Figure 14, it can be seen Bus sensitivity toward cost attribute for Kuala Lumpur – Parit
Buntar,Penang corridor. From Figure 14, there were compared some scenarios for certain
bus travel time different without any fare changes. Figure 14 shows the set of travel time
different scenario, vary from (-)4 hour to 4 hour. The ‘sensitivity toward travel time
attribute’ figures below figure out bus probability and the sensitivity response.
Nowadays, KTMB (train) as the bus competitor has been encouraging some efforts to
enhance its level of service i.e., toward the construction of Rawang-Ipoh Electrified Double
Tracking Project and express train service. Abdul M. et al. (2008), KTMB was reported to
continue its effort to turn rail travel as a preferred mode of public transportation. With the
completion of the Rawang-Ipoh Double Tracking Project and ongoing project on: Ipoh -
Padang Besar, Seremban-Gemas, Gemas Johor Baru Double Track, further improvement
would be made on the quality of services in terms of speed and reduced the travel time with
smooth and comfortable journey. Train has a possibility to attract more intercity bus
passengers to move from their current mode. Figure 14 implied when the scenario of travel
time different between bus and train can be set (-)4 hours, the probability of bus preference
would be rising until 0.772232189. But when the scenario of travel time different between
bus and train can be set 4 hours, the probability of bus preference would be decreasing until
0.20619 1023.
Fare Travel
N Different Time Probability
Utility
o. (RM) Different (bus)
1 14 -4 1.220958531 0.772232189
3 14 -2 0.578708944 0.64077028
4 14 -1 0.2575841 51 0.56404233
5 14 0 -0.063540642 0.484120182
6 14 1 -0.384665436 0.405002145
7 14 2 -0.705790229 0.330529712
8 14 3 -1.026915023 0.263682628
9 14 4 -1.348039816 0.206191023
Fare Travel
N Probability
Different Time Utility
o. (bus)
(RM) Different
1 -25 -2.5 1.896181839 0.869458774
Figure 15 implied when the scenario of fare different between bus and train can be set (- )
RM25, the probability of bus preference would be rising until 0.869458774 . But when the
scenario of fare different between bus and train can be set (-)RM25 ,the probability of bus
preference would be decreasing until 0.492000102.
Y.-H Cheng (2010) stated that a price war can probably have a greater impact on bus
operator. In this study, based on the two sensitivity graph; toward travel time and fare, it was
found that in this case of study, the the travel time seems to be more sensitive than fare. It is
relevant with the respondent’s statement in Figure 9 that travel time reason (55.56%) is more
important than fare (11.11%).
Thus, conducting further experiment is also a crucial issue for any intercity passenger-
transportation company. As in many other fields, there is a need for ways of experimenting
with alternative policies or operating strategies without being forced to test them in the 'real
world' (Lardinois, C., 2010). Moreover, K. Kottenhoff and C. Lindh (1995) had informed
that the improvement of on a railway line (a new train concept by improved time table and
lower fare) in the south of Sweden in 1992 , has replaced the combination of old rail cars and
standard coach bus. But after 18 month when a new high comfort bus serviced were
introduced can be a good complement to the train time table to increase the number of
departure. Learning from the experience of train and bus experience in Sweden would be
also profitable to encourage Malaysian better in future intercity transport strategy.
6. CONCLUSION
It was found that; first, the mainly trip purpose of intercity bus user in this study is social
visit purpose, such as visiting family in the village yard or celebrating religious events
travel. It usually has characteristic as weekly and seasonally trip. It means this journey
usually slightly increases during weekend, school holidays, public holidays and festive
season; otherwise, during weekday, it will go off peak. The respondents are non-working
travel group. The dependence of public transport mode for egress and access transport to
terminal is higher than private transport in this survey , KL- Parit Buntar, Penang corridor.
In users’ perception, terminal accessibility is sometime important in influencing their
intercity mode choice. In this study, it found that the main reason of choosing intercity bus
is travel time, followed by comfort and fare. it was found that in this case of study, the the
travel time seems to be more sensitive than fare. The stated preference result is relevant
with the respondent’s statement that travel time reason is more important than fare.
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082 POTENTIAL OF BICYCLE AS TRANSPORTATION MODE FOR
ACTIVITIES AROUND CAMPUS
Bayu Martanto Adji, Angelalia Roza , Raja Syahira Binti Raja Abdul
Aziz, Mohamed Rehan Karim
Abstract
Potential of cycling for daily activities in and around campus is very high, but weather, other
traffic flow, lack of cycling facilities, culture and social norm will be the typical constraints that
would discourage cycling in campus. Bicycling would face challenges that may reduce its
attractiveness as compared to motorized. All of these constraints must be considered in
efforts to encourage students in university campus to cycle. On the other hand, a lot of
factors can encourage student to cycling, such as the limit of bus route in campus, travel
time and cost. This paper presents the results and analysis on cycling preference as
transport mode in campus with the University of Malaya in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia as a
case study.
1. INTRODUCTION
There are 12 residential colleges in campus housing more than 10,000 students out
of a total of 25,000 students for the whole university. Students who live in campus use
motorcycles, cars, public bus (Rapid KL bus) which goes to the city, university bus
which goes around within the campus, with some who walk and a much smaller
number who use bicycles.
The public bus fare is RM 1 (about USD$ 0.30) with average frequency of one in
every 30 minutes. The university bus is free but frequency in very low, thus not very
attractive to students,
The significant benefit of reducing car usage in campus is for better future
environment. For example, reduction in the number of cars used means a decrease
for parking area, so that the remaining area can be planned for other facilities that are
more useful (Shannon et al, 2006).
Gatersleben et al (2010) argue that there are four types of bicyclists on English roads:
(1) responsible bicyclists who use a bicycle safely and responsibly; (2) lifestyle
bicyclists who are keen bicyclists who spend time and money on bicycling; (3)
commuters consists of professionals who use the bicycle to commute to work
regardless of the weather; (4) hippy-go-lucky bicyclists who use their bicycle for
their everyday life and leisure activities.
In fact, there are very small cyclists exist in University of Malaya. Several
discouraging factors affect students to evade using bicycle in campus. These factors
include aggressive car driver, bicycle availability, land topography and lack of
cycling facilities. When asked about the reason people are unlikely to use a bicycle,
they often refer to traffic safety, heavy traffic, inconsiderate drivers, pollution, bad
weather, distance and travel time, gradient, not being fit enough and social pressure
(Bannister, 1988; Davies, Gray, Gardner, & Harland, 2001; Gatersleben & Appleton,
2007; Kingham, Dickenson, & Copsey, 2001; McClintock & Clearly, 1996; Newby,
1993; Wardman, Hatfield, & Page, 1997).
On the other hand, students have high potential for cycling and a lot of factors can
encourage them to cycle. Students are usually more environmentally conscious and
receptive to new ideas. Those who are physically fit, have restricted budgets, live
close to campus and already own a bicycle can easily be attracted to start cycling in
campus (Balsas, 2003). Certainly, public transportation system, environmental
concerns, limited budget and their dynamic activities among youth can encourage
student for cycling in campus. Shannon et al (2006) argue that it is not hard to
encourage student for cycling as a lot of factor could trigger the process, such as
limited car parking permit for undergraduate students. The key factors that can
motivate them are health, affordability, environmental concerns, time and pleasure
(Bonham et al, 2010). Garrard et al (2006) also state similar statement that
motivators for cycling include physical and mental health, fitness, sustainability and
affordability, in line with Cavil et al (2007).
Public transport,
10.87%
Walking, 15.94%
cycling, 1.69%
Motorcycle,
42.51%
Concern then arises as the high dependence of motorcycle and private car (71.5%)
will cause a few bad consequences, such as traffic congestion, air pollution and
parking availability. Other than traffic congestion effects, parking availability
become one of the current main problem in University of Malaya. Shoup (1997) and
Dober (2000) argued that the major problem with automobile is the amount of
parking it requires. In college campuses parking is a common problem with different
slants (Balsas, 2003). Keniry (1995) state a university is a group of administrators,
faculty and students held together by a common grievance over parking.
Table 3 shows the most visited destination by the student in student activities is
Perdana Siswa Complex, followed by Main Library and Sports Center.
Obviously, biycle is not a new mode of transportation for students. 84.7 % of student
said that they had experience in cycling (figure 2), although 41.5 % of them stated
that they had used bicycle the last time few months ago, 29.9 % few years ago and
17.7 % long time ago (Figure 3). Many factors are taken into consideration by the
students in making the bicycle as a mode of transportation. Some of them are time,
cost, safety, comfort, and the environment. However, there are those who think that
bicycles are not transporation mode, but are only used for recreation purpose,
workout, or just for kids to play.
Have ever cycled
100%
80%
60% Yes, 84.4% Yes, 84.9% Yes, 84.7%
40%
20%
No, 15.6% N o, 15.1% No, 15.3%
0%
female male total
Hot weather in tropical countries it can also reduce the number of bicycle users, but
in certain condition,
Few the area which is lack of public transport route and full of
months ago,
pedestrian, it 41.5% few weeks
will encourage student more choose ago,because they feel too hot
bicycle,
5.4% few days ago, 2.0%
to walk.
Bicycle availability, the aggressive of car driver and hot weather are in four top
ranking of cycling constraint as seen in table 4.
Table 4 : Constraint cycling in campus
Ranking Constraints
1Rainy days
2 Bicycle availability
3Inattentive or aggressive drivers
4 Hot weather
5Terrain (steep hills)
6 need a car for carrying something
7Lack of bicycle facilities at destinations
8 Concerned about bicycle theft
9Concerned about personal appearance
10 Not comfortable to use bicycle
11Do not enjoy physical activities
12 Do not know how to use bicycle
From the survey results are shown in figure 4, by 83% said they would use the
bicycle if it provided a bicycle facilities on campus. Related to the distance, by 36.2
% of the student would use a bicycle with the distance of 5 – 6 km (figure 5).
Figure 4 : Willingness to cycling related with bicycle facilities availability
No, 17%
Yes, 83%
Willingness to cycling related with distance
6 -7 km, 1.7%
5 - 6 km, 36.2%
1 - 2 km, 19.0%
2 - 3 km, 22.4%
4 -5 km, 6.9%
3 -4 km, 13.8%
Cycling indeed is a physical activity that is usually preferred by male. In line with
Dickinson et al, 2003, cycling culture is male, there is more attention to attract
Cost, 12.2%
woman to cycling. Substantial gender differences in cycling participation in Australia
and other English speaking countries have led some researchers to suggest that
women are not interested in cycling (Merom et al., 2003). This is not the case in
Health, 20.7%
several western European countries, where utilitarian cycling rates are high, and
Environment,
women cycle more frequently
19.1%than men (Garrard, 2003).
The Gender of Respondent
100%
Female, 39.1%
80% Female, 55.6%Female, 51.8%
60%
40% Male, 60.9%
Male, 44.4% Male, 48.2%
20%
0%
live out side live inside total
Willingness
Traffic safety concerns have beentoidentified
cycling as arelated with
major constraint on cycling in
countries with low rates of cycling, high rates of car use, and large gender
gender
differences in cycling (Garrard et al., 2006; Goldsmith, 1992). These concerns appear
to have a differential impact on women, perhaps because they are more risk averse
than men (Byrnes et al., 1999).
100% Female,
Female respondents
80%in an on-line Female,
survey of 2403 cyclists
42.90% in Melbourne, Australia, in
2005 were more60% 66.70%about cycling in traffic’
likely than males to report that ‘concerns
and ‘aggression 40%
from motorists'
Male,were constraints on cycling (Garrard et al., 2006). In
57.10%
a telephone survey
20% Male, 33.30%
of 1880 adult Australians conducted females showed a preference
for using off-road0%paths rather than roads with no bicycle facilities ( Garrard et all,
2006). Willing to use Not willing to use
4. CONCLUSION
Dependent of student for activities in campus is still very high. There are a lot of
constraints that are being considered by students to choose to cycle around campus.
However, if proper bicycle infrastructure is designed by the university, students are
willing to make bicycle as their transportation mode inside the campus. The gender
perception in the society also influences the female students to refrain from cycling
even if the facilities are provided.
References
ABSTRACT:
Pulau Pinang is the third biggest city in Malaysia. It has enjoyed a relatively rapid
development in various sectors such as infrastructure and economy. In addition to this,
Pulau Pinang is also ranked as the third most escalated car traffic city, especially the
growing number of car ownership and usage. The increasing car ownership and usage in
Pulau Pinang for the mobility of its resident has led to car dependency and it has caused
serious traffic congestion problem.
The launching of public transport system under new entity “Rapid Penang” has given a new
enlightment for public transport system in Pulau Pinang, this is hoped to provide a fresh
outlook on modes of transport choices apart from private vehicle (particularly car). Rapid
Penang, likewise, is also expected to be able to provide services on passenger travel
demand, like intensified frequency, quicker travel time, wider route coverage, punctuality,
and the like However, despite the availability of its recent armada of public transport, the
hope to transfer car passengers to Rapid Penang can not be fully met. This can be seen by
the high rate of car usage as favourite modes of transport for the mobility of Pulau Pinang
citizens.
This paper is trying to analyze the factors that might cause the Penangites depends very
much on their car, the types on favourite mode of transport choice for their mobility, Rapid
Penang service and how effective it is implemented, as well as also try to find the reason
why the Penangites own a car. Besides, this paper also tries to seek alternatives and
necessary actions that can be considered to reduce traffic congestion and car dependency in
Penang Island.
1. INTRODUCTION
The use of private vehicle is normally considered as a personal use and this
is actually based on two concepts, namely mobility and accessibility. As has
been pointed out by “The Independent Commission of Transport” that the true
meaning of mobility or destination of transportation is accessibility (Tolley &
Turton, 1995). This definition, in the context of transportation, might be
described as a transportation system which can connect two locations in such a
quick period of time, with specific distances and with a low cost price (Hassim
bin Mat, 1995).
There are 77% of commuting urban population are using automobile like
private vehicle, truck or van (O’ Sullivan, 2003). Automobile is one of the most
popular transport mode and it is now being used by almost 90% population in
the US. This symptom creates three problems of transportation: traffic
congestion, air pollution and highway accidents. Problems of transportation in
big cities and traffic congestion has given the rise for seven aspects to give
effect (Thomson, 1977), as illustrated by the following picture
transport system has been implemented. This problem is usually driven by the increasing
number of operating vehicle,
car park particularly private vehicles
accident (car). The “European
Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT, 2007) ”, agreed to have a definition of
traffic congestion as follows::
Urban
“Congestion is the impedance vehicles
Transport impose on each other, due to
Pedestrian Impact on
the speed-flow difficulties
relationship, in condition where the use of a transport
environment
Car Ownership in Pulau Pinang has raised to the average rate of 9,5 % per
year. The raise of car ownership rate has caused serious traffic congestion in
Pulau Pinang city centre. This traffic congestion has triggered delayed of travel
time, high levels of traffic accidents (injuries and death) as well as to
environment.
ng is to fulfil the needs of commuters with comfortable, reliable and affordable service (Azhar Ahmad, 2007, N
317
Data of the new registered vehicle (Car and Bus) from 2007 until 2009 can
be seen on the table below (www.mot.gov.my).
Table 1. New Registered Vehicle in Pulau Pinang
YEAR PRIVATE VEHICLE (CAR) BUS
2007 46,488 231
2008 51,565 87
2009 47,307 240
3.METHODOLOGY
As The descriptive thesis, its elaborate the result of 263 distributed
questioners from 1030 populations at Pulau Pinang, consist of 3 types of
housing complex in urban and rural area. In urban area there are University
Height Condominium (high cost housing), Taman Pekaka (middle cost housing)
and Hamna Flat Sungai Dua (low cost housing), and the housing complex in
rural area are Bandar Baru Ayer Puteh in Balek Pulau which consist of high cost,
middle cost and low cost housing.
4. RESULT
4.1 Statistic of Car Owner Characteristic
Result of research from respondent characteristic data who lives both in housing
complex at urban and rural area is shown in table 1 below.
The unsatisfaction of the users are because of the waiting time at the bus
stop is unreliable (94.2%), bus fare categorised expensive (74.1%) and 43.2%
mentioned that bus route were not covered their journey destination.
It can be obviously seen here that the recent Rapid Penang service has not
yet performed the reliability and punctuality aspects. They can not fulfill the bus
arrival time, which means there are ongoing delays in departure and arrival time
at the bus stop/destination. This is also related to the problem of bus frequency
as the important factor in bus services. The higher the bus frequency, then the
lesser time would be spend by the passenger for bus waiting, so that they can
reach the destinations right in time. Secondly, route/network coverage does not
operate through passenger destinations which allows dissapointment from the
passengers. This might shift passenger to use another modes of transport,
predominantly private vehicle, to travel and cover their destinations.
Based on the data shown above, it can be seen that the respondents
often use private vehicle than bus for their daily activity. This answer matches
with the first reason of owning a car which is because
they like the freedom of mobility from having a private car. It is also because car
can provide the convenient and wider access as the owner demand, such as
carrying things, dropping and taking children to school or other activities. And if it
is calculated from the percentage of the high rate of travel using cars (more than
75% travels) and if it is linked to the figures in table 2, then it is apparent that car
dependency level in Pulau Pinang is considered as high, in which there are 75%
car user for mobility in compare to bus as the considerable alternative modes of
transport.
In the dense urban area, cost of parking becomes one of the judgement
in decision to own a car, so walking, cycling, motorcycling or public
transport often become other options for their mobility.
A research that has been done in Netherlands by Kitamura (1989) shown
that by owning a car has lead a change towards cars trip, particularly
changing on transit use.
A regular pattern on the use of private vehicle for every penangites journey
purpose has lead to traffic congestion. Some questions were asked to have a
respond from respondent concern and awareness of traffic congestion in
Penang Island. In this survey it is found that 64.6% respondent are unwilling to
leave their cars at home and use bus to journey trip. They keep using car but
78.8% of them change the travel time and 77.2% of respondent choose another
route to avoid traffic congestion. To overcome the urban traffic problem in
Penang Island, 43.0% respondent agree to improve public transport quality to a
better level from what The Rapid Penang has now. Forty eight point three
percent (48.3%) agree that local authority is to practice parking control, 47.9%
respondent agree to provide pedestrian in shopping area and 57.8% respondent
very agree for local authority to provide other mode of transport, such as
monorail or Light Rail Transport (LRT). Small percentage of agree and disagree
shown in idea to restrict the entry of cars into the city center.
5. CONCLUSION
From the above explanation, some salient points need to be re-emphasized
here, namely:
1. The main motive of private vehicle (car) ownership is because a car allows a
wider range of accessible areas. This mobility and accessibility, plus shorter
travel time, spaciousness/roomy, from and to distant places for its owner as
compared to public transport have become principal reason to have a car.
2. The survey’s results have shown a condition where car ownership and
its usage is on the high level compare to public transport (bus) use
for every journey purpose. The advantage given by private car as being
discussed before (became the main reason of owning a car) are
providing widest access and covered region for users to use the car
for every journey purpose.
3. It is found that the level of car dependency in Penang Island is high. This is
indicated by types of trip where more than 75% inhabitants use private cars
for mobility, exactly as stated in Victoria Transport Policy Institute (2002) and
strengthened by its relation to public transportation alternatives availability in
this very area.
4. The Rapid Penang as a new hope for Penang’s c omm unit y in
public transport service has tried to give the best service, but some
sectors still need to be improved, such as wider coverage area, bus
frequencies and the need to add more bus services for exceptional
condition in peak hours at certain area (point).In this case, some action
should be taken seriously by the local authority to reduce car ownership &
usage, and to reduce traffic congestion at the same time.
5. A proposal to provide special provision for bus such as bus lane (as
applied in Asian countries like Hong Kong and Jakarta, Indonesia)
could be considered in order to achieve a better service, to save
travel time and to avoid traffic jam (where it became a crucial issue
today). Wider bus linkage and coverage area are also in demand to keep
people away from using car and for commuters to be able to reach their
destination by using bus instead of using a car. A special provision
for buses should be in higher priority. A restriction on car use
entering the city centre only on certain times, limited parking lot
and increasing parking price/rates in the city centre should also be
applied. It is also important to do a solid campaign which lead to
encouraging people to use public transport (such as: car free day, bus
day, bicycle day, etc).
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Eurovision for 2020 . Transport Reviews 20, 113–130.
Commission of the European Communities. (2001). WHITE PAPER European
Transport Policy for 2010: Time to Decide . Brussel
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Lumpur, Malaysia – Accessing the Policy Option . IATSS Research Vol 31, No 1, 69–
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www.mot.gov.my
http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch6en/conc6en/levelautomobiledependency .
html
New Straits Times, 6th October 2007
098 Travelling Characteristics of University Students' Bicycle
Excursion to Cultural Heritage Sites: A Case of Lijiang, China
ABSTRACT:
Although China is notoriously known as “the Kingdom of Bicycle”, bicycle tourism is still in initial
stage. With the increasing enhancement of environment awareness and the sharp surge of leisure
fitness in China, bicycle tourism, especially short tour, has a rapid development with a very large
space for future development. Bicycle touring can be divided into four kinds: bicycle contest, bicycle
excursion, bicycle exploration and bicycle package, in which bicycle excursion has the largest number
of participants. As far as it goes, university students, white-collar clerk and retired person constitute
the main body of the Chinese bicycle excursion traveller, in which university students undoubtedly is
the main participants in bicycle excursion. Lijiang is one of the most famous and best tourism
destinations in China, which has been listed as the World Cultural Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997.
Currently, there are two universities in Lijiang, but the city plan to have at least 6 new universities
before 2020 as a part of the second universities town in Yunnan Province and the numbers of
university students are expected to reach more than 100,000. Based on the prospect of bicycle tourism
development in Lijiang, this article will focus on the travelling characteristics of university students’
bicycle excursion. A network community of bicycle tourism in Tourism and Cultural College of
Yunnan University was selected as a research sample. Questionnaires are sent to the respondents via
email after their online approval to survey their attitudes on bicycle travelling desire, bicycle
excursion experience and bicycle excursion values. All data was analyzed from the whole process of
bicycle excursion: pre excursion, on excursion and after excursion. On this basis, three models have
been constructed to clarify the bicycle characteristics of university students during the three stages of
bicycle excursion especially to cultural heritage sites.
1 INTRODUCTION
Bicycle has been beyond 220 years old since it was designed by Comte de Sivrac in 1790.
However, it didn’t officially board the stage of tourism until the 1970s. Since 1980s, people
have been gradually aware of the significances of bicycle touring, such as preventing from
premature senility, improving cardiopulmonary function, losing weight, keeping fit, relaxing
soul and mind, and so on. Since then, bicycle tourism has been springing up like a mushroom
after rain all over the world with the widening calls for reducing energy consumption and the
growing carving for prolonging life. Furthermore, local and state governments have take
many measures to facilitate bicycle tourism in formulating traffic rules, designing traffic
signs, propagandizing traffic regulation and improving traffic infrastructures. Meanwhile, all
kinds of bicycle associations appear like a rising wind and scudding clouds, which is a
tremendous impetus to bicycle tourism. Tour Cyclo-touriste International FFCT organised by
the Federation France of Cyclone Tourism annually since 1927 has attracted more than
14000 bicyclist come to France from all over the world in 2009. Nowadays, bicycle tourism
has commonly accounted for 5%-10% of the whole tourism market in USA and many
countries in Europe resulted from the positive participations and broad support from all
sectors of society.
Lij iang is one of the most famous and best tourism destinations in China, which has
been inscripted as the World Cultural Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997. Now there are two
universities in Lij iang, and according to the issued city planning, before 2020, at least 6 new
universities will be built as one of important parts of constructing the second universities
town of Yunnan Province. At that time, the number of university students will reach more
than 100000 in Lij iang. But there are still many intractable problems and constraints which
will hinder the sustainable development of bicycle excursion in Lij iang. The article will put
an attention to the travelling characteristics of university students' bicycle excursion which is
very important for all stakeholders of bicycle tourism to improve the healthy development of
bicycle excursion.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
“A person who is away from their home town or country for a period not less than 24
hours or one night, for the purpose of a vacation or holiday, and for whom using a bicycle as a
mode of transport during this time away is an integral part of their holiday or vacation. This
vacation may be independently organized or part of a commercial tour and may include the use
of transport support services and any type of formal and/or informal accommodation.”
Ritchie (1998: p. 569) states that the academic study related to the demand of bicycle tourists
is still extremely inadequate. Much existing literature in this area is speculative in nature
which is just like that bicycle tourism managers commonly design bicycle route and product
on the base of their own feels, not the demands of bicycle tourists (Downward & Lumsdon,
2001; Ritchie, 1998). Chang et al. (2005) compare the difference in accessibility, activity
purpose and attraction between the two kinds of bicycle tourists who use national scenic
bikeways and use local bike lanes in Taiwan. They draw a conclusion that the main travel
motivations of bicycle tourists using national scenic bikeways are seeking tourist attractions
and sceneries along the roads, while others using local bike lanes want to relax and exercise.
From the perspective of transportation environment, the travelling desire of bicycle tourist
are commonly affected by travel time, bike lane or bike path, level of traffic, pavement or
riding surface quality, and presence of a bicycle facility on a bridge (Stinson & Bhat, 2003;
Chang, et al., 2004); bicycling equipment, basic riding skills, necessary training (Richard,
1994); safety, traffic volume, smooth pavement, facility characteristics, appealing scenery,
slow traffic, road width or sidewalk, few stops, few hills (Antonakos, 1993; Chang et al,
2004; Hopkinson & Wardman, 1996; Hyodo, Suzuki, & Takahashi, 2000; Schuett &
Holmes, 1996); number of establishments within one kilometre of home (Hanson & Huff,
1981); low traffic levels of regional settings, secure parking, climate, terrain (Efrat, 1981;
Chang et al., 2004; Schuett & Holmes, 1996); pavement quality, bicycle facility, traffic,
distance and travel time (Bovy & Bradley, 1985; Ortuzar, Iacobelli & Valeze, 2000;
Hopkinson & Wardman, 1996 ).
Ritchie (1999) proposes that bicycle tourism supplier should offer four bicycle tourism
products to satisfy the demand of bicycle tourists during travelling, namely infrastructure
(such as accommodation), information (such as road networks and alternative routes,
signposting) and transport and bicycle tourism support services.
Gardner (1998) divides cycling life cycle into five stages, namely childhood, the break
from cycling, the return to cycling, returning only to lapse and return again and returning to
cycling, having been influenced by encouraging restarting, which will undoubtedly influence
tourism experience of bicycle tourists on different stages.
