Aircraft Design (2011)

AIRCRAFT DESIGN (MECH ENG 4108 & MECH ENG 7062)
Date Lecture Topic Due

28/02/2011 Lecture 1 Introduction
28/02/2011 Lecture 2 Aircraft design methodology
WEEK 1
3/03/2011 Lecture 3 Aircraft design introduction – technical task (Due 03/03/2011) Groups members
3/03/2011 Lecture 4 Aircraft design introduction – team working
7/03/2011 Lecture 5 Aircraft design organisation
7/03/2011 Lecture 6 Aircraft weight calculation
WEEK 2
10/03/2011 Lecture 7 Mission fuel weight
10/03/2011 Lecture 8 Tutorial
14/03/2011 Public holiday
14/03/2011 Public holiday
WEEK 3
17/03/2011 Lecture 9 Sensitivity analysis
17/03/2011 Lecture 10 Sensitivity to other parameters
21/03/2011 Lecture 11 Tutorial (project discussions)
WEEK 4
24/03/2011 Lecture 14 Standard requirements
28/03/2011 Lecture 15 First estimation of aircraft design parameters
28/03/2011 Lecture 16 Sizing to stall speed requirements
WEEK 5
31/03/2011 Lecture 17 Sizing to takeoff distance requirements
31/03/2011 Lecture 18 Sizing to landing distance requirements
WEEK 6
7/04/2011 Lecture 21 Drag polar estimation at low speed
7/04/2011 Lecture 22 Sizing to FAR23 and 25 climb requirements
11/04/2011 Lecture 23 Tutorial (Flight lab intro)
11/04/2011 Lecture 24 Tutorial (Flight lab intro)
WEEK 7
14/04/2011 Lecture 25 Sizing to time to climb, ceiling and manoeuvring requirements
14/04/2011 Lecture 26 Sizing to cruise speed requirements – matching diagram
Mid Sem break 18/04/2011-02/05/2011

WEEK 8
5/05/2011 Lecture 29 Aircraft three view and drawings
5/05/2011 Lecture 30 Overall configuration design
9/05/2011 Lecture 31 Overall configuration design
9/05/2011 Lecture 32 Fuselage design (crew and passenger cabin design)
WEEK 9
12/05/2011 Lecture 33 Fuselage design (overall configuration)
12/05/2011 Lecture 34 Propulsion system selection and integration I
WEEK 10
19/05/2011 Lecture 37 Propulsion system selection and integration II
19/05/2011 Lecture 38 Wing design considerations I (Due (20/05/2011) Assignments 1 and 2
23/05/2011 Lecture 39 Wing design considerations II
23/05/2011 Lecture 40 Empennage design considerations
WEEK 11
26/05/2011 Lecture 41 Landing gear design and integration I
26/05/2011 Lecture 42 Landing gear design and integration II
WEEK 12
2/06/2011 Lecture 45 Weight and balance analysis
2/06/2011 Lecture 46 Stability and control analysis (Due 10/06/2011) Project reports and drawings
School of Mechanical Engineering
Aircraft Design
Introduction
Dr. MAZIAR ARJOMANDI

Semester I
Introduction Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Aircraft Design School of Mechanical Engineering
About myself:
• Education:
– PhD in Aerospace Engineering (Aircraft Design) from Moscow Aviation Institute (MAI), 1999
– ME in Aerospace Engineering (Aircraft Design) from Moscow Aviation Institute (MAI),1996
– BE in Mechanical Engineering (Design) from Iran University of Science and Technology
(IUST), 1992
• Research Area:
– Optimization techniques in aircraft conceptual design
– Aircraft design
– Active and passive methods of flow control
– Plasma aerodynamics
– Vortex flow
– Heat transfer
– UAV and MAV design
– Composite materials
– Sustainable energy production
– Wind and wave energy devices
• Contacts:
– Room S232, email: maziar.arjomandi@adelaide.edu.au, phone: 83038128
– Webpage: http://www.mecheng.adelaide.edu.au/~marjom01/
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What we are trying to do in this course:

• In Teaching Aircraft design, we require students, either individually or in small
groups do engineering.
Course objectives:
• Design process
• Engineering methods in real life (this is not the same thing as calculation)
• Engineering teamwork and projects (with individual responsibility in a
group)
• Aeroplane design (what we really signed up to do)
Course specific objectives:

1. Design an aircraft using the design process.
2. Use design requirement to define specific aircraft configuration features.
3. Estimate aircraft size, weight and thrust required to satisfy mission
requirements.
4. Do an engineering analysis to assess an aircraft design’s potential to meet
given design requirements.
5. Compile data, compare and assess current aircraft capabilities against a
specific design requirement.
6. Make pro/con charts comparing design concepts against the desired design
matrix.
7. Do parametric analysis to select design variable values.
8. Work on a multidisciplinary design team.
9. Write an engineering design report.

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References:
• Aeroplane design, vol I, II; John Roskam (main text books)
• Aeroplane design, vol III, VIII; John Roskam
• Aircraft design (a conceptual approach); Daniel Raymer (recommended to
purchase)
• Aircraft Design; Ajoy Kumar Kundu
• Aircraft performance and design; John Anderson
• The design of the aeroplane; Darrol Stinton
• Airframe Structural Design ; Michael Chun-Yung Niu
• Standard Handbook for Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineers ; Mark Davies
• Design of Aircraft; Thomas Corke
Course mark:
• Final exam: 70%
– Open book, two-three problems
• Project: 25% (2 students per group)
– final report and DRAWINGs Section/criteria Mark (total 100)
– Assessment rubric 1- External design 10
– Deliverables (hardcopy: final report 2- Weight calculation 5
and drawings; softcopy: pdf format of
the project final report) 3- Matching diagram 10
• Assignments: 5% 4- Configuration design 15
– Two assignments 5- Drawings 20
Due on 20.05.2011 at 3pm 6- Format and clarity 15

7- Research activities 10
Submit to the submission box
on the 1st floor 8- Completeness 15
Project assessment rubric

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Aerospace internationalisation
• International business competitions
– Airbus is competing with Boeing
– Russia is trying to join EADS to be in competition
– Japan, China and India are entering the aerospace business
– Australia is reinforcing its joint venture with US and British aerospace industries
• Too expensive to be afforded by one country
• Major political influences
• High added value products
• Most prestigious industry
• Related to safeguarding the countries

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Who is a good designer?

• Always asking questions, curiosity about everything
• Great associative power: lets them recognize and draw upon parallels in other fields
for ideas (implies that designers have eclectic interests and often roam for a field in
science and engineering - said to be “interested in everything.”)
• Presented with a problem, always seem to respond with a flood of ideas, then look
to interactions with associates to sort out the good from the bad
• Strong inner directed personalities: are sure of themselves, able to accept with
equanimity the guffaws at the poor solutions they propose along with the kudos for
success
Computer & designer relationship:

“New engineers today have an overdependence on computers. They have a tendency to believe
everything the computers tell them. You throw in a bunch of numbers and out comes the
answer, and therefore it must be right. Just because it comes out on a computer printout
doesn’t make it right.
I should be able to go to a wing designer and say to him or her, “We need to change the gross
weight by 5%. How does that change the bending moment of the new wing?” If that person
runs a calculation on the back of the envelope and says it’ll do this, that’s fine with me. But
when someone says I’ll give you the answer in three days when it comes out of the
computer, that’s an overdependence.
You’ve got to have practical thinking people who know what they’re doing.”
From Benjamin Cosgrove (Boeing Head Engineer)

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A design team:
The other design

teams could
be added
Chief
Designer
From Lockheed Corp., Dr. Bouchard

What is a design?
• Not a clear-cut/scientific or completely rational process
– Despite efforts to formalize
– Neat flowcharts of steps aren’t real life, still needed as goals
– But! Some systematic procedures available
• Creativity/imagination, but not pure inspiration
• Broad understanding of physical world
• Beware of cookbook approach:
– understand your concept
• Never stop asking questions!

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Type of design:
• Selection (“catalogue design”)
• Configuration (assembly of selections)
• Parametric (how big is the wing?)
• Original (What could be called conceptual design)
• Redesign (new versions, improvements, etc.)
Most design projects use several of these types of design
Engineering is CREATIVITY:
Good Designs look simple

From Virginia Tech. University, Dr. Mawson
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An engineering design approach:

• evaluate (or define) the requirements (customers/regulations, constraints/performance
goals)
• understand current approaches (what’s done now?)
• think of some possible solutions (creativity)
• identify a variety of possible concepts (concept generation)
• concept evaluation (analysis)
• select a preferred concept for development (make a decision)
• do the detail design and make a prototype (analysis)
• test and evaluate (scrutinise)
• continually refine the design until it’s a viable product
Note: Many of these steps are repeated, it’s an iterative process

Some facts
1. Visualization may be more important than analysis
Quality sketches/drawings critically important
2. The design engineer who remains on the frontiers of engineering finds himself
making only a small fraction of his decisions on the basis of numerical analysis:
but understanding fundamental principles is crucial
3. Failures: Only a small fraction of engineering design failures would have been
prevented using advanced numerical methods.

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Aircraft Design
Aircraft design methodology

Semester I
Aircraft design methodology Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Design as decision making:

• Design is a net decision making process
• Decisions could be very expensive “you bet your company”:
– Airbus A380 vs B747X
– SU-27 (Supermanoeuvrability) vs F-16 (simplicity)
– Military bets: the JSF, winner takes all
• Design decisions make at every level:
– what’s the wing planform?
– which airfoil?
– what materials?
– balance - stable or unstable?
• To support the design decisions we use :
– Multidisciplinary Design Optimisation (MDO)
– tables of pros and cons
– relevant experience, observation of prior practice, case study
– education
– team working
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Engineering design process

• Invention (idea generation)
• Engineering analysis Creating phases
Usage of computers %
• Decision making
Evaluation
Generation
Idea
Idea
Synthesis Analysis Decision
Making
MDO is an approach for

decision making
Aircraft design hierarchy

Aviation
System
Maintenance Standard
Flight Crew Aircraft Airport …
Organisation System
Structure Propulsion Avionic Payload …
Wing Engine Indicators Passengers …
Fuselage Fuel System Radios Cargo
Internal
Empennage Nozzle Weapons
Communication
Landing Gear Air Intake sensors …
… … …

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Aircraft Design process:
Preparation the Request For Proposal (RFP)

External Design Technical Task (TT)
requirements
Conceptual Design
Preliminary Design
Internal Design Design Detail Design (Prototyping
& Flight Testing & …)
Tooling
Manufacturing Manufacturing Mass production
Design stages:
• Conceptual Design (1-3% of the people)
– Competing concepts are evaluated
– Performance goals are established
– Preferred concept is selected
– What drives the design?
– Will it works?
– Will it meet the requirements?
– What does it look like?

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Design stages:
• Preliminary Design (10-15% of the people)
– Refined sizing of preferred concept is done
– Design is examined (establish confidence)
– Some wind tunnel tests are done
– Big codes are used
– Actual cost estimation is prepared
– changes are allowed
– Company is involved
Design stages:
• Detail Design (80-90% of the people)
– Final detail design is done
– Drawings are released
– Detailed performance is calculated
– Certification process is started
– Component and system tests are conducted
– Tooling design is started
– More and precise wind tunnel tests are done
– Prototypes are manufactured
– Flight tests are done
– Only “tweaking” of design is allowed

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Design and costs
Funds committed
Decisions made
Aircraft development process
From aeroplane design, past, present and future by Prof. McMaser (Boeing Co)
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Main Technical Objectives of the Course:

• Preparation of an organised “Technical Task” and understanding “Mission
Specification”
• aircraft conceptual design
• aircraft preliminary design
• Some aspects about aircraft detail design
• Detail design was mainly covered in other design courses
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Aircraft Design
Aircraft design introduction – technical task

Semester I
Aircraft design introduction – Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1

technical task
Understanding mission specification:

• Market survey
• Operational analysis
• Customer requirements
• Economical manufacturing and design
• Reliability considerations
• Maintainability considerations
• Flexible design (could be slightly changed in design process)
• Continual improvement (development of a family of products)
The requirements should be realistic, practical and reasonable

technical task Page 15 of 270
A successful example: Boeing 737-X market driven definition:

A family of 100-157 seats mixed class – A design for simplicity
Basic aircraft:
Maintain high reliability, proven systems, reduced maintenance
cost
The next additions to the family:
Retain existing 737 digital flight deck (crew communality)
Interior improvement (increased flexibility and passenger comfort)
Modified wing with chord and span increase (range and cruise
speed increased)
New engine and nacelle (reduced noise and emissions, improved
operating economics, better performance)
Modified vertical and horizontal tail (better stability and
performance)
Increased fuselage length (increased passenger number and
comfort)
Boeing 737 family
www.aerospaceweb.org
technical task
Feasibility study
• A feasibility study can be defined as a controlled process for identifying problems
and opportunities, determining objectives, describing situations, defining
successful outcomes and assessing the range of costs and benefits
associated with several alternatives for solving a problem (Alan Thompson, 2005)
• The purpose of a feasibility study is to determine if a business opportunity is
possible, practical, and viable (Hoagland and Williamson, 2000).
• It is estimated that only one in fifty business ideas are commercially viable. A
feasibility study is an effective way to safeguard against wastage of further
investment or resources (Goften, 1997; Bickerdyke et al. 2000)
• A feasibility study should contain clear supporting evidence for its
recommendation. The strength of the recommendations can be weighted against
the study ability to demonstrate the continuity that exists between the research
analysis and the proposed business model.
• Recommendations will be reliant on a mix of numerical data with qualitative,
experience-based documentations (Wickham 2004).

Feasibility study
www.cartoonstock.com
technical task
Feasibility study discussions
It is not a literature survey or benchmarking
The topics are:

• What is the product (benchmarking)? • Intellectual property?
• Technology required (literature survey)? • Regulations and standards?
• Market environment? • Environmental issues?
• Who are the competitors? • Critical risk factors and mitigation
• Industries involved? strategy?
• Business model required? • Financial issues?
• Marketing and sales strategy?
• Production facilities?
• Operating and maintenance organisations?

Technical task requirements:

1. Introduction (Project bases, funding, customer & …)
2. Standard requirements (ATA, JAR, ASTM, MIL, AP, FAR, …)
3. Performance parameters (payload weight, cruise speed, range, takeoff and landing
distances & …)
4. Technical level of the product (fighter generation, superiority & …)
5. Economical parameters (cheap UAV, passenger-kilometre cost & …)
6. Power plant type and requirements (engine type, fuel type, engine life cycle, engine
environmental characteristics & …)
7. Main system parameters requirements (hydraulic system type, landing gear type,
avionic devices specifications & …)
8. Special systems and miscellaneous (weapon, individual television & …)
9. Reliability and maintainability (hourly failure rate, maintenance period & …)
10. Unification level (flight deck, fuselage diameter, airfoil & …)

technical task
Aircraft conceptual design:

• Preliminary sizing
– Weight (payload weight, empty weight, fuel weight, takeoff weight)
– Thrust or power (thrust loading)
– Wing area (wing loading)
• Sensitivity studies
– Refinement of preliminary sizing

Aircraft preliminary design:

• Configuration design
– Initial layout of wing, fuselage and empennage
– Tail sizing, weight and balance, drag polar, …
– Landing gear disposition
– …
• Sizing iteration
• Refinement of preliminary calculation
– layout of wing, fuselage and empennage
– Weight, balance, drag polar, flap effects, stability and control, …
– Performance verification
– Preliminary structural layout
– Landing gear disposition
– Cost calculation

technical task
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Aircraft Design
Aircraft design introduction – team working

Semester I
Aircraft design introduction – team Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
working
How does a team work?

• Efficient team interaction
• Team decisions: what do we need to do?
decision making is a key aspect of
design
• Individual Analysis using engineering
methods, including computer tools
• Meet to put results together, make a
decision, decide how to act on it, and go
do it
• Don’t stop at a point, go forward
– If you don’t do anything you wont
have any mistakes!
Don’t forget:
Whether we like it or not,
we are all in this together.
From Boeing company
working
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What is teamwork?
• It is not everyone getting together to work on
the same homework problem.
• It is:
– establishing the question that needs to
be answered
– each team member taking responsibility
for a particular task and doing the work
– putting the results of each task together
at a group meeting and establishing: Did
we answer the question?
– If so, what's next? If not, how do we
recast the question?
working
How a productive team works:
From Book: Building productive teams by Varney

working
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What is an effective team? What is an ineffective team?

1. Atmosphere - informal, relaxed, comfortable 1. Atmosphere of indifference/boredom or
2. All members participate in discussion tension/antagonism
3. Objective of the team is well 2. A few team members dominate
understood/accepted 3. An observer has a hard time understanding
4. Members listen to each other team objectives
5. There is disagreement, but group accepts it 4. Team members do not listen, discussion
6. Most decisions reached by a kind of jumps around
consensus 5. Disagreement not dealt with effectively
7. Criticism is frequent, frank, constructive; not 6. Actions taken prematurely, before real
personal issues resolved
8. Members feel free to express feelings as 7. Action: unclear—what is to be done and who
well as ideas does it?
9. Action: assignments are clear and accepted 8. Leadership clear, whether weak or strong
10. Leader does not dominate 9. Criticism appears embarrassing and
11. Group evaluates operation, resolves tension-producing
problems 10. Personal feelings are hidden
11. Group does not examine its
performance/process
From Book: Team players and Teamwork by Parker
working
Effective teams contain a mix of personalities:
• Contributor: task oriented, enjoys providing team with good information, does
homework, pushes excellence
• Collaborator: goal-directed, sees team mission/goals, but willing to help outside
his/her defined role, share limelight with other team members, seen as a “big-
picture” person
• Communicator: process-oriented, effective listener and facilitator; consensus
builder, resolves conflicts, seen as a “people person”
• Challenger: questions goals and methods, willing to disagree, encourages team to
take well-conceived risks.
From Book: Team players and Teamwork by Parker

working
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Code of Cooperation for teams:

1. EVERY member is responsible for the team’s
progress and success.
2. Attend all team meetings and be on time.
3. Carry out assignments on schedule.
4. Listen to and show respect for the views of other
members.
5. Criticize ideas, not persons.
6. Use and expect constructive feedback.
7. Resolve conflicts constructively.
8. Always strive for win-win situations.
9. Pay attention — avoid disruptive behaviour.
10. Ask questions when you do not understand
http://www.searchenginepeople.com
From Boeing Commercial Airplane Group by Don Evans
working
What is teamwork?
www.popular-pics.com
working
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A good team member:

• is a strong advocate for his/her area
• is willing to accept changes to improve total design
• is responsible
– accepts and meets reasonable goals
– provides data/info when a team member needs it
– data is accurate and presented understandably
– uses bulletin board to accomplish data transfer
– good communicator: lets people know what’s going on
Don’t do anything unless you understand how it contributes to

your final product
working
Project planning! Why?

• Communicate what you are going to do
• Get support from team members
• Gain approval from management
• Show the customer how you intend to deliver the product
• Prove the need for additional resources and manage work loads
• Determine cash flow needs
• Keep a record of what happened compared to the original plan
Project planning! How?

• Set the project goals
• List the tasks (use Gantt Charts)
• Estimate how long each will take
• Decide on the sequence of tasks and the relationship between them
• Assign people, equipment and costs for the tasks
• Track the progress using milestones, and manage the project
Suggestion: Use “Microsoft Project”
working
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Project planning
www.glasbergen.com
working
An example:
From Virginia Tech University by W.H. Mawson

working
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Time management:
• List everything you need to do today - in order of priority.
• Make time for important things, not just urgent ones.
• Write your goals. Then write the steps to your goals.
• Set a starting time as well as a deadline for all projects.
• Slice up big projects into bite-size pieces
• If you run out of steam on one project, switch to another
• Say no to new projects when you’re already overloaded
• Trim low-payoff activities from your schedule
• For each paper that crosses your desk: act on it, file it, or
toss it
working

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Aircraft Design
Aircraft design organisation

Semester I
Aircraft design organisation Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Aircraft design matrix organisation:

You work for a project
You work in an organisational team

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Aircraft design steps and tasks:
Aircraft Design
Conceptual Preliminary Detail

Manufacturing
Design Design Design
General Design Engineering Groups Engineering Groups

(based on knowledge and (based on engineering &
experience) knowledge) Workshops
The Conceptual Design Team : A Suggested Organization

1. Leader
2. Configuration Designer
3. Weights, also balance/inertia
4. Vehicle Performance and Mission Analysis
5. Aero Configuration
6. Flight Controls
7. Propulsion & Propulsion System Integration
8. Structures/Materials
9. Aircraft Systems
10. Cost and Manufacturing — last but not least!

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Aircraft design groups:
Beauty in the Eye of the Beholder
From book: fundamental of aircraft design by L.M. Nicolai

Leader:
• Make sure that everything is coordinated, that the person who needs help gets it,
and that communications exist between every team member.
• Set schedules and meet deadlines, working with the configurator and the entire
team, establish the “vision” of the concept.
• Work with the group to define the decision making process for each part of the
design process: What do we need to decide, how will we do it?
• Keep the design notebook, recording the project history, data and team member
commitments.
• Lead the design review presentation. Make sure that everyone is working on the
same airplane, and that the presentations and reports are properly coordinated.

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Configuration designer:
• Using either paper or CAD, coordinate the requirements into a concept that will fly!
• Provide the group with the design information required to perform analysis of the
concept. This means drawings!
• Configuration designer could be the team leader
http://www.cartoonstock.com/
Weights:
• Estimate weight, cg and inertia of the configuration. Using the concept layout
sketch, provide the configuration designer with cg estimate.
• Include the cg travel with load and mission
• Use weights equations in Raymer, Torenbeek, Nicolai and Roskam and possibly
Niu
• Generate the standard weight statement.
Get the spreadsheet ready!

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Vehicle Performance and Mission Analysis:

• Develop the mission profile(s). Make sure the airplane can perform the design
mission, and define the fallout capability for other missions. This includes operation
of the sizing code and generation of carpet plots illustrating the basic sizing in terms
of thrust and wing area, and the constraint lines imposed by takeoff, landing,
manoeuvre and acceleration requirements. Compute field performance.
• Make use of information from the:
– configuration designer regarding geometric definition
– aero person for the aerodynamic characteristics
– propulsion person for the basic “engine deck” data and corrections to account
for installation
– weights person to establish the system weights
• Note: each one of these people should check the output from sizing to make sure
that the data being used is correct.
Aerodynamic Configuration Design and Analysis:
• Define the “design drivers.” What’s the best configuration to do the required mission
from an aerodynamics point of view? Ensure the concept is aerodynamically
efficient. Think streamlined!
• Provide the neutral point to the configuration designer.
• Estimate zero lift drag, including skin friction, wave, form and misc. drag. FRICTION
is available for the skin friction and form drag estimate.
• Estimate the induced drag, establish a target span.
• Select the specific airfoils and design the wing (twist).
• Make the drag polars, and make sure they are trimmed.
• Provide estimates of CLmax (trimmed) for landing and takeoff and define the high
lift concept required to achieve that CLmax
• Work with Stability and Control: Cm0, etc.

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Handling Qualities, Stability, Control, and Flight Controls:
• Develop control power requirements (criteria) for the mission

• Decide how best to meet the requirements,
– stable or unstable?
– canard or aft tail, etc.
• Estimate your design’s control power (be able to trim with adequate control margin
at critical points in flight envelope).
– are the control power requirements defined above met?
– use X-plots to size the tails
• Assess design stability (use DATCOM or JKayvlm & spreadsheet or equivalent.
Note the new Drela VLM). Decide on control system.
• Meet MIL spec and FAR requirements for flying qualities.

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Propulsion and Propulsion System Integration:
• Select the type of propulsion system appropriate for the specified design
requirements
• provide the Thrust and sfc characteristics for the entire flight envelope for use in the
mission analysis
• Define the thrust and fuel flow for the engine you selected throughout the flight
envelope
• Supply scaling and weight data to the performance team
• Define the appropriate engine inlet and nozzle, or propeller system for each aircraft
concept the group is investigating.
• Size the inlet capture area or the prop
• Estimate the installation losses.
• With the aero team, define the thrust-drag bookkeeping system.
Structures/Materials:
• Develop an appropriate materials basis (cost/complexity; example: compare
volumetric efficiency of composites vs. wave drag penalty at supersonic speeds)
• Ensure a structural concept that “supports” the configuration, i.e., identify the load
paths for wing, landing gear, tail, etc.
• Define critical loads requirements for defining structural design basis. (Draw a
good V-n diagram)
• See Torenbeek, the other parts of Roskam for structural design guidance, and Niu,
as well as the overview by Raymer.
• Size the members (skin, bulkheads, etc.)

Page 33 of 270
Aircraft Systems:
• Landing Gear
• Details on systems required in the aircraft
• Crew station requirements, cockpit layout
• Passenger and cargo arrangement (volume and weight)
• Weapons system if appropriate
• Avionics systems
• Other mechanical systems (actuators)
• Technology developments and current systems used
• Concentrate on weight, volume and power requirements
Cost and Manufacturing

• No decision made without cost consideration
• Design decisions must be manufacturable
• Manufacturing cost should be considered
• Modular production techniques could be used
• If it is cheaper it doesn't mean that it is better & If it is more expensive it doesn't
mean that it is better!
• Good engineers must be able to sell his/her idea on the best price

Page 34 of 270
An aircraft design team!
From Northrop by Sandusky

To start:
• Prepare your team
• Define a mission (remember technical task)
• Seek as more as information as you can
• Don’t stop. Go ahead
http://uk.gonzalo-filgueiras.com
Page 35 of 270
Main aircraft types for this course
1 Home built propeller driven airplanes

2 Single engine propeller driven airplanes
3 Twin engine propeller driven airplanes
4 Agricultural airplanes
5 Business jets
6 Regional turbo propeller driven airplanes
7 Transport jets
TO BE REVIEWED
8 Military trainers
9 Fighters
10 Military patrol, transport airplanes
11 Flying boats, amphibious and float airplanes
12 Supersonic cruise airplane

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Aircraft Design
Aircraft weight calculation

Semester I
Aircraft weight calculation Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Takeoff weight build-up:

• WTO=W0=design takeoff gross weight (total weight of the aircraft as it begins the mission
which the aircraft is designed for).
W0 could be less than Wmax (e.g. in military aircraft)
• Wf=mission fuel weight

Wf is not considered trapped fuel weight
• We=empty weight (includes the structure, engines, landing gear, fixed equipment, avionics,
and anything else not considered a part of crew, payload, or fuel)
• Woe=operational empty weight (includes: empty weight, trapped fuel weight, crew weight)

Page 37 of 270
Takeoff weight build-up:

W0 = Wcrew + W payload + W fuel + Wempty
The crew and payload weights are known, hence :
Wf  W 
W0 = Wcrew + W payload +  W0 +  e W0
 W0   W0 
Wf  W 
∴W0 −  W0 −  e W0 = Wcrew + W payload
 W0   W0  The general
Wcrew + W payload Wcrew + W payload equation for
∴W0 = , or W0 = calculating
W  W  1 − W f − We aircraft weight
1 −  f  −  e 
 W0   W0 
n
• It means that we use weight fraction for ∑W known

the components with unknown weight W0 = i =1
m
parameters. For example, if we use built
engines, engines’ weights are known. 1 − ∑ Wunknown
j =n

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How could we calculate crew weight?

• If it is not given by customer, use standards
• Crew weight is usually 85kg
• Add to this number at least 15kg for baggage (in special aircraft it could be up to 50kg)
• Consider aircraft type (e.g. in human powered aircraft we try to hire a thin but strong pilot)
• If it is a passenger aircraft crew is pilots, flight engineers, and stewardesses
• If it is UAV, Wcrew=0
How could we calculate payload weight?

• For passenger/civil aircraft:
– It is given by customer
– Don’t forget baggage
• For fighter/military aircraft:
– It should be calculated according to the mission (it is usually done by Air Force
engineers; probability analysis, game theory, scenario imagination, world
geopolitical situation and …)
– Droppable payload is payload (cargo, bomb, parachutist, pesticides, …)
• Usual UAVs have no payload (except UCAVs). Cameras on UAVs are not payload!
Empty weight estimation:

• It is estimated statically
• Roskam suggested the following equation: log W0 = A + B log We
We C
• Raymer suggested the following equation: We = = AW0 KVS
W0
logWe
We/W0
logW0 logW0
Roskam’s equation Raymer’s equation
Page 39 of 270
Roskam’s equation
log W0 = A + B log We
From Book: Aeroplane design by J. Roskam


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Page 40 of 270
Raymer’s equation C
We = AW0 KVS
Aircraft Type A C
Sailplane – unpowered 0.86 -0.05
Sailplane – powered 0.91 -0.05
Homebuilt – metal/wood 1.19 0.09
Homebuilt – composite 0.99 -0.09
General aviation – single engine 2.36 -0.18
General aviation – twin engine 1.51 -0.10
Agricultural aircraft 0.74 -0.03
Twin turboprop 0.96 -0.05
Flying boat 1.09 -0.05
Jet trainer 1.59 -0.10
Jet fighter 2.34 -0.13
Military cargo/bomber 0.93 -0.07
Jet transport 1.02 -0.06
KVS = 1.00 if fixed sweep
KVS = 1.04 if variable sweep
From Book: Aircraft design; a conceptual approach, by D. Raymer

An example: high altitude UAV

Page 41 of 270
An example: supersonic transport
From Virginia Tech University by J. W. Mawson


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Empty weight fraction consideration:

• Both methods give approximately similar answers
• Both methods recommend to use correction coefficients for composite aircraft
• The graph of We vs. W0 is named “technology diagram” as it shows the amount of
takeoff which could be carried by 1kg of empty weight.
• The coefficients provided for both methods in the books are for the Imperial Units.
Your duty:
Tables could be used only for solving course
assignments and examination questions. In real design
and design project you have to derive the equations
and calculate the coefficients

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Aircraft Design
Mission fuel weight

Semester I
Mission fuel weight Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Mission profile:
• It is usually given by the customer
• If you want to work it out, you have to simulate your aircraft and flight environment
• This is a multidisciplinary optimisation problem
• If it is a civil aircraft it will be done by airlines or related institutions; If it is a military aircraft it
will be done by army specialists
• They usually use effectiveness calculation method, probability analysis and game theory
approaches.
• In this course we use general mission profiles related to the aircraft type

Page 44 of 270
Typical mission profile (transport aircraft):
Altitude Hold
25 - 35-45 knot
Loiter
Climb
RANGE
Takeoff Main Alternate

Destination
TRIP DIVERSION
FUEL FUEL
RESERVES
Typical mission profile (attack aircraft):
Segment Description Altitude [ft] Mach #

1 Takeoff - -
2 Climb to cruise altitude - -
3 1st Cruise 40,000 0.7
4 Descent to ingress altitude - -
5 200 nm Ingress 250 0.9
6 Pop-Up for bomb drop - -
7 Bomb Drop ~5,000 ?
8 Descent to egress altitude - -
9 200 nm Egress 250 0.9
10 Climb to cruise altitude - -
11 2nd Cruise 40,000 0.7
12 Descent - -
13 Landing - -
http://www.aerospaceweb.org/design/ucav/mission.shtml
Page 45 of 270
Typical mission profile (fighter):
http://www.ruag.com/ruag

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Typical mission profile (atmosphere research):
http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc/aviation/avf9-6.htm
Typical mission profile (reconnaissance aircraft) - SR71:
http://www.blackbirds.net/sr71/srmissionp.html
Page 47 of 270
Typical mission profile (reconnaissance UAV) – Global Hawk:
http://www.emporia.edu/earthsci/student/graves1/project.html
Typical mission profile (jet trainer) – Yak-130:
http://www.yak.ru
Page 48 of 270
Mission fuel fraction definition

• Fuel fraction for each phase is defined as the ratio of end weight to begin weight
e.g. for phase 1 we have:
Wi+1/Wi
• Your duty is to differentiate the phases and calculate the fuel fraction corresponding
to each mission phase
• Mission fuel fraction (Mff) is found by:
 W1  n  Wi +1 
M ff =  ∏  
 WTO  i =1  Wi 
Phase 1: Engine start and warm-up

• Try to find reliable data according to engine type
• If no data is available, statistical data can be used
• You can use both Roskam’s and Raymer’s data
• For this phase usually Wi+1/Wi≥0.99
Phase 2: Taxi

• It can be calculated by using required time and thrust for taxiing and fuel specific
consumption for this phase
• In real world it mainly depends on the airport category

Page 49 of 270
Phase 3: Takeoff
• It can be calculated by using required time and thrust for takeoff and fuel specific
consumption for this phase
Phase 4: Climb
• It can be calculated by using required time and thrust for climb and fuel
specific consumption for this phase. Breguet’s loiter equation is used to find
time to climb  1  η p   L   
tclpropeller =      ln Wi −1 
   
 Vcl  C p  cl  D  cl  Wi 
 1  L W 
tcljet =     ln i −1 
C   D
 j  cl cl  Wi 
• It mainly depends on the climb altitude and cruise speed


Page 50 of 270

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Phase 5: Cruise
• It can be calculated by using Breguet’s range equation
ηp   L     Wi +1  − Rcr C p
R propeller
=    ln Wi −1    = exp
C   D W 
η p (L D )cr
cr
 p  cr cr  i  , or  Wi  propeller
V  L W   Wi +1  − Rcr C j
Rcrjet =     ln i −1    = exp
C   D V (L D )cr
 j cr  Wi 
cr  Wi  jet
• Don’t forget that combat aircraft utilises weapons in this phase

Page 51 of 270
Phase 6: Loiter
• It can be calculated by using Breguet’s loiter equation
 1  η p   L     Wi +1  − Eltr C pVltr
E propeller
=      ln Wi −1    = exp
ltr
 Vltr
   
 C p ltr  D ltr  Wi  W
 i  propeller η p (L D )ltr
, or
 1  L    Wi +1  − Eltr C j
E jet
=    ln Wi −1    = exp
ltr C
 j
 D
ltr ltr
W 
 i   Wi  jet (L D )ltr
• Don’t forget that combat aircraft utilises weapons in this phase
Phase 7: Descent
• It can be calculated by using required time and thrust for taxiing and fuel
specific consumption for this phase
Phase 8: landing, taxi & shut down

• All the engines are on idle regime
Page 52 of 270
Phase 9: Combat operation

• We need to know the number of turns and load factor for specific operation to
calculate combat fuel fraction
Combat fuel = sfc×thrust×time
• Turn rate can be calculated by:

g n2 −1
Turn rate ψɺ =
V
• Time for operation = (no of turns)(360°)/(turn rate)
Where to get data to put in formulae?

• Use engines data for engine specification and SFC
• Use historical data for L/D or use wetted aspect ratio
– Historical data can be found by statistical analysis
– Wetted aspect ratio = b2/Swet = A/(Swet/Sref), Swet/Sref is the relationship between
wetted area and reference area
– Use next slide to estimate L/D
To find wetted area you have to sketch the aircraft
• Unknown data could be estimated by using statistics

Page 53 of 270
L/D estimation:

A classic example for

understanding L/D: B-47 vs
Avro Vulcan B-1:
• traditional idea: higher AR gives

higher L/D
• low AR wing with less wetted area
competes with high AR
From Book: Aircraft design; a conceptual

approach, by D. Raymer
Page 54 of 270

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Span trap
Span plays a bigger role than aspect ratio!

Page 55 of 270
Fuel fraction estimation:

• Used fuel during the mission can be found from:
W fused = (1 − M ff )⋅ WTO
• Don’t forget reserve fuel:

W f = (1 − M ff )⋅ WTO + W freserve
• If no data is available for reserve and trapped fuel use following equation:
W f = 1.06WTO (1 − M ff )
Example 1: a marine patrol twin engine jet driven aircraft

– Loiter: 6 hours at an altitude of 10000m at a distance of 2000km from the
takeoff point at the sea level
– Payload: 8 crew and the equipment. Equipment weighs 2000kg
– Cruise: at an altitude of 10000m at 0.6 Mach number
1. Calculate aircraft takeoff weight

2. Draw the graph of aircraft takeoff weight vs loiter time

Page 56 of 270

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Aircraft Design
Sensitivity analysis

Semester I
Sensitivity analysis Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Why do we need to do sensitivity studies?

• To evaluate and refine the design requirements with the customers
• To find out which parameters drive the design
• To determine which areas of technological change must be pursued
• To estimate the impact of optimistic and pessimistic selection of the input
parameters
• To predict further development of the design
We have already done it using trade studies. Here we want to derive the equations

Page 58 of 270
Takeoff weight sensitivities:

Empty weight equation is : WE = WTO − WFuseable − WPL − Wcrew − WFunuseable
Also we have : WFuseable = (1 − M ff )⋅ WTO + WFreserve
If we use M reserve = reserve fuel fraction, we have :
WFreserve = M reserve (1 − M ff )⋅WTO
Using two last equations, we have : WFuseable = (1 + M reserve )(1 − M ff )⋅WTO
Also we have : WFunuseable = M Funuseable ⋅WTO
Replacing two last equations in the main equation we have :
WE = WTO (1 − (1 + M reserve ) ⋅ (1 − M ff ) − M Funuseable ) − (WPL + Wcrew )
Or : WE = CWTO − D
Where :
C = 1 − (1 + M reserve ) ⋅ (1 − M ff ) − M Funuseable
D = WPL + Wcrew

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Page 59 of 270

Remember this equation : log WTO = A + B log WE
If we replace : WE = CWTO − D then we have : WTO = A + B log(CWTO − D )
Using partial differentiation we can obtain the sesitivity of WTO to desired parameter y :
∂
(log WTO ) = ∂ ( A + B log(CWTO − D ))
∂y ∂y
1 ∂WTO ∂A ∂B B  ∂C ∂W ∂D 
⋅ = + ⋅ log(CWTO − D ) +  ⋅ WTO + C ⋅ TO − 
WTO ∂y ∂y ∂y CWTO − D  ∂y ∂y ∂y 
Since the relationship between WTO and WE is linear and A and B vary only with aircraft type,
then :
∂A ∂B
= 0 and =0 then we will have :
∂y ∂y
∂WTO B ⋅ WTO  ∂C ∂W ∂D 
=  ⋅ WTO + C ⋅ TO − 
∂y CWTO − D  ∂y ∂y ∂y 

If we simplify the equation we have :
∂WTO  CBWTO  1  ∂C ∂D 
1 −  =  BWTO 2 − BWTO 
∂y  CWTO − D  CWTO − D  ∂y ∂y 
Or :
∂C 2 ∂D
BWTO − BWTO
∂WTO ∂y ∂y
=
∂y C (1 − B ) ⋅ WTO − D

Page 60 of 270
Takeoff weight sensitivity to payload weight:
If y = WPL then :
∂C ∂ (1 − (1 + M reserve ) ⋅ (1 − M ff ) − M Funusable )
= =0
∂WPL ∂WPL
∂D ∂ (WPL + Wcrew )
= =1
∂WPL ∂WPL
Therefore :
∂WTO − BWTO
= BWTO (D − C (1 − B ) ⋅WTO )
−1
=
∂WPL C (1 − B ) ⋅WTO − D

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Page 61 of 270
Example:
• Calculate the sensitivity of takeoff weight to payload weight for the aircraft, given in
the example 1 (marine patrol twin engine jet driven aircraft).