After a series of interviews of over 500 leisure cyclists, non-cyclists and regularly
work cyclists, the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions in the
U.K (1998) argues that for most people the decision to use a bicycle purely for
leisure purposes is rational since bicycle tourists can enjoy many benefits including
health, fresh air, and being a social and relaxing pastime from the bicycle trip.
Matthew (2007) argues that bicycle tourism is a kind of tourism which is most
suited to been carried out in regional areas and from it local business sectors can
gain many economic benefits. Ritchie and Hall (1999) suggest that bicycle tourists
may be valuable to regional destinations as they are generally stay for a longer time
than other tourists and subsequently generate a higher total expenditure per trip.
The tourism consumptions of bicyclist are mainly used on accommodation, food and
beverages, groceries, cultural and natural attractions, transport and bicycle-related
products and services (EcoGIS Consultants, 2000).
3 METHODOLODY
Now there are two universities in Lijiang, Tourism and Cultural College of
Yunnan University and Lijiang Normal Junior College. According to the issued city
planning, at least 6 new universities will be built before 2020 as one of important
parts of constructing the second universities town of Yunnan Province. At that time,
the number of university students will reach more than 100000 in Lijiang, who will
greatly stimulate bicycle excursion of Lijiang. Tourism and Cultural College of
Yunnan University (YUTCC) lies between the old town of Lijiang and Snow
Mountain of jade dragon, no more than 5 kilometre from the old town. YUTCC is a
newly-established independent college for undergraduate students, built in 2002.
Now in YUTCC, there are 7 departments involving tourism, art, economics and
management, language, computer and electronics, literature and communication,
and public and foundation, with more than 11000 students. In YUTCC, bicycle
association and tourism association are the main student organizations in charge of
bicycle tourism now. In this research, a network community opening for all YUTCC
students, “YUTCC Communication Community” (TCCC), has been chosen as a
research sample.
3.2 Sample Size
TCCC has 113 regular members coming from the 7 departments of YUTCC.
Because of all members join the community voluntarily, the overall population obeys
the normal distribution. Since the proportion of the sample size in the overall
population is more than 5%, the sample size can be determined by formula (1)
(McDaniel & Gates, 1998; Chiang, 2003; Guo, 1999):
Z P P N
2
(1)
n =
Z
P P N
−
E r
2 2
− + −
In this research, according to the general statistic rule, a 95% confidence level
is used, namely, Z is chosen 1.96. The whole number of community members (N) is
113. Since there were no related researches before, it is not possible to estimate the
value of P. In order to improve the accuracy, the most pessimistic assumptions of
the overall standard deviation is used, namely P = 0.5, which make it possible that
the determined sample size is the biggest. Because of these students will only
receive the questionnaires after online approvals are gained, the sampling error,
namely E can be allowed for a bigger range. Therefore, this research determines E
at 15%.and r is determined at 90%. Then, the calculation result of the formula (1) is
33.62, so the sample size obtained is 34.
quality ( x1), traffic condition and path quality ( x2), bicycle facilities and services ( x3),
distance and travel time ( x4), bicycle equipment ( x5), climate ( x6), safety ( x7), riding skills
and preliminary training ( x8), and cultural attractions ( x9). Based on that basis, a regression
equation (1) is constructed:
Where, TD
is the abbreviation of travelling desire for bicycle excursion;
a0 , a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6, a7, a8 are the respective coefficients of these independent variables.
Regression method can be used to calculate the coefficients of these variables because
the Shapiro-Wilk statistic of TD is 0.4 >0.05, which means TD obeys normality distribution.
The model summary has shown two simulating models, namely 1 and 2. Because of the
adjustedR 2of model 2 (0.834) is bigger than the adjusted
R2of model 1 (0.797), model 2 is
chosen for further analysis ( Table 1 ).
The regression equation has statistical significance as the outcome of ANOVA analysis
shows F in model 2 is 83 .620, P=0.000<0.01 ( Table 2 ).
Table 2: ANOVA a,b
analysis of the equation (1
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
2 Regression 1993.258 2 996.629 83.620 .000 b
Residual 369.477 31 11.919
Total 2362.735 33
a.Predictors: (Constant), traffic condition and path quality, scenery quality
b.Dependent Variable: traveling desire of bicycle excursion
The outcome of coefficients shows significance of x2 (traffic condition and path quality) and
x1 (scenery quality) respectively at 0.000 and 0.008 ( Table 3 ), which are all less than 0.01,
meaning that these variables should be kept in the equation (1). Therefore, the regression
x7 , x8 , x9 are all more than 0.05, so it is not appropriate to preserve them in the equation
(Table 4 ).
and relax ( x10), bicycling safety ( x11), social contact ( x12), enriching experience ( x13),
social and cultural benefits ( x14), economic benefits ( x15), traffic benefits (x16)
and
BB b 0
= +
b1x+10
b 2 x +
11
b3x + 12 b 4 x 13 (2)
SB c c
= +
0 1 x c2x
+
14
+ 15 c3x + 16 c4x 17 (3)
constant in equation (3); c1, c2, c3, c4 are the respective coefficients of these independent
variables.
Bicycling Social
Economi Traffi
Figure 1: Tourism Benefits of Bicycling Excursion
Similarly to the regression equation (1), Regression method can be used to calculate the
coefficients of x10 x 11 , x 12 , x13 in the equation (2), because the Shapiro-Wilk statistic of
,
BB is
outcome of coefficients of regression equation (2) shows the significance of constant, x10 and
x13 are respectively 0.000, 0.000 and 0.027 which are all less than 0.05, while x11 and x12
are excluded because their significances are respective 0.626 and 0.296 > 0.05.
As shown in Table 6 , based on the calculation result, the regression equation (2) is,
BB 14.279 4.354x
= +
10 − 2.317x 13
As for the equation (3), though the Shapiro-Wilk statistic of SB is 0.566 >0.05 obeying
normality distribution, no variables can enter into this equation in the regression analysis. It
is because students, they don’t care about the supplier’s benefits and to a large degree, they
have no many experiences and knowledge about supplier’s benefits.
336
5 CONCLUSION
The research analyzes the travelling characteristics of university students' bicycle excursion
to cultural heritage sites along the whole process of bicycle touring from preparation to
assessment. On the basis of literature review, the research finds that traffic condition and
path quality, scenery quality mainly affect university students’ travelling desire for bicycling
excursion. On the process of bicycle touring, tourism experiences are influenced by bicyclist
characteristics, bicycling organization, bicycling experiences, transportation condition,
bicycling infrastructures, climate and weather condition, information identification of bicycle
touring and tourism services of bicycle touring. After bicycle excursion, university students
commonly think that heath and relax, followed by enriching experiences, is the most benefits
from the touring.
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Michigan, Michigan, USA.
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Chang, H., & Chang, H. (2005). Comparison between the differences of recreational cyclists
in the national scenic bikeway and local bike lane. Journal of the Eastern Asia Society
for Transportation Studies, 6, 2178-2193.
Chang, H. L., & Chang, H. W. (2009). Exploring recreational cyclists' environmental
preferences and satisfaction: experimental study in Hsinchu technopolis. Environment
and Planning B: Planning and Design, 3 6(2), 319-335.
Chang, H. W., & Chang, H. L. (2003). A strategic study of bicycle tourism in Taiwan.
Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, 5, 1675-1685.
Chang, H. W., & H.N, H. (2004, September 11-13). Bicycle tourism development- a model
for sustainable development in Taiwan. Paper presented at the International Symposium
on City Planning, Sapporo, Japan.
Chiang, C. L. (2003). Statistical Methods of Analysis. Singapore: World Scientific
Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
Downward, P., & Lumsdon, L. (2001). The development of recreational cycle routes: an
evaluation of user needs. Managing Leisure, 6(1), 50-60.
EcoGIS Consultants. (2000). Submission on cycle tourism to the Tourism Strategy Group.
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Gardner, G. (1998) Transport implications of leisure cycling. Transport Research
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3(4), 241-249.
Hyodo, T., Suzuki, N., & Takahashi, K. (2000). Modelling of bicycle route and destination
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Ritchie, B., & Hall, C. (1999). Bicycle tourism and regional development: a New Zealand
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Evaluation of Street Characteristics.
THEME :
ISSUES IN TRANSPORTATION
053 TELECOMMUTING’S POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTING TO REDUCING
TRAFFIC CONGESTION: A MALAYSIAN PERSPECTIVE.
Ms Diana Mohamad 1
and Dr Matthew W. Rofe 2
1. PhD Candidate School of Natural and Built Environment The University of South
Australia
diana.mohamad@mymail.unisa.edu.au
1. INTRODUCTION
The intricacies inherent in this relationship can be divided into potential benefits
and drawbacks. At the most basic, these issues are express in the form of the
following questions; [1] is the daily commute considered stressful (Lucas and
Heady, 2002) and directly deteriorates travel value or [2] does travel play a
significant role as a ‘transitional/ intermediary’ medium for personal activities
(Mokhtarian and Salomon, 2001)? It is of great importance to critically engage
with the complexities embodies within the abovementioned questions and
changes in circumstances that might take place (Mohamad and Bachok, 2009).
Previous studies have verified how certain parameters (for example spatial and
land use planning, technology, economic forces) significantly instigate travel
(see Hamed and Olawayyah, 1999; Black, 2001; Timmermans, 2003 and Syiftan
et. a! , 2003). These parameters impact upon individuals and indeed different
employment sectors in complex ways. To explore these complex issues and
their implications, this paper reports on a detailed case study exploring the
opportunities for telecommuting arrangements to be employed by University
academics and the potential for this to contribute to a more sustainable
transportation system. In doing so, the findings of this research contribute to the
telecommuting literature in two ways [1] it investigates the impact of information
technology on academics trip generation and explores daily trip patterns and [2]
identifies the differences in perceived telecommuting by gender and occupation.
2. METHODOLOGY
This study exercises both quantitative and qualitative research techniques. The
authors developed an outline of the research framework where it looks at the
concept(s) of the selected work arrangement either theoretically, empirically or at
times both; allows a better understanding on the degree of substitution.
Academics (N =42, female/male = 50% / 50%) from the International Islamic
University Malaysia were selected as the targeted group. Data was collected over
a four-month timeframe using a two-way approach: traditional travel diary survey
(Walls 2006, cited in Haddad et. a! , 2009; Popuri and Bhat, 2003) and personal
interview. Pilot study on the questionnaire survey came back positive with
average of 15 minutes filling in travel diary on daily basis. Data were analysed
using Correlation (bivariate, partial) and Regression (linear, multinomial logistic)
to find the relationship between variables and the causality of the relationship in
terms of direction and degree of influence, if possible. Below are the five
procedural steps to sample selection:
Convenience Sampling: Judgment Sampling:
To select the institution To choose departments/faculties
The telecommuting term was first coined by Nilles (1975) and since
then, Korte’s (1988) three facets were applied where necessary to
describe telecommuting which comes in scores of forms and
multi-disciplinary operated. Improvised these, limited characteristics
(appropriate worksite, engaged occasionally, full-day arrangement
and applicable computer usage) are chosen for definition purpose. In
this study, telecommuters are labelled as ‘Academics who work at a
remote location or at home on particular working days who either
using ICT or not using ICT to support their productivity, and are
also associated with a traditional workplace at other times and
especially for holding face to face meetings’.
tailed)
It is important to emphasize that data on commute time is the average
time spent on travel from home to workplace where the estimation
includes the traffic congestion issue. Table 1 (above) presents the trip
relationship in three ways: [1] there are significant relationships between
time, dist, mode and car. [2] Time 1 and cost1 are exclusively significant.
[3] All variables have a significant relationship except for motor . Table
accepted null hypotheses [time and dist] are statistically significant
however, the causality direction is unknown. Nevertheless, Linear
Regression which provides the predictive power for [time and dist] shows
that time will increase by .950 minutes for every additional kilometre. In
Partial Correlation, time and dist (cost1 *) correlation is slightly higher
when the third variable* is held constant, explaining the suppressor
variable effect. Results for [time and dist] indirectly clarifying the traffic
problems face by the respondents.
Table 5 below explains the findings in two ways: [1] a strong relationship
between grouped purposes [purpose 1*2] and [purpose3*4]. [2]
Tendency of continuity of usage may cause a slightly higher correlation
of purpose2*purpose3 than of purpose1*purpose2. The causality of
direction however, is unpredictable. It is of interest to note that gender
and purpose4 has no significant relationship, which brings this paper to
question: What might be the reason behind this when online
entertainment is perceived as an advantage of information technology?
Is it because the respondents have allocated the time spent on computer
at the working place as time solely for work-related purpose activities?
Or maybe because of the restrictions impose by the university on
internet usage influenced the internet usage?
Figure 1: Matrix Scatterplot of Loc, Act and Mode of Friday on Selected Hours
4. CONCLUSION
5. REFERENCES
mostafamirhassani@piv.ir
ABSTRACT Recently, intelligent transportation systems have been the most attractive topics
among scientific researches. One of the bases of such systems is generating digital maps,
abundantly utilized in GIS, which is why many scientific decisions need this kind of
information. In this case, digital characteristics of roads will be derived from image such as
coordination of road centerline, the solid objects at the road sides and the bridges. In this
paper our aim is to detect roads for providing digital maps in remote sensing satellite images
from urban areas. For this purpose, firstly, based on road appearance, a road hypothesis is
developed as a pre-classification step. Afterwards, based on structural labeling method and
according to some of the image object characteristics, few unknown road parts were
detected and classified to freeway along with one or two lane road. Experiments indicate
promising results which demonstrate efficiency of the proposed road extraction algorithm
from satellite remote sensing images.
1. INTRODUCTION
I n the recent decade, remote sensing imagery makes the monitoring of the
earth's surface and atmosphere possible in various scales. As the technology of
the imagery sensors improves, the remote sensing images with higher quality
become available. Scientists manage to collect constructive information from the
satellite images. In this way, classification of remote sensing images in urban
area obtains a lot of information which are useful for emergency application,
traffic surveillance, earth survey, map updating and GIS, planning, emergency
response and management, and homeland security applications. Thus,
automated and semi automated methods for the classification of roads,
buildings, and other land cover types in the urban areas attract many research's
interests.
2. METHODOLOGY
m. Gabor Filter
2-D Gabor filters are effectively utilized in many computer vision applications.
They are one of the most appropriate tools for image analysis approaches such
as texture boundary detection, texture image segmentation/ discrimination and
texture classification/recognition(I. Fogel et al., 1989; A.K. Jain et al.,1991).
Recently for textile flaw detection (A. Bodnarova et al., 1999) 2-D Gabor filters
have been applied as an efficient step for feature extraction.
F u v 2 v
tan
=
0 = 2
0 0
+ , ù 0
,
, (3)
u F cos 0 = 0 ù 0 v 0 = F sin 0 ù 0
u 0
ω r
(,) exp( ( ( ) ( ) ) )
2
exp π
exp 2 cos π ω
sin ω
2 2 2 2
0r r 0 0 0 0
In this paper we have K 1, a,b 15, P 1, x 0 ,y 0 are the half of the height and = = =
n. Morphological Operation
Using Morphological operations, the objects can be extracted easily and
effortlessly. The precise nature of the expanding or shrinking is determined by a
kernel provided by the operator. Morphological operations have been used for
extraction of image objects and spatial form of image components modification.
We defined an image as an (amplitude) function of two, real (coordinate)
variables or two. An alternative definition of an image can be based
Ig ( x , y )
on the notion that an image consists of a continuous or discrete coordinate set.
In a sense, the set corresponds to the points or pixels that belong to the objects
in the image.
The common effect of dilation is to take each pixel of intensity in source image
and expand it into the shape of the kernel. The contribution of the source pixel to
the kernel-shaped region depends on two parameters: the brightness of the
source pixels (pixels intensity contribute supplementary) and the values of the
kernel pixels (pixels are dark, relative to the centre of the kernel; contribute more
to their locations in the kernel-shaped regions than pixels are intense). But
morphological operations, opening and closing, are not performed directly. Also,
the opening operation can be accomplished by erosion operation followed by
dilation operation. The close operation is a dilation followed by erosion. Opening
and closing have been used because these operations help to illustrate the
structural properties of different objects. By filling operation all of the closed
clusters using mentioned morphological operations are filled. Moreover, some
t echniques have been utilized for elimination of non-r oad object s.
a. Pre-classification
The images used to test in the proposed approach have 1024 × 716 pixel. As we
know about the results of applying Gabor filter in the input image and the ability
of the discrimination; some urban area images are used to benchmark the
approach. The methods which haven’t being pre-processed, preprocessor like
Gabor filter part, do not enhance the image contrast. Thus, the discriminator
shows error because some image components have similar level of intensity to
the level of background.
b. Structural Labeling
Structural labeling method can decrease the rate of false positive results and
other errors and the way of using it make this paper novel and interesting.
Structural operates on objects, roads and highways, with labels attached to
them.
Also the number of notes in graph makes the analysis very lengthy and time
consuming. In fact, we have solved this problem by using structures instead of
pixels as it reduces the time span for algorithm. As considered earlier, the
proposed approach used was based on structural, contextual, and statistical
information of urban images. It means that the purposed approach considered in
aspect of structural by using morphological operation, and using the contextual
information of urban image in a similar manner by using structural labeling.
Figure 3. The figure presents some results of mentioned approach after applying relaxation
labeling
4. CONCLUSION
In this paper a new method for extraction of road centerlines in remote sensing
images to aid intelligent transportation presented. The mentioned system can
generate digital map of roads, and abundantly utilized in GIS. Digital
characteristics of roads will be derived from image such as coordination of road
centerline, the solid objects in the road sides. The opening with multi-sized and
multi direction structure elements is applied to Gabor filtered image. So streets
and highways are extracted in favorable sizes. This part developed as a pre-
classification step. Afterward, structural relaxation labeling method and
according to the some of the image object characteristics, some of the unknown
road parts detected and classified to free-way and one or two lane road. For
evaluating road centerlines morphological operation is applied to the extracted
roads and highways.
Finally for providing smooth centerlines a Gaussian filter was applied to the
contours. As it mentioned before, the novelty of this approach is because of the
way of using structural labeling in structural form. Experiments indicated
promising results in evaluating road centerlines as an effective step toward
generation of digital maps from remote sensed images.
5. REFERENCES
C. H. Davis and X. Wang (2002) .Urban land cover classification from high
resolution multi-spectral IKONOS imagery. in Proc. IGARSS, vol. 2, pp. 1204–
1206, Toronto, ON, Canada
Fauvel, Jocelyn Chanussot, and Jón Atli Benediktsson, (2006) "Decision Fusion for
the Classification of Urban Remote Sensing Images" IEEE Transactions On
Geoscience And Remote Sensing, vol. 44, no. 10
Raziah Noor Bt Razali 1, Mohamad Iskandar bin Illyas Tan 2 and Mohammad
Ishak Desa 3
1
Halal Informatics Research Lab (HOLLISTICS), Faculty of Computer Science and
Information System, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia.
2,
Halal Informatics Research Lab (HOLLISTICS), Faculty of Computer Science and
Information System, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
3
Department of Modelling and Industrial Computing , Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
raziahrazali86@gmail.com, iskandar@fsksm .utm .my, mishak@utm.my
ICT applications presented in this paper are divided into the following
categories: 1) applications that assist in the management of supplier networks, 2)
applications that facilitate traceability, and 3) applications that assist input supply
companies to manage their distribution networks. The table 1 shows the definition of
these three ICT’s and its application.
12. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research aims and objectives
The aim of this study is to demonstrate an understanding of Halal
transportation process in Malaysia using a value chain analysis perspective. This
study will focus on process, Halal logistic standard, data and information flows
involved in the Halal transportation operation. Besides, this study also discusses the
possibility of ICT for transportation in conducting Halal supply chain.
Phase one : Review the literature of Halal transportation issues and ICT usage in
transport and logistics services.
In this stage, the Halal manual procedures, Malaysian Halal Logistic Standard
MS 2400: 2010, magazines, and newspaper articles, journals, brochures and slides
presentation were reviewed in order to gain the understanding of the Halal
transportation process in Malaysia. The related authority websites such as
MALAYSIAN STANDARD, JAKIM, HDC and Yayasan Ekonomi Sejagat (YES) were
also reviewed. The details are simplified in Table 2.
Phase two : Conduct interviews with the experts in Halal transportation process.
The semi-structured interviewed was conducted based on one-to-one basis.
Interviews had been conducted in three ways: 1) Unstructured, open-ended
interview, audiotape the interview and transcript it; 2) Unstructured, open-ended
interview using email and; and telephone interview as follow up interview to clarify
answer that was not comprehensible.
Phase Three : Process Mapping : Mapping the Halal transportation process, the
Halal standard procedural rules involved and the typical record for every process. In
the last field, the researcher put the information element to see the possibility of ICT
applications that can be imply towards transportations activities. The data were
collected during the interviewed.
Halal Transportations Sharing container (or segregation), managing returnable container and history of immediate suppliers, Time Zuhra Junaida Mohamad Husny
Issues sensitivity, Warehousing and inventory control , Process of HACCP at receiving inbound gate and goods received (2010)
at the inbound gate should be screened to ascertain its Haram and Hazards status.
Halal certified company / Kontena Nasional Berhad, TUV Rheinland Malaysia Sdn Bhd, Cold Chain Network (M) Sdn Bhd, Dagang Net Halal (Focus 2010)
players. Technologies Sdn Bhd and ANFACO-CECOPESCA Malaysia Sdn Bhd
381
Figure 2: Halal Transportation Technologies Framework using Value Chain Analysis Perspective
382
operational (2) Halal transportation Shariah procedural rules, (3) the data for typical
record involved, and (4) the ICT application towards the Halal transportation process.
The overall framework of Halal Transportation Technologies is simplified in Figure 2.
Phase Five : Verify and Validate the Halal Transportation Technologies Framework
Expert opinion was employed to verify and validate the Halal Transportation
Technologies framework. According to Hopkins (1993), expert opinion is another main
criterion that can be used for verification and validation process. Either the expert
opinion is compared with other data or the opinions of several experts are comparing to
ascertain the extent to agreement between them.
Basically, the value chain can be defined as a systematic way to divide a firm into it
discrete activities and can be used to examine how the activities in a firm are and could
be grouped (Porter 1985). In this study, the value chain is created with the four
elements showing the interaction between the transportation process, the Halal
standard and the ICT application that can increase the efficiency of information flows
throughout the supply chain. These elements are particularly important in highlighting
the operational issues.
Table 3: List of Possibility ICT can be apply for Halal Transportation Process
1. Containers for goods and/or cargo, The Container Depot Management Support
should be specifically identifiable, System (CDMSS) - Mobile commerce
suitably constructed and where integrated with RFID in container depot.
appropriate, made of impervious - Keep track of the locations of stackers and
materials. (Standard 2010) containers, provide greater visibility of the
operation data, and improve control
process. E.W.T.Ngai (2007)
2. Identification of the inbound goods
and/or cargo for the processing Barcode, Radio Frequency Identification
stages from the immediate (RFID)
suppliers and the distribution - Track and guide drivers during the
routes a destination of the goods transportation of products and also
and/or cargo. (Standard 2010) provides the service of vehicles positioning
to help the control centers to monitor and
dispatch trucks. Lin (2007)
3. Halal and non- Halal goods are not Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
mixed on handling equipment such - Technology that use radio waves to
as forklift, trolley and pallet or in a automatically identifies individual items.
container/common transportation
vehicle (in case of bulk shipments). Barcode
- Optical machine-readable representation of
4. There is also a clear difference in data, which shows certain data on certain
transportation in case of ambient or products
reefer for chilled or frozen products.
Rubee
5. For refrigerated shipments there - Highly effective manner for item-level
should be no mixing in the same tagging for inventory control purposes:
container/common transportation tagging consumer electronics products and
storage of Halal and severe najis around the omnipresent metal shelving and
(items regarded as ritually unclean). rack systems found in the retail and
warehouse environment as well as in other
6. In case of ambient transportation, venues where it is essential to properly
there should be no mixing of Halal outfit and monitor equipment, operations,
and non- Halal goods on a pallet and vehicles.
and proper packaging should be MyMobiHalal 2.0
used to protect the Halal goods - Use of combination technology: Mobile
along the supply chain. technology and barcode to determine
product status and related information
5. CONCLUSION
After reviewing the applications presented above, one main conclusion is that
information technology (ICT) are interesting and complementary, because it can be
used to track the location and monitor the goods as it moves through the supply. ICT
application improved visibility process in supply chain includes the identification of
container (visibility into what inventory is in which containers), history of immediate
supplier and flow tracking during distribution that included in MS2400. For this reason,
using technologies provides a significant improvement on monitoring especially for
Halal control and has been faced by recent research.
REFERENCE
Azah, N.A., et al. (2008). "The users perceptions and opportunities in Malaysia in
introducing RFID system for halal food tracking." Wseas Trans. Inform. Sci. Appl 5:
843-852.
Hassan, F. H. and Mohd Salleh Darus (2008). "Assessment of United States of America,
Brazil and Malaysia’s Competitive Advantages in Fostering Halal Hub Value Chain
Network ".
HDC, H. D. C. (2009). Introducing the World's First Halal Directory Widget. HDC
VIBE. Petaling Jaya Selangor, Halal Development Corporation (HDC) : 19.
Lin, C. -Y. (2007). "Factors affecting innovation in logistics technologies for logistics
service providers in China." Journal of Technology Management in China Vol. 2 (No. 1):
22-37.
Mason-Jones, R. a. T., D.R. (1999). " “Using the information decoupling point to
improve supply chain performance”, ." The International Journal of Logistics
Management, Vol. 10
(No. 2): pp. 13-26.
Noordin, N., N. L. M. Noor, et al. (2008). "An Empirical Evidence of Halal Portal."
Jurnal Halal: 113-135.
Nurulhuda Noordin, Nor Laila Md Noor, et al. (2009). Value Chain of Halal
Certification System : A Case of The Malaysia Halal Industry. European and
Mediterranean Conference on Information System 2009 (EMCIS2009), Crowne Plaza
Hotel, Izmir.
Patterson, K. A., C. M.Grimm, et al. (2003). "Adopting New technologies for Supply
Chain Management." Transportation Research Part E 39: 95-121.
Suhaiza Zailani, Zainal Arrifin, et al. (2010). "Halal Traceability and Halal Tracking
Systems in Strengthening Halal Food Supply Chain for Food Industry in Malaysia (A
Review)." Journal of Food Technology 8(3): 74-81.
Tieman, M. (2007). The Future of Halal Logistics Solutions. The Halal Journal,
Kasehdia Sdn Bhd. March-April .
Tieman, M. (2007). Halal Logistics Orchestrating Model. The Halal Journal, Kasehdia
Sdn Bhd.
Tieman, M. (2009). The Building Blocks of A Halal Transportation System. The Halal
Journal. January-February .
Tieman, M. (2009). Halal Logistics. Part 2/3: The building blocks of a halal
transportation system. The Halal Journal. Kuala Lumpur, Kasehdia Sdn Bhd. January
and February: 30-3 1.
Tieman, M. (2009). Halal Transportation Part 2/3: The Building Blocks of A Halal
Transportation System. The Halal Journal. Kuala Lumpur, Kasehdia Sdn Bhd. 30-31 .
Yaakob and C. M. (2005). 'Halal Gadget'. The Halal Journal March + April 2005. Kuala
Lumpur, Kasehdia SdnBhd : 33.
073 THE NEEDS OF HALAL TRANSPORTATION CONTROL IN MALAYSIA
Zuhra Junaida bte Mohamad Husny 1, Mohamad Iskandar bin Illyas Tan 2 and Zaly
Shah bin Mohammed Hussein 3
1
Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysian Institute of Industrial Technology (UniKL-MITEC),
Jalan Persiaran Sinaran Ilmu, Bandar Seri Alam, 81750 Masai, Johor, Malaysia.
Halal Informatics Research Lab (HOLISTICS), Faculty of Computer Science and
2
Malaysia
zuhrajunaida@unikl. m itec.edu .my, iskandar@fsksm .utm .my, zaly@live.utm.my
ABSTRACT: Transportation as one of main component of halal supply chain plays a key role in
facilitating the manufacturing, logistics and trade of halal products throughout the world.
However, lack of study on halal transportation has hampered the progress of research in the
area of halal supply chain. This study was done to investigate whether the integrity of halal
products can be maintained during it is being transported and try to explore the need of halal
control in transportation activities. In order to have a deeper understanding of the problems, a
literature review were done on various important concepts such as, halal concept, the muslim
consumer’s duty and concern on halal product, halal industry in Malaysia, the concept of halal
logistics and halal transportation and how it is being applied. To provide the evidence to support
the study, profound details and explanations from the different stakeholders were gathered
through interview sessions. Therefore, a qualitative study and multiple case study approach
have been employed. Interview session has been done with halal authorities such as JAKIM,
IHIA and HDC as well as the Malaysian Islamic consumer association (PPIM) representative.
The results from study shows that there is a clear need for halal control in handling halal foods
and products particularly during transportation process. Two standards initiatives on halal
product handling (YES and IHIA) which also catered transportation have been revealed during
data collection. To date, these initiatives are the only program in the world that provides a clear
and concise guideline on how halal product should be managed from the perspective of logistics
operations. This proves that not only there is a need for halal control during transportation but
there already standards are being drafted to be used as a guideline to implement the halal
control in transportation.
1. INTRODUCTION
This study explores the need of halal integrity in transporting halal goods using land
transportation. Halal integrity means that the products are being sourced, produced,
processed, stored and distributed in a manner coherent with the Islamic values,
where these are in line with modern and universal values such as high quality and
safety, hygienically produced with respect for animal welfare and fairly traded
(Sungkar, et. al., 2008). The possibility of halal product be contaminated during
delivery was investigated. This study takes into account the concern of two different
kinds of stakeholders, namely the Malaysian Islamic Authorities and Islamic
Consumer Associations. These two groups had been chosen as they represent the
key stakeholders that play an important role in deciding whether there is a need for
development and implementation of halal transportation in Malaysia. This study will
try to answer the question of whether there is a need of halal integrity to be
controlled or monitored during the halal product being transported or, no such
cross-contamination can be transpired during the transportation.
a. Problem Statement
The base problem that made this study is being carried out was the fact that
Malaysia has the intention to become a renowned International Halal Hub and
there are still not much study been done on the sustaining the integrity of halal
goods during transportation. Up until now, we know that there are risk of halal
goods turn into non-halal during the transportation process. Therefore it is
extremely important that halal products are segregated from non-halal products.
This pre-measure activity was needed to avoid any cross contamination and
mistakes and to make sure that operations are consistent with the expectations
of the consumers and other stakeholders. Cross contamination is a general term
to describe the state of being contaminated in terms Syariah perspective, either
by contaminant or precursor, which affects the halal status. Contaminant can be
described as any non-halal or detrimental (mudhorat ) substances that are
intentionally or unintentionally added which render the halal product as non-
halal. Therefore, halal has in particular implications for storage, transportation
and handling of halal products.
Until now, there are only several studies have been conducted on halal product
supply chain. One of the prominent study done by Riaz and Chaudry (2004),
gave emphasis on the designing and developing halal control points at selected
stages of the supply chain (e.g. producing, breeding, livestock farming,
slaughtering, meat processing and retailing). Nevertheless, the study lack in the
area of halal product transportation/ movement that is crucial in transporting
these products from one control point to another. It is very surprising that
insufficient study was bring about in this area since transportation play a very
important role in the movement of the goods that will be consumed by Muslim
consumer. Why is that so? Is it because transportation had been overlooked or
there is no need for halal assurance to be applied at transportation point?
Therefore, a study is needed to explore and investigate the need of halal
compliant transportation for delivering halal goods. This study can act as a
foundation in designing and developing a general guidelines or standards that
provides assurance for products, goods and! or cargo delivered from one
custodian to another is in accordance with Syariah Law requirements, thus
preserving the Syariah Law integrity of the products, goods and! or cargo.
2. METHODOLOGY
Since this study is to know whether there is a need of halal control for motor
carriers, the research will be exploratory in nature while employing the qualitative
method. Qualitative method is chosen as detail explanation and clarification is
needed from the different group of respondents, which can only be obtained by
interview. Qualitative research is a means for exploring and understanding the
meaning individuals or group ascribe to a social human problem. The process of the
research involves emerging questions and procedures, data typically collected in
the participant’s setting, data analysis inductively building from particulars to
general themes, and the researcher making interpretations of the meaning of the
data (Creswell, 2009). Two groups of respondent will be interviewed are the
Malaysian Islamic Authority(s) and Muslim consumer organization(s). Among the
problems or issues that need to be explored are to identify variables, guidelines, etc
which can be measured. A complex detailed understanding of the issue can only be
established by talking directly with key stakeholders. Understanding the context or
setting which participant in the study could address the problem or issue.
In this study, several cases have been identified and purposefully selected to show
different perspectives and would best help in addressing the issue. This study is
exploratory in nature since the researcher tries to understand the key issues
affecting the needs of halal transportation in Malaysia. In order to understand the
issues, information from different groups of stakeholders that involve and affected
by the halal transportation operations were gathered. Therefore, this study also
employed the multiple case studies approach, due to the fact that it will explore the
concerns and intentions of halal transportation from different groups (i.e., Muslim
Consumer Associations and Halal Integrity Authorities). The feedbacks from the
different groups were used to explore the different intentions in halal transportation
stated in research objectives.
Several procedures are available for conducting case studies (see (Merriam,
1988; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2003). Figure 1 shows the procedure for conducting
a case study research.
E. Figure 1 Case Study Procedures
Determine if a case study approach is
The first stepappropriate
requires the researcher
to the to determine if the case study
research problem
approach is appropriate to the research problem. Next, the researcher
needs to identify their case or cases. These cases may involve individuals, a
program, an event, or Identify case
an activity. or cases
The case can also be single or collective,
Data collection
Dataanalysis
Reporting
D.
multi-sited or within-site, focused on a case or an issue (intrinsic,
instrumental) (Stake, 1995; Yin, 2003). In this research, the cases will be
represented by different groups from various sites that involved and affected
by the halal transportation operations. In choosing the cases to study, the
researcher prefers to select cases that will show different perspectives on
the halal transportation problems, and processes. According to Creswell
(2005), this type of sampling is known as “purposeful maximal sampling”.
The fourth step will be the data analysis. Two types of case study analysis:
the holistic analysis of the entire case or an embedded analysis of a specific
aspect of the case (Yin, 2003). Through this data analysis, a detailed
description of the case (Stake, 1995) emerges in which the researcher
details such aspects as the history of the case, the chronology of events, or
a day-to-day rendering of the activities of the activities of the case. From this
description, the researcher might focus on a few key issues (or analysis of
themes), not for generalizing beyond the case, but for understanding the
complexity of the case (i.e., Do we need halal certification to transport halal
goods?). One analytic strategy would be to identify issues within each case
and then look for common themes that transcend the cases (Yin, 2003).
This analysis is rich in the context of the case or setting in which the case
presents itself (Merriam, 1988). When multiple cases are chosen, a typical
format is to first provide a detailed description of each case and themes
within the case, called a within-case analysis , followed by a thematic
analysis across the cases, called a cross-case analysis, as well as
assertions or an interpretation of the meaning of the case.
The final step (interpretive phase) will require the researcher to reports the
meaning of the case, whether that meaning comes from learning about the
issue of the case (an instrumental case) or learning about an unusual
situation (an intrinsic case). As Lincoln and Guba (1985) mention, this phase
constitutes the “lessons learned” from the case.
1. There are clear needs of halal control in delivering and transporting halal
goods using commercial vehicles, although almost all the respondent
agree there is no such thing as “Halal Transportation”. This is due to the
possible misinterpretation of the word “Halal Transportation” which may
imposed the concept of vehicles which need to carry the halal logo as
such commercial product in the market carry the halal logo and
certification.
The result of this study shows the crucial needs of halal control in handling halal
products. Consequently, improvement on the framework of Halal Meat Supply
Chain and Identification of Halal Control Points (HCP) done by Riaz and Chaudy
(2004) is necessary. This improvement will reduce if not eliminate the risk of
cross-contamination during transportation activities which will include
transporting, usage of used truck and cool containers, loading and unloading
etc). The recommendation is to add halal control point HCP10 - Product
Handling at each connecting stages of halal supply chain as show in Figure 2.
A. Figure 2 Recommendation for Improvement Halal Meat Supply Chain and Identification
of Halal Control Points (HCP) Framework
3. CONCLUSION
Halal market segment is tremendous. The vast business and commercial potential
of the halal sector is beyond doubt. Consequently, the integrity of halal products
becomes more important than ever. Transportation as one of main component of
halal supply chain plays a key role in facilitating the manufacturing, logistics and
trade of halal products throughout the world. It is vital to investigate whether the
integrity of halal goods can be maintained during it is being transported. There are
studies on halal control and where the control should be applied in the halal supply
chain. However, these studies does not emphasize on the halal control at when the
good is transported. Hence, a study to explore the need of halal transportation is
fundamental. The outcomes of this study will enlighten the Muslim consumer
whether the integrity of halal product can or cannot be maintained during
transportation.
This research has successfully achieved its objectives by providing answers to two
important questions: 1) The need of halal transportation and 2) The existence of
standard and guidelines to halal transportation. Although, some limitations exist, it
doesn’t affect the overall outcomes of this research. Finally, several suggestions
have been proposed for further exploration and research expansion in this huge
potential area of study especially for the Islamic communities all over the world.
4. REFERENCES
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. 1985. Naturalistic inquiry . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Riaz, M. N., & Chaudry, M. M. 2004. Halal Food Production Boca Raton, Louisiana:
CRC Press.
Stake, R. E. 1995. The art of case study research . Thousand Oaks: SAGE
Publications, Inc.
Sungkar, I., Othman, P., & Hussin, W. S. W. 2008. Potentials Of Global Halal Food
Market: Implications for Vietnamese SMEs . Paper presented at the The 33rd
Annual Conference of the Federation of ASEAN's Economic Associations,
Hanoi, Vietnam
Yin, R. K. 1994. Case study research: Design and methods. Thousand Oak, CA:
Sage.
Yin, R. K. 2003. Case Study Research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
083 THE POSSIBILITY OF IMPLEMENTING ROAD PRICING POLICY IN
GEORGETOWN, PENANG, MALAYSIA
ABSTRACT
Traffic congestion in many cities is serious and getting worse. This phenomena has worsen the
environment and degrades the quality of life. Focusing on the supply side of infrastructures
would not be possible to cope with tremendous increase in travel demand. Thus the demand
side should be restricted to balance the supply. Road Pricing Policy (RPP) has been suggested
by transport economists as an appropriate policy tool for reducing transport problems. By
definition road pricing is a transport policy for charging motorists a fee for using their vehicles
within specific areas or on specific roads. Besides the potential to cope with the growth of travel
demand, it can generate revenue for transport projects. Therefore, this research by taking
Georgetown, Penang, Malaysia as a case study is to examine the possibility of adopting and
implementing road pricing policy under certain specific condition such as people understanding
of the seriousness of the condition and government positive attitude towards this policy. The
objective statements which have been formulated are: to identify the seriousness of traffic
congestion in Georgetown, to identify current perception on traffic congestion and public
transport in Georgetown, to identify whether people are ready for road pricing, to evaluate the
acceptability of people in Georgetown concerning road pricing and to examine how crisis
management can be seen from the angle of road pricing. Various governments have been
interested in introducing road pricing including developed and developing countries. Perhaps
Georgetown, Penang, Malaysia can get lessons from their experiences in order to ensure road
pricing can be implemented successfully.
1. INTRODUCTION
Transport is the essential mechanism through which people are linked together.
Modern economies require a transport system capable of moving both goods and
labour efficiently. The efficiency of transport has greatly contributed to the level of
productivity, growth and the standard of living.
Society now is highly mobile and depends very much on the car and technology.
Beside greatly increased personal mobility, the car has also created problem of
urban traffic congestion. This is the price that has to be paid to ensure economic
growth and higher standards of living. A classic “tragedy of the commons” that
apparently frees good which are over-consumed, but then leading to harm to all
(Hardin, 1968).
Road pricing has been demonstrated to be an effective approach in reducing
traffic congestion. Successful scenarios of road pricing can be seen in Singapore,
London, Stockholm, Edinburgh and Paris. However, policy makers in some other
countries are still considering this scheme as a tool to alleviate traffic congestion.
This paper looks at the city of Georgetown, Penang, Malaysia, where road
pricing policy has been suggested by experts to overcome the problem of traffic
congestion (New Straits Times, 2008).
2. BACKGROUND
Traffic congestion can be defined as an average time lost per vehicle
kilometers.It is measured by taking difference in travel times along road between ‘ free
flow conditions’ and the actual average travel times across the day. It is characterized
by decrease in speed, increase in travel time and increase of vehicle’s queue on the
road. Traffic congestion happens when the road demand exceeds the road capacity
(OECD, 2007)
Generally, traffic congestion is a common phenomenon happen in many cities
throughout the world. There are four pertinent causes of urban traffic congestion as
stated below;
i. Rising car ownership
Rising incomes are the major driving force for car ownership. Beside that
private cars and use have not been restrained or controlled. This has
resulted in high increase of car ownership than the provision of road supply.
At the end, the present carrying capacity of road networks can not cope with
a further increase in demand. Over 65% of households have at least 1 car
and that level continues to increase drastically.
I n Malaysia, about 90% of m ot or v ehic les ar e pr iv at ely - owned.
Approximately 15 million vehicles (motorcars, taxis, buses and freight
vehicles) commute over Malaysian roads. As a developing country, the
relatively cheaper motorcycle takes the largest share at 7 million (47%),
followed closely by passengers cars at 6.5 million (43 %) (Department of
Statistics Malaysia, 2006).
ii. Urbanization
Rapid urbanization is due to rapid economic growth and economic
development. The movement of people from rural areas into the city seeking
jobs and better quality of life has further aggravated the traffic
congestion problem. Urbanization in Malaysia has grown significantly as for
the year of 1950 (20%), 2005 (66%) and projected in 2030 (78%). This
scenario indicates that Malaysia has experienced rapid urbanization and its
economy has undergone major changes.
iii.Inefficient Public Transport
As a result of increasing car ownership, demand for public transport has
fallen. Among the reasons are unreliable services, slow, badly integrated
and no attractive alternative to cars. Only 16% of the Malaysian population
uses public transport compared to Singapore 56%, and Seoul 60%. Many
cities such as Hong Kong, China, Singapore and Tokyo are public-transport
oriented. This Model share of public transport is 70% or more of total
`person trips (Compared to Malaysia which is only 10%). The model share of
public transport sector in Malaysia has dropped from 19.7% in 1985 to 16%
in 2003.
i v. Dr i ver’ s at ti t ude
Some drivers beat congestion by queue jumping, overtaking recklessly and
switching lane to fill-up any available gap. This scenario has resulted with a
higher rate of injury and death from traffic accidents. The number of
motorists died due to road accident has increased from 6745 in the year
2009 as compared to 6527 in the year 2008 (My METRO, 2010).
In general new roads, highways, bridges, and interchanges can be built. But,
building more roads and fly-over has led cities to experience even more traffic
congestion. In addition, it is very costly and not sustainable for the development. So the
city needs a new approach towards urban traffic management. Tackling traffic
congestion goes beyond the construction of roads and traditional traffic management. It
involves a multi-disciplinary approach and integrated effort whereby the transportation
systems worldwide are undergoing a shift from supply side techniques to demand
management which means less new roads and more restraint on car users.
The intention of Transportation Demand Management (TDM) is to balance
demand and supply. The main objective of TDM Policy is to alleviate traffic congestion,
thus improving traffic efficiency. Other objectives include limiting adverse environmental
impacts, reducing traffic accidents and risks, providing services for the urban poor as
well as facilitating economic activities of the cities. TDM can provide multiple benefits,
including congestion reduction, road and parking facility cost savings, consumer
savings, improved consumer choice, road safety, environmental quality, community
livability, efficient land use, and equity. Example of TDM approaches include: park &
ride, one way streets, bus lane/priority lane, car parking charging, road pricing and
others.
There are many approaches to road pricing such as: cordon charging scheme,
cordon of charging points, charge per crossing, area licenses, corridor or spot tolls
approach. A good road pricing policy should be acceptable to all the stakeholders,
businessmen, politicians and public in general. They should be understandable in terms
of know how to use, how to react, be cost effective and fair regarding areas and users.
Road pricing should also be feasible in terms of uses and low in risk. Basically,
exemption from charges are given to certain groups such as disabled badge holders,
emergency services vehicles, public buses and government office cars.
Road pricing is not ’smooth sailing’ as there are many objections from the public
for various reasons. Among the reasons are: difficult for the drivers to accept the idea
of being charged for something they wish to avoid, congestion is not their fault but
rather something that is being imposed on them by others, road pricing is not needed ,
either because congestion is not bad enough or because other measures are superior,
road pricing will not get people out of their cars, the technology will not work, privacy
concern, diversion of traffic outside the charging area and road pricing is just another
form of taxation .
4. CASE STUDY; GEORGETOWN, PENANG, MALAYSIA
a. Probl em statement;
b. Obj e ct i v e St a te me nt ;
The main accessibility to Georgetown, Penang is from the mainland via the
Penang bridge (13.5 km) and ferry service of Penang Port (mainland to Weld Quay).
Intra-island traffic consists of about 67% of the total traffic movements as against 33%
for the traffic at the crossings (ratio 2:1). The area propose for the outer and inner
cordon of road pricing is 259.42 hectares in size. The area is listed by UNESCO as a
World Heritage site under the category of urban conservation.
Diagram 1: Map showing the location of Penang, Malaysia in Asia Pacific
Penang with a population of more than 1.4 million, is the major conurbation in
the northern region of Peninsular Malaysia (Penang State Structure Plan, 2009).
Penang Island’s road network is about 870 km in length and road density is 3.0 km of
roads per sq km of land area. The road density of Penang Island is higher than the
state of Penang and, as an essentially urban area, it is 10 times the national average.
The total volume of traffic between Penang Island and the mainland has grown steadily.
The one way traffic volume in 2006 totaled 26.0 million vehicles compared with 21.1
million vehicles in year 2000 (an increase of 23.2 % over the 2000-2006 period); 70%
of traffic from the bridge is heading north (including to Georgetown) while 30% is going
southbound.
The total vehicular traffic entering Georgetown was 12,484 pcu per hour via the
road system. With a supply of 11 lanes for inbound traffic into the city, the
congestion appears to be more severe and journeys on these roads are more difficult
than expected. So the core problem is not so much the issue of inadequate supply but
the issue of traffic management and road network optimization (G. Naidu, 2008).
With a population of 0.7 million people and a per capita income averaging RM
34,000 per year, Penang Island is a large and prosperous urban conurbation. The
residents are entitled for a comprehensive public transport system. However, in reality
the public transport system only provides services for 10% of the marginalized group. A
survey by consultants found the bus industry in Penang Island to be unsatisfactory
by many service parameters. The number of private cars in the State of Penang uses
up 20 times the space needed for a mass public transport system.
59% of respondents strongly agree, 35.8% of respondents agree and only 0.5%
of respondents disagree that public transport urgently needs to be improved. It
shows that public transport in Georgetown is an unreliable service, slow and
badly integrated. Attractive alternatives to public transport such as the
provision of mass rapid transit (MRT) may increase the demand for public
transport. The majority of respondents are also willing to shift to the more
efficient public transport.
From the survey, 17.5% of the respondents strongly agree and 44.0% of
respondents agree with the idea to construct more roads. 43.5% of respondents
are willing to be charged, 23.8% are neutral and 32.6% disagree to be charged
to enter Georgetown. However, the charging needs to be clear and transparent
to the public so that they can be convinced that society as a whole will be
better- off.
Table 1.0: Other elements of traffic management to reduce urban traffic congestion
http://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/news/Motorists-driving-in-heavy-traffic.6539440.jp
085 A PRODUCTIVITY ANALYSIS OF MEDIUM SEAPORT CONTAINER
TERMINAL
Productivity is a summary measure of a quantity and quality work of performance with resource
utilization considered. This study is motivated by the rapid development in container terminal
ports to provide efficient and effective services and high port productivity. This research is a
study of Kuantan Port Consortium of quay crane operator productivity during the operation of
loading and discharging of containers. This study measure a data from Kuantan Port Consortium
on the quay crane operator and vessel productivity from with actual data vessel operation are
collected. The overall results showed that the most of quay crane container operators and
vessel productivity achieved company key performance index (KPI). This study implies the
possibility of Kuantan Port Consortium to enhance their KPI in utilizing quay crane operators’
competence in future.
I. Introduction
Malcom McLean, father of containerization innovate the term “box” or
“Container” in 1955 to move cargo from one place to another without being
handle cargo inside. Since then, the development of container never been
stopped even during economic crisis. This development has changed land use
pattern especially around seaport vicinity tremendously. This has created new
economic and social status from the development of land use. Shipment of
container via vessel has been changed drastically from semi container vessel to
ultra large container vessel (UCLV). In addition, the developments of container
terminal and equipments have moved far beyond with latest technology advent.
High productivity is measurement of a good container terminal and able to
attract shipping line to berth. The objective of this paper is to analyze quay
crane staff productivity of Kuantan Port Consortium. Quay crane operator is
been chosen as main determinant to conduct as study as it is one of the critical
components for container terminal equipments. Productivity of quay crane is
totally depends on the quay crane operator, where moves per hour per quay
crane range from 22 to 30 (Steeken et al , 2004).
The paper breaks into theoretical perspective on the container terminal
productivity and turnaround time. Follow with Kuantan Port Consortium practice
of measuring quay crane operator productivity. Research approach considered
with availability of data. The last sections are discussion of the result and
conclusion.
Figure 1 depicts the comparison amongst port container terminal for 1997.
However, the comparison only be made within liner shipping trades because
port performance significantly affected by vessel size, type, container
composition, stowage, quay crane and operator. X represents Australian
terminals and O represents overseas terminals.
Figure 1 : Net Crane Rate by Port and Liner Shipping Trade, 1997
Source: Australia Productivity Commission (1998)
Figure 1 also depicts the average net crane rate for South East Asia and US
East Coast at 20 to 30 moves per hour. Actually this figure has been studied
later by Steeken et al. (2004), he mentions that operation performances range
from 22 to 30 moves per hour. At the moment, the productivity also at the same
level as before, however only certain ports are able to perform better than that
like Port of Singapore, Hong Kong, Westport, Port of Tanjung Pelepas on so on.
Eventually, it is happened for certain vessels because of certain reasons that
have been mentioned earlier.
De Monie (1987) expresses the determinants that port productivity has been
greatly impeded by (1) sheer number of parameters involved (2) lack of up-to -
date, factual and reliable data, collected in an accepted manner and available
for dissemination (3) absence of generally agreed and acceptable definitions (4)
profound influence of local factors on the data obtained (5) divergent
interpretation given by various interests to identical results.
Since the introduction of containerized vessel, public keeps on arguing turnaround time
for vessel towards container terminal. Movement of good via vessel needs to be arrived
destination as soon as possible. That is why faster turnaround time in terminal could
accelerate the voyage. Therefore, turnaround time is really a serious matter to be
considered for container terminal. Shippers are looking for a port which could provide
fast turnaround time, when they could reduce voyage as maximum as possible. For port
container terminal, it is very vital to have fast turnaround time for vessel. The cycle for
operation in terminal is not only involved between vessel and equipment, but it also
involves all aspects (from management to operation) in port container terminal itself.
Therefore, anything happens in terminal area will affect operation as a whole. However,
the ways to mitigate the problem truly depend on the management, because human
runs machine. The significance of vessel turnaround time to port container terminals
can be expressed like what Oram and Baker (1971) said “No single cause more directly
affects the cost of living of a maritime country than the speed with which ships are
turned round in her ports”. Furthermore, lesser vessel turnaround time means no
congestion and reduces port stay for vessel. As a result, there is no queuing before
vessel can berth. When talking about no queuing and congestion means throughput for
port container terminal relatively will increase. This is because no shut out and
cancellation of containers.
The measurements of turnaround time as given by the authors are similar when taken
into consideration the process involves at the container terminal wharf. However, Oram
and Baker (1971) do not highlight about time spent when vessel anchor (if happens) or
waiting for tug and pilot and only confines from vessel berth until departure. Apparently
the way Oram and Baker (1971) definition shows better vessel turnaround time,
because the time spent for vessel at berth lesser than the definition done by Amoyaw
(1999) and Imikata (1978). Consequently, when taken into consideration the whole
process of vessel turnaround time, Amoyaw (1999) and Imikata (1978) are considering
all aspect vessel turnaround time process which is from maneuvering to departure.