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Aircraft Design
Sensitivity to other parameters

Semester I
Sensitivity to other parameters Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Takeoff weight sensitivity to empty weight (structural weight):
Remember this equation :

log WTO = A + B log WE
By partial differentiation with respect to WE we have :
∂ (log WTO ) ∂ ( A + B log WE )
=
∂WE ∂WE
1 ∂WTO ∂A ∂B B ∂WE
∴ = + log WE +
WTO ∂WE ∂WE ∂WE WE ∂WE
∂WTO BWTO ∂WTO BWTO
∴ = ⇒ =
∂WE WE ∂WE  log WTO − A 
log −1  
 B 

Page 63 of 270
Takeoff weight sensitivity to range, endurance, speed, SFC,

propeller efficiency and L/D
2 ∂C ∂D
BWTO − BWTO
∂WTO ∂y ∂y
=
∂y C (1 − B ) ⋅WTO − D
If y is any parameter but not payload :
∂C ∂ (1 − (1 + M reserve ) ⋅ (1 − M ff ) − M Funuseable ) ∂M ff
= = (1 + M reserve )
∂y ∂y ∂y
∂D ∂ (WPL + Wcrew )
= =0
∂y ∂y
∂M ff
Let' s calculate :
∂y

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W1 n Wi +1
We know that : M ff = ⋅∏
W0 i =1 Wi
 Wi +1   W1 n Wi +1 
∂  ∂ ⋅∏ 
∂M ff W W W
=  i ⋅  0 i 
i =1
then :
∂y ∂y W 
∂ i +1 
 Wi 
To solve this derivative remember that if :
n n
∂∏ X i ∏ X i
n
∂y y
y = ∏ X i = X1 ⋅ X 2 ⋅ ⋯ ⋅ X n , then = , or : i =1 = i =1
i =1 ∂X 1 X 1 ∂X a Xa

 W1 n Wi +1  W 
∂ ⋅∏  ∂ i +1 
Hence :  W0 i =1 Wi  = M ff and : ∂M ff =  Wi  ⋅ M ff
 Wi +1  Wi +1 ∂y ∂y Wi +1
∂ 
W
 i  Wi Wi
W 
∂ i +1 
W
To calculate  i  we can use Breguet' s equation (here we derive
∂y
the equations only for jet airplane) :
V L W 1 L W
R= ln i , and E = ln i
C D Wi +1 C D Wi +1

Page 65 of 270

Wi W
If we define R = ln and E = ln i then we have :
Wi +1 Wi +1
R = RC VL ( D
) −1
and E = EC L ( D) −1
∂  Wi +1  W W
To find   we can use : i = e R or i +1 = e − R then :
∂y  Wi  Wi +1 Wi
∂  Wi +1  ∂R − R ∂R Wi +1
  = − ⋅e = − ⋅ and if we replace them :
∂y  Wi  ∂y ∂y Wi
∂  Wi +1   W  ∂R ∂  Wi +1   W  ∂E
  = − i +1  and   = − i +1 
∂y  Wi   Wi  ∂y ∂y  Wi   Wi  ∂y

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Page 66 of 270

∂C 2 ∂D
BWTO − BWTO
∂WTO ∂y ∂y
=
∂y C (1 − B ) ⋅WTO − D
If we replace the parameters, we will have :

∂WTO ∂R
=F
∂y ∂y
∂WTO ∂E
=F
∂y ∂y
F = − BWTO (CWTO (1 − B ) − D ) (1 + M reserve )M ff
2 −1

If y is one of the desired parameters, we find Breguet partials:
From Book: Aeroplane design by J. Roskam

Page 67 of 270
Example 2: A jet transport

• A jet transport aircraft with the following parameters is given. Calculate aircraft
takeoff weight and it’s sensitivity to the aircraft main parameters.
Payload: 300 passengers
Crew: 2 pilots and 8 flight attendants
Range: 7000km followed by 1 hour loiter and a 150km flight to alternate
Cruise speed: M=0.83 at 35000ft
Flight altitude: 35000ft
Climb: direct to 35000ft at 2000fpm
Propulsion system: 2 turbofans

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Aircraft Design
Standard requirements

Semester I
Standard requirements Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Standard types:
• In this course following types of the standards are introduced:
– General standards
• Technical (ASTM, IEEE, …)
• Organisational (ISO, EFQM, …)
– Aviation standards
• Technical (FAR, JAR, AP, MIL, …)
• Organisational (ICAO, FAR, JAR, …)
Don’t Forget that in these days it’s impossible to design,

make and fly an aircraft disregard the standards
Page 70 of 270
General technical standards:

• These standards focus on manufacturing process and technical properties of a
detail or component.
• They are the best sources of experimental analysis of the parts
• ASTM was established by American Society for Testing and Materials and covers
nearly 12000 standards. It is the biggest mechanical standard database in the
world.
• IEEE was established by Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineering.
• A lot of other standard databases are also available. Those were mentioned just as
the examples. Some of them were collected by independent organisations like
ASTM, IEEE, DIN, GOST, …. Some of them were collected by industries like OST,
NACA, ATA, ….
General organisational standards:

• These standards focus on organisational behaviour and relationship
• Some of them are very universal and some are quite specific
• ISO was established by International Organisation for Standardisation. It has
different parts and is upgraded continuously
• EFQM (European Foundation for Quality Management) and TQM (Total
Quality Management) are the models for assessing the excellence of the
organisations. They introduce novel techniques for self assessment and
benchmarking the companies as well as the ways for improvement

Page 71 of 270
Aviation standards:
• As an example we study only FAR. The others are similar.
• ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organisation) and IATA (International Aviation
Transport Association) are more related to air transport safety system. These
standards regulate flight routes, aircraft noise and emissions, airport categories and
so on
• FAR (Federal Aviation Regulation) was established by FAA (Federal Aviation
Authority), JAR (Joint Aviation Regulation) was established by JAA (Joint Aviation
Authority) are the most common civil aviation standards in the world. They are
technical and organisational standards. MIL is most common military aviation
standard.
• In Australia CASA (Civil Aviation Safety Authority) is responsible for aviation
standardisation
FAR (Federal Aviation Regulation):

• Has been used for more than 60 years.
• Covers nearly all the types of civil flying vehicles
• Covers design, manufacturing and operation of flying vehicles as well as
organisational regulations.
• It is audited, controlled and updated by FAA – a US governmental structure.
• It is recognised nearly in all the countries

Page 72 of 270
FAR main parts:

• Part 21 - Certification procedures for products and parts
• Part 23 - Airworthiness standards: Normal, utility, acrobatic, and commuter
category airplanes
• Part 25 - Airworthiness standards: Transport category airplanes
• Part 27 - Airworthiness standards: Normal category rotorcraft
• Part 29 - Airworthiness standards: Transport category rotorcraft
• Part 31 - Airworthiness standards: Manned free balloons
• Part 33 - Airworthiness standards: Aircraft engines
• Part 35 - Airworthiness standards: Propellers
• Part 36 - Noise standards: Aircraft type and airworthiness certification
• Part 43 - Maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding, and alteration
• Part 45 - Identification and registration marking
• Part 47 - Aircraft registration
• Part 61 - Certification: Pilots, flight instructors, and ground instructors
• Part 101 - Moored balloons, kites, unmanned rockets and unmanned free balloons
• Part 103 - Ultralight vehicles
• Part 105 - Parachute Operations
FAR-Part 21: Certification procedures for products and parts

• Subpart A - General
• Subpart B - Type Certificates
• Subpart C - Provisional Type Certificates
• Subpart D - Changes to Type Certificates
• Subpart E - Supplemental Type Certificates
• Subpart F - Production Under Type Certificate Only
• Subpart G - Production Certificates
• Subpart H - Airworthiness Certificates
• Subpart I - Provisional Airworthiness Certificates
• Subpart J - Delegation Option Authorization Procedures
• Subpart K - Approval of Materials, Parts, Processes, and Appliances
• Subpart L - Export Airworthiness Approvals
• Subpart M - Designated Alteration Station Authorization Procedures
• Subpart N - Approval of Engines, Propellers, Materials, Parts, and Appliances:
Import
• Subpart O - Technical Standard Order Authorizations

Page 73 of 270
FAR-Part 23: Airworthiness standards: Normal, utility, acrobatic,

and commuter category airplanes
• Subpart A - General
• Subpart B - Flight
• Subpart C - Structure
• Subpart D - Design and Construction
• Subpart E - Powerplant
• Subpart F - Equipment
• Subpart G - Operating Limitations and Information
For FAR standards see: www.airweb.faa.gov

www.i-regulatory.com
FAR-Part 23: Flight regulations

• Subpart B - Flight – Sec. 23.143 - General.
–Sec. 23.21 - Proof of compliance. – Sec. 23.145 - Longitudinal control.
–Sec. 23.23 - Load distribution limits. – Sec. 23.147 - Directional and lateral control
–Sec. 23.25 - Weight limits. – Sec. 23.149 - Minimum control speed.
–Sec. 23.29 - Empty weight and corresponding centre of gravity. – Sec. 23.151 - Acrobatic maneuvers.
–Sec. 23.31 - Removable ballast. – Sec. 23.153 - Control during landings.
–Sec. 23.33 - Propeller speed and pitch limits. – Sec. 23.155 - Elevator control force in maneuvers.
–Sec. 23.45 - General. – Sec. 23.157 - Rate of roll.
–Sec. 23.49 - Stalling period. – Sec. 23.161 - Trim.
–Sec. 23.51 - Takeoff speeds. – Sec. 23.171 - General.
–Sec. 23.53 - Takeoff performance. – Sec. 23.173 - Static longitudinal stability.
–Sec. 23.55 - Accelerate-stop distance. – Sec. 23.175 - Demonstration of static longitudinal stability.
–Sec. 23.57 - Takeoff path. – Sec. 23.177 - Static directional and lateral stability.
–Sec. 23.59 - Takeoff distance and takeoff run. – Sec. 23.181 - Dynamic stability.
–Sec. 23.61 - Takeoff flight path. – Sec. 23.201 - Wings level stall.
–Sec. 23.63 - Climb: General. – Sec. 23.203 - Turning flight and accelerated turning stalls.
–Sec. 23.65 - Climb: All engines operating. – Sec. 23.207 - Stall warning.
–Sec. 23.66 - Takeoff climb: One-engine inoperative. – Sec. 23.221 - Spinning.
–Sec. 23.67 - Climb: One engine inoperative. – Sec. 23.231 - Longitudinal stability and control.
–Sec. 23.69 - Enroute climb/descent. – Sec. 23.233 - Directional stability and control.
–Sec. 23.71 - Glide: Single-engine airplanes. – Sec. 23.235 - Operation on unpaved surfaces.
–Sec. 23.73 - Reference landing approach speed. – Sec. 23.237 - Operation on water.
–Sec. 23.75 - Landing distance. – Sec. 23.239 - Spray characteristics.
–Sec. 23.77 - Balked landing. – Sec. 23.251 - Vibration and buffeting.
–Sec. 23.141 - General. – Sec. 23.253 - High speed characteristics.
Page 74 of 270
MIL regulation example list:

• MIL-F-8785C Flying Qualities of Piloted Airplanes
• MIL-F-83300 Flying Qualities of Piloted V/STOL Aircraft
• MIL-F-9490 Flight Control Systems-Design, Installation and Test of Piloted Aircraft
• MIL-S-8369 Stall/Post-Stall/Spin Flight Test Demonstration Requirements for Airplanes
• MIL-C-18244 Control and Stabilization Systems: Automatic, Piloted Aircraft
• MIL-D-8708 Demonstration Requirements for Airplanes
• MIL-C-5011 Charts; Standard Aircraft Characteristics and Performance (known as SAC
Charts)
• MIL-STD-881 Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)
• MIL-A-8860 through 8864 and 8870: Airplane Strength and Rigidity
• MIL-P-26366 Propellers, Type Test of
• MIL-I-8700 Installation and Test of Electronics Equipment in Aircraft
• MIL-S-18471 Seat System, Ejectable, Aircraft
• MIL-W-25140 Weight and Balance Control data
• MIL-STD-757 Reliability evaluation from Demonstration Data

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Aircraft Design
First estimation of aircraft design parameters

Semester I
First estimation of aircraft design Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
parameters
Thrust-to-weight ratio and wing loading:

• Are the two most important parameters affecting aircraft performance
• Need to be optimised
• More credible estimation of them reduces design workload
• Interconnected for a number of performance calculations
• Generally we use TT for performance requirements.

• It is difficult to use historical data to select them.
• The aircraft is sized for
1- stall speed,
2- takeoff distance, landing distance,
3- climb,
4- cruise,
5- flight ceiling,
6-maneuver load factor,
7- time for acceleration and …
parameters
Page 76 of 270
Thrust-to-weight ratio:
• T/W directly affects the aircraft performance.
• T/W is not constant and varies during flight as aircraft fuel is burned and thrust varies
with altitude and velocity.
• A designer generally uses T/W at sea level, standard day condition at design takeoff
weight and maximum throttle setting .
• It is important not to confuse T/W for different configurations like: idle throttle setting,
afterburner engines, combat configuration and partial power setting.
• Thrust to weight or thrust loading is associated with the jet-engined aircraft. For propeller
powered power loading is used
• Power loading is W/hp. Try not to confuse it with horsepower-to-weight ratio.
• We can use following expression to find equivalent T/W for propellered aircraft (W in lb)
T  550η P  hp 
=  
W  V  W 
parameters
Statistical estimations for T/W and hp/W
Aircraft type T/W Aircraft type hp/W w/hp

Jet trainer 0.4-0.5 Powered sailplane 0.04 25
Jet fighter (dog fighter) 0.7-1.1 Homebuilt 0.08 12
Jet fighter (other) 0.5-0.8 GA – single engine 0.07 14
Military cargo / bomber 0.25-0.4 GA – twin engine 0.17 6
Jet transport 0.25-0.3 Agricultural 0.09 11

Twin turboprop 0.20 5
Flying boat 0.10 10

parameters
Page 77 of 270
Thrust vs. altitude: Power vs. altitude:

parameters
Takeoff T/W and hp/W:
T  T   Wcruise  Ttakeoff 
  =    
 W takeoff  W  cruise  Wtakeoff  T
 cruise 
 hp   Vcruise  1  Wcruise  hptakeoff 
  
= 
   
   hp
 W takeoff  550η P  (L D )cruise  Wtakeoff  cruise 
In these equations thrust data should be obtained from actual

or similar engine data
parameters
Page 78 of 270
Wing loading
• W/S directly affects the aircraft performance.
• W/S is not constant and varies during flight as aircraft fuel is burned.
• A designer generally uses W/S at design takeoff weight.
• It is important not to confuse W/S for different configurations like: combat configuration.
Statistical estimation for wing loading:
Aircraft type W/S (dN/m2) Aircraft type W/S (lb/ft2)
GA 100-180 Sailplane 6
Fighter 280-350 Homebuilt 11
Transport 600-1000 GA – single engine 17
GA – twin engine 26
Twin turboprop 40
Jet trainer 50
Jet fighter 70
Jet Transport / bomber 120
parameters
T/W and W/S facts: Different types

Wing Loading / Disc Loading (Average)
700
Wing Loading (kg/m^2)
600
500
400
300
200
100
General - General - Military - Military - Civil - Short Civil - Long Helicopter - Helicopter - Helicopter - Helicopter -
Agricultural Aviation Fighter Bomber Range Range Cargo Attack Utility Light Utility
Aircraft Type
From Report: World Aircraft Statistics by Fletcher, Holms, Schwarz, Slattery

parameters
Page 79 of 270
T/W and W/S facts: Different types

Thrust Loading Ratio (Average)
0.9
0.8
0.7
Thrust Loading Ratio
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
General - General - Military - Military - Civil - Short Civil - Long Helicopter - Helicopter - Helicopter - Helicopter -
Agricultural Monocoque Fighter Bomber Range Range Cargo Attack Utility Light Utility
Aircraft Type
From Report: World Aircraft Statistics by Fletcher, Holms, Schwarz, Slattery

parameters
T/W and W/S facts: Fighters
Wing Loading (Kg/M^2)

500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1st Generation 2nd Generation 3rd Generation 4th Generation 5th Generation
From Report: Fighter Generations by Coombs, Hollands, Borgas, Ravenscroft, Nordestgaard

parameters
Page 80 of 270
T/W and W/S facts: Fighters
Thrust:Weight ratio
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1st Generation 2nd Generation 3rd Generation 4th Generation 5th Generation
From Report: Fighter Generations by Coombs, Hollands, Borgas, Ravenscroft, Nordestgaard

parameters
T/W and W/S facts: UAVs

Wing Loading
250
200
150
High
kg/m ^2
100
Medium
50
Low
0
RPO M idget
Pointer
FPASS (Desert Hawk)
Finder
Seeker
Outrider
Darkstar
Pioneer
Predator
Hunter
Fire Scout
Sperwer
Silver Fox
SilentE yes
Dragon Eye
Raven
X -45
X -50
Phoenix
Global Hawk
Crecerelle
A 160
Dragon Drone
Luna
Herron
Neptune
GNAT
Shadow 600
Dragon W arrior
Shadow
Predator B
LEW K
From Report: Classification of UAVs by Agostino, Mammone, Nelson, Zhou

parameters
Page 81 of 270
T/W and W/S facts:

• Long-range commercial aircraft tend to have a higher wing loading to
maximise their range. They use very effective high lift devices on takeoff and
landing.
• Combat aircraft tend to have lower wing loading and higher thrust loading
(especially with afterburner) to provide better manoeuvrability.
• GA and agricultural aircraft tend to have lower wing loading to have less
takeoff and landing distance.
• Less wing loading provides less comfort in cruise flight due to turbulent and
gusts.
• High-altitude and gliding aircraft require low wing loading.
In these days we usually design multipurpose aircraft with

more than one principle mission, so it is required to select
a proper wing loading for all mission objectives
parameters