Whereas, UNCTAD (1976) defines the vessel turnaround time towards port operational
performance. The definition involves total time spent (all vessels) from vessel berth until
departure and divided by number of vessels. This approach is to know directly the
terminal performance when taken into account turnaround time for vessel.
This definition is not considered per vessel measurement however for overall. Amoyaw
(1999) and Imakata (1978) bring out the measuring concept in port container terminal.
In Malaysia, container terminal also implies three concepts but on practitioner
approach. The approaches will determine the productivity measured differently. These
approaches are segregated between container terminal operator and shipping line.
Generally, shipping line prefers to use pilot to pilot as their measurement. This will show
to the shipping line total time vessel spends at particular container terminal.
Furthermore, terminal charges start count when pilot on board for navigation vessel to
berth. It is essential to follow the way of these container terminals in measuring vessel
turnaround time. First-lift and last-lift is applicable for container terminal in Malaysia
when measuring vessel turnaround time and productivity. It is different with shipping
line, they prefer to use rope-on and rope-off as their measurement for vessel
turnaround time and productivity. There are three approaches of measuring vessel
turnaround time and productivity (i) Pilot to Pilot, apply to Shipping Line (ii) Rope-On
and Rope-Off, apply to terminal operator and (iii) First-Lift and Last-Lift, apply to
terminal operator.
The vessel turnaround time has been discussed verily from the way of previous
scholars approach. However, there is one common stand where the measurement is to
reduce vessel turnaround. This paper is synchronizing approach as Murthy et.al (2004)
use practitioner as one of the technique to analyze the quay crane productivity. This
paper is applying first-lift and last-lift technique to analyze the data from terminal. Figure
2 shows the diagram of first-lift and last-lift process for a container vessel. During this
time, most of the container terminal resources are running for the operation.
Terminal Wharf
Figure 2 : First-Lift and Last-Lift Diagram
(Source: Kasypi, 2006)
Operation
First-Lift Last-Lift
Discharging Loading
Other Services
A container terminal is a complex area and its work under multiple operational
objectives to complete the process. Murthy et al (2004) highlight the most critical
performance measure for rating the terminals is the ship turnaround time or the
port time of the ship. It means the average time the terminal takes to unload and
load a docked vessel. Its follow by the average QC rate, which is the quay
cranes’ throughput measure during a period, given by
No of Containers unloaded
, loaded
Quay Crane Total no of Quay Crane Hours of all Quay Cranes That Worked
=
Modernization of port container terminal must be parallel with the ways terminal
operates their port. There is no point to have state-of-the-art facilities, without
having world class productivity. Port users are looking at port container terminal
which is able to offer good quality of services. Since the competition among port
container terminals are really stiff, port users will have options to select which
port can provide better services. Normally, ports users will show concern to
things such as regarding to port charge, however other criteria also have to be
considered. For instance in South East Asia, the highest port charge goes to
Singapore (Gordan et al ., 2005), but Singapore still in top three based on
throughput and level of efficiency.
Since cost really important to port users, higher vessel turnaround at port must
be avoided. The length of time spent by vessels in port represents a loss of
earning capacity in terms of economic point of view (Takel, 1974). So that, port
efficiency must be higher in order to increase productivity and attract more
users.
Kuantan Port Consortium (KPC) is a private own terminal under IJM Corporation
Berhad (a public listed company). Ideally, KPC is located in the state of Pahang
on the eastern seaboard of Peninsular Malaysia. KPC is a multipurpose port and
currently providing a variety berthing facilities totaling 3,413 meters in length to
cater to the various cargo compositions handled by the port. These facilities
comprise multipurpose, liquid chemical, palm oil, mineral oil, and container
terminal berths. Specifically, KPC consists of 8 liquid bulks, 8 multipurpose and
3 container berths. A length of each container berth is 200 meters with 11.2
meter draught and able to cater post panama cellular vessels. The management
has set Key Performer Index (KPI) for quay crane is 20 moves per hour. Meyrick
and associates and Tasman Asia Pacific (1998) study shows that average net
crane rate for South East Asia and US East Coast range from 20 to 30 moves
per hour. In addition, Steeken et al (2004) conduct another study and conclude
that operational performances range from 22 to 30 moves per hour. KPI set by
the management is taking into consideration studies that have been conducted
previously. Moreover, take into consideration equipments available for
containers section it is reasonable to set 20 moves per hour as company KPI for
quay crane.
Figure 3 : Kuantan Port Container Terminal
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Year
2009. It shows that the importance
25 of container section for the organization as
22 22
22 20
demand gradually increased.
20
KPC is a medium size seaport and container terminal is part of its operation.
During this study, KPC has 4 quay cranes at container terminal section and
handle by 21 operators in January and February 2010. However in March and
14
April 2010, KPC has hired 4 more quay crane operators to 25. In May, another 1
quay crane operator has 15
been hired to handle for container section.
Figure 5 : Monthly Average Move per Crane-Hour
19 22 192 2 2 1 19
20
Figure 5 depicts monthly average move per crane-hour from January
1717 16 to May
14 14
2010. It’s also shows that 12 12 12
10 January and February 2010 are stable in terms of
move per crane-hour compared to other months. Even though those months
only have 21 quay crane operators, relatively they are able to handle containers
relatively faster and consistent than other months. Technically, by adding quay
1 2 3 4 5
crane operators, the results
5 show that move per crane-hour are not consistent
Months
from March to May. Due to inexperience operator quay cranes, it shows that
Cr 1 Cr 2 Cr 3 Cr 4
those months management unable to stabilize its average productivity at
container section.
0
VI. Research Approach
The research design based on Murthy et al (2004) study on the average quay
crane rate, which is the quay cranes’ throughput measure during a period. The
design is based on the practitioner approach at Hong Kong terminal container.
Ideally, Malaysia container terminal operators are also apply similar approach
for container terminal. It is a simple approach of measuring quay crane
operation for container. It is practical for container terminal in handling moves
per hour per crane. The equation as follow;
No of Containers unloaded,loaded
Quay Crane Total no of Quay Crane Hours of all Quay Cranes That Worked
=
This throughput measurement can measure quay crane productivity for a container
terminal port. Sumanth (1984) states basic measurement for productivity as follows;
output
productivity =_______________________________
input
Total Moves
Derived from Murthy et al (2004), quay crane productivity can be stated as follow;
Quay crane productivity =
This study applies the first lift and last lifts method for vessel operation. This
means vessel productivity is counted from which first container discharge from
vessel and last container load onto vessel. Quay crane productivity for operator
is counted from which quay crane operator perform their task for loading and
discharging container hourly basis. This approach is widely used for container
terminal operator in Malaysia (kasypi, 2006).
Table 1.2 : Weekly Container Vessel Performance
Type of
Vessel Name ! Voyage! Date GRT Discharge Loading
cargo
20' 40' TEUS 20' 40' TEUS
Sunday (12-Sep-10) 17,068
Vessel A FCL 38 6 50 75 2 79
SQQ8090083 LCL - - - - - -
Agent A CB02 MT 4 - 4 2 22 46
Berth : 12/9/10 @ 2215 T'shp - - - - - -
Start : 13/9/10 @ 0030 1
Total 42 6 54 77 24 125
End : 13/9/10 @ 1320
Sail : 13/9/10 @ 1400
Wednesday (1 5-Sep-1 0) 14,807
Vessel B FCL 1 - 1 93 1 95
SQQ6090081 LCL - - - - - -
Agent B CB02 MT - - - - - -
Berth : 15/9/10 @ 0200 T'shp - - - - - -
Start : 15/9/10 @ 0230 1
Total 1 - 1 93 1 95
End : 15/9/10 @ 0900
Sail : 15/9/10 @ 1000
Tuesday (14-Sep-1 0) 7,343
Vessel C FCL 50 60 170 206 18 242
SQT1090103 LCL - - - - - -
Agent C CB02 MT 174 56 286 - - -
Table 1.2 shows the container vessel performance from the productivity of
particular vessel operation. Terminal operator usually used first lift and last lift of
container for discharge and loading when they measure their vessel productivity.
The table also depicts time for vessel operation, berth, and end. Besides that, it
shows types of container either empty, laden and transshipment. Terminals are
able to tabulate terminal and vessel productivity from the table as its summary of
vessel operation from start to end. Since KPC is multiport, the average of vessel
carrying capacity to berth at the container section is not as many as other
container terminals such as Northport, Westport and Port of Tanjung Pelepas.
Figure 5 and 6 depict total quay crane operator are 21 that work for both
months. Average moves per crane-hour respectively are 21 for January and 20
for February 2010. It depicts that not all quay crane operators are able to
achieve company’s KPI. On average, January quay crane operator productivity
is achieved company’s KPI, whereby for February KPI is not achieved, like staff
no 17 is only able to do 12 moves per crane-hour. It means not all quay crane
operators are able to achieve 21 moves per crane-hour. There is operator able
to do 27 moves per crane-hour like operator no 15. The rest are able to move
container between 14 to 25 moves per crane-hour. In January, quay crane
operator for number 11 does not move any container because of acceptable
reason that company allow him. This has reduced average moves per crane-
hour as he still includes as company staff.
30
25
20
15
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Nos of Quay Crane Operators
Figure 7 depicts that container section has increase their quay crane operator
from 21 to 25 operators. The reason is to cater demand from client from annual
container throughput growth significantly increase. It is also a strategy to ensure
availability of quay crane operators to handle container if any circumstances
happened. Normal practice for quay crane operator is operating crane for four
hours then rest. The reason is quay crane is very sensitive to damage if quay
crane operators make mistake while loading or discharging container. Besides,
management can do training schedule for their operators. In March, quay crane
operators are able to do moves per crane-hour between 11 and 23 with the
average 20.
Figure 7 : Quay Crane Operator Productivity for March 2010
25
Figure 8 depicts quay crane operator productivity for May 2010. Management
20
agreed to hire another operator and went for training, therefore, he still unable to
perform any moves 15for that month. In general, for May an average move per
crane-hour has dropped
10 to 19. This figure far below as terminal KPI is 21 moves
20
15
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314151617181920212223242526
Nos of Quay Crane Operators
Figure 8 : Quay Crane Operator Productivity for May 2010
VI. Conclusion
The research for container section berth is using actual terminal data on the
vessels and quay crane operators’ productivity. Therefore, it is important to
develop new aggregate of analysis in ensuring utilization and optimizations of
resources of container section are able to be suggested to management in
running daily basic operation. It can be alternative approach for the
management to apply new approach with existing resources if it is proved can
increase container section as a whole. It is a good initiative to study relatively
small scale of container terminal in proving that productivity can be achieved in
whatever types of industries small, medium or large.
Acknowledgement
REFERENCES
1. INTRODUCTION
Highway landscape design refers to the highway alignment and its constructs should
have beautiful shape, in full coordination with the surrounding environment and thus
constitute a beautiful natural picture. However, any construction of a road from the
selection lines, survey and design, earth and stone extraction to the construction of the
entire process, it is inevitable right along the natural and cultural landscape have a
certain influence, but with minimal impact to achieve maximum protection, so that a
variety of landscapes and highway projects to achieve a limited co-ordination structures
is entirely possible (Zhiyong, 2003). In the meantime, the entire process of building the
highway, the establishment of a new landscape as road traffic a regular task should be
considered. Historically, Federal Highway Administration (FHWA, 1976) stated that
most industrial countries attach great importance to highway landscaping, greening and
landscape design, such as 1965, the U.S. developed the 'Highway Beautification
requirements' ; in 1976, the Japanese developed a 'road greening technology base' ; in
1975, the former Soviet Union developed a' road construction and landscape design
specifications' and so on. Most of the world, in highway engineering standards, design
and construction standards, there are on the highway landscape design technical
requirements. According to G. Alyward and M. Turnbull (1991), landscape impacts
refers to changes in the fabric, character, and quality of the landscape as a result of a
development, which are given direct impact upon specific landscape elements; subtler
effects upon the overall patterns of elements that give rise to landscape character and
regional and local distinctiveness; and impacts upon acknowledgement, special
interests or values such as designated landscapes, conservation sites and cultural
associations. Meanwhile visual impacts are more relate solely to changes in available
views of the landscape, and the effect of those changes on people. It is regards to the
direct impacts of the development upon views of the landscape through intrusion or
obstruction; the overall impact on visual amenity, be it degradation or enhancement;
and the reaction of viewers who may be affected (T.C.Daniel, 2001)
2. METHODOLOGY
The intrinsic character and quality of the receiving landscape: highest quality
landscape, very attractive landscape, good quality landscape, ordinary quality
landscape, and poor quality landscape.
A matrix of the findings of the impact assessment on these factors informed the
evaluation of the overall sensitivity of each receptors area (high sensitivity, medium
sensitivity, and low sensitivity ), and to analyze the significance criteria for visual impact
assessment in current year to 15 years ahead (substantial adverse or beneficial impact,
moderate adverse or beneficial impact, slight adverse or beneficial impact, and neutral).
Impacts can be beneficial as well as adverse. The assessment of the significance of the
effects of development on the landscape and visual resource are based upon the
prediction of the potential impact in relation to the baseline conditions. The assessment
of significance of landscape and visual impacts relies upon common sense, experience
and reasoned judgment, supported by substantiated evidence (Landscape
Institute/I E MA, 2002)
2.2 Potential Receptors of Visual Impact
Potential receptors of visual impact from the existing site have been identified and listed
at Table 2 include suburban residential and agriculture land in Kubang Semang area
which have created such a reasonable view to the BKE Highway or vice versa. It
followed by the flat topography to the site that views into the site from surrounding
areas are unlimited. The sensitivity of the selected receptors has been assessed using
the criteria set out in Table 2 .
Agriculture area and residential properties with direct views onto the
1. High natural landscape that would be affected by the highway or vice versa.
Sensitivity Public rights of way and viewpoints where attention is particularly
directed to the landscape.
Long distance views over 1.5 km where the highway could only be
seen as a minor part of the overall landscape – noise from the highway
absorbed by boundary vegetation.
Agriculture area and residential properties with less than direct views
2. Medium of the highway, perhaps partially screened by vegetation.
Sensitivity Public rights of way and viewpoint may be visible as a background
feature to highway
Less significant changes and less nuisance of noise from the highway.
People who pass by the area still could enjoyed the view of landscape
•
Less than 100m : <100
•
Between 100m and 200m : 100 – 200
•
Between 200m and 300m : 200 – 300
•
Between 300m and 400m : 300 – 400
•
Between 400m and 500m : 400 – 500
•
Greater than 500m : >500
Views at closer points to the site are assumed to be of greater impact than those from
greater distances. The design objective is to minimize any adverse visual impacts on
adjacent receptors.
• • •
the suburban
residents and
people whom
passing by the
area.
• •
generation as their
main source of
income.
• • •
Vegetation of this
nature is common
to local area.
•
The assessment combines the sensitivity of the receptors as set out in the baseline
study, with the magnitude of the change, to define a level of significance for the impact.
As set out in baseline study, sensitivity taken into accounts the use or status of
viewpoint/receptors. Magnitude considers the width of the area of view and the amount
of the landscape is affected by the highway development. The significant impacts are
as follows in Table 5:
Table 5 : Significance Criteria For Visual Impact Assessment
‘Substantial adverse or beneficial’ impact Whereas the highway would result in a
significant deterioration (or improvement) in
the existing view.
The visual impacts assessed are listed in the schedule at Table 6 . Visual impacts
indicate the receptors affected, areas of view to the highway also other features such
as trees and hedges which provide shades and screening.
number of road
users, noise
and air pollution
from their
vehicles.
view towards
landscape if
been less
monitor.
R34 300-400 Agriculture 1 Slight Substantial The boundary
area and adverse adverse vegetation and
suburban existing hedge
3.CONCLUSION
Visual Impact Assessment (VIA) has been invented and systematically use for the last
half of 20th century besides, it became well-recognized field in scientific research and
play such an important role in environmental management and policy. Therefore, the
finding guided to an implementation of a straightforward method in term of analyzing
the visual quality of a highway landscape. It is an appropriate methodology which also
can be applied for different kind of projects in order to rank yet explain the scenic
beauty of landscape. Furthermore, the findings of the analysis are hopefully useful for
future review by the authority/developer as a benchmark for next development in order
to enhance the visual quality of highway landscape design.
4.REFERENCES
Bishop, I.D. and Hull, R.B. (1991) Integrating technologies for visual resource
management. Journal of Environmental Management , 32, 295-3 12.
Commission of the European Communities (1985) Council directive on the effects of
certain public and private projects on the environment . Official Journal of the
European Communities, No. L175.
Daniel, T.C. (2001) Whither Scenic Beauty? Visual Landscape Quality Assessment in
the 21 st Century. Department of Psychology,School for Renewable Natural
Resources, University of Arizona, USA
Ervin, S.M. (1993) Landscape visualization with Emaps. IEEE Computer Graphics and
Applications , 13, 28-33.
Fels, J.E. (1992) Viewshed simulation and analysis: an interactive approach. GIS
World, July, 54-59.
Giedion, S., The Parkway. (In Space, Time and Architecture, The New Scale in City
Planning , 1949, pp. 614-623.) (The Harvard University Press, Cambridge.)
Hewes, Lawrence Ilsley, Highway Landscape . (In American Highway Practice, Vol, 1,
1942 pp.195-255. Right-of-Way Widths and the Landscape, p, 201; Highway
Alignment and the, Landscape, p. 206; The Highway Cross Section and the
Landscape, p. 211; Highway Structures and the Landscape, p. 220; Roadside
Planting, p. 233; Summary and Bibliography, p. 251.)
IEA and the Landscape Institute (1995) Guidelines for landscape and visual impact
assessment. Londdon: E and FN Spon.
Kennie, T.J.M. and McLaren, R.A. (1988) Modelling for digital terrain and landscape
visualisation. Photogrammetric Record, 12, 711 - 745.
Miller, D.R., Morrice, J.G., Horne, P.L. and Aspinall, R.J. (1994) The use of geographic
information systems for analysis of scenery in the Cairngorm Mountains, Scotland.
In Mountain Environments and Geographic Information Systems (eds. Price, M.F.
and Heywood, D.I.), Chap 7, p119 - 131, Taylor and Francis.
Neale, H. J., The Highway As A Parkway. (In Highways in our National Life , 1950, pp.
318-325.) (Princeton.)
Nichols, A. R., Highway Design: Its Relation To Landscape Objectives. (In Highway
Research Board, Washington, D.C. Proceedings, 17th Annual Meeting , 1937, pp,
269-278.)
Selman, P., Davidson, D., Watson, A. and Winterbottom, S. (1991) GIS in rural
environmental planning. Town Planning Review, 62, 215-223.
Sheppard, S.R.J. (1989) Visual simulation: a users guide for architects, engineers and
planners. New York: van Nostrand Reinhold.
Tandy, C. (1971) Landscape evaluation technique. Working Paper, Croydon, Land Use
Consultants.
Thorburn, A. (1978) EIA - the role of the planning authority. Built Environment , 4(2),
122-128.
Zewe, R. and Koglin, H.-J. (1995) A method for the visual assessment of overhead
lines. Computers and Graphics , 19, 97-1 08.
031 WHY MOTORCYCLIST NEGLECT HELMET?
A STUDY FROM PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES.
sabahiah@uthm.edu.my
ezree@uthm.edu . my
ABSTRACT: Helmet law is established to reduce the fatal head injury to motorcyclists when
motorcycle accident occurs. Despite its proven effectiveness, the rate of use of helmet is
actually still lower than what could be achieved by proper legislation and inexpensive
enforcement. This study is focused on the psychological factors related to motorcyclists’
disobedience behaviour towards the use of helmet. The data for this study were obtained by
0using self-reported survey involving the motorcyclists in Malaysia. For analysis purpose, the
respondents were divided into three age groups, which are 16 to 25 years old, 26 to 40 years old
and above 40 years old. The relationship between psychological factors and the neglect of using
helmet behaviour was analysed by using ordinal logistic regression. The findings showed that
the psychological factors such as attitude and perceived behaviour significantly affected the
motorcyclists’ neglect of using helmet behaviour for all respondents. However, for the
respondents in the age group of 16 to 25 years, their perceived danger also significantly affected
their behaviour. In contrast with the age group of 26 to 40 years, their perception of being caught
showed the significant influence, and for the respondents above 40 years old, experience was
found significant to affect the helmet compliance behaviour.
13. INTRODUCTION
The location factor, between rural and urban locations, was found to be more
significant to affect the behaviour of not using the helmet (Kulanthayan et. al., 2001).
Similar research was done in Vietnam found that the use of helmet depended on the
road hierarchy used by the motorcyclists (Hung et.al., 2006).The result showed that the
motorcyclists were likely to use the helmet when they used the national road rather than
other provincial roads.
In order to understand the factors that influence the motorcycle accident, age
and experience have been recognised as the risk factors. Chang and Yeh (2006) stated
that young motorcyclists with the age less than 20 years experience high risks of
motorcycle accident. This phenomenon is related to the lack of experience in driving the
motorcycle. Similar, Crundall et. al. (2007) reported that the major contribution leading
to the risky behaviours in male motorcyclists is their experience in riding motorcycles.
However, Rutter and Quine (1995) previously reported contradictory results. They
claimed that experience factor was not significant with age. Instead, young
motorcyclists tend to show risky behaviour because they are young and not because of
lack of experience and skills. In Malaysia, young male motorcyclists were reported as
more likely to neglect the use of helmet (Kulanthayan et. al., 2001)
Besides that, to understand the underlying factors that contribute to the risky
behaviour among motorcyclists, it is important to investigate from the psychological
perspective. According to Groeger and Rothengatter (1998), the application of
psychological understanding about road users is needed to deal with the complexity of
human behaviour. It is also supported by Chesam et. al. (1993) who mentioned that the
study on the behaviours of motorcyclists based on cognitive aspects could be an
effective contribution to the policy and practice.
The theory of Planned Behaviour by Azjen (1991) is an established
psychological theory that has influenced the studies on risky behaviours (Warner and
Aberg, 2006, Elliot et. al., 2003). This theory consists of three important elements,
which are attitude, perceived behavioural control and subjective norm that lead to the
intention of performing behaviour. Eagly and Chaikens (1993) defined the attitude as
the tendency to evaluate an entity with some degree of favour or disfavour, ordinarily
expressed in cognitive, affective and behavioural responses. Instead of being the
central concept in social psychology, actually the strength of the attitude-behavioural
relationship has been debated in several papers (Horwath, 1988; Kraus, 1995)
14. METHODOLOGY
In this study, a self-report survey was carried out in Parit Raja, Muar, Johor from
June to August 2009. The purpose of the survey was described in the front page of
the questionnaire form and the motorcyclists were asked for their willingness to
participate in the survey. Those who were willing to answer the questionnaire
received souvenirs as token of appreciation. After excluding the survey forms with
missing answers, only 559 survey forms were suitable for further analysis, yielding an
effective response rate of 93%. Overall, the respondents with the age from 16 to
25 years old formed the majority of the sample (62%).
The behaviour of not using helmet was chosen as the main risky behaviour
investigated in this study. The respondents were asked to report their frequency of not
using helmet in the past month according to the 4-point Likert scale (Table 1).
(
PYi ≤
logit ln ( ) 11 2 2 ...........
Yi ≤ = =
α
+
β
x+
β
x +
β
x
i im m
1 P Y i
− ≤
i k
= 1,...
P(Y) in this study is the probability that a motorcyclist involves in violating use of
helmet behaviour, which is the function of a vector of independent variables X. The
constant in the equation is αi, and β i is the coefficient of the mth independent variable.
In order to examine the psychological factors that contribute to the risky behaviours,
logistic regression by using forward stepwise method was applied with both neglecting
the use of helmet and speeding behaviour as the dependent variables. The analysis
was done by using SPSS Ordinal Regression procedure, or PLUM (Polytomous
Universal Model), which is an extension of the general linear model to ordinal
categorical data. For ordinal logistic regression result, a positive sign for the coefficient
relates to the higher score for the dependent variable, while a negative sign of
coefficient relates to the lower score.
15. RESULTS
Table 3. Proportion of scores for self-reported data on not using helmet behaviour
Age range Distribution of scores (%) Mean/SD
Never Once More than once More than 5
times
16 to 25 years 47.20 16.70 19.70 16.40 2.05/1.15
N=248
26 to 40 years 68.30 9.90 14.90 6.90 1.60/0.98
N=111
>40 years 83.30 7.30 6.30 3.10 1.29/0.72
N=1 00
Table 4. Logistic regression results for not using helmet (16 to 25 years)
Variable Unstandardised Standardised t Sig
coefficient coefficient
Attitude towards helmet -0.904 -0.504 -7.008*** 0.000
Perceived others not using
helmet 1.011 0.462 7.777*** 0.000
*** Perceived danger 0.404 0.037 2.71 1** 0.007
p<0.001 **p<0.01 *p<0.05 #p<0.
Table 5. Logistic regression results for not using helmet (26 to 40 years)
Variable Unstandardised Standardised t Sig
coefficient coefficient
Attitude -1.559 -0.870 -4.599*** 0.000
Perceived others not using
0.738 0.337 2.436* 0.015
helmet
*** Perception of being caught 0.543 0.258 1 .953 # 0.051
p<0.001 **p<0.01 *p<0.05 #p<0.
indicates that the more they perceived on the presence of policemen, the more likely
they will comply with the use of helmet.
Table 6. Logistic regression results for not uisng helmet (more than 40 years)
Variable Unstandardised Standardised t Sig
coefficient coefficient
Own accident experience -2.286 -0.910 -3.093 # 0.082
Attitude -1.610 -0.899 -2.489*** 0.000
Experience of being ticketed -1.833 -0.727 -3.309** 0.001
Perceived others not using
helmet 1.336 0.611 3.259** 0.001
***
p<0.001 **p<0.01 *p<0.05 #p<0.
However, for the motorcyclists aged more than 40 years, the result in Table 6
shows that their experience of being involved in accident was the strongest factor that
avoids them from violating the use of helmet. This is followed by their attitude, where
the respondents who do not enjoy using the helmet would be likely to neglect the use of
helmet. Besides that, the motorcyclists’ experience on being ticketed due to the
violation of traffic rules would be likely to cause them to comply with the use of helmet.
Similar to other age groups, the respondents who perceived that many other
motorcyclists involved in not using helmet behaviour, they were more likely to engage
with the neglect of using helmet behaviour.