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parameters
Page 82 of 270
Aircraft Design
Sizing to stall speed requirements

Semester I
Sizing to stall speed requirements Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Standard requirements:
• FAR23 (for aircraft less than 12500lb) certified aircraft may not have a stall speed greater
than 61kts at WTO.
• FAR23 multi-engined aircraft must meet certain climb gradient.
• It is not stated in any design specification but a stall speed of 50knots would be considered
the upper limit for an aircraft to be operated by a low-time pilot.
• No specific stall requirements for FAR25 certified aircraft, but more stall speed means more
takeoff and landing distance.
• For civil application the approach speed is 1.3 times the stall speed.
• For military application the approach speed is 1.15-1.2 times the stall speed.
Stall speed equation:
Recall:
1 2
W = L = qstall SC L max = ρVstall SC L max
2
Then:
W 1 2
= ρVstall C L max
S 2
Page 83 of 270
Estimation of CLmax:
• CLmax varies between 1.2-1.5 for a plain wing with no flaps to 4-5 for a wing with large
flaps immersed in the propwash or jetwash.
• For a STOL aircraft CLmax typically is 3.
• For a regular transport aircraft with flaps and slats CLmax is about 2.4.
• CLmax of GA aircraft with flaps on the inner part of the wing is about 1.6-2.
• Maximum lift coefficient depends upon:
– Wing geometry
– Airfoil shape
– Flap geometry, deflection angle and span
– Leading-edge slat, slat geometry and deflection angle
– Reynolds number
– Surface texture
– Interference from other parts of the aircraft such as the fuselage, or nacelles
• Most aircraft use a different flap setting for takeoff and landing (the maximum lift and
drag coefficient for landing is greater than for takeoff).
Estimation of CLmax:
Airplane type CLmax CLmax (takeoff) CLmax (landing)

Homebuilts 1.2-1.8 1.2-1.8 1.2-2.0
Single Engine Propeller Driven 1.3-1.9 1.3-1.9 1.6-2.3
Twin Engine Propeller Driven 1.2-1.8 1.4-2.0 1.6-2.5
Agricultural 1.3-1.9 1.3-1.9 1.3-1.9
Business Jets 1.4-1.8 1.6-2.2 1.6-2.6
Regional Turboprop 1.5-1.9 1.7-2.1 1.9-3.3
Transport Jets 1.2-1.8 1.6-2.2 1.8-2.8
Military Trainers 1.2-1.8 1.4-2.0 1.6-2.2
Fighters 1.2-1.8 1.4-2.0 1.6-2.2
Military Patrol, Bomber and Transport 1.2-1.8 1.6-2.2 1.8-3.0
Flying Boats, Amphibious and Float Airplanes 1.2-1.8 1.6-2.2 1.8-3.4
Supersonic Cruise Airplanes 1.2-1.8 1.6-2.0 1.8-2.2
From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam

Page 84 of 270
Example: A GA aircraft
• Calculate required wing loading for a GA aircraft to have a power-off stall speed of
no more than 80km/h with flaps in landing configuration, 100km/h with flaps in
takeoff configuration and 120km/h with no flaps at sea level and at an altitude of
1000m.

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Aircraft Design
Sizing to takeoff distance requirements

Semester I
Sizing to takeoff distance requirements Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Takeoff distance requirements:

• Review “Aeronautical Engineering I” course notes for terminology.
• To design an aircraft we have to calculate “Takeoff Field Length” or “Balanced Field Length”.
This is the length required to takeoff and clear the specified obstacle (50ft for military or
small civil and 35ft for commercial aircraft) when one engine fails exactly at decision speed.
• For civil aircraft the requirements of FAR23 and FAR25 must be considered. For military
aircraft the requirements are given in RFP or TT.
• Aerodynamic forces on the ground roll depend mainly upon the pilot techniques.
• Some UAVs use catapult for takeoff with the length of 6-13m. Some of them are able to
takeoff from zero-length catapult. Hand-launched UAV could be launched by hand
Page 86 of 270
Definition of FAR23 and FAR25 takeoff distances:
Definition of FAR23
takeoff distances
Definition of FAR25
takeoff distances

Sizing to FAR23 takeoff distance requirements:

1. Similar to stall speed requirements determine CLmaxTO
2. We assume that aircraft takes off at about 1.1VS.
C
Using the following equation, Find CLTO: C LTO = L maxTO
1.21
3. Find TOP23 (Takeoff Parameters for FAR23). STOG is
takeoff ground run distance:
STOG = 4.9TOP23 + 0.009TOP232
4. If instead of STOG, STO is given find STOG : STO
STOG =
1.66
5. Use the following equation to find the relationship
between wing loading and thrust loading (σ is density
ratio σ =ρh/ρ0): W   hp 
  = TOP23 ⋅ σ ⋅ C LTO ⋅  
S TO  W TO
6. If aircraft has jet engines use:
W  T 
  = TOP23 ⋅ σ ⋅ C LTO ⋅  
S TO  W TO
In these equations the parameters are in English Units

Page 87 of 270
Sizing to FAR25 takeoff distance requirements:

1. Similar to stall speed requirements determine CLmaxTO
2. We assume that aircraft takes off at about 1.1VS.
Using the following equation, Find CLTO: C L maxTO
C LTO =
1.21
3. Find TOP25 (Takeoff Parameters for FAR25). STOFL is S
takeoff field length: TOP25 = TOFL
37.5
4. Use following equation to find the relationship

W   hp 
between wing loading and thrust loading (σ is density   = TOP25 ⋅ σ ⋅ C LTO ⋅  
ratio σ =ρh/ρ0):  S TO  W TO
W  T 
5. If aircraft has jet engines use:   = TOP25 ⋅ σ ⋅ C LTO ⋅  
 S TO  W TO
General method for sizing to takeoff distance requirements:
• Review “Aeronautical Engineering I” course notes.

• The general equation for takeoff distance requirements is:
W  T 
  = K ⋅ S TO ⋅ C ⋅
L max TO  
 S TO  W TO
• Here K is a function of friction coefficient, density, obstacle height, aerodynamic
drag and climb angle.
Page 88 of 270
Example: FAR 23 takeoff distance sizing

• Size a propeller driven aircraft for takeoff distance of 650m at sea level and at an
altitude of 1000m.

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Example: FAR 25 takeoff distance sizing

• Size a jet transport aircraft for takeoff field length of 1500m at sea level and at an
altitude of 1500m.

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Aircraft Design
Sizing to landing distance requirements

Semester I
Sizing to landing distance requirements Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Landing distance requirements:

• Review “Aeronautical Engineering I” course notes for terminology.
• To design an aircraft we have to calculate “Landing Distance”. “Landing Distance”
or “Landing Field Length” is the length required to clear the specified obstacle
(50ft for all aircraft) at approach speed to the time when aircraft comes to
complete stop. Approach speed for civil and military aircraft is 1.3 and 1.2 times
the stall speed respectively.
• For civil aircraft the requirements of FAR23 and FAR25 must be considered. For
military aircraft the requirements are given in RFP or TT.
• Landing distance depends mainly upon the pilot techniques.
• Some UAVs use parachute for landing.
• In the emergency situation an aircraft must be able to land on it’s fuselage (belly
landing)
Page 91 of 270
Landing weight:
• For most propeller-powered and jet trainers landing weight is equal to takeoff
weight or WL/WTO=1.0.
• For most jet transport aircraft landing weight is about 0.85 times takeoff weight or
WL/WTO=0.85.
• For fighters check with TT.
• If landing weight is less than takeoff weight, aircraft must have a special system to
drop the fuel or payload in emergency conditions. It is unlikely to drop the fuel
because of its cost and environmental effects.
• If an aircraft is in emergency condition, it is better to land it with minimum weight.
Definition of FAR23 and FAR25 landing distances:
Definition of FAR23
landing distances
Definition of FAR25
landing distances

Page 92 of 270
Sizing to FAR23 landing distance requirements:

1. Similar to stall speed requirements determine CLmaxL
2. Statistical data show that if VSL (stall speed in landing
configuration) in knots and SLG (landing ground roll)
in feet then SLG=0.265 VSL2. We have SL=1.938SLG
then using the following equation we can find VSL: VSL = 1.395 S L
3. Find wing loading for landing configuration:

W  1
  = ρVSL C L max L
2
 S L 2
4. If WL is less than WTO find WL/WTO using the following
W   W  W 
equation:   =  TO  
 S TO  WL  S  L
Sizing to FAR25 landing distance requirements:

1. Similar to stall speed requirements determine CLmaxL
2. Statistical data show that if VA (approach speed in
landing configuration) in knots and SFL (field length)
in feet then SFL=0.3 VA2. Using the following equation
find VA: VA = 1.826 S FL
3. Find VSL (stall speed in landing configuration): 1

VSL = VA
1 .3
4. Find wing loading for landing configuration:
W  1
  = ρVSL C L max L
2
 S L 2
5. If WL is less than WTO find WL/WTO and use the
W   W  W 
following equation:   =  TO  
 S TO  WL  S  L
Page 93 of 270
General method for sizing to landing distance requirements:

• Review “Aeronautical Engineering I” course notes. W  SL − Sa
  =
• The general equation for landing distance requirements is:  S L  1 
K  
C
 L max L 
• Here Sa represents the obstacle clearance distance and K is a function of thrust reverse
equipment, friction coefficient and density .
Another useful equation for landing distance sizing:
W   1 
S L = 80TR     + S a
• Where:  S  L  σ ⋅ C L max L 
– Sa=1000 (airliner type, 3° glideslope)
– Sa=600 (general aviation power-off approach)
– Sa=450 (STOL, 7° glideslope)
– TR=1 if aircraft is not equipped with thrust reversers or reversible-pitch propellers
– TR=0.66 if aircraft is equipped with thrust reversers or reversible-pitch propellers
In this equation the parameters are in English Units


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Page 94 of 270
Example: FAR 23 landing distance sizing

• Size a propeller driven aircraft for landing distance of 650m at sea level and at an
altitude of 1500m, WL=0.9WTO.

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Page 95 of 270
Example: FAR 25 landing distance sizing

• Size a jet transport aircraft for landing field length of 2000m at sea level and at an
altitude of 1000m, WL=0.8WTO.

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Aircraft Design
Drag polar estimation at low speed

Semester I
Drag polar estimation at low speed Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Main equation: How can we estimate CD0, aspect

ratio and Oswald efficiency factor?
1 2
CD = CD 0 + CL
πAe
http://home.anadolu.edu.tr/
Page 97 of 270
Zero-lift drag coefficient estimation:

• Calculate SWET/SREF using your sketch. If aircraft sketch is not available use statistics.
• We assume that the parasite drag of a well-designed aircraft in subsonic cruise
consists mostly of skin-friction drag plus a small separation pressure drag. “Equivalent
skin friction drag” (Cfe) includes both skin-friction and separation drag.
• For the first estimation of CD0 we can use the following equation:
S wet
C D 0 = C fe
S ref
• Roskam’s method could be used. See 3.4.1 from vol.1. It gives more precise
estimation of CD0.
http://stellarlink.org/
First estimation of SWET/SREF : http://www.whiteplanes.com/
http://www.mcchordairmuseum.org/
http://hp.state.sd.us/
http://home.quicknet.nl/
B-47 http://www.jda.go.jp/
http://www.globalaircraft.org/
8 http://www.public.iastate.edu/
BOEING 747
http://www.airbroker.se/
http://www.aircentre.com.au/
F-104
6
BEECH STARSHIP
F-4 BEECH DUCHESS
CESSNA SKYLANE
4 F-102
AVRO VULCAN
B-49

Page 98 of 270
First estimation of Cfe :

Cfe
Aircraft type
subsonic
Bomber and civil transport 0.0030
Military cargo (high wing) 0.0035
Air force fighter 0.0035
Navy fighter 0.0040
Clean supersonic cruise aircraft 0.0025
Light aircraft – single engine 0.0055
Light aircraft – twin engine 0.0045
Prop seaplane 0.0065
Jet seaplane 0.0040

Zero-lift drag coefficient estimation in takeoff and landing

configuration:
• For takeoff and landing configuration the effect of flaps and of the landing gear need to be
considered, therefore:
C D 0TO &L = C D 0 + ∆C D 0
– Clean ∆CD0=0
– Takeoff flaps ∆CD0=0.010-0.020
– Landing flaps ∆CD0=0.055-0.075
– Landing gear ∆CD0=0.015-0.025
• ∆CD0 is strongly dependent on the size, position and type of the flaps and landing gear.
– Split flaps are more draggy than fowler flaps
– Full span flaps are more draggy than partial flaps
– Wing mounted landing gears on high wing airplanes are more draggy than those on
low wing airplanes
• In the real world exact wind tunnel testing and CFD calculations are generally used.
Page 99 of 270
Which aspect ratio is better?

• The best method is using the statistics (this is the method that we will use for the project)
• Maximum subsonic L/D of an aircraft increases approximately by the square root of an

increase in aspect ratio (because L/D mainly depends on SWET/SREF). It means: L/D∝A0.5.
On the other hand the more wing aspect ratio, the more wing weight by about the same
order. It means: Wwing∝A0.5.
• The less aspect ratio, the more stall angle of the wing (ref. aeronautical engineering). It
means: αstall∝A. This is one reason why tails to be of lower aspect ratio (to stall later) and a
canard has very high aspect ratio (to stall before the wing).
• Aspect ratio is usually determined by a trade study in which the aerodynamic advantages of
a high aspect ratio are balanced against the increased weight.

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Page 100 of 270
Oswald efficiency factor estimation:

• For very rough calculation we can use the following data:
– Clean e=0.80-0.85
– Takeoff flaps e=0.75-0.80
– Landing flaps e=0.70-0.75
– Landing gear no effect
• For more realistic estimation equations based upon actual aircraft are presented below:
(
straight - wing aircraft : e = 1.78 1 − 0.045 A0.68 − 0.64 )
(
swept - wing aircraft : e = 4.61 1 − 0.045 A0.68 ⋅ (cos Λ LE ) ) 0.15
− 3.1
where : Λ LE > 30°
– In these equations if wing has end-plates or winglets, the effective aspect ratio
should be used
end - plate : Aeffective = A(1 + 1.9 h b ) , where h = end - plate height
winglet : Aeffective = 1.2 A
More precise method – component buildup method:
• This method is not applicable for supersonic and transonic flight.

• In this method we use “flat-plate skin friction drag coefficient (Cf)”, “form factor (FF)”
and “interference factor(Q)”.
• In the following equation, subscript “c” indicates that related values are different for
each component, CDmisc is miscellaneous drags for special features such as flaps,
landing gears and so on, CDL&P is drag due to leakage and protuberances.
Σ(C fc FFc Qc S wetc )

(C D 0 )subsonic = + C Dmisc + C DL& P
S ref
Page 101 of 270
Flat-plate skin friction coefficient:

• Cf depends mainly upon the Reynolds number, Mach number, and skin roughness.
• Laminar flow may be maintained if the local Reynolds number is less than half a million
and only if the skin is very smooth.
• A typical current aircraft my have laminar flow over perhaps 10-20% of the wings and tails,
and virtually no laminar flow over the fuselage. A carefully designed modern composite
aircraft can have laminar flow over as much as 50% of the wings and tails, and about 20-
35% of the fuselage.
• Reynolds number can be calculated by: R=ρVl/µ, where: l is the characteristic length.
For a fuselage, l is the total length. For a wing or tail, l is MAC length.
• Cf can be found by the following equations:
Laminar : C f = 1.328 Re
0.455
Turbolent : C f =
(log10 Re )2.58 (1 + 0.144M 2 )0.65


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Page 102 of 270
Component form factors:

Component form factors estimate the pressure drag due to viscous separation. For more detail
see Aircraft design; a conceptual approach, by D. Raymer
Wing, tail, strut and pylon :
 
( )
4
0 . 6  t   t 
FF = 1 + + 100   1.34 M 0.18 (cos Λ m )
0.28
 (x c )  c   
 m  c  
w here : ( x c )m is the chordwise location of the airfoil maximum thickness point and
Λ m refers to the sweep of the maximum thickness line.
Fuselage and smooth canopy :
 60 f  l l
FF = 1 + 3 + , where f = =
 f 400  d (4 π )Amax
Nacelle and smooth external store :
0.35 l l
FF = 1 + , where f = =
f d (4 π )Amax
Miscellaneous drags:
• The drag of miscellaneous items are usually determined experimentally
• The landing drag is estimated by using “drag area (D/q)”. To calculate CDLG we use the
following table and equation:
D q
D q
  Frontal area (Ft 2 )
A  Regular wheel and tire 0.25
=
fron 
(CD )LG Second wheel and tire in tandem 0.15
Aref Streamlined wheel and tire 0.18
Wheel and tire with fairing 0.13
Streamlined strut (1/6<t/c<1/3) 0.05
Round strut or wire 0.30
Flat spring gear leg 1.40
Fork, bogey, irregular fitting 1.0-1.4
• For very rough estimation of flap contribution to parasite drag we can use the following
equation (δflap in deg.)
(CD ) flap = 0.0023 ⋅ flap span ⋅ δ flap
wing span
Page 103 of 270
Leakage and protuberance drag:

• Leakage drag is due to the tendency of an aircraft to “inhale” through hols and gaps in high
pressure zone and exhale into the low pressure zone. The momentum loss of the inhaled air
contributes directly to drag and the air exhaled tends to produce additional airflow
separation.
• Protuberances include antennas, lights, and manufacturing defects like rivets or misaligned
skin panels.
• For a normal production aircraft , leaks and protuberance drags can be estimated as about
2-5% of the parasite drag for jet transports or bombers, 5-10% for propeller aircraft, 4th and
5th generation fighters and 10-15% for other fighters.
• If special care is taken these drags can be reduced to near zero.


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Aircraft Design
Sizing to FAR23 climb requirements

Semester I
Sizing to FAR23 climb requirements Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Climb general equation:

• Rate of climb (RC) is a vertical velocity
• Climb gradient (G) is the ratio between vertical and horizontal distance travelled or:
G=Y/X=VY/VX=(dh/dt)/V
• If γ≅sin(γ) (γ is climb angle) then we have (for more detail see “Aeronautical Engineering I”):
G=
(T − D ) , or : D = T − G ,
W W W
 C L2   (qSC L )2 
qSC D 0 + qS    
π  π  qC
D  Ae  qC D 0  qS Ae =  W  1 
hence : = = + D0
+   
W W W  W  W   S  qπAe 
   
S S
2
 1  W   T  W 
We can solve this equation for wing loading :    −  − G   + qC D 0 = 0
 qπAe  S   W  S 
2
T  T   4C 
 − G  ±  − G  −  D0 
W W  W   πAe  T C
Then we have : = , where : ≥ G + 2 D 0
S  2  W πAe
 
 qπAe  It means that for all aircraft thrust loading
must be greater than climb gradient
Page 105 of 270
FAR23 climb requirements (FAR23.65):

• FAR23.65 (AEO – All Engines Operating) – takeoff climb requirements
– Minimum rate of climb – more than 300fpm (RC≥300fpm) at sea level
– Minimum climb gradient – more than 1/12rad for landplanes (CGR≥1/12rad)
and 1/15rad for seaplanes (CGR≥1/15rad) at sea level
– Configuration - landing gears retracted, flaps in the takeoff position and
maximum continuous power on all engines
– If turbine powered airplanes – minimum steady climb gradient more than 4% at
a pressure altitude of 5000ft and at 81°F.

• FAR23.67 (OEI – One Engine Inoperative) – takeoff climb requirements for
multiengine aircraft
– Minimum rate of climb – more than 0.027VS2fpm (VS in knots) at an altitude of
5000ft
– Configuration – one engine inoperative and its propeller in the minimum drag
configuration, takeoff power on operating engines, landing gears retracted and
flaps in the most favourable position
– For more precise calculations see FAR manuals as above requirements are
different for different weights (http://www.airweb.faa.gov)
– For turbine powered aircraft in abovementioned configuration:
• CGR≥1.2% or RC ≥0.027VS2fpm at 5000ft, standard atmosphere,
whichever is most critical
• CGR≥0.6% or RC ≥0.014VS2fpm at 5000ft and 81°F, whichever is most
critical
Page 106 of 270

• FAR23.77 (AEO – All Engines Operating) – balked landing requirements
– Minimum climb gradient – more than 1/30rad at sea level
– Configuration – takeoff power on all engines, landing gears down and flaps in
landing position
– For turbine powered aircraft it is necessary to show that a zero steady climb
rate can be maintained at a an altitude of 5000ft and 81°F
FAR23 climb sizing – step by step calculation:

1. Find aircraft drag polar
2. Size the aircraft for FAR23.65 rate of climb
- Calculate Rate of Climb Parameters (RCP) : RCP = (33000 ) RC , where RC in fpm
−1
- Calculate drag polar for FAR23.65 configuration

- Use the following equation to find the maximum value of CL3 2 C D : ( )
 (C L )3 2  1.345( Ae )
34
 
 C  = (C )1 4
 D  max D0
W W
- Use the following equation to find the the relationsip between and (σ = 1) :
S P
 ηP  
RCP =   − 
(W S )12


 (W P )   L (
 19 (C )3 2 C
D max σ
12 
 )
Page 107 of 270

3. Size the aircraft for FAR23.67 rate of climb
- Use the following equation to find the maximum value of CL3 2 CD : ( )
(pay attention that in this configuration CD0 differs from previous configuration)
 (C L )3 2  1.345( Ae )
34
 
 C  = (C )1 4
 D  max D0
W W
- Use the following equation to find the relationsip between and :
S P
RCP = 
 ηP  
 − 
(W S )12

 , here σ = 0.8617 is density ratio
 (
 (W P )   19 (C L ) C D max σ 
32 12 
)
- Calculate RCP for different wing loadings.
W  2 
Consider that : RCmin = 0.027VS2 and VS =   
S  ρC L max 

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Page 108 of 270
4. Size the aircraft for FAR23.65 climb gradient

- Estimate CL for climb configuration
L C 
- Calculate   =  L 
 D  climb  C D  climb
- Use the following equation to find Climb Gradient Parameters (CGRP) (CGR = 1/12rad) :
CGRP =
(CGR + (L D ) ) −1
C L1 2
W W
- Use the following equation to find the relationship between and (σ = 1) :
S P
18.97ηPσ 1 2
CGRP =
(W P )(W S )1 2
5. Size the aircraft for FAR23.77 climb gradient

- Estimate C L for landing configuration
L C 
- Calculate   =  L 
 D L  C D L
- Use the following equation to find Climb Gradient Parameters (CGRP) (CGR = 1/30rad) :
CGRP =
(CGR + (L D ) ) −1
C L1 2
W W
- Use the following equation to find the relationship between and (σ = 1) :
S P
18.97ηPσ 1 2
CGRP =
(W P )(W S )1 2
Page 109 of 270
Example:
• Size a well-designed full composite twin-engine propeller aircraft with a takeoff
weight of 5200lb and landing weight of 5200lb to the FAR23 climb requirements

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Aircraft Design
Sizing to FAR25 climb requirements

Semester I

• FAR25.111 (OEI – One Engine Inoperative) – initial climb segment requirements
– Minimum climb gradient with the critical engine inoperative must be more than:
• 1.2% for two-engine aircraft
• 1.5% for three-engine aircraft
• 1.7% for four engine aircraft
– Configuration:
• Landing gears retracted
• Flaps in the takeoff position
• Takeoff thrust or power on remaining engines
• Speed is V2=1.2VS
• Ground effect must be accounted
• Maximum takeoff weight
• Sea level at t=50°F and 34% humidity
Page 111 of 270

• FAR25.121 (OEI – One Engine Inoperative) – transition segment climb requirements
• 0% for two-engine aircraft
– Configuration:
• Landing gears down
• Speed is between VLOF≅1.1VS and V2=1.2VS
• Ground effect must be accounted

• FAR25.121 (OEI – One Engine Inoperative) – second segment climb requirements
– Configuration:
• Speed is at V2=1.2VS
• No ground effect
Page 112 of 270

• FAR25.121 (OEI – One Engine Inoperative) – en-route climb requirements
– Configuration:
• Flaps retracted
• Maximum continuous thrust or power on remaining engines
• Speed is at 1.25VS
• No ground effect, en-route climb altitude

• FAR25.119 (AEO – All Engines Operating) – landing climb – balk landing requirements
– Minimum climb gradient must be more than 3.2%
– Configuration:
• Flaps in the landing position
• Takeoff thrust or power on all engines
• Speed is at 1.3VSL
• Maximum design landing weight
Page 113 of 270

• FAR25.121 (OEI – One Engine Inoperative) – landing climb – balk landing
requirements
– Configuration:
• Flaps in the approach position
• Speed is at 1.5VSA
• Maximum design landing weight
1. Find aircraft drag polar

2. Calculate L/D for each configuration
3. For propeller driven aircraft use the equations discussed on the previous lecture
4. For jet powered aircraft use the following equations. As it is seen in these equations,
FAR25 climb requirements are a function of T/W and FAR23 climb requirements are
a function of T/W and W/S
For OEI :
T  N 
=
W  N −1 
 (L D ) + CGR
−1
( )
For AEO :
T
W
(
= (L D ) + CGR
−1
)
Page 114 of 270
Example:
• Size a three-engine jet transport with a takeoff weight of 185000lb and landing
weight of 154000lb to the FAR25 climb requirements

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Page 115 of 270
Aircraft Design
Sizing to time to climb, ceiling and manoeuvring

requirements

Semester I
Sizing to time to climb, ceiling and Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
manoeuvring requirements
Sizing to time to climb requirements:

Time required to climb from one altitude h1 to
another altitude h2 can be determined by:
h2 dh
t=∫
h1 RC
We assume that rate of climb decreases linearly

with altitude (for more detail see “Aeronautical
Engineering I – lecture notes”) then:
 h 
RC = RC0 1 − 
 habs 
RC0 is RC at sea level

And if we solve the integral:
RC is RC at altitude h
habs  1 
RC0 = ln 
t  1 − h habs 
Page 116 of 270
Time to climb sizing:

• Calculate rate of climb at sea level. A value for habs can be received from TT. If no data is
available, use typical values.
• For shallow flight path angles (γ<15°)
– For propeller driven aircraft, use method given for sizing to FAR23 climb requirements
– For jet driven aircraft, use:   1 

RC = V  (T W ) −   
  L D 
2(W S )
if it is essential to maximise L/D then:
V=
ρ C D 0πAe
• For steep flight path angles (γ>15°) (this case applies only to fighters)
 , and : Pdl = (L D )

T 1  2
RC = V sin γ , where : sin γ =   Pdl − Pdl − Pdl +
2
W  1 + (L D )
2  1 + (L D )
2


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Page 117 of 270
Sizing to ceiling requirements:

• It is completely similar to sizing to rate of climb
• Using the standards, the minimum required climb rate at the required ceiling
altitude can be found
• Using previous equations, rate of climb at sea level can be determined.
• To find the relationship between T/W and W/S, explained methods can be applied.
Sizing to manoeuvring requirements:

• Why is it important?
– It is mainly important for fighters. Jet transports and other types should pass the
minimum requirements according to the standards.
– In dog-fighting if air-to-air missiles are in use, the first aircraft to turn toward the other
will probably win.
– In a gun-only dog-fight the aircraft with the higher turn rate will be able to manoeuvre
behind the other.
– If a ground-to-air or air-to-air missile attacks the aircraft, one of the main methods to run
away is manoeuvring.
– It becomes more important. The new fighters are super-manoeuvrable.
– The main parameter that need to be studied is turn rate. Turn rate of 2deg/sec is
considered significant. With super-manoeuvrability turn rate will be increased. The
maximum limitation is the maximum g-factor which could be withstood by a pilot.
Page 118 of 270
Aircraft turn rate specifications (Instantaneous turn):

• Instantaneous turn: this is the highest possible turn rate at which the thrust is not sufficient to
maintain velocity and altitude. In this situation aircraft begins to slow down or lose altitude.
• Remind that g-loading or load factor (n) in the lift (L) divided by the aircraft weight (W). Lift
could be not in the opposite direction of weight.
LV = W
L = nW
L
n=
W LH = W n 2 − 1

• In level unturning flight we need 1g in the vertical direction to hold up the aircraft. If we
need to turn the aircraft we need more “gees”. It means that the radial acceleration in a
level flight is:
W n2 −1
aradial = = g n2 −1
m LV = W
L = nW
• And turn rate is equal to radial acceleration
divided by the velocity:
g n2 −1 qC L LH = W n 2 − 1
ψɺ = where : n =
V W S
Page 119 of 270
g n2 −1 qC L
ψɺ = where : n =
V W S
• These two equations show:

• To increase turn rate we have to increase load factor
– To increase load factor we need more CL and less wing loading.
– Increasing the speed increases load factor but decreases turn rate!
• Corner speed is the speed at which the maximum lift available exactly equals the
allowable load factor and provides the maximum turn rate for the aircraft at a specific
altitude. Pilots try to get to corner speed in a dogfight as it provides the best turn rate.
• The maximum load factor is usually limited by human body tolerance and structural
limit.
• The combat weight and lift coefficient are different from maximum weight and
maximum lift coefficient.
Aircraft turn rate specifications (Sustained turn):

• Sustained turn: this is the turn rate at which the thrust is sufficient to maintain velocity and
altitude. In this situation the thrust must equal the drag and the lift must equal the load
factor times the weight.
• For sustained turn rate we have:
nW = L and T = D or : LV = W
L = nW
 T  L 
n =   
 W  D  LH = W n 2 − 1
• To maximise n we need to maximise L/D. Recall

“Aero I”: L/D is maximised when D=qs(2CD0) or
CD0=CDi. Then:
Page 120 of 270

1 2 • This equation gives the wing loading that
C D 0 = C Di ⇒ CL = CD 0 maximises the sustained turn rate at a
πAe given flight condition regardless of thrust
∴ C L2 = πAeCD 0 available.
∴ C L = πAeCD 0
L • If we equate drag and thrust and consider
∴ = πAeCD 0 that L=nW, then we can fine the equation
qS
for wing loading that attains a required
nW sustained load factor (or sustained turn
∴ = πAeCD 0 rate):
qS
W q
∴ = πAeCD 0
S n

qSC L2 q 2 S 2C L2 L2
T = D = qSC D = qSC D 0 + = qSC D 0 + = qSC D 0 +
πAe qSπAe qSπAe
n 2W 2 T qC D 0  W  n 
2
∴T = qSC D 0 + ∴ = +  
qSπAe W  W   S  qπAe 
 
S
2
 n 2  W   T  W 
∴    −    + qC D 0 = 0
 qπAe  S   W  S 
If we solve this equation for W/S, then :
2
 T   4n C D 0 
2
T 
  ±    −  
W  W   W   πAe  T CD 0
 = where : ≥ 2π
S  2n 2
W πAe
 
 qπAe 
T CD 0
It means that at a given load factor, ≥ 2π must be satisfied regardless of the wing loading.
W πAe
Page 121 of 270
Aircraft turn rate specifications (Vectored thrust):

• Vectored thrust often is used to improve turn performance and takeoff and landing
parameters.
• The direction of the thrust vector depends upon instantaneous or sustained turn rate is
to be maximised.
In a sustained turn :
In an instantaneous turn :
nW = L + T sin (α + ϕT )  T cos(α + ϕT )  L 
n=  
 W  D 
To maximise n, ∂n ∂ϕT must equal zero.
To maximise n, ∂n ∂ϕT must equal zero.
∂n ∂ L T 
=  + sin (α + ϕT ) ⇒ ∂n ∂   T cos(α + ϕT )  L  
∂ϕT ∂ϕT  W W  =      ⇒
∂ϕT ∂ϕT   W  D  
T
cos(α + ϕT ) = 0 ⇒ ϕT = 90 deg − α T L
W sin (α + ϕT )  = 0 ⇒ ϕT = −α
It means that none of the thrust should W D
propel the aircraft. It means that the thrust vector should
be aligned with the flight direction.
Sizing to manoeuvring requirements – step by step calculation:
• The specific requirements must be given in technical task: is it sizing for instantaneous or
sustained turn rate?
• Sustained turn rate is usually formulated in terms of sustained load factor.
• If instantaneous load factor is given use the following equation:
nW = L
• If sustained load factor is given, use the following equation to find out the relationship
between wing loading and thrust loading.
 n 
2
T qC D 0  W
= +  
W W   S  qπAe 
 
S
• If sustained turn rate is given the following equation may be used:

2
g W 
ψɺ = (qCL ) 2
− 
V (W S ) S 
Page 122 of 270
Example:
• Size an F-16 for sustained load factor of 4.5g at sea level (configuration: aircraft
carries only AA missiles at 800km/h)

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Page 123 of 270
Aircraft Design
Sizing to cruise speed requirements – matching

diagram

Semester I
Sizing to cruise speed requirements – Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
matching diagram
Sizing to cruise speed requirements (propeller driven aircraft):

• It is obvious that required power is a function of aircraft speed and in cruise D=T.
1
Preq = TV = C D qSV or, 550 ⋅ SHP ⋅η P = ρV 3C D S
2
• In propeller driven aircraft usually we use 75% of maximum power for cruise. It could be
calculated but we can assume that:
C Di = 0.1C D 0
• It could be shown that (see “Aero I”):
V ∝3
(W / S ) (W / P )
η P σC D 0
• We can call IP the power index:
I P = 3 (W / S ) σ (W / P )
• IP could be found from statistical data and using this equation we can find the relationship
between wing loading and power loading
matching diagram
Page 124 of 270
Sizing to cruise speed requirements (jet aircraft):

• Recall “Aero I”:
Treq = D = C D qS and, W = L = C L qS then :

1 2 qS 2
CD = CD 0 + C L ⇒ T = qSC D 0 + CL
πAe πAe
T qC D 0 (W S )
∴ = +
W W S qπAe
• Don’t forget that (W/S)TO=(WTO/W)(W/S)

• Don’t forget that if the aircraft cruise speed is more that 0.5M, the flow
compressibility effect should be considered (recalculate CD0)
matching diagram

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Page 125 of 270
Matching diagram:
A matching diagram is used to size an aircraft: Sizing is to find the
relationship between wing loading and thrust/power loading. To size an
aircraft you need to:
• Find aircraft weight

• Size aircraft for stall speed
• Size aircraft for takeoff distance
• Size aircraft for landing distance
• Size aircraft for climb requirements
• Size aircraft for ceiling and time to climb (if it is required)
• Size aircraft for time to turn and load factor (if it is required)
• Size aircraft for cruise speed
• Size aircraft for any other requirements
matching diagram
Matching diagram example:

matching diagram
Page 126 of 270

matching diagram

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Page 127 of 270

matching diagram
From: www.darcorp.com
matching diagram
Page 128 of 270
From NASA RP 1060: Subsonic Aircraft: evolution and the

matching of size to performance, by L.K. Loftin
matching diagram

matching diagram
Page 129 of 270

matching diagram

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Page 130 of 270
From Design and build of a UAV with morphing configuration by Kevin Chan,
Crystal Forrester, Ian Lomas, Simon Mitchell, Carlee Stacey
matching diagram
Multiobjective Multidisciplinary Optimisation Methods for takeoff

weight estimation:
• If we generate the mathematical model of the aircraft we can find the relationship
between the main performance parameters and aircraft takeoff weight. In other
words, we know that:
1. Takeoff and landing distance, cruise speed, ceiling, rate of climb and climb
angle and … are the function of WING LOADING AND THRUST/POWER
LOADING.
2. Aircraft takeoff weight also is a function of WING LOADING AND
THRUST/POWER LOADING.
– Then we can find a relationship between PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS and
TAKEOFF WEIGHT.
– These methods usually are based on statistical analysis and mathematical
modelling
matching diagram
Page 131 of 270
Example: Jet transports takeoff weight estimation

For a jet transport, takeoff weight can be estimated by the following equation :
 L2F + 1 
WTO = a ln 2  + b , where :
L
 F − 1 
(
a = 0.00306 R 2 − 1.01R + 2.02 ×10 4 ⋅ n − 114 R + 1.5 ×105 ) ( )
b = (3.94 ×10 −5
) (
R + 0.23 ⋅ n + − 8.4 ×10 −5 R + 0.594 )
n = 0.5(nS + 10WP )
LF = 0.5(LTO + LL )
Here : R is range in km, ns is the number of seats, WP is the payload weight in T,
LTO and LL are takeoff and landing distances in m and WTO is takeoff weight in T
◊ The calculation errors are not more than 10%
◊ It can be effectively used for sesitivity analysis
From Journal of Aircraft Design: A simplified method for

estimation the takeoff weight, by M. Arjomandi
matching diagram
Example: a one piston engine full composite aircraft

• A one piston engine full composite aircraft is given. Size this aircraft for:
– 4 passengers at 175lb each and 40kg additional baggage
– 1000km range at h=10000ft
– 160knots cruise speed
– 1500ft takeoff distance at SL and ISA
– 2500ft landing distance at SL and ISA
– Good one-slotted fowler flap
matching diagram
Page 132 of 270

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Example: 2008 exam

A jet transport has the following mission specification:
• Payload: 150 passengers at 80kg each and 25kg of baggage each.
• Crew: Two pilots and 6 cabin attendants at 75kg each and 15kg of baggage each.
• Range: 4,000km. Reserve for flight to an alternate airport at 250km.
• Altitude: 11,200m. Flight to alternate airport is at an altitude of 5,500m.
• Cruise speed: M=0.87.
• Climb: Climb to cruise altitude in 20min.
• Descent: Descent from cruise altitude in 10min.
• Takeoff and landing: FAR25 field length 5,500ft at an altitude of 5,000ft and a 95°F day.
Assume that WL=0.85WTO.
• Power plants: Two turbofans.
• Configuration: Low-wing, triple-slotted Fowler flap.
(a) Calculate takeoff weight, empty weight and fuel weight for this aircraft.
(b) Compute the sensitivities of takeoff weight to payload weight, empty weight, range, alternate
flight range and cruise specific fuel consumption.
(c) Calculate the matching diagram of all sizing requirements and determine the wing area and
thrust of the engines. Assume that: CLclean=1.5, CLtakeoff=2.2, CLlanding=2.6.
matching diagram