16. CONCLUSION
The ignorance of helmet law has been considered as important safety issue
especially in the countries that have high number of motorcyclists (Swaddhuwudhipong
et. al., 1998; Kulanthayan et.al., 2001; Lin et.al., 2003; Hung et. al., 2008). This study
aimed to investigate the underlying psychological factors that influenced the
motorcyclists’ tendency to not using helmet by comparing the respondents in three
groups of age.
First of all, negative attitude towards helmet was found as the most important
psychological determinant that instigated the occurrence of neglecting the use of
helmet behaviour in this study. Attitude was found significant to affect the behaviour for
all age groups in this study. The effect of attitude towards risky behaviours were
confirmed by a lot of previous studies (Peslmarker and Janssens, 2007; Warner and
Aberg, 2008). Inevitably, changing the motorcyclists’ attitude towards the use of helmet
will take a long time, but to increase the use of helmet compliance especially in the rural
area, an in-depth study on motorcyclists’ attitude is needed.
In addition, the road safety strategy should also emphasise the attitude factor as an
important element that need to be addressed. In addition, perceived behaviour of others
also influenced the neglect of the use of helmet behaviour found in this study. This is
accordance with Festinger (1954), Yechiam (2008), Rosebloom (2009), Forward (2009)
and Fleiter et. al. (2010). The previous research supported the finding that people rely
on the behaviours displayed by others when the appropriate behaviour is unclear. In
this study, the motorcyclists tended to be affected with other motorcyclists’ behaviour
on neglecting the use of helmet. Based on this finding, future investigations are
recommended to consider the effect of implementing conformity strategy (Schultz et.
al., 2007). According to this strategy, to increase the awareness to use helmet,
motorcyclists should be persuaded that other motorcyclists tend to comply with the
helmet law.
Many studies found that young motorcyclists were likely to involve with risky
behaviours because they tended to take risk. This study supports those findings where
the respondents aged 16 to 25 years were found to have less perception towards
danger when they are not using helmet. This indicates that for any action to increase
the level of helmet use compliance for young motorcyclists, it is needed to understand
their level of risk taking behaviour and factors that contribute to the risk taking action
(Sjoberg, 1977).
In general, the present study gives some glimpse for road safety policy and
practice. It is suggested to consider the psychological aspect of the road users in order
to transform the risk taking behaviours to being compliant with the traffic rules. It is
hoped that this finding will lead to further research on the motorcyclists’ psychology in
Malaysia.
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THEME :
1. INTRODUCTION
Pretorsional suspension systems are multi-purpose rubber suspension elements.
These rubber suspension elements are designed for ultimate versatility; to push,
pull or tension. These torsional elements combine the function of a spring, damper
and bearing in one unit. The combination of four special pre-tensioned rubber
inserts, the core and the surrounding housing form an integral spring device (no
additional axial retension components are necessary). They can be used for angles
of oscillation of up to ±30o, the acceptance frequency can be increased by reducing
the angle of operation below ±30o. The dampening effect of the spring, caused by
molecular friction within the rubber inserts, lies in the ideal range of approximate
20% of the impact or input vibration [1].
(b)
443
Figure 1. Pretorsional suspension; (a) circular shape and (b) square shape.
Since these elements employ no metal contact, operation is completely silent
and maintenance-free. These highly wear resistant and clean machine components
offer optimum noise absorption and an efficient vibration reduction (hysteresis) in all
kinds of industrial installations and machines. This elements are unaffected by mud,
dirt, water, salt, sunlight and can withstand temperature from -40oC to +80oC. Due
to its unique rubber in compression design, neither shear nor bending stresses
occur in the elastomeric inserts and therefore the operating life of these elements is
far longer than comparable vulcanised rubber elements [1].
Works are being carried out in a partnership with a local company to build up an
effective pretorsional suspension system for Monorail application. Currently,
Monorail used existing pretorsional suspension system but it no longer a useful
product when its dynamic properties were reduced by time. In order to fix this
problem, Monorail requested MRB to deliver pretorsional suspension component
that has a better performance, quality, and low price compared to the existing
component.
2. METHODOLOGY
Generally, this project is divided into 4 categories;
a.Analytical of rubber formulation.
b.Design and fabrication (mould and metal sleeves).
c.Experimental work (static test and endurance test).
d.Performance test on actual train.
Figure 4. The metal sleeves; (a) outer sleeve for circular shape (b) inner sleeve for both
shape (c) outer sleeve for square shape.
a.Torsional Test
The test sample was rotated up to 30 ° rotation as shown in Figure 5 .
Figure 5. Torsional test.
30? rotation
b.Axial Test
The test sample was pushed down by actuator up to 30mm displacement as
shown in Figure 6 .
c.Creep Test
The test sample was rotated up to 20 ° rotation (double up the real degree
rotation) and hold for 24 hours duration as shown in Figure 7 .
20? rotation
The data and visual inspection of the sample was taken for every
40,000-cycle as shown in Figure 8 .
e. Torsional Test
Six compounds were tested; compound A, B, C, D, E, and F. All
compounds are different in terms of ingredients based on the analytical
results obtained. As shown in Figure 9 , all compounds were indicated
higher torque value compared to the original sample. The results were good
especially for compound C and compound F. These compounds gave the
best torque value to suit the specification requirements as the original
sample. However, the torque value of compound D was too high and
inadequate.
Figure 9. Torque-degree curve.
f. Axial Test
Once again, all compounds were indicated good results when axial force of
a ll c om po un ds w as hi gh er t h an or ig in al s a m p le a s s h ow n in
Figure 10 . Compound E and compound F were shown highest axial force
which is good for the sample’s strength.
Figure 10. Force-displacement curve.
g. Creep Test
The original sample was less elastic to support the collector shoe due to
pretorsional rubber on sample undergoes permanent deformation. The
compound used was not enough to sustain the endurance (fatigue)
performance. Therefore, it is important to make sure the sample have good
resistance to fatigue and creep in order to meet the standard of real
operations for pretorsional suspension.
Figure 11. Pretorsional suspension / current collector.
Move upward
& downward
Collector
Shoe
Pretorsional Rubber
As shown in Figure 12 , compound B, C and F were shown positive results
due to the smaller creep percentage of 9.8%, 9.3%, and 2.4% respectively,
as compared to the original compound which has creep percentage of
11.1%. Seems likely compound F has indicated outstanding creep
performance.
All static tests were performed completely and compound F was the best
compound tested. It is time to know the durability property of the selected
compound by performing the endurance test.
h. Endurance Test
Figure 13 shows the comparison of torque value between the original
sample and compound F. At 0-cycle, torque value of compound F was
higher than original sample. At 40,000-cycle, all sample drastically
decreased but torque value of compound F was still higher than original
sample and tends to be constant up to 520,000-cycle. Thus, this compound
has better torque value than original sample for every 40,000-cycle.
Figure 13. Torque-cycles curve.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The following major conclusions are drawn from the results presented here:
a. The new designed pretorsional sample has good torque value to suit the
specification requirements as the original sample.
b. The higher value of axial force and smaller value of creep percentage as
compared to the original sample indicate that the modified rubber inside the
pretorsional sample is able to give good quality sample.
0. The modified sample show positive outcome from the endurance test in house
and performance test on actual train.
5. REFERENCES
Blow, C. M. (1971). Rubber Technology And Manufacture . London: Butterworth & Co.
Davey, A. B. & Payne, A. R. (1964). Rubber In Engineering Practice . London: Applied
Science Publishers Ltd.
Rutting is one of the wide common deformations for flexible pavement roads.
the movement of asphalt pavement materials under high traffic loading based on
consolidation or plastic flow (Suo & Wong, 2009). Excessive amount of asphalt
cement is one of reasons for plastic flow (Walker, Buncher, & Institute, 2004).
is mainly caused by the high wheel loads and high tire pressures (Mukhtar
2006). (Magdy 1996) presents three rutting mechanisms wear rutting, structural
rutting and instability rutting. This study deals with the last type, which is the
most dangerous type of surface rutting. (Suo & Wong, 2009) has studied the air
mixes in Asphalt Pavement Analyzer (APA) test for rutting and to relate the test
simulate the laboratory testing of asphalt mixes in (HWRT) for rutting. The
study. It was found that creep model parameters C3 and C1 have a strong
relationship with rutting. However among these two the parameter C1 strongly
Most paving materials are not elastic, but if the load is small compared to the
strength of the material and is repeated for a large number of times, the
deformation under each load repetition is nearly completely recoverable and can
contributor to the asphalt mixture rutting and only this component is used in the
creep model is used to describe the time dependant material behaviour, the
repeated loading and continuous loading have the same effect on the predicted
creep strain as long as the total loading times are the same.
performance testing in terms of its rutting resistance. The wheels can be either
steel (47 mm wide) or solid rubber (50 mm wide), and the load applied to the
wheels is (710 N). The customary temperature for the HWRT test in Canada
and the United States is 50°C; this temperature is also typically used in Europe
for a climate close to a Superpave high temperature PG of 58. The test path is
(230 mm) long and the average speed of each wheel is approximately 1.1 km/h
(53 ± 2 wheel passes per minute). All the HWRT testing was carried out at a
Testing in the HWRT. Five asphalt mixes were used in (Uzarowski, L. (2007)
study. These mixes present a wide range of applications, from high traffic to low
volume roads. All five mixes were obtained from paving projects in Ontario. In
total, about one ton of asphalt mixes was used in the research and the designs
for all five mixes were provided by the contractors who supplied the mixes. The
mixes incorporated the aggregate types and asphalt cements listed in Table 1.
Figure 1: Diagram of the Rutting Resistance Testing in the HWRT
method. These parameters include three creep model parameters (C1, C2 and
C3) and two elastic parameters (modulus of elasticity, and Poison’s ratio).
study was kept limited to the creep model parameters (Pirabarooban, et al.,
2003).In this analysis, the modulus of elasticity obtained from the triaxial
repeated load creep test based on (Uzarowski, L. 2007) work has been used.
the triaxial repeated load creep test done at a temperature of 50ºC and at a
frequency of 1 Hz. The Poisson’s ratio is calculated using the equation (1) given
(1)
Where:
The creep parameters C1 ,C2 and C3 have been calibrated based on the rutting
measured in the HWRT. The C3 parameter is stress related. The rut resistance
testing in the HWRT is conducted at a constant loading stress of 500 kPa, the
value of the y-axis intercept while parameter C2 is related to the slope of the
strain-time relationship curve in a log-log scale (White 2002). The elastic and
5. ANSYS MODELING
ANSYS is a suite of powerful engineering simulation based on the finite element
material models. Analysis in ANSYS includes two stages Starting level and
finite element model (FEM). Processing level includes three steps Pre-
properties, element type and boundary conditions has been defined in Pre-
processing step. While in the solve step, the type of analysis have been chosen.
Finally the result of solving the problem has been observed in the Post-
processing step (ANSYS user's manual-version 9.0 2004). There are lots of
presented creep model used in this research can be written in the form of creep
strain rate. The material is assumed to be isotropic and the basic solution
(2)
Where έcr is the creep strain rate, r is the equivalent stress, t is the time at end
As the temperature in the analysis is fixed at 50°C, the parameters C1, C2 and
C3 are developed from the triaxial repeated load creep test at 50°C and the
parameters C1, C2 and C3 are required for finite element simulator (ANSYS) in
order to calculate the rutting for various mixes under a uniform loading pressure
of 500 kPa.
Hamburg Wheel Rut Test. The dual wheel loading configurations in the HWRT
and the required time for each analysis, only one wheel and half of the HWRT
sample was included in the finite element modeling. The load magnitude was
710 N with 500 kpa tire pressure. The material creep model discussed above
bituminous mixture. The parameters used in the creep model were derived from
the triaxial repeated load creep test result. The bottom and the four surrounding
SOLID45 is used for the 3-D modelling of solid structures and this element is
The measured rut depth versus time relationship with rutting predicted in
ANSYS and ABAQUS at the time of loading of about 1000, 1800, 2600, 3300
and 4200 sec has been shown in the Figures 4,5,6,7 and 8.
Time (s)
Figure 4: Rutting measured in HWRT and predicted in ABAQUS and ANSYS for the HL 3 Mix
3
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Time (s)
Figure 5: Rutting measured in HWRT and predicted in ABAQUS and ANSYS for the SMA L Mix
2
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
0
3
2
1
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Time (s)
Time (s)
Figure 6: Rutting measured in HWRT and predicted in ABAQUS and ANSYS for the SMA G Mix
3
Figure 7: Rutting measured in HWRT and predicted in ABAQUS and ANSYS for the SP 19 D
Mix
Measured by HWRT Predicted by ANSYS Predicted by ABAQUS
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
3
2
1
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Time (s)
Figure 8: Rutting measured in HWRT and predicted in ABAQUS and ANSYS for the SP 19 E
Mix
between the predicted and the laboratory measured rutting and the comparison
between the obtained results from ABAQUS and the results obtained from
ANSYS are presented. There are total of five possible factors, which may affect
the predicted model response. They are creep model parameters C1, C2 and
C3, modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s Ratio. The result of this work simulation
shows that the predicted rut depth is not sensitive to modulus of elasticity and
Poisson’s Ratio. This expected since these two factors only define the elastic
that the parameter C1 strongly influences rutting than the parameter C3 As can
be seen from Figure 9, predicted rut depth increases with increasing C1 value.
As can be seen from Figure 10, predicted rut depth increases with increasing C3
value (noted that C3 is in the range from -1 to 0) The relationship of C3 and the
-0.8 -0.78 -0.76 -0.74 -0.72 -0.7 -0.68 -0.66 -0.64 -0.62
Creep parameter C3
predicted and measured rut depths and also by comparing the rut depth with
ABAQUS result from literature. Resonable agreement was found between the
predicted and measured rut depths furthermore it was found that creep model
parameters C1 and C3 have a strong relationship with rutting and that the
parameter C1 strongly influences rutting than the parameter C3. It was clear that
the predicted rut depth increases with increasing C1 value and with increasing
asphalt content and the air void in hot mix asphalt. Finally it can be concluded
that creep model based on finite element method can be used as effective tools
9.REFERENCES
Mukhtar E. Abukhettala. (2006). The relationship between Marshall Stability flow
and rutting of the new Malaysian hot-mix. Faculty of Civil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Feyissa, B. (2009). Analysis and modeling of rutting for long life asphalt
concrete pavement: Darmstadt.
Pirabarooban, S., Zaman, M., & Tarefder, R. A. (2003). Evaluation of Rutting
Potential in Asphalt Mixes Using Finite Element Modeling: Transportation
association of canada.
Walker, D., Buncher, M., & Institute, A. (2004). High performance hot mix
asphalt intersection strategy: Asphalt Institute.
050 PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF ASPHALT MIXES MODIFIED
ABSTRACT : A lot of researches have been conducted in finding other alternative material in
order to be used as a modifier in asphalt mixes for the purpose of improving its properties. This
paper presents a study of laboratory of the performance of hot mix asphalt (H MA) using coconut
shells (CS) as an additive and control samples. Coconut shells is added in a form of aggregate
where the size as 4.75 mm. The amount of coconut shells modifiers added to the mixes is
expressed in the percentage (0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20%) of the total weight of size 4.75 mm
of aggregate. SUPERPAVE method was used to design the mixes. Samples were prepared and
tested for rutting characteristic as performance indicator. Based on the results, it was observed
that adding of coconut shells improves the hot mix asphalt in term of resilient modulus, the
resilient modulus values are 376, 405, 447, 510 and 526 MPa for 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20% of
coconut shells respectively. Adding coconut shells make the asphalt concrete more sensitive to
the permanent deformation.
Keywords: Coconut shell; SUPERPAVE; Modified asphalt mixture; Malaysia.
INTRODUCTION
Many studies have shown that waste materials such as scrap tire, iron and steel slag,
fly ash, and volcanic ash can be used in pavement construction (Norhidayah 2007;
Marco & Nicola 2010; Yongjie et al. 2009 & Jamil & Ibrahim 2008). The disposal of
waste material which is sometimes costly can be avoided by adding it to the pavement.
The various types of waste materials can be divided generally into four
categories: industrial, domestic, mineral, and agricultural. With time and changes and
developments in technology, some of these materials will disappear from production,
while new types will appear.
There is no big difference between palm kernel shell (PKS) and Coconut shell
(CS) in term of physical properties, Moreover there are many studies carried out by
many researchers, (Ogedengbe 1985; Nuhu-koko 1990; Olateju 1992; Falade 1992;
Omange 2001 & Ayangade et al. 2004), which all have shown that palm kernel shell
(PKS) is suitable as granular filter for water treatment, as a suitable aggregate in plain,
light and dense concretes and as a road building material.
Coconut shell (CS) is not used in the asphalt mixture but often dumped as
agricultural wastes. The processing of coconut is available in large quantities in the
tropical regions of the world, most especially in Asia, Africa, and America. Malaysia
produces 555,120 tons annually (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations 2009).
It is expected that this practice will has a potential to be cost effective and
improve performance of new flexible pavements as compared to conventional hot mix
asphalt.
Pavement damage becomes quite worst especially in hot climatic condition like
Malaysia. Development of modified asphalt mixes has been explored over the past few
decades in order to improve the performance of pavements mixes.
This study was aimed to investigate the effect of adding CS on hot mix asphalt
in term of volumetric properties and then determine the optimum asphalt content that
most improves the modified hot mix asphalt mixes and evaluate mixes by testing for
resilient modulus and creeps.
There are several tests that were conducted in achieving the aims of the study. Two
types of mixes were designed with: Coconut shells (CS) and the control mix. The
procedures used for the laboratory works were referred to American Society for Testing
and Material (ASTM) specifications using SUPERPAVE design procedures. The
laboratory works can be divided into several stages beginning with the aggregates
preparation and distribution into different particle sizes through sieve analyses. For this
study CS was added in a form of aggregate with size of 4.75mm. The amount of CS
modifier added to the mixes was expressed in the percentage (0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and
20%) of the total weight of size 4.75mm aggregate. The optimum content of CS that
most improves the characteristics of HMA mixes was determined, and then static and
dynamic creep tests and Resilient modulus test were done to evaluate the performance
of the samples. This summary of the work is as the following:
Sieve Analysis of Coarse and Fine Aggregate, Aggregate Grading, Specific Gravity
Test for Course and Fine Aggregate, Washed-Sieve Analysis, Preparation of Samples,
Determination of Density, Determination of volumetric properties, Determining of
Optimum Asphalt content, Resilient modulus test, Dynamic creep test and Static Creep
test and Data Analyses.
9.50 80 56 70 30
4.75 65 35 45 25
2.36 49 23 30 15
0.300 19 5 12 18
0.075 8 2 2 10
Pan 0 0 0 2
Specific gravity of aggregates and shells were analyzed according to ASTM C 127-93
for coarse aggregates and ASTM C 128-97 for fine aggregates. The summarization of
results was as Table 2.
9.50 2.629
4.75 2.63
2.36 2.638
0.300 2.65
0.075 2.64
Pan 2.645
After using the AASHTO test procedure, T 312, the relationship between volumetric
properties, bitumen and CS content were evaluated and checked to verify that they
were within the specification limits given in the Asphalt Institute Manual Series MS-2
(United States. Asphalt Institute. 1997). Then the optimum bitumen and CS content that
most improve the HMA mixes were determined. The results of verified samples were
recorded as shown in Table 3.
550
526?1
500 510?1
450 447?1
400 405?1
376?1
350
300
0 5 10 15 20 25
CONCLUSIONS
Based on this study, it was observed that the performance of HMA mixes was
significantly affected with the addition of CS. OBC values were found to decrease as
the percentage of CS increased. Volumetric properties obtained show that VMA, Va,
VFA and UW of the modified mixes tend to reduce after the samples were added
with CS. Resilient modulus for the modified mixes with CS tend to increase in
samples were added with CS. According to the results of the experimental
investigations on the rutting performance conducted on modified mixes for CS, We
found that adding of CS improves the diametral resilient modulus of the modified
mixes, adding CS made the asphalt concrete more sensitive to permanent
deformation. The CS reduced the amount of improvement of the creep resistance
due to the decrease of the cohesive and plastic properties of the asphalt mixtures.
The effect of coconut shells was found to be the dominant factor in the permanent
deformation resistance, where an increase in coconut shells in the mixes decrease
the rutting. Generally CS can be used as a modifier in Asphalt mixture but in a small
percentage.
REFERENCES
United States. Asphalt Institute. Mix design methods for asphalt concrete and
other hot-mix types . (1997). Lexington, Kentucky. 6th Edition Manual Series
No. 2 _MS-2.
United States. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Annual book
of standard test methods. (93-96-1997). West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.
Volume 4.03.
Ayangade J, Olusola K, Ikpo I & Ata O. (2004). Effects of granite dust on the
performance characteristics of kernelrazzo floor finish. Building and
Environment Journal 39(10) p. 1207–1212.
E.A. Olanipekun, K.O. Olusola & O. Ata. (2006). A comparative study of concrete
properties using coconut shell and palm kernel shell as coarse aggregates.
Journal of Building and Environment 41 p. 297–301.
Falade F. (1992). The use of palm kernel shells as coarse aggregate in concrete.
Journal of Housing Science 16(3) p. 213–219.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2009). Top ten
coconut producers . Available from:
http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor
[Accessed: 19 December 2009]
Ogedengbe M. (1985). Dual-media filtration with sand and palm kernel shells.
International Journal of Development Technology 3 p. 25 1–260.
Olateju O. (1992). The efficacy of lightweight aggregate from palm kernel shells.
Journal of Housing Science 15(4) p. 263–276.
Siti Nor Laili. (2009). Using of Coconut Shells as a modifier with Hot Mix of
Asphalt . A Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the Requirements of
National University of Malaysia for the Degree of Master. Bangi, Malaysia:
National University of Malaysia.
1 Introduction
490
improve the cost-effective performance for Malaysian roads pavements.
491
1.2 Fiber Reinforcement Problems
There are some critical problems that make the fiber slightly much
wetter and subject to coagulation. These problems include fiber clumping and
distribution of fibers during the mixing process and water absorption of fibers
during storage. Furthermore, the fiber can hardly be distributed evenly when
it is mixed with aggregates and bitumen binders in construction [7]. In
addition, the time when the fibers are mixed with bitumen and mineral fillers
has to be taken into consideration because it happens that some of the fibers
can be blasted into the mixer plan.[21]
- The dry process is the easiest process for execution and the
fiber can be very easily distributed in the mixture. .
492
It should be pointed out that it is necessary for the fiber to be dried as
such as possible so that adequate adhesion by the bitumen binder can be
guaranteed. And any possibility of stripping owing to the presence of
moisture can be prevented [9, 10].
493
properties of materials by using fibers is an old concept. However, the
. Fiber modification can also increase film thickness, which leads to less
aging and enhanced binder properties. When fibers were added, it also led to
the reduction of temperature susceptibility of bituminous mixtures. The
494
addition of fibers helps to fortify the mixtures rich in bitumen, and results in
high resistance to moisture, fatigue, aging, and cracking. There are still
investigations in this field. Two famous fiber including polyester and cellulose
fibers are discussed in this study. In the following sections, a new waste fiber
is discussed and the effect of oil palm fiber is evaluated for its application to
Malaysian roads pavements.
495
fiber. The mixture having the polyester fiber led to the smallest rut depth and
followed by cellulose fibers (18).
496
less bitumen absorption and stabilization than lignin and asbestos fiber [22].
Qunshan conducted a study on the dynamic reaction and fatigue
features of fiber-modified bituminous mixtures. It showed that the fatigue
497
feature could be boosted by fiber modifiers. The fatigue test results also
indicated that fiber-modified asphalt mixtures had better fatigue resistance in
comparison to the control mixture. One of the reasons for this may lie in the
fact that fibers can divert the pressure made in bitumen mixture and stop the
induction and distribution of cracks. Among all the fibers, the polyester fiber is
the best in boosting the fatigue resistance in bituminous mixtures [6].
498
possible for the bitumen contents to increase when there is a sudden decline
in the drain of the binder [26, 27].
499
increase in permeability was not as high as that of polymer modifier alone
[33].
500
In a study conducted by Tasdemir, the impacts of polymer and fiber
modification on low temperature features of bituminous mixtures were
evaluated with three additives, namely polymer, synthetic fiber, and loose
cellulose fiber. The findings demonstrated that although the polymer
modification enhanced the low temperature cracking resistance, the cellulose
or synthetic fibers did not boost the low temperature performance of mixtures
[39].
501
2.4 Oil palm fiber
One of the largest producers of palm oil in the world is Malaysia. Now,
the EFB (empty fruit branch of the oil palm) is burned as fuel for the boiler,
but the constraints and restrictions on burning have given rise to mulching of
EFB in the field, which in its turn brings about environmental issues. Recently
new attempts have been made to assess the impact of oil palm fibers
(COPF) on the performance of bituminous pavement mixture with
environmental and economical purposes. Two different case studies were
conducted. The first one was the cellulose oil palm fibers (COPF) made from
empty fruit bunch (EFB) by means of different methods of pulping. The
second one was the natural Oil Palm Fiber (OPF) produced by pre-heating
system to keep fiber dry when used in the mixture [40].
In 2001, Muniandy et al. investigated and compared the oil palm fiber
with the conventional European fiber that was usually used in SMA. Their
findings which were based on the Fiber Morphological analysis by Fraction
Screening Analysis (sieve analysis) and Scanning Electron Microscope
(SEM) indicated that the pulped (OPF) fiber seemed to be thicker in
comparison to the imported fiber. It was found that further pulping can
improve the condition of Malaysian fiber for using in asphalt mixture [23].
Also chemical assess of oil palm fiber revealed that they don’t have any
negative chemical effect in the bituminous composites while due to low
moisture content and the alkali soluble in the OPF may improve the higher
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heat temperature of bitumen.[45]
503
Muniandy and Bujang investigated the impact of COPF fiber modified binder
(cellulose oil palm fibers were pre-blended in PG64-22 binder) on fatigue
behaviour of stone mastic asphalt. It can be seen that the penetration of the
fiber-modified bitumen declined in comparison to the fiber-unmodified
bitumen. There was also an increase in the flash point values and the
softening point. According to the Brookfield viscosity test which was
conducted at 160°C, there was a considerable increase in viscosity. Besides,
the fiber-modified binder indicated improved rheological characteristics and
indicated that the PG64-22 binder could be modified and increased to PG70-
22 grade. In this study, it was found that the cellulose oil palm fiber (COPF)
could enhance the diameteral fatigue performance of SMA mixture [42].
They had a great improvement for the shear strain for the blends
containing fibers in comparison to the original bitumen particularly for
temperatures over 60°C that is a high pavement temperature in summer.
This difference in the shear strain begins to expand. The findings showed
that the fibers boosted the rheological function of Bio Mastic bitumen blends.
The control sample which was classified as PG58 was improved to PG76
with 0.375% date palm fiber. The oil palm also raised the blend up to PG70
with 0.3% oil palm fiber [26].
As for the natural Oil Palm Fiber, Anwar et al . investigated the impact of
natural oil palm fiber (OPF) made from empty fruit bunches (EFB) by means
of pre-heating system to drying fiber. They evaluated the rheological features
of bitumen binder via the Brookfield viscosity test, DSR test as well as the
softening point. It was revealed that by the addition OPF to the binder, the
softening point and viscosity rose and that modified bitumen had a greater
impact on viscosity at lower temperatures. Furthermore, the rheological
504
experiments showed that the addition of OPF caused a slight increase in the
complex modulus of the modified binder. In conclusion, they calculated that
the application of oil palm fiber boosts the rheological properties of the
modified binder and it in turn would enhance some of the mechanical
characteristics of the asphalt mixes. Finally, the results showed that OPF
could potentially play a significant role in the improvement of binder’s
temperature susceptibility, resistance to permanent deformation and reduced
bleeding [43]. From the literature of OPF researches, it can be finally
concluded that Malaysian fibers work comparably better than the imported
fibers do and could be used as an alternative supplement to substitute for the
imported fibers. Nonetheless, more research is needed to enhance its
performance.
4 Conclusions
1. Generally, it was shown that the use of fibers in mixtures involves
three main purposes: mechanical improvement, reducing the
maintenance cost of pavement failure and creating a new market to
manage the waste fibers.
505
at higher temperatures, polyester fibers may be applied.
5. Finally the literature of oil palm fiber in different asphalt mixtures
illustrated that it could be regarded as a necessary research field for
the application of this fiber as an alternative material for the expensive
imported fiber in asphalt mixture. Of course, it is necessary to
investigate the performance of OPF in the experimental field and
define the moisture sensitivity of modified mixture with oil palm fiber
for new research projects.
References
506
Proceedings of the Conference on the United States Strategic Highway Research
Program: Sharing the Benefits. London, Thomas Telford .1990:181-203.
17]Serfass J, Samanos J. Fiber-modified asphalt concrete characteristics,
applications and behavior. J Assoc Asph Pav Tech 1996;65:193–230.
18]Bradley J. Putman, Serji N. Amirkhanian.Utilization of waste fibers in stone
matrix asphalt mixtures.Resources, Conservation and Recycling 2004;42: 265–74
19]Jian-Shiuh Chen, Kuei-Yi Lin.Mechanism and behavior of bitumen strength
reinforcement using fibers. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE 2005;40:87–
95
20]Toney A. Fiber reinforced asphalt concrete pavements, final report WA-RD
133.1. Washington State Department of transportation; October 1987.
21]Shaopeng W, Qunshan Y, Ning L. Investigation of rheological and fatigue
properties of asphalt mixtures containing polyester fibers. Constr Build Mater
2008;22(10):21 11–5.
22]Huaxin Chen, Qinwu Xu . Experimental study of fibers in stabilizing and
reinforcing asphalt binder. Fuel 2009; 89 (7):1616-22
23]Qunshan Ye,Shaopeng Wub, Ning Li.Investigation of the dynamic and fatigue
properties of fiber-modified asphalt mixtures. International Journal of Fatigue
2009;31:1598–1602
24]Qinwu Xu,Huaxin Chen,Jorge A. Prozzi.Performance of fiber reinforced asphalt
concrete under environmental temperature and water effects Construction and
Building Materials 201 0;24:2003–201 0
507
transportation infrastructure, Beijing, China; April 2008.
37] Jian-Shiuh Chen, Kuei-Yi Lin. Mechanism and behavior of bitumen strength
reinforcement using fibers. Journal of Materials Science 2005 :87– 95
38] WU Shao-peng, LIU Gang, MO Lian-tong, CHEN Zheng, YE Qun-shan. Effect
of fiber types on relevant properties of porous asphalt. Transactions of Nonferrous
Metals Society of China 2006:7 9 1-5
0] Yuksel Tasdemir, Emine Agar. Investigation of the low temperature
performances of polymer and fiber modified asphalt mixtures. Indian journal of
engineering & Material science
2007; 14(2):15 1-7
39] Muniandy, R. Effect of cellulose oil palm fibers in the fatigue performance of
Stone Matrix Asphalt. Ph.D. Thesis. University Putra Malaysia. 2004
40] Yue Huang, Roger N. Bird, Oliver Heidrich.A review of the use of recycled
solid waste materials in asphalt pavements Resources, Conservation and
Recycling.2007;52: 58–73
41] Ratnasamy Muniandy and Bujang B.K. Huat. Laboratory Diameteral Fatigue
Performance of Stone Matrix Asphalt with Cellulose Oil Palm Fiber. American
Journal of Applied Sciences 2006; 3(9):2005-10
42] S. Anwar Vijaya, M. Karim & H. Mahmud. Effect of Oil Palm Fiber on
Properties of Asphalt Binders. International Conference on Transport
infrastructures – iCTi2010. ISBN 978-972-8692-57-5
43] WU Shao-peng, LIU Gang, MO Lian-tong, CHEN Zheng, YE Qun-shan.Effect
of fiber types on relevant properties of porous asphalt.Trans. Nonferrous Met. SOC.
China 2006; 16: 791-5
44] Muniandi.R.,Ishak.S.B.,Umar.R.s. A study on the use of Oil Palm Fiber in
Rubberized Stone Mastic Asphalt. REAA journal. Volume 7
0] ZOYE Industrial ZhuHai Co. Ltd
(http://www.qrbiz.com/product/1 047541 /Cellulose-Fiber.html)
508
059 EFFECT OF THE ELONGATED AGGREGATE ON THE MARSHALL
PROPERTIES OF THE PAVEMENTS
Abstract: Aggregates play the main role in structure of Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA)
pavements. Aggregate generally accounts for between 92 and 96 percent of asphalt
mixtures and makes up about 30 percent of the cost of an Asphaltic pavement
structure. Typical SMA composition consists of 70−80% coarse aggregate, 8−12%
filler, 6−7% binder, and 0.3% fiber. Therefore, the quality and acceptable physical
properties of aggregates should be considered as a most important part of SMA
pavements. SMA has a high coarse aggregate content that interlocks to form a stone
skeleton that resists permanent deformation. In this study 80/100 bitumen was used
in five different percentages from 5% to 7% (5%-5.5%-6 %...) by the weight of
aggregates. Three different types (A,B and C) of specimens have been fabricated to
be subjected to Marshall stability test. Specimens type A with less than 15% of
elongated aggregates, type B has been made with 30% of elongated of aggregate and
type C has been made with high amount of elongated aggregates(50% ). The test
results show that elongated aggregates have significant influence on Marshall
stability behavior of the SMA mixtures.
1. Introduction
One of the well-known materials used for asphalt surfacing is a gap-graded hot mix
called Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) . The history of the initial development of SMA
goes back to the 1 960s when in Europe it was first utilized for impervious surfacing
to reduce the momentum of rut and increase the durability of pavement surface layer.
Nevertheless, the first use of SMA in Europe was initially and mainly aimed at
strengthening the resistance of surface layer of pavements against the effects of the
studded tires of vehicles in comparison to other kinds of hot mix asphalts [1].
The role that the aggregate structure of SMA plays in increasing resistance of the hot
mix against deformations and desolations is vital. In the design of this kind of
mixtures, a content of highly coarse aggregate material [2] is taken into consideration
509
along with stone-on-stone contact exerting more pressure on the particles of the
aggregate which is expected at the moments of massive stress and heavy traffic
loads. Hence, the breakability level of the aggregates in SMA is higher than the
mixtures with conventional graded density. Massive stress, compaction and traffic
loads can bring about alterations in the original gradation level of the mixture
affecting finally the SMA volumetric parameters. However, the structure of SMA
which depends on the stone-on-stone contacts of the coarse aggregate mix [3] and
ultimately places demands on SMA aggregates, considerably differ from the
structures available in the conventional graded mixes. Nonetheless, coarse aggregates
are allowed to essentially “float” in a matrix of fine asphalt binder and aggregates by
the mixtures of the conventional dense graded structure, in which the strength
properties of the coarse aggregates are not significant.
2. Objective of study
Contractors from developing country such as Malaysia may have problem using
SMA mix because of lack of experience since this mix is considered as new mix for
road pavement in compared with standard asphalt mixtures. This type of information
would provide valuable information to agencies who desire to construct SMA
pavements. This study is carried out to quantify and compare the effect of elongated
512
aggregate in Marshall and volumetric properties of SMA mixtures produced by
Three different types of specimens . The main objective of this study is to evaluate
the relationship between aggregate properties and SMA performance . [9]
3. Materials
The materials used in this study are aggregate, asphalt cement and Portland cement
as filler which are explained below.
3.1. Aggregate : The crushed granite aggregate obtain from the Kajang quarry (a
place around the Kuala Lumpur) is used to make samples . Aggregates with SMA 20
gradation (according to“ Malaysian standard specification for road works (JKR))[8]
as shown in table 1 used for making samples of stone mastic asphalt mixture.
3.2. Binder : The binder grade 80-1 00 obtain from the Shell company was
used for making samples
Three different types (A,B and C) of specimens have been fabricated and
subjected to Marshall stability test. Specimens type A with less than 15% of
513
elongated aggregates, type B has been made with 30% of elongated of
aggregate and type C has been made with high amount of elongated
aggregates(50% ). Marshall samples prepared based on ASTM D1559 .
d)Temperature for mix was between 160 ˚c - 170 ˚c and time for mix
aggregate and bitumen was about 5 minutes , Also all the samples
compacted at 145 ˚c .
e)The number of compaction was 75 blows for top and bottom side with
using a Marshal compactor.
As can be seen in figure 3 , as increase binder content , flow value increase for three type
of aggregate . lowest flow value obtain for type A and flow variation of this type is
acceptable compare with another types.
514
The general trend that can be observed from the Marshall test can show significant effect
of elongated aggregate on Marshall properties of stone mastic asphalt decrease in
stability and increase in flow value .
515
2.34
2.33
2.32
2.31 A
2.3 B
7.50 7.00 6.50 6.00 5.50 5.00
2.29 C
2.28
4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5
Binder %
6. Conclusions B
4.50
The following conclusions can be drawn from 4.00
the finding of the present paper:
1-high amount of elongated aggregate leads to decrease mixture workability and
4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5
efficiency . Binder%
3.50
3.00
2.50
20
19.5
19
18.5
C
18
17.5 A
17 B
16.5 C
16
15.5
15
4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5
Binder%
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2-Marshall stability for elongated aggregate(type B and type C) didn’t achieve the
engineering properties required by JKR specification for the asphalt mixtures.
3- The largest value of Marshall stability occurs at type A (with less than 15% of
elongated aggregates)
4- high percent of elongated aggregate (type B and type C) leads to increase flow value .
5- high percent of elongated aggregate (type B and type C) leads to increase the air
voids in total mix and air in the mineral aggregate.
References
1-Ibrahim M Asi . Laboratory comparison study for the use of stone matrix asphalt
in hot weather climates. Construction and Building Materials 20 (2006) 982–989
2-C. -T. Chiu, L. -C. Lu . A laboratory study on stone matrix asphalt using ground tire
rubber . Construction and Building Materials 21 (2007) 1027–1033
3-A. Mahrez ,M.R. Karim . Properties of Bituminous Mixes Reinforced With Glass
Fiber . PAPER NO : 9
6- Xie, H., D.E. Watson. Determining Air Voids Content of Compacted Stone Matrix
Asphalt Mixtures. In Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation
Research Board, No. 1891 TRB, National Research Council, Washington D.C.,
2004, pp.203-211.
517
071 TYPICAL TYPES OF HOT MIX ASPHALT (HMA) PAVEMENTS
DETERIORATION (DISTRESS) AND MAINTENANCE METHODS
Abstract: In recent years, so many HMA pavements have experienced some failures even
just after few years of functioning due to different problems. Fatigue or thermal cracking,
rutting, raveling, potholes and bleeding are the most famous of these failures which are due
to inadequate compaction during construction, mistakes on pavement design, heavy traffic,
weather or low quality of the asphalt materials. Preventive maintenance treatments are
generally applied to pavements with acceptable conditions and without any structural
problems. They include a variety of low-cost treatments aimed at addressing specific types
of functional deterioration or reduce the rate of pavement deterioration such as; surface
seals, crack sealing, thin hot mix overlays and micro surfacing. Three main categories have
been introduced as Hot Mix Asphalt pavements procedures which are pavement
maintenance, corrective maintenance and emergency maintenance. As pavement
deterioration progresses, more substantial treatments may become necessary. These
treatments extend the life of existing pavement structures by either restoring existing
structural capacity or by increasing pavement thickness to accommodate existing or
projected traffic loading conditions. Also, Pavement rehabilitation is divided to minor
rehabilitation which includes non-structural improvements and major rehabilitation adds
structural enhancements to a pavement section. In this study, most of the HMA pavement
failures and different methods of maintenance to fix those failures are presented.
Introduction:
Measurements from free-rolling car and truck tires have shown that in addition to the
normal contact pressure, there may also be large transverse and longitudinal contact
518
pressures acting in the contact area. [3, 4]. Also longitudinal surface cracks occur at
high pavement temperatures due to the large transverse tensile stress concentration
close to the edge of the tire. Surface cracking in asphalt pavements has also been
related to horizontal tensile stresses induced in the asphalt layers by daily
temperature cycles. [5]
Cracking:
These kinds of cracks appear on surface of HMA pavements and perform as series of
interconnected cracks and look like skin of an alligator. Fatigue cracks are mostly
caused by repeated traffic loading under the tire pressure area and are often related to
weakness in base course or subgrade, excessive loading, insufficient pavement
thickness or combination of these factors. Alligator cracking starts at bottom of the
asphalt layer, where the tensile stress and strain under a wheel load is highest. Figure
1 presents an example of alligator cracking.
Edge cracks are longitudinal cracks within one or two feet of outer edge of HMA
pavements. As the time goes further break-up of longitudinal cracks may take a place
under the tire pressure and heavy traffic and cause crescent shaped cracks that branch
to the edge of the HMA pavements. These cracks accrue at the edge of the roads
because of inadequate support from a shoulder which can be as a result of weak base
or subgrade layer, frost heaves or poor drainage. Figure 2 presents this kind of
cracks.
519
Figure 2: Edge Cracking
3-Block Cracking:
Block cracks are interconnected cracks in series of large and rectangular pieces of the
pavement surface. Size of this kind of crack is usually greater than one foot (30 cm)
in each direction and mostly found when HMA surface has hardened and the daily
temperature cycles cause shrinkage in a HMA layer. However, it can be caused by
volume changes in a fine aggregates which perform as HMA mixture containing
low-penetration asphalt and adsorptive aggregates. The difference between block
cracking and alligator (Fatigue) cracking are the size of blocks and also presence of
block cracking in non trafficked area that can be helpful to differentiate from each
other. Figure 3 presents block cracking.
Longitudinal cracks are linear cracks which can be parallel or perpendicular to the
HMA pavement center line and may be caused by one of the following items:
-Shrinkage of the asphalt layer.
- Temperature and climate
- A poor construction between different sides of the HMA pavement
which can cause the linear cracks at the joint between each side
of the pavement.
-Problems or cracks in underlying layers
520
Figure 4: Longitudinal Cracking
5- Slippage Cracking
Slippage cracks can be easily identified from their shape. This kind of cracks have
half moon shape and mostly appear at some part of HMA pavements which have
more vehicle turning place or stopping area. Poor quality of the pavement materials
and inadequate bonding between different layers of the pavement may cause this
problem at low strength surface of the HMA as can be seen in figure 5.
Rutting:
During the past several years many HMA pavements experienced problems with
amount and severity of permanent deformation in hot mix asphalt pavements. This
problem with permanent deformation, or rutting, was attributed to an increase in
truck tire pressures, axle loads, and volume of traffic. [7]Rutting is one of the
permanent deformations of pavements, which mostly accrues under the wheel path as
a result of traffic loads. [8] This deformation is the earliest accruing distress and
sometimes appears after only a few months and might be due to some failures in
asphalt layers or underlying layers such as the subgrade soil being overstressed or the
required density was not achieved due to inadequate compaction.
521
provide better performance and less rutting under repetitive traffic loads. On the
other hand, characteristics of fine aggregates play an important role in pavement rut
performance, as well. [10]
Rutting also can be attributed to improper asphalt mix design such as high asphalt
content, excessive filler and high amounts of rounded aggregates in mix design or
insufficient asphalt layer thickness. Use of excessive asphalt cement in the mix
causes the loss of internal friction between aggregate particles, which results in the
loads being carried by the asphalt cement rather than the aggregate structure. This
problem may be caused by insufficient thickness of the HMA pavement, poor
compaction or weakness in pavement layers due to moisture infiltration or low
quality material of asphalt mixture. Figure 6 presents rutting in HMA road. [11]
Figure 6: Rutting
Raveling:
Raveling and weathering happens when the HMA pavement surface wears away
because of separation between asphalt and aggregates. Raveling is usually found in
the wheel path and under the vehicle tire pressure. Poor quality of the asphalt mixture
will cause pavement become rougher and further deterioration takes place until large
pieces have been displaced. This problem requires the presence of the both traffic
and water to occur. Figure 7 presents raveling in HMA pavement.
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Figure 7: Raveling
Potholes:
Potholes are mostly happened by the continued deterioration of another type of
pavement failure such as: alligator cracking, raveling, poor drainage or the failure in
patching construction of HMA pavements. This type of distress is bowl shaped hole
which accrue on the pavement surface as can be seen in figure 8.
Figure 8: Potholes
Bleeding or Flushing:
When the percentage of the asphalt bitumen is too high and more than enough for the
HMA mixtures, the excess bitumen will make a thin film of asphalt on the surface of
the pavement which called bleeding or flushing. Bleeding can be caused by an
improperly constructed seal coat, too much asphalt in a mixture, excessive sealant in
the cracks or joints under an overlay under the heavy traffic especially in hot
weather. Figure 9 presents the typical kind of bleeding on the HMA pavement
Surface.
523
Figure 9: Bleeding
1- Crack Sealing/Filling
This method can be used as a temporary solution for HMA pavement cracks and
climate temperature play the significant role on it. In climates with severe
temperature changes resealing may be necessary every year but in moderate or
mild climates resealing will be necessary less often. Different kind of materials
can be used for this purpose such as; liquid asphalt binder, cutbacks; MC-30,70
and 250, asphalt emulsions; SS-1, SS-1h, CSS-1h, MFMS-1, MFMS-1h,
modified asphalt crack sealer based on ASTM D 6690, HMA mixtures; slurry
seal and hot sand mixes or blotter sand. Selecting the material and method of
crack sealing are highly dependent on type of cracks. However, different types of
cracks are categorized such as below:
- Hairline Cracks are 1/8 inches (3mm) or less and can be repaired
by different surface sealing such as fog seals, chip seals, slurry
seals and sand seals. It should be as an important consideration to
select the acceptable viscosity level of the sealant to flow into the
hairline cracks.
- Small Cracks are 1/8 inches (3mm) to 1/2 inches (12.5mm) and
each crack should be cleaned with high pressure air, sand
blasting, wire brushing, hot-air brushing or high pressure water
before sealing. For the cracks with more than 2inches (50mm)
deep, a backer rod should be installed to conserve sealant.
- Medium Cracks are 1/2 inch (12.5mm) to 3/4 inch (19mm). The
same method for small cracks should be used for this kind of
cracks and using backer rod for cracks with more than 2 inches
deep.
524
- Large Cracks are wider than 3/4 inch (19mm) and should be filled
with an asphalt emulsion slurry seal material, HMA sand mix or a
hot poured sealant.
525
Figure 10 a shows the procedures of cleaning cracks before seal and 10 b
presents the properly sealed crack on the HMA pavement.
526
be treated with a dust coat of aggregate. [12, 13]
527
Figure 11: Patching
Surface treatment is a wide term embracing several types of asphalt pavements with
or without cover of mineral aggregates. This treatment provides a water proof cover
on the pavements to resist the surface from abrasion by vehicle traffic. Mostly,
surface treatment thickness is less than 1 inch or 25 mm and has several usages such
as:
Asphalt surface treatment can be done by using different methods such as:
528
used in one, two or even three layers if needed.
529
4- Micro surfacing : micro surfacing also can be called as a polymer-
modified slurry seal because the asphalt curing method for slurry
seals is through the thermal process but in micro surfacing is
chemically controlled.
4- Thin Overlays
Overlays are mostly used as thin asphalt surfacing with the thickness between 1 and
1.5 inches (25-37.5 mm) to extend the life and quality of HMA pavement. However,
it can be used to improve the driving quality and reduce the skid resistance of the
existing pavement. Pavement condition is the most important consideration when
deciding to do the over lay and all the failure of the pavement should be repaired
before starting, such as thermal or fatigue cracks and ruts. [14, 15]
Conclusion:
The HMA layers experience high strains when the underlying layers are weakened
by heavy traffic, excess moisture and fail prematurely in fatigue. Fatigue cracking
can also be caused by repetitive passes with overweight trucks and/or inadequate
pavement thickness due to poor quality control during construction. Cracking can
lead to the development of potholes when the individual pieces of HMA physically
separate from the adjacent material and are dislodged from the pavement surface by
the action of traffic. Potholes generally occur when cracks are in the advanced stages
and when relatively thin layers of HMA have been used. Several methods of fixing
these failures have been explained in this study. Table 1 presents the summary of
guidance on maintenance procedure which can be used for each distress.
530
Severe Slurry Seal, Micro surfacing or Thin Overlay
Table 1: Guidance on Maintenance Procedure
531
References:
1- Jacobs, M M J and Moraal, J, (1992), 'The influence of tire
characteristics on the normal stresses in asphalt concrete
pavements' , 3rd international symposium on heavy vehicle
weights and dimensions, Cambridge, UK, pp 218-224, (1992).
2- Jacobs, M M J, de Bondt, A H, Molenaar, A A A and Hopman, P C,
(1992), 'Cracking in asphalt concrete pavements', 7th
International Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Nottingham,
UK, pp 89–105, (1992).
3- Clark, S K, 'The contact between tire and roadway' , (1971), NBS
Monograph 122, 1971.
4- Tielking, J T and Roberts, L, (1987), 'Tire contact pressure and its
effect on pavement strain' , American Society of Civil Engineers
Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol 110, No:1 pp 56-71,
(1987).
5- Matsuno, S and Nishizawa, T, (1992), 'Mechanism of longitudinal
surface cracking in asphalt pavement' , 7th international
conference on asphalt pavements, Nottingham, UK, pp 277-
291, (1992).
6- C.L. Monismith and B.A. Vallerga, (1956), ‘ Relationship between
Density and Stability of Asphaltic Paving Mixtures’, J.J. Lingle,
Discussion in Proc. AAPT, Vol. 25, (1956).
7- Brown, E.R., Kandhal, P.S., & Zhang, J. (2001), ‘ Performance
Testing for Hot Mix Asphalt’, NCAT Research Report No.01-05,
Alabama: NCAT Auburn University, USA, (2001).
8- WAPA, Washington Asphalt Pavement Association, (2008),
‘Surface Distresses, Asphalt Pavement Guide’, and
Retrieved on June 24, 2008, from
http://www.asphaltwa.com/wapa_web/modules/11_guidance/11_surf
ace_distress .htm.
9- Roberts, F.L., Kandhal, P.S., Brown, E.R., Lee, D.Y., & Kennedy, T.W,
(1996), ‘ Hot Mix Asphalt Materials, Mixture, Design, and
Construction’ (2 nd edition), Lanham, Maryland: NAPA Education
Foundation, (1996).
10-Chowdury A., Button J.W., Kohale V., and D.W. Jahn, (2001),
‘Evaluation of Superpave Fine Aggregate Angularity
Specification’ , Report No. 404011-1, International Center for
Aggregate Research, Austin, TX, USA, (2001).
11-Dave Gaiger, (2005), ‘ memorandum on pavement preservation
definitions’ , Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC, sep.
12, (2005).
12-Hicks, R. G., S. Seeds, and D. Peshkin, (2000), ‘ Selecting a
Preventive Maintenance Treatment for Flexible Pavements’,
FHWA-IF-00-027. Federal Highway Administration, Washington,
DC, (2000).
13-McGhee, K. H. (2004), ‘ Automated Pavement Distress Collection
Technique’, National Cooperative Highway Research Program
Synthesis 334. Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC,
(2004).
14-Roberts, F.L., P.S. Kandhal, E. Ray Brown, D.Y. Lee, and T.W.
Kennedy, (1996), ‘ Hot Mix Asphalt Materials, Mixture Design,
and Construction ’. NAPA Education Foundation, Second Edition,
(1996).
532
15-McGennis, R.B., R.M. Anderson, T.W. Kennedy, and M.
Solaimanian, (1994), ‘Background of Superpave Asphalt Mixture
Design and Analysis’. Publication No. FHWA-SA-95-003, November
(1994).
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THEME :
534
008 FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPORTATION IN AFRICA
Massuod Ali Ahmed Abuhamoud ,Riza Atiq O.K Rahmat and Amiruddin Ismail
Department of Civil Engineering, University Kebangsan Malaysia, Malaysia
Email: libyana11@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Ample facilities like road infrastructure, appropriate vehicles for the right place and right time
is a crucial factor in determining the quality of transport system. For a developing continent
like Africa this has always been a great challenge and continues to be so. Urban
transportation is not up to the demand of African population. The British colonial impact still
persists in African countries and hence there is lack of accessibility of transport to all
population and areas. Quality of vehicles is too low and less road safety. Studies shows that
specific land use strategies are to be implemented based on the typical geographical
conditions of Africa. Transport systems affects in a great deal the life and development of
people and region. This affects their relationships between the countries within and abroad.