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Assignment 1: Due: 20.05.2011

A piston engine general aviation aircraft has the following specification:
• Crew: One pilots at 80kg and 10kg of baggage.
• Range: 1,200km. Reserve fuel for loitering at the destination airport for 20min.
• Altitude: 10,000ft. Loitering altitude is 4,000ft.
• Cruise speed: 170knots.
• Takeoff and landing: 800m takeoff and landing distance at SL and ISA.
• Power plants: Two piston engines.
• Configuration: Low-wing, single-slotted Fowler flap.
(a) Calculate the takeoff weight, empty weight and fuel weight for this aircraft.
(b) Compute the sensitivities of takeoff weight to payload weight, empty weight, range, loitering time
and cruise specific fuel consumption.
(c) Calculate the matching diagram of all sizing requirements and determine the wing area and power
of the engines. Assume that: CLclean=1.2, CLtakeoff=1.6, CLlanding=1.9. Using the matching diagram,
suggest modifications for improvement of this aircraft. What will be the wing area and power of the
engines after these modifications?
matching diagram
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Assignment 2: Due: 20.05.2011

A jet transport has the following mission specification:
• Crew: Two pilots and 6 cabin attendants at 75kg each and 15kg of baggage each.
• Range: 4,000km. Reserve for flight to an alternate airport at 250km.
• Altitude: 11,200m. Flight to alternate airport is at an altitude of 5,500m.
• Cruise speed: M=0.87.
• Descent: Descent from cruise altitude in 10min.
• Takeoff and landing: FAR25 field length 5,500ft at an altitude of 5,000ft and a 95°F day.
• Power plants: Two turbofans.
• Configuration: Low-wing, triple-slotted Fowler flap.
• Assume that WL=0.85WTO.
(a) Calculate takeoff weight, empty weight and fuel weight for this aircraft.
(b) Compute the sensitivities of takeoff weight to payload weight, empty weight, range, alternate flight
range and cruise specific fuel consumption.
(c) Calculate the matching diagram of all sizing requirements and determine the wing area and thrust
of the engines. Assume that: CLclean=1.5, CLtakeoff=2.2, CLlanding=2.6.
matching diagram

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Aircraft Design
Aircraft three view and drawings

Semester I
Aircraft three view and drawings Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
The basic three view drawing (general arrangement)

• This is a simplified three view orthogonal drawing
• It should be prepared on the bases of international standards requirements
• It should include main geometric data
• It usually comprises a
table of main geometric
and performance data
• It has exact scale

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Examples of three view drawing (Selene & Ourania):
From Book: Aircraft Design by J. Roskam

Aircraft layout – reference lines:
From Virginia Tech University by N. Kirschbaum

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Aircraft layout – an example:


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How should we begin? With sketches …

How should we begin? And then final drawing

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How should we begin? With sketches …

How should we begin? And then final drawing

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The procedure:
• Draw crew and passenger cabin layout
• Establish required view-over-nose from pilot’s eye (forward vision line)
• Establish fuselage width at pilot's shoulder or passenger cabin width
• Draw engine cowling, radome and radar, weapon bay and refuelling system
• Allow sufficient volume for retracted wheels
• Draw wing, HT and VT and their MAC and establish their parameters
• Place CG and draw CG travel as a function of MAC
• Establish spar locations and consider main structural components
• Locate and draw the engine and propeller
• Draw the landing gears in down and up positions
• Draw the primary and secondary control surfaces and establish their angles
• Draw tip-back and turnover angles
• Draw fuel tanks
• Draw fuselage and wing cross sections
Conceptual design drawings benefit:

• The first time that a designer sees his/her product
• The first step to evaluate the design
• The first base for developing the project
• Could be used for estimation of wetted area (to calculate CD0)
• Could be used for estimation cross sectional area (important for supersonic and
transonic calculation)
• Could be used for calculation of wing and fuselage fuel volume
• Could be used for preparation of a working drawing
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Working drawing:
• The main drawing in aircraft design
• The drawing which faces maximum changes as the design information grows up
• The drawing, which all the detail design processes are based on
• It contains:
– Fuselage cross section layout and profile in different Fuselage Stations
– Aircraft grounding configuration
– Aircraft operation hints
– Top and side inboard profiles
– Structural configurations
– Main systems layout (fuel system, control panel, flight system,…)
A working drawing example:

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And …
• The drawing should “talk” to the others
• A weak drawing is a drawing that needs to be explained by the drawer
• Check the weights, balance and performance more than one times to ensure that
you draw your aircraft
• Don’t try to do a combined drawing using usual softwares and computers
• Everything that is drawn in your drawings should have a calculation or explanation
as it’s backup
• And
A good aircraft must be BEAUTIFUL
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Aircraft manufacturing drawings (breakdown)
• To understand the main components

• To evaluate the required facilities for their production
• To estimate the production cost
• To distribute the production works between factories/workshops
• To evaluate the future modifications
• To establish maintenance policy
• To use for designing the manufacturing tools
An example of aircraft breakdown (CH-701):
http://www.zenithair.com
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An example of aircraft breakdown (Boeing 767):

An example of aircraft breakdown (F-15):

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Aircraft terminology:
http://www.dlis.dla.mil/fiigdata

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Aircraft Design
Overall configuration design (I)

Semester I
Overall configuration design (I) Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
What do we begin from?

• We have already calculated weight, thrust/power and wing area.
• Overall configuration design is the first step of aircraft configuration design.
• Read TT carefully and consider those items which may have a major impact on
the design.
• Perform a comparative analysis of the designed and built aircraft similar to your
aircraft.
• Remember that a good question may receive a good answer. Try to discuss with
your colleagues your idea.
• Think simply! Don’t try to answer the simple questions with the hard answers.
• There are no absolute pros and cons in aircraft design. They are all relative.
• Use clear sketches instead of explaining your idea. Engineering sketches must
play the main role in your meetings and discussions.
• Don’t try to make a revolution in aircraft design by unnecessarily choosing
unusual configuration. However to move the engineering knowledge forward
you have to be brave and make the unusual decisions.
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An aircraft sketch:
From: www.aircraftdesign.com

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Homebuilt aircraft design considerations:

• They are designed and built by one or two persons (enthusiastic)
• They are usually tested in the sky (no wind tunnel or structural testing)
• They are unreliable and can not receive certification
• They are made of cheap materials with low level of manufacturing technology
• They are very inefficient
• A lot of brave design decisions may be discovered in the current homebuilt
aircraft
• Homebuilt aircraft usually are designed and built without any TT (technical
task), CD (conceptual design) documents and PD (preliminary design) or DD
(detail design) drawings
• A homebuilt aircraft designer is happy if his/her aircraft flies. He/she is not
interested to know the flight efficiency or measure the quality of flight. No
competitors!
Homebuilt aircraft configurations:

• As it is very hard to solve the problem of stability of a canard, tandem wing or three-
surface aircraft, homebuilt aircraft generally have conventional configuration
• Intention of some builders to park their aircraft in their carport leads to wing-fold
mechanism and also easily mountable configurations
• Because of the cost, homebuilt aircraft usually have fixed-landing gears. Some
designers choose tail-dragger as they use their aircraft as a hubby for
entertainment and no need to keep the aircraft stable on the ground roll in bad
weather conditions
• They have tractor or pusher engines (mainly piston engines)
• In homebuilt aircraft the wing positioning, structure and planform may be widely
different. It mainly depends on the amount of money which the builder intends to
spend.
• Recently some of the builders choose pre-manufactured kits. Kit airplanes could
receive certification. They are more efficient, more reliable and somehow cheap
and help the builder to make a good aircraft without being a designer. Kits usually
have conventional configuration.
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General Aviation (GA) aircraft design considerations:

• They are designed and built by the small companies.
• There are a few GA aircraft which are tested in wind tunnels. It depends on the
quantity of the aircraft planned to be manufactured.
• They are mainly certified according to part-23.
• There is a tendency to make GA aircraft from composite materials.
• They could be used for carrying passengers and freight, pilot training,
entertainment and …
• All of them should be somehow user-friendly in operation as they may
operate by low-skilled pilots.
• They are very popular in North America (nearly 80% of all GA aircraft fly in
US)
• There is a tendency to replace current AVGAS engines with JET A piston
engines as JET A is much more cheaper.
• A few GA aircraft are designed with jet engines. The interest to use small
private aircraft for long ranges with higher speed is increasing.

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General Aviation (GA) aircraft configurations:

• As GA aircraft can be operated by low-skilled pilots they should be good in
handling. GA aircraft generally have conventional configuration, although a few
of them have canard configuration.
• Both fixed and retractable landing gears could be seen on these aircraft
(retractable landing gears are used more on twin engines ). Tail-dragger is
rarely used as it makes the aircraft unstable on the ground in bad weather
conditions.
• They have one or two tractor or pusher engines (mainly piston and turboprop
engines)
• The category of the aircraft (Normal, Utility, Acrobatic) usually dictates the
wing planform (variable or constant wing chord), wing twist and airfoil and
horizontal tail positioning according to vertical tail.
• In one-engine GA aircraft, engine is usually mounted on the fuselage (pusher or
tractor and in two-engine configuration, engines are mounted on the wing,
although the other configurations are available (depending on the aircraft
application, e.g. amphibious aircraft)
Agricultural aircraft design considerations:

• They are designed and built specifically for agricultural purposes. There are a few GA
aircraft modified for agricultural purposes but they are less efficient.
• They have very low aerodynamic efficiency. Structural testing is more important
than wind tunnel testing.
• They are mainly certified according to part-23 and additional special standards.
• The needs of structural repairs in the fields prevent enhanced usage of composite
materials in agricultural aircraft structure, although the usage of composite materials is
increasing.
• They could be used for different types of agricultural operation like pesticide spraying,
seeding and …
• They should be designed for the operation in harsh environment.
• There is a tendency to use small aircraft like kites, autogyros and unmanned
helicopters for agricultural purposes especially in Asian countries as the farms are
small and most of them are placed between the hills and near the mountains.
• They are designed to cover more ground area in one hour flight, so they should be
enough manoeuvrable and able to fly at low altitudes.
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Agricultural aircraft configurations:

• They usually have low-wing conventional configuration. A few of them have biplane
configuration. In high-wing configuration it is necessary to add extra components for
mounting the sprayers.
• Most of them have tail-dragger fixed landing gears. It helps their operation from very
rough fields. It also reduces the operation and maintenance cost.
• They mainly have one or two tractor engines (piston or turboprop engines are used).
Tendency to use tractor engines because of placing the payload in nose section
enormously increases CG travelling during operation.
• They usually have simple wing planform, constant chord with no twist as their operational
speed is very low.
• They generally configured with raised cockpits as pilot visibility is absolutely essential
for agricultural aircraft and also agricultural aircraft tend to have relatively long nose for
placing the payload.
• They have some supportive structure for crashworthiness considerations.
• All agricultural aircraft have bird-proof windshield, wire cutters and wire deflectors as
they fly extremely near the ground.

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Business jet design considerations:

• They are designed and built by the big companies.
• They are usually tested in wind tunnels and have good aerodynamic
efficiency.
• There is a tendency to increase the usage of composite materials in
business jets.
• They are generally used for carrying passengers and freight. They are also
used by the army in military operations.
• They are piloted by well trained pilots.
• There is a tendency to increase the range and the cruise speed of business
jets as businessmen like to travel faster and farer.
• They are usually designed to carry 6-15 passengers. In some cases they have
very luxurious comfortable cabin with all business facilities.
Business jet configurations:

• Most of them have low-wing configuration. It seems that low wing configuration aircraft
with the combination of rather short fuselage require smaller vertical tail, consequently
they weigh less.
• All of them have tricycle retractable landing gears. They are usually operated on the
hard runways and should be proper for operation in the bad weather conditions.
• They mainly have two or more turbofan/turbojet engines, installed on the aft section of
the fuselage as the wing in low-wing configuration is quite near to the ground surface.
• They usually have well-designed wing planform, variable chord with precise twist and
incidence angles. The first wingtips and supercritical airfoils were used on business jets.
• Business jets are usually designed to be stand alone in operation. They have folding
stairs or stair-door combination.
• Their structures and systems should be designed to be very reliable.
• They usually have conventional configuration, although a few of them have canard
configuration.
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Jet transport design considerations:

• They are designed and built by the big companies or international joint ventures.
• They are usually tested in wind tunnels and have good aerodynamic efficiency.
Before manufacturing and even during manufacturing they are modified for many
times.
• They are designed and made with the flexibility of further modification.
• They are mainly certified according to part-25. Their operations are also standardised.
• There is a tendency to increase the usage of composite materials in jet transports.
• They are generally used for carrying passengers and freight. They are also used by the
army in military operations.
• They are piloted by well trained pilots. (However, the pilots’ mistake is the reason of
nearly 70% of air crashes)
• There is a tendency to increase the range and the cruise speed of business jets.
One of the reasons of that is the economic growth of Fareast countries.
• They are usually designed to carry 50 passengers and more up to 1000 in different
cabin configurations.

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Jet transport configurations:

• Most of them have low-wing configuration. It helps to keep the fuselage and passenger
cabins safe in a crash. (In high wing configuration wing weight and impact should be
damped by fuselage) (in an emergency landing on the water high-wing aircraft can stay
more on the water)
hard runways and should be proper for operation in the bad weather conditions.
• They mainly have two or more turbofan/turbojet engines, installed under the wings or on
the aft fuselage. To reduce the noise there is a tendency not to install the engines on the
fuselage.
• They usually have well-designed wing planform, variable chord with precise twist,
sweep and incidence angles.
• To keep their structure as light as possible, they usually don’t carry stairs (except the old
types). They need to be serviced by ground units after landing.
• Their structures and systems should be designed to be very reliable.
• They usually have conventional configuration. The other configurations are not seen on
jet transports.
• To design jet transports, passenger comforts must be considered

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Aircraft Design
Overall configuration design (II)

Semester I
Overall configuration design (II) Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Military trainer design considerations:

• They are designed and built by the big companies (usually fighter designers and
manufacturers).
• They are usually tested in wind tunnels.
• They must be able to simulate the flight of a specific type/types of fighters.
• They should be able to demonstrate flight on high angle of attacks and high load factor
manoeuvres.
• They are mainly certified according to MIL standards.
• There is a tendency to increase the usage of composite materials in military trainers.
• To make the aircraft more flexible and able to simulate more than one type of fighters,
FBW is used as the main control system.
• They are used not only for training the pilots but also for their rehabilitation. In many
countries for reduction the air force's expenses, pilots use military trainers for daily flight
hours.
• They are piloted by pilots with different skill levels. (primary, type and advanced training)
• They are usually designed to be operated by two pilots, trainer and trainee.
• They should be very cheap in operation.
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Military trainer configurations:

• Most of them have low-wing or mid-wing configuration, although high-wing
configuration is also used.
hard runways.
• They mainly have one or two turboprop/turbojet engines, installed on/in the for or aft
part of the fuselage. All the turboprop configuration aircraft are tractor. The turboprop
configuration is generally used on the aircraft for basic or initial training.
• There are different types of strakes and fins on military trainers. The reason of that could
be probably weak response of aircraft to the spin recovery or other stability issues which
were revealed during flight tests. (it is usual for the fighters as well)
• They usually have conventional configuration. The other configurations are not seen
on military trainers.
• The capability of carrying the weapons should be considered.

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Fighter design considerations:

• They are designed and built by big or joint venture international companies
(traditionally they are built in a few countries).
• Their design process needs 10-20 years.
• They are usually tested in wind tunnels.
• The main parameter of designing a fighter is its ability to win the potential enemy fighter
(forget about fuel consumption and weight, however aircraft cost should be considered as
the number of aircraft could guaranty the superiority).
• There is a tendency to increase the usage of composite materials in military trainers.
• There is a tendency to increase manoeuvrability of the fighters (negative static margin,
LEX and thrust vectoring).
• Fighters are the most complicated machines which are built by human (advance
aerodynamic design, production technology, smart materials, complex propulsion system,
avionics and weapon systems).
• They are piloted by one/two skilled pilots.
• They could be designed for different types of operations (surveillance, reconnaissance,
ground attack, close air support, air defence, homeland security and …).
Fighter configurations:
• Air superiority fighters usually have mid-wing configurations, close air support fighters
have low-wing configuration and fighters with variable wing sweep angle have high-
wing configuration.
• Variable wing sweep angle configuration is very expensive. It can not be seen on modern
fighters and instead they use wings with different sweep angles for each wing part.
• Most of them have tricycle retractable landing gears. They are usually operated on the
hard runways. Some of them have very complicated landing gears which allow them to
land on the carriers, on icy surfaces and also on unpaved runways.
• The modern fighters mainly have one or two turbojet/afterburning-
turbojet/afterburning-turbofan engines, installed on/in the aft part of the fuselage.
• There are different types of strakes and fins on fighters. The reason of that could be
probably weak response of aircraft to the spin recovery or other stability issues which
were revealed during flight tests. (it is rarely seen on the modern fighters)
• They usually have conventional configuration. Canard configuration is not very popular.
There is a tendency toward three-surface configuration (tail+canard+wing)
• Fighters should be able to carry weapons inside/under the wing and fuselage.
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Military patrol and transport aircraft design considerations:

• They are designed and built by big companies or international joint ventures.
• They are usually tested in wind tunnels and have good aerodynamic efficiency. In
some cases their wing and body are inherited from passenger aircraft.
• A military patrol and transport aircraft is usually designed and made as a
multipurpose flying platform.
• There is a tendency to increase the usage of composite materials in military patrols
and transport aircraft.
• They are generally used for carrying troops, freight and special purpose devices. They
are also used for civil operation in natural disasters.
• They are piloted by one/two well trained pilots. Some of them have a team of pilots
to reduce the flight load on the pilots in long distance and high endurance operations.
• There is a tendency to increase the range and loitering time of military patrol and
transport aircraft.
• They could be designed for different types of operations (surveillance,
reconnaissance, troop transportation, paratroops dropping, air logistics, search and
rescue, air refuelling, long range bombing and …).
• There is a tendency to design and build the long range bombers more stealthy.