Compared to other developed countries African countries has a worse urban transport
development. Road transport is accompanied with traffic congestion, air pollution, high level
of accident rate, waste of time, inaccessibility to vehicles by the poor, poor vehicle condition,
high maintenance, travel and repair cost, etc. Unless there is an appropriate and united
effort to resolve the present condition and promote the urban transport development Africa
will continue the pathetic situation as a developing country. As a developing country, Africa
needs to address a lot of concerns with respect to urban transportation and to be at par with
other developing nations in the world.
Key words : Urban transportation, Africa, non-motorized transport, roads, vehicles, road
safety
1. INTRODUCTION
Being a developing continent, Africa has always felt great challenges on the urban
transportation. This still remains to be a problem because of the civil wars, lack of
proper investment in the transport infrastructure, low quality the transport system,
unhealthy transport solutions, improper planning, increasing number of private cars,
etc., still remains a problem. Most of the cities are going through an urban
development phase with no adequate transport system (Kumar and Barrett, 2008).
The development of urban cities and transport facilities are both related to each
other. Cities started to expand creating increase in distance between activity
location and people’s residence. At the same time the personalization of
automobiles and congested traffic further increased. The population of Africa
accounts about 14% of world’s population (approximately 1 billion) and ranks
second in the world scenario. In Africa, the urban population percentage was 38.7%
in the year 2007 and had an estimated 2% annual rate of change between the five
years from 2005-2010. Up until 2007, the total number of vehicles had also
increased within five years as per the World Bank report. So it is important to go
535
through the various aspects that particularly affect the urban transport development
in Africa.
2. TRANSPORTATION IN AFRICA
Mobility was attained by walking or by use of animals in the past. It is after the
European colonolization that the transportation has started to develop. These roads
were also used to transport slaves in the trans-Atlantic slave era (Fage, 1969).
Horse-drawn carts or ox-drawn carts were used to transport slaves at that time
(Muhammad, 2003). However, the interest in road construction was not so
prominent in the colonial era due to the Europeans interest to develop rail transport
for their raw material mobility. Obviously because of the huge cost of investment in
creating road facilities, their attention turned on to the rail transport (Thomas, 1973)
and thus the road transport was neglected during the periods in the 1900s (Hailey,
1938). To some extent, however, there were efforts to build those roads which were
very significant for their colonial administration (Herbst, 2000).
There was some relief to this situation in the late 1960s to 1970s owing to the
increase in traffic because of passenger and freight transportation (Delgado and
Mellor, 1984). Yet African countries paid less interest in maintaining and repairing
the roads, which in turn affected the vehicle maintaining costs. Between the periods
of 1970’s and 1980s there was increase in buildings with no sufficient parking
facilities (Howe and Bryceson, 2001). In reality, there was low priority given to road
transport development until the 1980s. A major development in road transport could
be cited after the 1990s with more private vehicles and public transport development
(Pedersen, 2001). Nevertheless, roads are the most important form of transportation
in Africa at present (Heggie 1995). Overall, the countries in Central Africa showed
much less progress in road development. There are only less than 10 percent paved
roads in the Central Africa, whereas in South Africa most countries showed more
than 30 percent of paved roads in the past decade; principally Mauritius has shown
consistent and prominent (100 percent) rank among all others (Preston, 1981). In
various parts of the Eastern Africa, an average of 8 to 13 percent paved roads could
be seen and most countries of West Africa had these percentage values ranging
from 15 to 25 (World Bank 2010). Africa has typical geographical conditions like too
many mountains, valleys, rivers, too large size etc., which makes it a big problem in
constructing good roads and transportation means particularly in regions like Nigeria
and Tanzania (Njoh, 2008).
536
2.1. STATUS OF ROADS AND VEHICLES
Like other developing countries African countries too have less number of public
investors due to the high cost of building paved roads. Improper land use and
infrastructure thus has made urban transport development to decline. More or less
all the roads are unpaved and are eroded in rain (Pinard et al., 1999) creating an
increase in the transportation cost. Distinctive geographical nature of Africa that has
hills, valleys, loose soil, rainfall, etc., adds to improper road networking in particular
in the interurban regions (Njoh, 2008). The prevailing roads are much older and are
unsuited for average driving speeds. Huge increase in traffic too had led deteriorate
the road capacity creating much more problem in transportation. Traffic congestion,
air pollution, safety, and affordability should be addressed to make the situation
better (Freeman, 2009).
Buses are the most common means of transportation. In addition, taxis, auto-
rickshaws also forms the major part of motorized transport system (Rahman et al.,
2008). In some places, people use motorcycle, but with low cubic capacity engines
like 100cc. Accidents are very common with motorcycles users because the driving
license is not compulsory (Kumar and Barrett, 2008). The mini- and midi- buses and
the increase in motorcycle use have made the traffic congested in African cities
(Kumar and Barrett, 2008). Further, the rise of car users has made the roads much
more clogged. Moreover, Africa is a large importer of second-hand vehicles (Porter,
2002) especially from Europe (Trans-Africa, 2008; Porter, 2002). Insufficient and
inadequate infrastructures creates lot of problem to the public transport operators.
The old and second-hand vehicles have low mobility and the passengers are forced
to wait for long at the bus station (Trans-Africa, 2008).
For the relief of concerns like mobility, congestion, safety, environmental and
economic aspects, non-motorized transport is a relief. In countries of Africa where
there are no roads or poor road conditions, this mode of transportation is pertinent.
These non-motorized transports are often referred to as “green” mode of
transportation (Forsyth and Southworth, 2008). In addition to providing safety and
low pollution (Cherry and Cervero, 2007), this type of transportation this also
improves traffic flow avoiding congestion and increase traffic speed (Rahman et al.,
2009). The South African government promoted non-motorized transport in the
beginning of this decade by the starting a national bicycle transport partnership
called ‘shova lula’ to deliver assisted finance (Gwilliam, 2003). For poor people, the
only alternative for mobility will be walking. Bicycles are a lot dependable in African
situation as the relative cost is much less than motorized transport (Cradock et al.
2009). Institution of Transportation and Development Policy had set a program
537
called Access Africa, through which they have provided 7,400 quality new bicycles
low-income workers, students and health care staff in various part of Africa like
Ghana, Senegal, South Africa, and Tanzania (Institute of Transport and
Development Policy, 2010). Nonetheless, interpreting car-ownership as status
symbol and development of upper-income groups (Scheidegger, 2009), the African
government has focused much on motorized transport rather than non-motorized
transport (Mock et al., 1999). They consider bicycle to be unfashionable and stands
as a symbol for poverty and remoteness (Heyen-Perschon and Europe, 2004).
The factors affecting road traffic accidents can be listed under three categories
namely, human (McKenna 1982), environmental (Shankar et al., 1995) and
vehicular factors (Peden et al. 2004). Lack of paved roads (Mock et al. 1995),
incompatible users like pedestrians (Atkins et al. 1988), motor cycle users (Langley
et al., 1994), bicycle users (Cameron et al. 1994), cars, buses, trucks, etc (Nantulya
and Reich, 2002) are also prone to the traffic accidents. It is the poor road
conditions make vehicles susceptible to accidents. Besides this, there are also
factors like lack of seat belts (Clarke et al. 2010), dangerous driving and vehicle
environments (Stinchcombe and Gagnon, 2010), congested roads (Wang et al.,
2009), etc which adds to the poor transportation facilities that end up in road
fatalities. It is also important to mention the imported second-hand vehicles which
contribute to large number of older vehicles on road (Chen, 2010) resulting in road
accidents. Present state of African economy fails to provide appropriate
maintenance to these vehicles and most of the urban poor are incompetent of using
538
this economic facility. More often these vehicles are serviced with inferior quality of
539
machinery and generate troubles afterwards on road (van Schoor et al., 2001;
Oginni, 2008).
3. CONCLUSION
Affecting the life and development of people and region transport systems is much
worse in Africa. When compared to other developed countries African countries
have further inferior urban transport development. Without an appropriate and united
effort to resolve the present condition and promote the urban transport development
Africa will go on through the pitiable state as a developing country. The interest in
personalized transport should be carried on to the public transport system. The
problems like congestion can be eliminated by a well planned and organized
transport structure with much emphasize on public and non-motorized transport
systems. Encouraging non-motorized transportation through policies and promotions
can to some extent minimize the traffic accidents and fatalities. A better
development of roads would expand the trade at a great deal over and above
provide construction and maintenance job in poorest parts of Africa (Buys et al.,
2010). Generally speaking, factors hampering urban transport development are
numerous and have many magnitudes. Correspondingly the solutions will really
have many magnitudes to be worked out in number of phases and take time.
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013 GROWTH AND CHALLENGES OF MALAYSIAN URBAN
TRANSPORTATION
Aldukali Salem I. Almselati, Riza Atiq O.K Rahmat and Othman Jaafar
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and
Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Bangi 43600 Selangor D. Ehsan, Malaysia
Email: dok 772000@yahoo.com, riza@vlsi.eng. ukm. my,
oj@vlsi.eng.ukm.my
ABSTRACT
There is a rising trend of thought today that there should be a difference among mobility and
convenience on cities. Expansion and richness of countries depend on cities. The
urbanization and urban cities gets life from the transportation sector. Malaysian urban
transportation has developed in a rapid pace, but still needs to meet certain demands of the
growing economy and population. Public transport enables mobility of bulk of people than
individuals using private vehicles like car. Improving public transportation means is a
fundamental traffic management strategy which Malaysia needs to follow from other
developing countries. Actions should be taken to promote the shift of private transportation to
public transportation. Any growth in the city population and density of buildings only add
further to the difficulties of traffic and in many cases this situation caused gridlock in cities.
This paper aims to focus on some of those issues like rise in private vehicle ownerships,
motorcycle related concerns, traffic congestion, demand of more public transport, parking,
road safety and air pollution. When each of these factors is addressed the effective
contribution can make successful urban development.
Key words : Urban transportation, Malaysia, public transportation, motorcycle, parking, cars
1. INTRODUCTION
Sustainable transport is affected by several factors in urban cities of
developing countries. As for the travel demand, it has been significantly
increased by the population growth, income level, rapid growth of cities and
urbanization. Yet the transport sector of the developing countries has always
lagged in service. Proper planning and design failure are the concerns for
most transport facilities. Most importantly, the pedestrians and non-motorized
vehicle users are almost neglected in the urban transport planning creating a
mixture of traffic in roads that adds to further complications. Highly
developing Malaysian economy makes most of the people afford to have
private vehicles and as a result the vehicle population has also boomed. The
present situation of Malaysian roads is such that it is filled with extremely
congested roads with all types of vehicles and passengers, travelling at
different speed. The situation is further complicated with the inadequate
543
public transport and parking facilities. This paper aims to examine the current
status of Malaysian transport sector.
Urbanization is at its maximum rate in the capital city of Kuala Lumpur and
there are studies being conducted on the urban development and
globalization of Kuala Lumpur (Bunnell et al., 2002). When urban
development of Malaysia is concerned, the most important feature of urban
development is urban population itself. Besides, the highway infrastructure is
also outstanding consisting of federal roads, state roads, and express
roads(Bughrara, 2008). For assisting the moving population, there are also
Light Rail Transit (LRT), commuters and monorails (Schwarcz, 2003). Even
though, like other urban cities, traffic congestion, traffic accidents, limited
parking space, environmental pollution all remains concern to urban transport
in Malaysia.
The private transport dominates the public transport system in Malaysia. For
instance, there was about 24% increase in private transport usage between
the years 1985 to 2005. The available public transport system including
buses, trains and cabs are provided by the government. Even though the
public transportation facility is modern, they lack service quality. One of our
544
studies on modelling of transport behaviour in Kuala Lumpur suggests the
need of efficient public transport system to attract car owners (Nurdeen et al.,
2007). A similar trend is observed with the other mode of public transport, the
trains (Zakaria et al., 2010). Compared to other Asian countries, it is Malaysia
that has low rate of public transport usage. The concerns of pedestrians,
bicycle users, and bus users are less considered in Malaysia.
545
2.1. PARKING
In Malaysia, the number of newly registered vehicles has increased (MAA,
2010) and in 2009 alone around 536, 905 vehicles were registered in
Malaysia, of which 486, 342 were passenger cars. Within June 2010 itself the
total number of vehicle registration figured 301, 077. As of 2005 the number
of new cars began to rise and kept almost a steady pace until 2009.
Hopefully, this trend will persist in the following years. While the number of
vehicles increases, the need for parking facilities too proportionately
increases. Parking is truly a headache to the parking patrons with cost and
frustration (Idris et al., 2009). Parking management and policies are very
much important to avoid traffic congestion, traffic accidents, pollution, and
unwanted fuel use. Increased car ownership, changes in traffic
arrangements, and densification of land creates a diminished supply of
parking facility (Prabuwono and Idris, 2008). It is the building and shop
owners who have parking as their chief concern especially during peak
shopping periods and weekends (Prabuwono and Idris, 2008). The
customers dislike moving in search of parking space and trekking from one
mall to another (Ahmed et al., 2007).
546
times speeder than cash lane. The use of these cards have to some extend
help patrons to save time.
The road fatalities in Malaysia seem to increase with time. For instance, the
fatal accidents crossing 6, 000 numbers in 2009 which was below 5, 500 until
2002 and the reasons for the existing fatalities remains to be addressed
(Mustafa, 2005). Amongst all road traffic fatalities, it is the motorcycle
crashes that are more fatal above all others. There was a total of 79, 816
motorcycle crashes in the year 2000 which is almost three times the number
of crashes occurred in 1990 and 3,000 individuals lost their lives in the
crashes in the year 2000 (CPPS, 2008). Many motorcyclists do not follow
traffic signals and are red light runners (Porter and England 2000) and about
6% of motorcycle accidents in Malaysia have occurred at traffic signal site
(Law et al., 2003). Just next to motorcycles, cars are the second largest
cause of traffic fatalities that accounts to about 20.83% in 2009. Probably
because the low rate of bus service in the country, the least number of
fatalities are created by bus. The traffic density is very high that it is also a
contributor of road traffic accidents. Other factor for accidents is festive
seasons which make the road filled with vehicles and 5% of road fatalities
occurred at festive seasons (Mustafa, 2005). As part of reducing the
incidence of accidents, the government has adopted many policies amongst
which was the allocation of RM 200 million in Ninth Malaysia Plan for
547
improvement of roads to reduce the accident rate at 5 dangerous spots (The
Economic Planning Unit, 2006).
3. CONCLUSION
Even though congestion cannot be eradicated completely, transport policy
makers should implement strategies to enable cost-effective management of
congestion without giving much burden on urban travellers. Especially in the
festive seasons and holidays, special services should be provided to alleviate
traffic congestion; for example, providing predictable travel times. Parking
management can also support the traffic congestion. Implementing smart
technologies could diminish the travel time and cost. For example, we
designed a smart traffic controller system and experimented it for a year in
busiest junctions in Malaysia which had a positive outcome of reducing the
total vehicle queuing time up to 30% than the other traffic controller systems
(Purnomo et al., 2009).
Finally, there is need to organize and plan various factors mentioned above
involved in development and improvement of urban transportation sector in
Malaysia. It is crucial for Malaysia to resolve all the mentioned problems and
make transportation in Malaysian cities better.
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551
044 COMPARISON OF ACCESSIBILITY BETWEEN HONEYCOMB AND
TERRACE HOUSING
Rahaya Bt Md Jamin 1
Hassim Bin Mat 2
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia1
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia2
rahayajamin@gmail.com
hassim@usm.my
ABSTRACT
Accessibility is the key to promote the quality standard of living for mankind. Increasing of
materials and land cost is the part of main issue to solve and become affordable price.
Hence, honeycomb is the one proffer form with cul-de-sac and courtyard in the middle of the
houses. Open space for communal is the strength of the pattern in cluster concept. Different
with conventional row housing and the linear approach to planning for terraces housing. The
argument of this paper it shows that comparison of accessibility between honeycomb and
terrace housing including the housing infrastructure, number of houses, saleable land, green
area and safety movement. Research compares within real site comparison at selected
areas. Finally, honeycomb has profiteering in land use efficiency to reduce cost of land and
infrastructure in housing development.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Ninth Malaysia Plan, 2006-20 10 focus on the provision of adequate, quality and
affordable houses for all, particularly the low- and low-middle income groups [1].
Malaysia is committed to providing shelter for all, in line with its vision of becoming a
developed nation by 2020. The magnitude and severity of housing problems in cities
as attributed to causal variables of rate of urban growth (affecting need for housing),
employment and wages that determine demand, cost and access to housing
resources (supply of land, finance, materials and labour) and government practices
in providing the services needed by urban dwellers [2].
The land market was vital if
living conditions were to be improved, amongst other resources because a
considerable proportion of the population builds their own homes [3].
Thus, families
face challenges such as finding adequate employment opportunities, and access to
affordable housing, transportation and healthcare [4].
552
1.1 Conventional row housing and the linear approach to planning
Dwelling can be arranged on individual plots of land as detached units or linked to
each other. Whether detached or linked, they line up along streets to form row
housing. In a row house, owners of individual plots of landed property maintain sole
occupancy rights. Rectilinear grids have been used as the fundamental tool for
subdiving land, where linear roads provide access to individually owned plots of
land. Roads and gridlines may be distorted by design or necessity but they retain
their linear nature [5].
Figure 1: Rectilinear Grids May Be Distorted But Retain Their Linear Nature
Source: Mazlin Ghazali, Michael J.Durack, Mohd Peter Davis (2005).
553
Figure 2: The Ubiquitou Terrace House
Source: Mohd Peter Davis, Mazlin Ghazali, Nor Azian Nordin (2006).
A cul-de-sac community
A small courtyard composed from three
neighbourhood. connected courtyards. A honeycomb neighbourhood.
Cul-de-sacs are popular: they are perceived as being safer, more exclusive
and neighbourly. According to one study, between the ‘grid’, ‘loops’ and cul-de-sacs,
the latter were the most popular [11].
However, in developing countries like Malaysia,
only the very rich can afford to live in quarter-acre single-family houses located in a
cul-de-sac. The Honeycomb concept was a response to two questions-how to made
affordable for people and environment, and without sprawl [12].
First, the cul-de-sac is made bigger so as to fit in a public green area in the
middle in order to meet local planning regulations that require 10% of any residential
554
development to be open space. Then an interlocking arrangement of cul-de-sacs is
created such that each building lot would face two or three cul-de-sacs. If the
buildings in this layout were detached houses, they would be priced in the top range
of the market. But instead, the buildings are divided into 2, 3, 4 or 6, creating duplex,
triplex, quadruplex or sextuplex units [13].
Figure 4: The Residential Blocks Are Divided Into 2, 3, 4 or 6, Creating Duplex, Triplex,
Qua druplex or Sextuplex Units.
it! [1 5].
Since houses are built around a small park with plentiful shady trees, this
communal garden is easily accessible to all in the cul-de-sac, allowing it to act as a
social focus that can interaction and encourage neighborly spirit [16][17].
555
within walking distance and self-organized into a secure community [19].
The capture
of Figure 6 is refer to footpaths ring the development and join the courtyards at the
edges. Shops and a bus station are also in the site. Schools and town parks can be
found within 500 meters radius (5 minutes). Try to create streets that are safe from
traffic and strangers. The winding roads (with the straight stretches decreasing from
150 meters (500’) in the distribution road to 25 m (80’) in the cul-de-sac) slows traffic
down to below 5 mph in front of the houses [20].
Thus, the street is made safe for
children to play. Reduce the fear of crime and improved the quality of llife. In fact at
Figure 7 try to fulfill the public spaces that are pleasant and useful to residents. A
pocket park is found in each courtyard in front of every house. The large trees in the
middle and smaller ones in front of the houses create a cool shady area. There are
also central communal facilities for prayer, sports and meetings [21].
Figure 5
Source: arkitekmghazali.blogspot.com/Thu Apr 26, 2007 11.32am
Figure 6
Source: http://tessellarfaqs.blogspot.com/2007/04/honeycomb-cul-de-sac.html
556
Figure 7
Source: http://honeycombkuantan.blogspot.com/Mon May 14, 2007 11:43am
2.0 METHODOLOGY
The honeycomb Layout may be said to be inspired from the geometrical design of
Islamic tiles and the structure of beehives, [22]
Introduced by Kuala Lumpur based
architect Mazlin Ghazali, it has received a patent in Australia [23].
Apart from the social advantages, it is also claimed that compared to the
terrace house layout, the honeycomb layout uses land efficiently and offers savings
in the cost of infrastructure [24].
557
use efficient. A similar exercise comparing 2 and 8 detached houses laid out in rows
and against the same numbers of equivalent honeycomb houses comes to the same
conclusion (Figure 9) [25][26].
558
Figure 9: Comparison Between 2 and 8 Units of Honeycomb and Linear Detached Houses.
Source: http://www.tessellar.com/2008 March 16, 10:18am
http://www.tessellar.com/Friday, May 11, 2007
559
2.1.2 Medium-scale comparison with terrace houses
Comparison between a honeycomb layout comprising 258 three-bedroom low
medium cost double-story houses of 1200 sf built up area on 15.6 acres of land, and
that a terrace house layout consisting of 288 equivalent 3 bedroom low medium cost
double story houses of also 1200 sf with 18’ frontage on 21.74 acres. Both layouts
are efficient are theoretically efficient with the land size and shape suited to the
requirements of the rectilinear and honeycomb geometry. The size of land and
number of units are not exactly the same, but this is acceptable because we are
interested in the ratios. The density is same but the amount of road for the
honeycomb is only 33% against 47% for the terrace. Consequently, the average size
of each lot is 30% larger! [27].
560
2.3 Safety movement
The cul-de-sac roads can function like the 'Woonerf', the European residential
streets where cars don't have priority rights - where it is safe for children to play in
the streets [29.] A car entering a honeycomb development would have to slow down at
the entry junction but would not have much opportunity to regain speed. The
longest straight stretch of distribution road being less than 150 metres (500’). After
slowing down to enter a cul-de-sac, the longest straight of road is only 25 metres
(80’). House entrances are off a looping road where cars have to slow down further [30].
Target the following vehicle speeds by placing further traffic calming measures,
notably introduction of rough strips of pavement across the roads at strategic
location-distribution road: maximum 40 kph, straight stretch of connecting roads into
cul-de-sacs: maximum 20 kph, looping road in courtyard: maximum 10 kph and
walking speed is about 6 kph [31].
suggests that land use patterns play a significant role in traffic safety and should be
considered in conjunction with the network pattern.
561
3.0 CONCLUSION
Ideal city in architectural terms has connected with Utopia world. Despite of Utopian
idealism has been expressed in different ways but the priority is ideal community.
honeycomb suit for urban life community but honeycomb layout still not as a Utopian
model (perfect in every sense). Its just better than the conventional alternative. This
is an alternative to the terrace or row houses, that you find in Malaysia and many
other countries. The courtyards not only serve as a recreational area, but are also
suitable for weddings and any other community events. Because socially friendly
and safe environment that existed in the kampongs that is now so much lacking in
our modern urban areas. For example, one project under constructions at Kampung
Nong Chik and will completion by the end of this year. A modern version of the
traditional village or “kampong” lifestyle. Finally, the reduction of road can make
increasing of saleable land and cut cost for overall construction.
562
REFERENCES
[2] Gilbert, Alan 1993. “Third World Cities: The Changing National Settlement
System in Urban Studies”. Vol 30. Nos. 4/5.
[3] Gilbert, Alan and Gugler, Josef 1992. Cities, Poverty and Development
Urbanisation in The Third World. Oxford: University Press.
[4] http://www.habitat.org/April 2010
13] New Straits Times, Malaysia, Property Times 4 June 2005 issue,
"Building Like A Bee", by G.Umakanthan, 4th June 2005 [3]
Retrieved 25th September 2010
563
[5] Retrieved 25th September 2010
564
19] arkitekmghazali.blogspot.com/Thu Apr 26, 2007 11.32am
0] http://tessellarfaqs.blogspot.com/2007/04/honeycomb-cul-de-sac.html
30] http://tessellarfaqs.blogspot.com/2007/04/cul-de-sac.html
2] Eric Dumbaugh and Robert Rae. Safe Urban Form: Revisiting the
Relationship Between Community Design and Traffic Safety. Journal of
the American Planning Association, Vol. 75, No. 3, Summer 2009
Keywords : University Campus, Traffic Volume, Road Geometrics, Traffic Circulation System
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper address the existing traffic flow characteristics and other related
traffic and transport components at International Islamic University Malaysia,
Gombak campus. Analysis of existing road infrastructure, traffic volume, and other
related traffic and transport components is addressed in this paper. The perceptions
of users, the campus community, on the existing traffic flow circulation are also
highlighted. Analysis on the student enrolment and staff recruitment, private vehicle
registration over the years is also carried out to determine causes of growing traffic
which induces high demand on transport infrastructure supply on-campus. Finally,
discussion on issues related to existing traffic flow and conclusions are also drawn in
this paper.
2.STUDY APPROACH
A study was initiated to evaluate the existing traffic flow characteristics in IIUM
Gombak campus because of the increasing use of motorcars and the associated
parking demand on campus. The study focuses on traffic elements such as road
geometrics, road intersection, traffic flow, parking supply and demand, and
pedestrian circulation system. Data on each of the selected traffic elements were
collected by using inventory survey, field measurement survey and observational
survey. Data were also collected on the number of staff and student population, and
number of registered vehicles by staff and students on-campus from the relevant
authorities in IIUM. A questionnaire survey was also administered, targeting staff
and student population, to ascertain their perceptions on existing traffic flow
characteristics. However, this paper focuses only on road geometrics, parking and
traffic flow characteristics, especially traffic volume.
The increasing number of student and staff population since the campus moved
from Petaling Jaya to Gombak has been exerting tremendous pressure on road and
related transport infrastructure. The number of private motorcars and motorcycles
registered by staff in 2007 was about 2790 and 505 respectively whereas the
number of private motorcars and motorcycles registered by students was about
2500 and 2450 respectively. Additionally, the number of registered vehicles
(motorcar and motorcycle) by contractors, business holdings and part-time staff in
the year 2007 was 1600. Looking at the past growth trend of staff and student
population which has had been growing at the average annual rate of 6.3% and
7.7% respectively, it is highly expected that the pressure on road and other related
infrastructure would increase appreciably in the future. It would eventually affect the
learning environment of the campus as the number of vehicles entering and leaving
the campus increases. The effect is already felt in terms of long vehicle queue, at
certain stretches of the road network on-campus at particular time period especially
in the evening hours, as the exodus of vehicles leaving the campus increases. It is
partly due to inadequate road and related infrastructure. The traffic flow conditions at
the peak hours are expected to reach critical level in the near future, if no remedial
measures are taken.
4.2 Road Infrastructure and Traffic Volume
The major road on-campus in Gombak is a circular road with Kulliyyahs (faculties)
located at one side of the major road and Mahallahs (hostels) located at the other
side. The major circular road is a 2.5 km single carriageway with two traffic lanes
measuring width of 3.65 m each with 1 m pedestrian walkway and 1 m landscape
area. The traffic flow along the major circular road is a one-way movement system.
Figure 1 illustrates the major road and other road network on-campus in Gombak.
To identify the use of vehicles along the major circular road on-campus, a
traffic volume survey was administered at two selected locations in the year 2007,
one near the entrance to the campus and other near the exit from the campus. The
count was administered on a weekday from 8 am to 6 pm (10-hour count) to
measure the number of vehicles such as motorcars, motorcycles, buses, and vans.
The average traffic volume entering the campus over a period of 10 hours was
measured at 840 vehicles per hour with a high peak, about 540 vehicles from 9-10 in
the morning, about 530 vehicles from 2-2.30 p.m. in the late afternoon and about
555 vehicles from 5-5.30 p.m. in the evening. The total number of vehicles leaving
the campus in the evening was measured at about 500-560 vehicles in the evening
hours. Expectedly, the number of motorcars was recorded the highest, about 60-
70%, followed by motorcycle, about 15-40% constituting the common types of
transport used by the campus population. Figure 2 and 3 illustrate the fluctuations of
traffic volume at the selected locations on-campus.
600
500
Cars and taxis
400
Lorries
300 and buses
200
ROAD
Vans
NETWORKS IN IIUM
100
Motorcycl es and scooters
0
Total no. of
vehicles
Time period
500
The400 existing flow of traffic on-campus, though, smooth during certain time
Lorries and buses
0
Total
CAC 0 0 84 84 0
KAED 101 2 12 115 32
KOE 80 8 39 127 139
INSTED&HEALTHCENTRE, KICT 121 0 0 121 97
KIRKHS 95 0 0 95 48
CELPAD&ITD 62 0 0 62 76
AIKOL 138 0 0 138 27
KENMS
81 193 274 156
LIBRARY&RESEARCHCENTRE
40 62 102 94
5. DISCUSSION
Walking and cycling are effective and perfect mode of transport on-campus,
but not commonly practiced in University campuses including IIUM. With limited land
space, financial and other related resources, walking and cycling could be seen as
not only energy efficient transport modes but also effective and economic utilization
of land and other resources. The responses from the questionnaire survey
administered among student population on-campus in IIUM showed that nearly 50%
of the student population stated “walking” as mode of transport from one activity to
another activity on-campus. This finding was found to be in contrast with number of
students stated “cycling” as major mode of transport to travel within campus.
Surprisingly, less than 1% of the student respondents stated that they travel by
using “bicycle” from one activity to another within IIUM campus. Some of the
contributing factors toward low level of “bicycle” use in IIUM, as expressed by
students, were unleveled road stretches along major circular road, no clear
segregation of motor vehicles and bicycle movement, bicycle parking spaces, and
security concern against the theft of bicycles. Effective measures in terms of
improved facilities (bicycle lane, covered walkway) and policies in controlling the use
of motorized vehicles on-campus would encourage the use of ‘bicycle’ and ‘walking’
among the student population. In the short-term, the proposal to expand parking
supply, though, appears to be an attractive measure to meet the increasing parking
demand, however, it looks less apparent to implement because of the limitations in
land, financial and other related resources. Additionally, this measure could only
meet the parking demand in the short-term, however, as number of motorcar’s use
increases further, it increases additional pressure to create more parking capacity
and the process continues. Careful planning in terms of managing existing physical
road and other related resources is highly required to handle traffic growth on-
campus. Providing regular bus services between Mahallahs and Kulliyyahs,
Mahallahs and administrative offices, and between Kulliyyahs could be another
effective measure which would greatly reduce the use of motorcar and thus,
addressing high parking demand within IIUM campus. Promotion of green
environment through the use of walking, bicycle and bus services on-campus, thus,
creating conducive and competitive learning and research culture should be highly
advocated and realized.
6.CONCLUSIONS
The survey has showed that use of bicycle among student population, was at
low level. The bicycle use on-campus would be enhanced if supporting infrastructure
such as bicycle lane, parking spaces for bicycle and security arrangement against
bicycle theft is in place. Additionally, operation of regular bus services within campus
would not only help decrease use of motorcars, thus reducing parking demand and
road infrastructure but also, more importantly, promote green environment which is
very much required and essential for a pleasant and healthy learning and research
culture.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to express his gratitude to International Islamic University
Malaysia for providing fund for this project.
0.REFERENCE
A Comprehensive Review on Traffic System at IIUM Gombak Campus, Draft Final
Technical Report, Prepared by Centre for Built Environment, Kulliyyah of
Architecture and Environmental Design, IIUM, 2007.
074 URBAN GROWTH AND ITS IMPLICATION ON HOME AND
WORKPLACE LOCATION: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
ABSTRACT :
Traditionally homes and workplaces were located close to each other. However, in many
cities today, urban homes and workplaces are located far from each other. Urban
development is also at a crossroad with rapid urbanisation on the one hand and demand for
sustainability on the other. This article is an attempt to develop a conceptual framework to
understand the association between urban growth and home-workplace relationship in order
to sustain urban living into the future.
Keywords : Urban Growth, Urban Form, Home and Workplace Location, Commuting
18. INTRODUCTION
Homes and workplaces are two important elements in an urban area. In general,
the locations of homes and work places can indicate the form of an urban area.
Many researchers concur that when homes and workplaces are located far from
each other the urban area is said to have a sprawling urban form (Ali, Olfert, &
Partridge, 2007; Knaap, Talen, Olshansky, & Forrest). This type of urban form is
indicated by a spread of low-density residential development that radiates out from a
core centre where employment presumably concentrates (Brueckner, 2001;
Bruegmann, 2005). Cities that sprawl are said to have grown unwisely. Studies on
urban sprawl usually focus on issues of environmental sustainability (Fujiwara,
Zhang, Lee, & Cruz, 2005), commuting and travel attitude (Alpkokin, Hayashi, Black,
& Gercek, 2005; Golob & Brownstone, 2005) and overall human well being (Frank &
Engelke, 2001; Waller & Hughes, 1999). This is because urban sprawl is alleged to
cause most of the contemporary urban ills such as traffic congestion, wasteful use of
land, and unhealthy population. The extent of sprawl through decades of intense
urban growth has alarmed many quarters; hence many have tried to understand
sprawl from different perspectives (Brueckner, 2001; Burchfield, Overman, Puga, &
Turner, 2005; Ewing, Rolf Pendall, & Don Chen, 2002; Tsai, 2005).
Cities in the past stayed compact because it was unavoidable. Due to the lack
of efficient transportation, people did not have much choice but to walk; thus all sort
of urban activities including homes and workplaces need to be within walking
distance. Although urban compactness seems to garner supporters at present, it
had been said to be one of the main causes of many urban ills in the past. Without
efficient mode of transportation, people who worked in the cities had to stay within
the compact and congested cities. Although the workers were staying near their
workplaces, many suffered due to unhealthy living conditions. However, once the
urban residents obtained a means of transportation most chose to escape the
hardships they had to endure in the overcrowded compact cities (Hall, 2002b).
Nevertheless, the importance of the marketplace was revived and cities became
dominant once again as economic incubators under the rule of the merchants.
These mercantile cities later evolved into industrial and megacities of today.
Industrial activities existed long before the Industrial Revolution era; it existed in the
walled cities under the guild systems distinguished from the more common
agriculture livelihood of the rural people. The inventions of powered machineries
heighten industrialization in the 18 th to the 19 th century. This induced the
development of new cities as well as intensified urban growth in the existing
mercantile cities.
The industrialist became the ruler of the cities by setting up factories that
employed thousands of workers. The economic functions of cities became more
intense as the factories agglomerated to take advantage of economic of scale in
their productions. The agglomeration of these industries attracted more factories,
business entities and people into the cities therefore adding densities to the cities
(Levy, 2009). The inventions in technologies in this period not only sparked
Industrial Revolution but also Urban Revolution that transformed small towns into
great cities like it did Manchester and Bradford in Britain (Kotkin, 2006). Rapid
urbanization and industrialization however had their negative sides that made the
urban environment unhealthy. Further developments in transportation technologies
finally gave the urban people options to stay farther from the city centre while
maintaining their city centre employment. With the improvements in transportation,
not only more of the urban people moved out but also the factories and firms
pursued them. This marked the massive urban expansion and dispersion from the
city centre.
The Romans however took a different course in developing their cities and
devoted their lives to create great cities. The Roman cities did not depend on local
economics as their drive toward urban growth like the Greek did. Secondly, the
Romans employed technological instruments to support the increasing number of
population and urban economics as a result urban growth took another height.
Technological advances in economic activities, engineering and construction
allowed Romans cities to have continuous economic and geographical growth.
These forces therefore transformed traditional Roman cities particularly Rome into a
vast megacity that spread over a wide landscape. In this urban growth process, the
forces of growth came from the economics of foreign trading that encourage and
sustain the growth of local economics as well as the impartation of technologies to
lay down road network, canal and sewerage systems.
The urban society particularly British urban economic society was ready to
embark upon another stage of economic development, when industrial technologies
advance towards the end of Early Modern Era. The long history of urbanization in
Western Europe and North America had produced cities like London, Paris and New
York that were capable in managing their commerce and trade through the rise in
mercantilism. Urban form as a result followed the desires of trading activities to
expand urban area and land uses for storage, commerce and housing, which
eventually strengthen urbanization of cities along navigable waterways. These had
preconditioned the cities to board yet another stage in economic development. On
the other hand, like Rome these mercantile cities maintained their stronghold within
the core city and developed gradually as needed from the core.
During the Industrial Revolution, many inventions were developed and the
height of it was the steam engine that evolved to power many factories and land
transportation . Inventions in manufacturing industries that boost urban economic
and urban growth however precede the perfection of urban social infrastructures for
further urban development. Therefore, although there was rapid economic growth
there was not much “urban development” in the city. Industries agglomerated in the
cities to take advantage of economies of scale in their industrial productions
concentrating more people within the city center making the urban form more
compact than ever. Peter Hall (2002a) attributed the social predicament during the
Industrial Revolution to the inability of the urban infrastructures to support the social
needs as a result from massive economic growth. However, many attributed it to
the economic gullibility of the industrialist whom had forced massive and rapid urban
economic undertaking into the city as the main reason for the fall of urban social life
at that time.
The urban growth process that focused solely on economic growth during the
Industrial Revolution essentially suppressed the beauty of urban living. The
agonizing life that urbanites had to endure during this era had left a deep scar in the
image of urban civilization. Thus, when efficient public rail transportation was
introduced many urbanites chose to escape the city center. This is the beginning of
yet another challenging urban form for the contemporary urban. The rail
transportation technologies slowly brought people out of the crowded city center in a
concerted way by many parties including the public transportation owners, land
developers and financial institutions (Hayden, 2004). Urban dispersal paved its way
through rail transit stations that were position along the railway tracks beyond the
city edges. However, since the railway tracts were fixed people’s residents were to
some extent fixed to the tract line. As the lines radiate from the city center, the
urban form was shaped into a radial pattern. The outward trend of urban people
intensified as people gain control of their mobility through private car ownerships.
With the cars, people can locate themselves in any directions and distance they like.
This led to the suburbanization conspiracy by major stakeholders whom were to gain
from this movement which include all types of entrepreneurs, professional and
authorities. Strategies to portray suburban living as more superior to urban living
have been preached widely as a result, many residential suburbs were developed to
provide housing for the urban people at the same time more employment suburbs
are being developed to provide employment for the suburban residents. Finally, the
urban form that prevailed from these urban dispersal and decentralization process is
the ultimate sprawling pattern of most major cities in the world.
Urban civilization cannot be measured by the glory of the rulers and their landmarks
alone (Gallion & Eisner, 1986). The rise and fall of each urban civilization marks the
evolution of human kind and their livelihood. Gallion and Eisner (1986) described
the city as the collection of the people and their daily life which include their houses,
their workplaces, together with the paths or streets and the markets or shops that
facilitate their way of life. Through the historical review of urban growth it is noted
that as the urban grows people’s livelihood is being affected particularly that relates
to their location of homes and workplaces. Table 1 present a brief analysis of the
effect of urban growth on the relationship of homes and workplaces locations. The
table shows that in the traditional cities people stayed and worked in the same
premise or district within the cities. The home and working place in an occupational
house for instant were only separated either horizontally or vertically within a
building. This is usually true under the guild system of master and apprentice.
However, as the city evolved from a traditional compact city to modern sprawling
urban region, the homes and workplaces had undergone a process of separation by
area within the growing metropolitan region. This means that as the urban area
experience growth, homes and workplaces will likely be located far from each other.
Levinson (1998) in analyzing accessibility and the journey to work suggests that the
existence of both homes and workplaces in the same district will shorten work trip
indicating that if homes and workplaces are found in the same district people will
decide to live and work in the same district.
Metropolitan region are usually chaotic in nature it comprise massive spread of
different types of urban land uses particularly of homes and workplaces. However,
within the chaotic nature there is still an order where clustering of homes,
workplaces or homes and workplaces are found in polycentric (Alpkokin, Black,
Kato, & Vichiensan, 2007). Therefore, the action taken to decentralize some of the
homes and workplaces to the suburbs to ease the city center were laudable. Then
again, decentralization of homes and workplaces as a single use entity will require
travel between the two (David M Levinson, 1998). Densification and mixing of
homes and workplaces would greatly reduce distance, travel time and travel cost
between the two but it is an antithesis to metropolitan growth that is supported by
the automobile vice versa (David M. Levinson & Kumar, 1997). In much effort to
combat urban sprawl many suggested the creation of a compact city. Arbury (2005)
studied to see if compact city is feasible to combat urban sprawl in Auckland, and
stated that while compact city depends on intensifications and vertical living and
majority of his sample population accepted the idea they were skeptical of how it is
going to be materialized.
Compact city model in the contemporary urban is based on the traditional city
model where growths are limited within a specified area. However implementation
of a compact city not only predetermine the size but also to the characterization of
the city; which include method of intensification, combination of economic growth,
formulation of mixed-use development and quality of urban design. In addition
compact city model also employ public transportation to provide accessibility to other
areas and reduce the use of private cars (Arbury, 2005). Therefore, putting homes
and workplaces together in the compact city model to create polycentric within the
metropolitan region will enhance the effectiveness as opposed to having sub-
centres. Furthermore, as cities advances beyond the five stages of economic
development the component of tertiary sector will become larger with support of
technological advances in communication and information industries. This would
imply that a compact city would suffice to support this new urban lifestyle.
The conceptual framework for understanding urban growth and its implication on the
location of homes and workplaces is illustrated in Figure 1. Although homes and
workplaces dominate, the urban landscape the dominance of each differs as one
passes different types of urban landscape using different path, not to mention
different modes of travel. Figure 1 show that urban growth depend on two important
events in human civilization; i.e. technological advancement and economic growth.
Technological advancement demonstrates the thinking capacity of humankind and
the tools that they created to assist them in doing work. Economic growth is the
advancement in the financial status that resulted from production of goods and
services. Economic growths usually come about when technological advances are
employed for producing goods as well as delivering services. It is important to
identify different stages of urban growth through timing of the different technological
advances, as this will influence the development of different type of economic
sectors. As illustrated in Figure 1 there seems to be a dynamic interaction between
the urban form, location of homes and location of workplaces. It is believed that a
thorough understanding of these interaction will reveal how urban growth influence
the location of homes and workplace within the urban areas.
TECHNOLOGICAL
ADVANCEMENT
Figure 1 Conceptual Framework of Urban Growth Implication on the
Locations of Homes and Workplaces
LOCATION OF LOCATION OF
HOMES WORKPLACE
relation to current urban form. Here issues of their relationships were discussed
briefly so that the importance of such study can be appreciated. The urban
background provide foundation to looked at the relationship of technological
advancement and economic growth with urban growth stage. The most important
aspect of this study is that the conceptual framework can be applied on any city at
any urban growth stage. In conclusion, knowledge of the where homes and
workplace location in an urban area and how they got there can assist in the
management of urban growth.
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077 REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF LAND USE AND PRIVATE VEHICLE
USAGE IN URBAN AREA
Mehdi Moeinaddini1 and Muhammad Zaly Shah2*
Ph.D. candidate in transportation planning. Department of Urban and Regional
1
ABSTRACT: The prices of high accessibility in urban areas are normally high mobility and
lots of externalities (economic, social and environmental problems). In modern planning, the
relationship between urban structure and travel behavior must be clearly understood in order
for planners to reduce the cost of these externalities. Since urban structures have the same
indicators irregardless of the country, the relationship between urban structure and travel
behavior were studied based on data from cities around the world. Using data from 33 cities,
the results of multi linear regression analysis indicate that there are significant relationships
between land use indicators and private motorized trips in these cities.
Keywords : land use indicators, private vehicles, travel behavior, multiple linear regression
1. INTRODUCTION
Land use in urban areas can be defined as different proportion of lands that belongs
to a special function such as residential, commercial, recreational, industrial zone
and so on. Further, land use pattern can be defined as how these proportions of
land uses are placed in urban form. This study will look at how the placement of
these land uses affect trip distance and trip mode. Specifically, the investigation
involves the identification of the relationship between land use indicators as
independent variables; and percentage of daily trips by private motorised modes as
dependent variable.
Density is one of the land use indicators that is considered by many studies as a
factor that affect travel behavior. Doubling the density will reduce number of cars
and vehicle mile travel (VMT) per household (Holtzclaw, 1994). Kitamura, et al.
(1997) concluded that the proportion of non motorized trip is positively related to
residential density. Furthermore, Burchell, et al. (1998) found that higher densities
reduce vehicle mile travel. However, density is not a simple factor of build
environment and it does not exclusively determine VMT. In fact, vehicle mile travel
may be due to other indicators, not just density (Myers and Kitsuse, 1999).
Vehicle travel can be reduced by having a jobs/housing balance around 1.0 (Weitz,
2003). Crane and Chatman (2003) found that a five percent increase in the
percentage of employment can reduce the average commute distance by 1.5% in a
metropolitan area’s outlying counties. Industry has various impacts on travel so
wholesale, service employment and construction that located in suburban lead to
shorter commutes but suburbanization finance and manufacturing causes increasing
commute distances (VTPI, 2009).
Travel behaviour can also be affected by availability of parking spaces. With more
and cheaper parking, car ownership and usage has increased owing to the rise of
convenience and lower cost (Litman 2006).
Similarly, automobile travel can be reduced by improving walking and cycling. These
improvements tend to increase non-motorized and transit trips. More walkable
communities cause more walking and this walking substitutes for driving (Handy and
Mokhtarian, 2005). Cycling facilities increase cycling rates (Barnes and Krizek,
2005). Bicycle commuting can be increased 0.075 percent by each mile of bike lane
per 100,000 residents (Dill and Carr, 2003). People are three times likely to bike if
they live within a 0.5 mile of a cycling route (Morris, 2004). Transit trips can be
increased by improving walk ability near transit station (Ryan and Frank, 2009).
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 Data
The data that are used in this study were selected from different world’s cities to
help examine the relationship between land use and travel behaviour in different
socio-economic context. This study uses urban population density, proportion of jobs
in the central business district, parking spaces per thousand jobs in the central
business district, park and ride facilities per urban hectare and percentage of daily
trips on foot and by bicycle as land use indicators and also percentage of daily trips
by private motorised modes as travel behaviour indicator. Table 1 presents data that
are used in this research.
2.2 Hypothesis
a. Urban Density (V 1 )
It is expected that cities with higher densities have lower percentage of daily trips by
private motorised modes. In higher density urban areas, activity locations have
shorter distance and there are more chances to use non-motorized transport modes.
In addition, public transport can have better service in higher density areas.
It is expected that higher the proportion of jobs in CBD, the lower the percentage of
daily trips by private motorised modes. Distribution of jobs in suburban areas can
cause increasing commute distance. This distance decreases non-motorized travel
modes because it is hard to walk or cycle and manage transit to support all
suburban areas.
It is expected that increasing parking spaces in CBD encourages people to use their
private motorised vehicle. More parking improves convenience and usage. So, if
people spend more money and time for park their car, they will have more
motivations to change their travel modes from motorized to non-motorized.
It is expected that cities with higher park and ride facilities have less percentage of
daily trips by private motorised modes. Park and ride facilities can help people to
manage their trips and change it from private motorized to the public transport. On
the other hand, it also promotes private motorized trips at least to the public transit
station and facilitates using private motorized mode. So it is also expected that park
and ride facilities promote percentage of daily trips by private motorised modes.
e. Percentage of daily trips on foot and by bicycle (V 5)
It is expected that trips by foot and bicycle influence percentage of daily trips by
private motorised modes. This effect is expected to decrease with an increase of
percentage of daily trips on foot and by bicycle. More walk-able communities cause
more walking and people will walk instead of driving so walking and cycling can
substitute for driving. Cities that have more walking and cycling facilities and more
walking and cycling trips will have less percentage of daily trips by private motorised
modes.
2.3 Analysis
The strength of the relationships was found through multiple linear regression
model, a statistical procedure that attempts to assess the relationship between a
dependent variable and two or more independent variables. The functional
relationship that will be estimated by the multiple linear regression involves a single
dependent variable and five independent variables and is shown in Eq. (1):
Y f(V1,V2,V 3 ,V4,V 5 )
= (1)
Where:
V1 = urban population density
V2 = proportion of jobs in the central business district
V3 = parking spaces per thousand jobs in the central business district
V4 = park and ride facilities per urban hectare
V5 = percentage of daily trips on foot and by bicycle
Multiple linear regression model assumes that all variables are normally distributed.
So, the first step is to test all variables for normality using the Shapiro-Wilk test (refer
Table 2). The results of the normality test indicate that V1, V2, V3 and V4 are not
normally distributed. Transforming these variables to natural logarithm solve the
problem. For park and ride facilities per urban hectare (V4), since the value is zero, a
constant value of one is added prior to the transformation. Table 3 details the
second normality test after the natural logarithm transformation, which now shows
that all variables are normally distributed.
Other tests that were performed before modelling the relationship are the test for
linearity which was done using scatter plots (see Figures 1 to 5), the test for
multicollinearity (see Tables 4 and 5) and the test for autocorrelation using the
Durbin-Watson test (see Table 6). The results from these tests show that the data is
linear, with no multicollinearity and heteroscedasticity problems.
The coefficient of determination, R2, value of the regression model shows that more
than 69 percentages of variables can be explained by the model. The value of
standard error of the estimate per mean of dependent variables indicates the power
of the model for prediction. For this model, this value is about 0.15 that means this
model is good for prediction. Table 6 provides the model summary. For this model
the F-ratio is 12.094 which is very unlikely to have happened by chance (p < .001)
so this model is significantly good at predicting the outcome variable (refer Table 7).
The confidence level in this model is 95%.
The model indicates a positive constant for private motorized daily trips and this
constant is significant using t-test (refer Table 8). The model also indicates a
negative coefficient for the relationship between natural logarithm of urban
population density (V1) and private motorized daily trips and this coefficient is
significant using t-test (see Table 8). So the model shows that cities with higher
natural logarithm of densities have lower percentage of daily trips by private
motorised modes.
The model also indicates a negative coefficient for the relationship between natural
logarithm of proportion of jobs in the central business district (V2) and private
motorized daily trips and this coefficient is significant using t-test (refer Table 8). This
is interpreted to be that the higher the natural logarithm of proportion of jobs in CBD,
the lower the percentage of daily trips by private motorised modes.
As for the relationship between natural logarithm of parking spaces per thousand
jobs in the central business district (V3) and private motorized daily trips, the positive
coefficient is significant when tested using t-test (refer Table 8). So the model shows
that increasing natural logarithm of parking spaces in CBD encourages people to
use their private motorised vehicles.
Also in Table 8, the model indicates that the positive coefficient is not significant for
the relationship between natural logarithm of park and ride facilities per urban
hectare (V4) and private motorized daily trips. This means that there is no significant
relationship between park and ride facilities and private motorized daily trips. It is
possible to omit these insignificant variables to have better standard residuals
normal distribution as shown in Figure 6.
Finally, for the relationship between percentage of daily trips on foot and by bicycle
(V 5 ) and private motorized daily trips, the model indicates that the negative
coefficient is significant using t-test (see Table 8). So, the model shows that higher
trips by foot and bicycle influence percentage of daily trips by private motorised
modes. It decreases with an increase of percentage of daily trips on foot and by
bicycle.
3. CONCLUSION
This paper reports the multiple linear regression analysis for land use data as
independent variables and private motorized daily trips as dependent variable. From
this research, it can be concluded that the following variables influence private
motorized daily trips:
1. natural logarithm of urban population density
2. natural logarithm of proportion of jobs in the central business district
3. natural logarithm of parking spaces per thousand jobs in the central
business district
It was found that natural logarithm of density, natural logarithm of proportion of jobs
in the CBD and daily trips on foot and by bicycle have negative relationship with
private motorized daily trips. On the other hand, the natural logarithm of parking
spaces per thousand jobs in the CBD has a positive relationship. Among these
predictors, natural logarithm of density has the highest negative coefficient.
Indirectly, high natural logarithm of density can be more effective at reducing private
motorized daily trips.
Consequently, higher density, lower proportion of parking spaces in CBD, higher
proportion of jobs in CBD and higher daily trips on foot and by bicycle can reduce
predicted private motorized daily trips in case of land use indicators. Therefore, land
use strategies and planning that increase density, proportion of jobs in CBD and
daily trips on foot and by bicycle but reduce proportion of parking spaces in CBD
should be considered in urban areas if private motorized trips are to be reduced.
Table 1. Research data
Figure 1. Partial regression plot (natural logarithm of urban population density and private
motorized daily trips)
Figure 2. Partial regression plot (natural logarithm of proportion of jobs in the Central
Business District and private motorized daily trips)
Figure 3. Partial regression plot (natural logarithm of parking spaces per thousand jobs in the
Central Business District and private motorized daily trips)
Figure 4. Partial regression plot (natural logarithm of park and ride facilities per urban hectare
and private motorized daily trips)
Figure 5. Partial regression plot (percentage of daily trips on foot and by bicycle and private
motorized daily trips)
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