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Military patrol and transport aircraft configurations:

• Most of them have high-wing configuration. It eases loading and unloading heavy
equipment without additional facilities. (In a few aircraft low-wing configuration could be seen.
This is the case of modifying a passenger aircraft to a military patrol or transport aircraft)
• Most of them have tandem/tricycle retractable landing gears, mounted to the fuselage or
wing. They are designed to be operable on the unpaved runways and should be proper for
operation in the bad weather conditions.
• They mainly have two to four turbofan/turboprop engines, installed under the wings (8
engines are used on B-52). To increase the range and loitering time there is a tendency to
use unducted fans on military patrol and transport aircraft.
• They usually have well-designed wing planform, variable chord with precise twist, sweep
and incidence angles.
• They designed to be independently operable on the ground without additional helps.
• Their fuselage should be designed with the big ramps and doors for loading and unloading
big equipments.
• They usually have conventional configuration. The other configurations are not seen on jet
transports.
• They should be designed for operation in the very harsh environment.
• Modern long range bombers have very complicated aerodynamic design (variable sweep
wing, tailless configuration, negative static margin in some flight configurations, …)
Flying boats, amphibious and float aircraft design considerations:

• They are designed and built by the small companies. (a few of them which have
military applications are made by the big companies)
• In a few cases they are investigated in the wind tunnels. They are usually inherited the
main structure from GA aircraft
• There is a tendency to make flying boats, amphibious and float aircraft from
composite materials.
• They could be used for carrying passengers and freight, rescue operations, fire
fighting, entertainment and …
• All of them should be somehow user-friendly in operation as they may be operated
by low-skilled pilots.
• They are very popular in coastal regions, although it is impossible to operate them in
the bad weather conditions.
• Because of limitation in operation and low efficiency, their popularity is reducing.
Page 162 of 270
Flying boats, amphibious and float aircraft configurations:

• Most of them have high-wing configuration. The reason of that is the necessity of
engine installation far from the water surface. (In a few aircraft low-wing configuration
could be seen. In this case engines are installed on the fuselage)
• Most of them have tricycle/tail dragger retractable/fixed landing gears in a combination
with the fixed floats/hull.
• New amphibious aircraft mainly have two piston/turboprop/turbofan engines, installed
on/under the wings. They have rational high thrust/power loading as the engines should
generate enough power/thrust to accelerate the aircraft on the water.
• They usually have poorly-designed wing planform as generated drag by hull is so
considerable that the benefits in drag amount by using more proper wing planform could
be neglected.
• They should be designed for operation in the very harsh environment. Their structure
should be designed with the consideration of sea-water influence on its materials.
• They usually have conventional configuration.
• Ability to land on the wavy water surface, preventing water droplet into the engines and
air intakes, reducing frontal drag area and easy handling on the water are the main
challenges in designing the Flying boats, amphibious and float aircraft.

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Page 163 of 270
And…
Don’t forget:
Nothing is absolute in design. Everything is relative.
Design is creativity.
Remember:
Synthesis (idea generation),
analysis (idea evolution),
decision making.

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Aircraft Design
Fuselage design (crew and passenger cabin

design)

Semester I
Fuselage design (crew and passenger Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
cabin design)
Fuselage main functions: We will review the followings:

• To provide space for payloads – Crew cabin design
• To isolate payloads from free airstreams – Passenger cabin design
• To integrate aircraft parts – Cargo and baggage compartment
design
• To transfer the main loads to the “aircraft
neutral point” where they balance each other – Fuselage overall design
Crew cabin design – main considerations:

• Crew members must be comfort in their positions
• Crew members must be restrained in their positions
• Crew members must have easy and comfortable access to all required flight controls
• Crew members must be able to see all indicators without undue effort
• Crew members must have minimum standard visibility from cabin
• Crew members must be able to communicate to each other by voice or touch without any
trouble
• Crew members must be able to vacate their position in the emergency conditions
cabin design)
Page 165 of 270
Crew cabin design – comfort positioning:

• Design requirements for most military aircraft include accommodation of the 5th to 95th
percentile of male pilots (these requirements are being changed for accommodation
female pilots).
• GA aircraft cockpits are designed according to market interests but typically they are
comfortable for the pilots under 72 inches.
• Crew seat width is chosen according to human body ergonomics and also standardised.
• In designing the height of the cabin helmet thickness should be considered.
• The pilot’s seatback angle is usually 13deg. However in a few fighters the angels of up to
70deg for withstanding the high g-loads are considered.
• In a modern aircraft, pilot seat has three movements and can be moved up-down,
forward-backward, and it’s backseat angle is changeable.
• Crew cabin mustn’t be noisy, cold and hot, hard for breathing and uncomfortable. To
design crew cabin, enhance usage of the ergonomic standards is recommended.
cabin design)

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cabin design)
Page 166 of 270
Crew cabin design – restrained positioning:

• Crew seats must withstand crew weight in different flight configuration (consider that in a
9-g manoeuvre the vertical force on the crew seat is: 9x9.81x80(crew weight)=7000N)
• The seats should be designed to withstand crew weight in the emergency situation. They
must be the last part that will fail. (It is suggested to design them for 26g)
• In low manoeuvrable aircraft, the seatbelts should restrain the crow at least from one-
side of his/her body. Two-shoulder seatbelts are recommended.
• The seatbelts should prevent the movement only in high-g impact accelerations. They
shouldn’t prevent crew access to the flight controls in different flight configurations.
• The cabin parts including instruments, indicators, books and manuals should be fixed in
their positions. (imagine that pilot handbook (weighs nearly 300gr) in 10g manoeuvres
transfers to a solid 3kg brick)
cabin design)
Crew cabin design – easy access:

• All flight controls should be accessible for pilot and co-pilot.
• Flight controls and pilot position should be designed with consideration of arm and leg
angle. Main operating range of the stick and pedal should match the main operating
angle of arm and leg.
• It is recommended that in addition to moveable seat, design the pedals moveable too.
• Except the flight controls, all the linkages, knobs, pedals and … should be in easily
accessible range. Take into accounts all avionic devices like CBs and switches.
• The main flight controls (stick, yoke, wheel, pedals and throttle) which need to be used
continuously and for long times must be placed in the proper positions. Their usage
should not make the arms or legs exhausted.
• All the books and manuals should be in the accessible positions.
cabin design)
Page 167 of 270
Crew cabin design – inside visibility:

• Pilots must be able to see all the indicators. The indicators should be positioned such that all
of them can be seen by the pilot in all flight operations with the complete visibility.
• Instrument panel should be well lit. The light intensity should be adjustable. In some aircraft
personal lighting devices are available.
• All the controls and indicators must be labelled properly. The label colour, size and position
are standardised.
• The indicator and cabin should be designed with consideration of sunshine effect. Pilots
must be able to see and read all the indicators in different aircraft position.
cabin design)
Crew cabin design – outside visibility:

• In crew cabin design over-nose vision, over-the-side vision and upward vision angles
should be considered.
• Over-nose angle is more important than the others. It guaranties the safe operation during
takeoff and landing, approach and combat, where a pilot should have a good view of
runway and its surrounding area. Over-nose angle selection depends on the aircraft type,
aircraft approach speed and its landing angle of attack. It is also standardised.
– For GA aircraft 5-12deg is recommended (tail dragger GA and homebuilt aircraft have
poor visibility during takeoff and landing)
– For transport jets and passenger aircraft 15-20deg is recommended (it increases their
reliability during landing and takeoff)
– For fighters 10-15deg is recommended (close air support and ground attack fighters
have more over-nose angle)
• Pilots should be able to see the sides. For all aircraft types over-the-side angle of 35deg
without head movement and 70deg with head movement are recommended.
• Transport and bomber aircraft should have unobstructed vision upward to at least 20deg
above horizon. Fighters should have completely unobstructed vision above and all the way
to the tail of the aircraft. (any canopy structure width should be no more than 2in)
• The cockpit windscreen angle should be chosen considering its mirror effect on the specific
angles in sunshine. Minimum angle of 30deg is recommended.
cabin design)
Page 168 of 270
Crew cabin design – vision diagram

• Vision diagram or visibility
pattern is defined as the angular
area obtained by intersecting
the airplane cockpit with radial
vectors emanating from the
eyes of the pilot. These radial
vectors are assumed to be
centred on the pilot’s head (for
more detail see: Roskam’s
book, part III)

cabin design)
Crew cabin design – communication

• Pilots should be able to talk to each other (intercom knob is always placed in the very handy
position – on the stick, yoke, or wheel). Civil pilots should be able to talk to each other
without any special devices.
• Crew cabin should have proper devices for internal communication.
• Civil pilots should be able to communicate to each other by eyes and touch. (they should not
be placed far from each other)
• The other crew members except pilots (like flight attendants, flight engineers and …) should
be able to communicate to each other and also to the pilots using communication devices.
• Crew communication and also communication devices are standardised.
• Pilots should be able to communicate with ground services without undue effort (control
tower, navigational radar station, army command centre and …)
• Pilots should be able to receive all related information online and ready to use. This
information may be about the aircraft onboard equipments, payload, surrounding
environment, situation on the ground and …
cabin design)
Page 169 of 270
Crew cabin design – emergency equipments

• Crew cabin doors should be operable from inside. Pilots must be able to open the doors in the
emergency conditions and leave the aircraft without extra efforts.
• The seatbelts should be easily releasable. All restrained harnesses and locks should be
releasable with not more than one action.
• Military pilots should be able to leave aircraft in the emergency situation in a very short time on
all flight configurations, including takeoff and landing and high-g manoeuvres. The operation of
ejection seats or ejection cabin shouldn’t make intolerable high-g situation for the pilots.
• Pilots should be able to receive as maximum as information even if in the emergency
conditions. It is essential to help them choose a proper emergency procedure.
Crew cabin design – recommendations:

• The best method is using proper dimensioned sketches.
• Using the three-D computer modelling is recommended.
• In a real design a physical mock-up should be built and tested in the different
scenarios
• For designing the cabin and instrument panel the pilots’ loads should be considered
(integrating the devices helps to reduce the pilots’ loads)
• The standards should be applied
cabin design)

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cabin design)
Page 170 of 270
Recommended dimensions
for the cockpit of a light
aircraft with stick control
From Book: Synthesis of subsonic

airplane design, by E. Torenbeek
cabin design)
Recommended dimensions
for the cockpit of a transport
aircraft with wheel control
From Book: Synthesis of subsonic

airplane design, by E. Torenbeek
cabin design)
Page 171 of 270
Crew cabin examples:
Boeing 767
SAAB B3LA

cabin design)
F-16 Lear 60
www.ejectionsite.com http://www.n2air.com/
Mig-29
http://www.pantonov.com
cabin design)
Page 172 of 270
Pilot ejection seat Full gear fighter pilot Shoulder harness
http://www.ma-files.it http://www.rugbyheaven.smh.com.au www.spmotorsports.com
cabin design)
Passenger cabin design - definitions and typical data:
From Book: Aircraft design, a conceptual approach, by D. Raymer www.aerospaceweb.org
First class Economy High density

Seat pitch (in.) 38-40 34-36 30-32
Seat width (in.) 20-28 17-22 16-18
Headroom (in.) >65 >65 -
Aisle width (in.) 20-28 18-20 ≥12
Aisle height (in.) >76 >76 >60
Passenger per cabin staff 16-20 31-36 ≤50
Passenger per lavatory 10-20 40-60 40-60
Galley volume per passenger (ft3/pass) 5-8 1-2 0-1
cabin design)
Page 173 of 270

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cabin design)
Passenger cabin design – considerations:

• To design a passenger cabin decide which type of cabin you need (first class, economy,
combination, …)
• Consider main doors, emergency exits, lavatory and galley layouts and positions
• Prepare a dimensioned drawing of the cabin
• Internal diameter of fuselage is smaller than its outside diameter. To calculate outside
diameter add 1-4in to internal diameter, depending on aircraft type.
• Weight and dimensions of passengers are standardised. However they are mainly dictated
by transport companies. (Typically passenger average weight can be assumed 180lb with
carry-on bags. Checked luggage weight can be assumed 40-60lb)
• Passenger seats, restraint systems, onboard entertainment facilities and … can be ordered
by transport companies. However all of them should be designed and installed according
the aviation standards.
• Passenger cabin design and its arrangement are usually done by transport companies.
• Remember that the passengers are the customers and customer is always the main
person. The cabin environment must not be boring. Passengers should be able to eat,
drink, sleep, read and enjoy in the cabin at their seats
cabin design)
Page 174 of 270
Passenger cabin – layout example:
http://www.aerospaceweb.org
cabin design)
Passenger cabin – cross section example:

cabin design)
Page 175 of 270
Passenger cabin – door and galley example:
Boeing 737 galley Beech Aircraft door-stair
http://www.compositesunlimited.com http://www.atsb.gov.au
cabin design)
Cargo compartment:
• Cargo must be carried in a secure fashion to prevent shifting while in flight.
• Cargo can be “containered” and “uncontainered”.
• If cargo and luggage are not loaded in cargo containers, a cargo provision of 6-8ft3 per
passenger is reasonable. This method is more suitable for small aircraft.
• If cargo and luggage are preloaded in the containers and then placed into the belly of the
aircraft, a cargo provision of 8.6-15.6ft3 for paid cargo and passenger luggage is reasonable.
This method is used in medium and big aircraft.
• To design an aircraft cargo volume must be determined. It is recommended to use standard
containers.
• Cargo doors must be enough large to make the loading and unloading possible and without
undue efforts. Low wing aircraft have two separate cargo compartment, hence they should
have two cargo doors.
• Cargo compartment floor of the military aircraft must be as near as possible to the ground.
Military aircraft floors need to be equipped with roller systems and tie-down provisions
cabin design)
Page 176 of 270
Cargo compartment – standard containers:

cabin design)
Standard container sizes and capacity

Type Length Width (cm) Height Base Capacity Volume
(cm) (cm) length (cm) (kg) (m3)
LD1 228.0 145.0 162.6 147.0 1588 4.80
LD2 156.2 153.4 162.6 119.2 1225 3.40
LD3 200.7 153.4 162.6 156.2 1588 4.80
LD4 244.0 153.4 162.6 244.0 2450 6.10
LD6 406.4 153.4 162.6 317.5 3175 8.80
LD7 317.5 223.5 162.5 317.5 4627 9.91
LD8 317.5 153.4 162.5 243.8 2449 6.94
LD11 307.0 145.0 162.5 307.0 3176 7.00
LD26 400.0 214.0 162.5 307.0 6033 12.00
M1 318.0 224.0 224.0 318.0 6804 17.58
PGA Pallet 608.0 244.0 244.0 608.0 11340 36.20
cabin design)
Page 177 of 270
Cargo compartment – example:
Container loading
http://www.puzzletfactory.com
Boeing 747 cargo compartment

http://www.ancra-llc.com
AN-124 cargo compartment

http://www.aiiz.nato.int/
cabin design)

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cabin design)
Page 178 of 270
Aircraft Design
Fuselage design (overall configuration)

Semester I
Fuselage design (overall configuration) Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Aerodynamic considerations – friction drag:

• It is directly proportional to wetted area.
• To reduce friction drag two options are available: a) shape the fuselage so that the
laminar flow is possible; b) reduce the length and perimeter as much as possible.
• Too tight packaging should be avoided for maintainability considerations.
• A short fat fuselage has a short tail moment arm which increases the required tail area.
• When the length and diameter are calculated, exterior roughness and nose shape should
be considered as they can determine the extent of laminar flow which can be achieved
(Most fuselage body have a turbulent boundary layer with correspondingly high friction).
• Fuselage fineness ratio is fuselage length divided by fuselage diameter or:
Lf L fC L fN
λf = , λ fC = , λ fN = ,
Df Df Df
where : L fC is fuselage nose length and L fN is fuselage cone length
Page 179 of 270
Aerodynamic considerations – friction drag:
Fuselage parameters recommendations lfn

(for more detail see Roskam’s book, Vol 2)
Fuselage parameters
M≤0.7 M=0.8-0.9 M≥1
λF 6-9 8-13 10-23
λFN 1.2-2 1.7-2.5 4-6
λFC 2-3 3-4 5-7
Effect of fineness ratio on fuselage drag


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Aerodynamic considerations – profile and base drag:

Profile and base drag are the function
of front and aft body shape. Blunt
fore- and aft-bodies promote flow Fuselage streamlining in
separation. Piaggio GP-10
• To design a good fore-body it is
enough to smoothly integrate
windshield into the surface of From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam
fuselage. In many cases cockpit
vision diagram requirements and
front loading possibility prevent
streamlining the aircraft nose.
• In the case of fighters, radar dish
area becomes a dominant design
criterion for designing the aircraft
nose.
• In the supersonic cruise aircraft, Nose configuration in TU-144
cockpit visibility requirements www.tupolev.ru
during landing and takeoff is
obtained by inclining the nose down

http://upload.wikimedia.org
Aerodynamic considerations – profile and base drag:
• Aft-fuselage deviation (aircraft plan view) from the freestream
direction should not be more than 10-12deg
• Upsweep (aircraft side view) is applied to the aircraft for two
reasons: to facilitate takeoff rotation and rear cargo loading
• The angle of 12-15deg is recommended for fuselage upsweep.
A rear-loading transport aircraft may have an upsweep angle of
25deg which increases the aircraft drag.
Twin-boom Pioneer UAV
• In the case of pusher aircraft upsweep angle could be High friction drag because of the
increased up to 30deg. very small fuselage fineness ratio
• Base area can cause excessive high drag due to the low
pressure.
Effect of aft-body
bluntness on drag
Effect of upsweep
on drag
From Book: Synthesis of subsonic airplane design, by E. Torenbeek
Page 181 of 270
Aerodynamic considerations – compressibility drag:

• A fuselage experiences compressibility drag in very high
http://www.aerospaceweb.org
subsonic, transonic and supersonic Mach numbers, when
the shocks are generated on fuselage.
• The area rule concept must be used to minimise
compressibility drag (wave drag is calculated using the
second derivative – curvature – of the volume distribution
plot). However, in a passenger aircraft or even fighter it is
hard to employ area rules.
• The best volume distribution is called “Sears-Haack”
Volume distribution of a Sears-
body. “Sears-Haack” gives minimum wave drag at M=1.
Haack body
• While area-ruling was developed for minimisation of
supersonic drag even low-speed aircraft can benefit from
it (it reduces the flow tendency to separate)
An example of an
area-ruled fuselage
http://oea.larc.nasa.gov/


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Aerodynamic considerations – induced drag:

• As a fuselage has not considerable contribution in
lift generation, it doesn’t generate substantial
induced drag.
• A fuselage has adverse effect on wingspan load
distribution
• If a fuselage equipped with LEX then it contributes
in lift generating, as a result there will be a
significant effect of the fuselage on the induced
drag.
In Northrop B-2 bomber
fuselage has significant effect
on induced drag
Effect of fuselage on wingspan loading

http://www.century-of-flight.freeola.com
Fuselage cross section:

• In passenger and transport aircraft design the cockpit and passenger cabin layout and prepare
a dimensioned drawing.
• In military aircraft design the cockpit, engine and weapon bays and prepare a dimensioned
drawing. Consider enough place for nose radar, ejection seat, avionic devices, air intake,
engine isolation, landing parachute and …
Fuselage configuration studies by Douglas

Page 183 of 270
Fuselage cross section - example:
Cabin arrangement of DC-10 A good fuselage cross section drawing
For more example see Roskam’s Book, vol. 3 From Book: Synthesis of subsonic airplane design, by E. Torenbeek

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Fuselage structural arrangement:

• Fuselage is the component to which the wing, the empennage, the landing gear and the nacelles
are usually attached
• The fuselage structure must be designed so that the following loads can be taken without major
structural failure, deflection and fatigue problems (fuselage must have adequate element to
counter the load):
– Empennage loads due to trim, manoeuvring, turbulence and gusts
– Pressure loads due to cabin pressurization
– Landing loads due to landing impact, taxiing and ground manoeuvring
– Loads induced by the propulsion
– Loads induced by the payload and fuel weight
• In fuselage design consider its reasonable crashworthiness.
• Cabin materials must be soundproof, decorative, non-toxic, flame retardant, and high endurance.
• It is unlikely to cut the main structures by the bays, doors and windows as it increases aircraft
weight
• In a fighter the following issues should be considered: engine removal big cutout, canopy cutout
(these two cut the main fuselage frames), nose landing gear retraction, tail hook and tail actuators
installation)
Fuselage structural arrangement - recommendations:

• To generate a layout consider the following dimensions (they will be more precisely
calculated in Preliminary Design process):
For small commercial aircraft For fighter and trainers For large transports
Frame depths (in.) 1.25-1.75 1.5-2.5 0.02df+1.0
Frame spacing (in.) 24-30 15-20 18-22
Longeron spacing (in.) 10-15 8-12 6-12
• Metallic fuselage typically has shell and skin layout. Composite fuselage generally has
monocock or semi-monocock construction. In metallic construction shell takes local
aerodynamic loads and frames and longerons take overall shear, torsion, tension and
compression loads and bending moments but in composite structures, most frames and
longerons are no longer needed as all the loads are taken by composite shell.
• When design a flying boat the following considerations are important:
– Buoyancy of the fuselage
– Hydrodynamic drag and aerodynamic drag
– Effect of the hull shape on directional stability
– Effect of the hull shape on landing and takeoff characteristics on land and water
– Effect of the hull shape on water spray and where the spray goes
– Effect of the hull shape and hull size on ability to operate in certain sea states
– Hull bottom should be designed with different compartments (to prevent sinking)
– Materials for sea aircraft should be selected according to the exploitation environmental
conditions
Page 185 of 270
Fuselage structural arrangement - seaplane:

Parts of a seaplane haul
Seaplane fuselage cross section
Seaplane spray pattern
From Book: The anatomy of the airplane, by D. Stinton

Fuselage structural arrangement - examples:
Structural arrangement for Douglas A4D-2N Skyhawk

Page 186 of 270
Fuselage structural arrangement - examples:

Fuselage shell and
structural arrangement
for the McDonnel
Douglas DC10

Fuselage layout - examples:
From Airbus Industry brochures

Page 187 of 270
From Airbus Industry brochures

From Boeing Company brochures

Page 188 of 270
From Dassault Company brochures

From Socata Company brochures

Page 189 of 270
From Boeing Company brochures

From SAAB Company brochures

Page 190 of 270
From Sukhoi Company brochures


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Page 191 of 270
Aircraft Design
Propulsion system selection and integration I

Semester I
Propulsion system selection and integration I Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Propulsion system selection criteria:

To select a propulsion system the following
factors should be considered:
– Max Cruise Speed
– Operational Ceiling
– Fuel efficiency
– Installed Thrust vs. Dry
– Installed weight vs. Dry weight
– Engine Failure & Safety record
– Cost of acquisition
– Cost of maintenance
• MTBF (Mean Time Between Failure) Propulsion system types
• MTBO (Mean Time Between Overhaul)
(for detail see Aeronautical
– Environmental Regulations
Engineering I)
– Availability
– Manoeuvres (Fuel system & Intake)
From Book: Aircraft design, a conceptual approach, by D. Raymer

Page 192 of 270
Propulsion system vs flight envelope:
Aircraft flight envelope has

an important bearing on the
choice of the type of
propulsion system
A comparison between
thrust and energy rate
generated by a propeller
and a jet engine
From Book: Aircraft flight, by R. Barnard From Book: Design of aircraft, by T. Corke

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Page 193 of 270
Propulsion system SFC:

Typical SFC (Specific Fuel
Consumption) values associated
with different powerplants across
the Mach range
Typical SFC for subsonic engines
From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam http://www.aero-space.nasa.gov/

Propulsion system thrust and SFC:

• The installed engine thrust is always less
than that of uninstalled. The reasons are:
– The manufacturer’s uninstalled
engine thrust is obtained with the
assumption of full inlet recovery (on
supersonic speeds the installed
engine inlet recovery equals to 92-
96% of uninstalled engine inlet
recovery).
– Manufacturer’s nozzle is more
efficient than actual nozzle.
– All the engines have a setting in
which they can work with the
minimum value of SFC.
– Part of thrust/power does not
contribute in accelerating the aircraft Thrust loses vs hight and Mach
and is used for other purposes number for TFE731-1042

Page 194 of 270
Propulsion system dry and wet weight (uninstalled and

installed weight):
• Propulsion system dry weight is
the engine weight represented in
the manufacturer’s catalogues. It
is always less than wet weight
• The weigh of the additional parts,
which are needed for engine
installation, cooling, breathing,
controlling and …, and also the
weight of oil and other liquids that
need to be used and required for
proper operation of the engine
should be added to dry weight to
obtain the engine wet weight
Boeing-767 engine (JT9D-7R4) parts


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Page 195 of 270
Propulsion system cost:

• To buy an engine the following parameters should be considered:
– BEC (Bare Engine Cost)
– Maintenance cost
• MTBF (Mean Time Between Failure). MTBF is found by statistical analysis and
shows the reliability of the engine (e.g. 3 failure in 100,000 FH (Flight Hours)
• MTBO (Mean Time between Overhaul). MTBO shows the planned maintenance
requirement
• Some engines cost less but have very limited time between overhauls. It means that they
have higher maintenance cost.
• Engine manufacturers try to increase MTBO to reduce maintenance cost.
• Accessibility and on-wing maintainability reduce the maintenances cost.
Engine Aircraft Thrust Bypass MTBO Average Cost Market cost Engines in
Type(s) Ratio of Overhaul (BEC) Service
V2500-A1 A320-200 25,000 lbf 5.4 9,000 FH $2,200,000 $3,724,000 280 engines
V2527-A5 A320-200 26,500 lbf 4.8 15,000 FH $2,000,000 $4,660,000 558 engines
CF6- 747-400 57,900 lbf 5.15 18,000 FH $2,000,000 $4,857,000 1,024

80C2B1F engines
AL-31F Su-27 1,000 hours
Propulsion system environmental regulations:

• Mainly they are two:
1. Engine emissions
2. Engine noise
• Environmental effects of the engines are
regulated by ICAO
ttp://www.techtransfer.berkeley.edu http://www.icao.int/
http://www.aero-space.nasa.gov/
Page 196 of 270
Propulsion system – aircraft manoeuvres:

• The aircraft propulsion systems have work limitation in high angle of attacks and high-g
manoeuvres. It is mainly related to the fuel and lubrication systems
• In GA and UAV where the main fuel delivery systems work by the gravity force, for
manoeuvrability (e.g. inverse flight) we need to have central fuel tank
• In some fighters and full acrobatic aircraft fuel system should be pressurised
• Almost all the aircraft have limitation in reverse flight
• Fuel lines and tanks have quite a large number of barrier and check valves, which prevent
fuel movements and guarantee the fuel delivery in all flight configurations.
Thrust calculation (Jet engines):

• In jet engines thrust is reduced when the flight altitude and speed are increased. If an
aircraft is being sized based on the thrust required for cruise, the sea level thrust for that
cruise speed needs to be corrected for altitude and temperature.
• To find out how thrust changes with the air velocity, altitude and temperature, it is
recommended to use manufacturer’s data.
• The main equation for turbojet engine thrust calculation is:
T = mɺ (Ve − Va ) + Ae (Pe − Pa ) where : mɺ is mass flow rate,V is velocity, P is pressure,

a and e refer to atmospheric and jet - exit conditions.
• The air density is a function of the pressure and temperature, therefore if no data are
available the thrust at the elevation and temperature can be calculated by:
ρ
Tρ = Tref
ρ ref
Page 197 of 270
Thrust calculation (propeller engines):

• In propeller engines thrust is a For static thrust :
function of speed. P
• The engine power is reduced 1 - Calculate CP : C P =
ρ ⋅ n3 ⋅ D5
when the flight altitude is 2 - Use the graph to find C T /C P .
increased. If an aircraft is being
sized based on the power/thrust C   P 
3 - Use the following equation to find thrust : T =  T  ⋅  
required for cruise, the sea level  C P   nD 
power/thrust for that cruise
speed needs to be corrected for
altitude and temperature.
• To find out how power/thrust
changes with the air velocity,
altitude and temperature, it is Static propeller thrust
recommended to use
manufacturer’s data.
• The main equations for propeller
engine thrust calculation are:


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Page 198 of 270
Thrust calculation (propeller engines):

For forward flight thrust : For efficiency estimation :
1 - Estimate η . 1 - Calculate advance ratio : J = V / nD
2 - Use the following equation to find thrust : 2 - Calculate C P : C P = P
ρ ⋅ n3 ⋅ D 5
Pη
T= 3 - Measure blade angle.
V
4 - Use the graph to find η .
In these equations: Forward flight thrust

V: velocity (m/s) and efficiency
n: rotation speed (rev/s)
D: propeller diameter (m)
T: thrust (N)
P: power (W)

Engine data:
• It is recommended to base your design on a real engine. If its thrust/power is not appropriate
use the following equation to scale your engine. The other parameters like SFC can be
assumed constant. If it is impossible to use a real or scaled engine use statistical data (see
Raymer’s book)
For jet engines : For piston/turboprop engines :

Scale factor : SF = Treq /Tactual Scale factor : SF = POWER req /POWER actual
L = Lactual (SF ) X scaled = X actual ⋅ SF b
0.4
D = Dactual (SF ) b from table below :

0.5
W = Wactual (SF )
1 .1
X Opposed In-line Radial Turboprop

Weight 0.78 0.78 0.809 0.803
Length 0.424 4.24 0.310 3.730
Diameter - - 0.130 0.120

Page 199 of 270
Integration of the propulsion system

• Make a decision about the number of the engines to be employed. (more engine more
reliable aircraft and less propulsion failure probability, however it increases the cost and
weight of the propulsion system and operational cost of the aircraft)
• Decide on the place where the engines can be mounted (the wing, the fuselage, the
empennage or a combination of those). Consider the followings:
– Effect of power changes on stability and control
– Drag of proposed installation
– Weight and balance
– Inlet requirement
– Accessibility and maintainability
– Ground/surface clearance
– Internal and external noise Propulsion system
– Stealthiness positioning depends
– Gun installation
– Engine thrust reversing requirements
on aircraft overall
– Engine accessories configuration
– Engine installation and isolation requirements
– Engine cooling requirements
• Prepare a 3-view/3-D drawing
• Document your decision and your arguments supporting your decision

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Page 200 of 270
Integration of jet engines:

• In passenger and transport aircraft: engines are located above/under the wing, on the aft-
fuselage or combination of both.
– The under-wing configuration is very common as it eases the maintenance, reduces the
noise in the cabin and the engine weight reduces the total wing loading, hence reduces
the wing weight. However presence of pods and pylons disturbs the airflow on the wing,
reduces the lift and increases the drag and also increases the possibility of foreign object
ingestion by suction into the inlets.
– The over-wing configuration reduces noise on the ground, reduces landing gear height
and increases wing lift coefficient through Coanda effect, however it increases noise in the
cabin, reduces the lifetime of the upper surface panels of the wing and also generates
very dangerous rolling moment in takeoff and landing due to engine failures
– The aft-fuselage engine eliminates the wing-interference effects of wing-mounted engines
and allows a short landing gear. However it increases the noise in the cabin and CG
range and makes the aircraft tail-heavy especially in landing configuration. Moreover it
reduces the horizontal and vertical tail arm which necessitates a larger vertical and
horizontal tail. In the case of buried-engine in the aft-fuselage, it requires very complicated
and heavy air inlet.
– The wing-tip mounted engine has an obvious engine-out controllability problem. This
configuration is rarely used.

Integration of jet engines:

• In fighters: engines are located in the wing and wing root, in/on the aft-fuselage or
combination of all. The inlet position and geometry have great effect on engine
performance in different flight configuration.
– The nose inlet was used in most early
fighters. It offers the inlet a completely
clean airflow, however it needs a very long
and heavy internal duct.
– The chin inlet has the most advantages of
the nose inlet but a shorter duct length,
however the location of the nose landing
gear is a problem
– The side-mounted inlets are used in the
aircraft with two engines. This
configuration offers the inlet a clean
airflow, however it can have some
problems in manoeuvres due to the vortex
ingestion.
– Armpit inlet is the inlet which is placed at
the intersection of the wing and fuselage.
It offers a very short inlet duct, however
the thick boundary layer in the wing-
fuselage corner can be ingested into the
intakes and also increases the structural From Book: Aircraft design, a conceptual
weight of the wing approach, by D. Raymer
Page 201 of 270
Integration of piston/turboprop engines:

• A tractor installation has the propeller in front of its
attachment point. A pusher location has the propeller
behind the attachment point.
• With the tractor configuration the aircraft flies in
undisturbed air, hence drag is less.
• The tractor location places the propeller in
undisturbed air, hence propeller efficiency is greater.
From Book: Synthesis of subsonic airplane
• The pushers are tail-heavy hence they need bigger design, by E. Torenbeek
horizontal and vertical tails.
• Canard pusher is more favourable configuration (in
pushers) and normal tractor is more favourable (in
tractors).
• When use the propeller on the wing, primary controls
should be located so, no crew members or
passengers are placed in the area generated by lines
passing through the centre of the propeller hub
making an angle of 5deg.
• The pusher propeller require longer landing gear
because the propeller dips closer to the runway as
the nose is lifted up.
• The pusher propeller is more likely to be damaged by
rocks thrown up by the wheels.

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Page 202 of 270
Engine mounting:
• Each engine mounting must have
enough elements to transfer the
thrust and rotational moment of the
engine.
• Most piston engines transmit
significant vibration into the airframe.
To reduce this vibration they are
usually mounted on shock absorbing
engine mountings (shock mounts) Shock mount installation
• The under-wing podded-engines, Engine installation in the Boeing 767
engine weights generate big moment
due to requirements of their
installation far in front of the wing
leading edge
• The fighter engine mounting
(especially when the engine/s are
installed in the fuselage should be
easily assemblable to reduce the
maintenance time From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam

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Page 203 of 270
Aircraft Design
Propulsion system selection and integration II

Semester I
Propulsion system selection and integration II Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Inlet geometry (jet engines):

• One of the main duties of inlet is reduction the air velocity for feeding the engine to 0.4-0.5
Mach. (Otherwise the compressor/fan blade tips have to work in supersonic speed!)
• The inlet shape, size and position affect the inlet pressure recovery (inlet pressure recovery
equals total pressure delivered to the engine divided by freestream total pressure)
• The inlet’s external geometry including the cowl and boundary-layer diverter has great
influence on the aircraft total drag.
• There are four basic types of inlets:
Inlet types
From Book: Aircraft

design, a conceptual
Page 204 of 270

• NACA flash inlet is rarely used today for
aircraft propulsion system due to its poor
pressure recovery. NACA inlet is regularly
used for cooling air and auxiliary power
units, where pressure recovery is less
important.
• The pitot inlet is simply a forward-facing hole
and works very well at low subsonic speeds.
When it is used for subsonic flight it is called
“normal shock inlet” as it generates normal
shock. The cowl lip radius has a major effect
upon engine performance and aircraft drag.
• The conical (spike) and ram-air (D-shape)
inlet are for supersonic speeds. They exploit
shock patterns created by supersonic flow
over a cone or wedge. The spike inlet has
better pressure recovery but has more drag, Supersonic inlets
is heavier and involves much more
complicated mechanism to produce variable From Book: Aircraft design, a conceptual
geometry. approach, by D. Raymer

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Page 205 of 270

• Each shock involves with pressure loss. Pressure loss in normal shock is more than that in
oblique shock. In other words, more reduction in speed in one shock, more pressure loss and
less pressure recovery. Generally, for final transition to subsonic speed, a normal shock is
used (e.g. from 1.4M to 0.6M). As an example imagine that we need to reduce the speed from
2M to 0.65M. We can use one normal shock, which gives 72% pressure recovery. We can
also use a combination of one oblique shock to get 1.66M with the pressure recovery of
98.9% and one normal shock from 1.66M to 0.65M with the pressure recovery of 87.2%. The
second case gives us total pressure recovery of 87.2%x98.9%=86%. For high supersonic
speed we try to increase the number of shocks.
• To have high efficient inlet for a great range of speed on the fighters, we generally use
variable inlet geometry.
Variable inlet
geometry
From Book: Aircraft design, a conceptual

Capture area sizing (jet engines):

• In a subsonic aircraft usually the air is slowed from 0.8M to 0.6M outside the inlet and from
0.6M to 0.4M in the inlet.
• The inlet capture area must be sized to provide sufficient air to the engine at all aircraft
speed
• As the speed of flow is reduced from its freestream velocity at “infinity” to 0.4M, the inlet
mass flow area A∞ is always smaller than capture area AC and engine front face area.
• For the first estimation we can use:
Engine frontal face flow diameter :

Di = 0.8Dmax
Engine mass flow :
Mɺ = 0.183D 2
i
The graph on the next slide

can be used for capture area
estimation
Page 206 of 270
From Book: Aircraft design, a

Capture area sizing (jet engines): conceptual approach, by D. Raymer
• The engine takes the amount of the

air that it wants not the amount of the
air that the inlet can deliver to it.
• The amount of the air should be
enough for different flight
configurations and all accessories.
• Imagine that an inlet must slow the
flow from 0.6M to 0.4M. Then we can
calculate the throat area by the
following equations:
Athroat
=
A A∗ ( )throat
Aengine A A∗ ( )engine
3 For supersonic capture
A 1  1 + 0.2M 2  M = 0.4 ⇒ A A∗ = 1.590
∗
=   ⇒  ∗
area sizing see
A M  1.2  M = 0.6 ⇒ A A = 1.188 Raymer’s book
A 1.188 D
⇒ throat = = 0.75 ⇒ throat = 0.87
Aengine 1.59 Dengine

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Page 207 of 270
Boundary layer removal (jet engine):

• If low-energy turbulent boundary layer,
which is generated on the surface of
all objects moving through air, allowed
to enter the engine, it can reduce
engine and inlet performance.
• If the inlets are very near to the nose
(within two to four inlet diameters) no
boundary layer diverter is needed.
• Depending on the aircraft speed, the
boundary layer thickness usually
equals 2-4% of the forebody length
ahead of the inlet. Boundary layer removing techniques
• The channel diverter is the most
common boundary layer converter for
supersonic aircraft.
• The boundary layer suction should be
carefully considered in flight on high
angle of attack. From Book: Aircraft design, a
conceptual approach, by D. Raymer
Nozzle integration (jet engine) :

• The engine is the producer of high-pressure subsonic gases and the nozzle accelerates those
gases to the desired exit speed (sub-or supersonic) by changing the exit area
• The nozzle must converge to accelerate the exhaust gases to a high subsonic exit speed.
• If it is required to accelerate the exhaust gases to a supersonic speed, a converging-diverging
nozzle is required.
• The exit area depends also on the engine mass flow. E.g. in afterburning engines the desired exit
area for supersonic afterburning operation can be three times the desired area for subsonic speed.
• In conceptual design the exit area could be estimated 0.5-0.7AC for subsonic speed, 0.6-0.9AC for
supersonic speed without afterburner and 1.2-1.5AC for afterburning supersonic speed.
Types of nozzles
From Book: Aircraft design, a

Page 208 of 270
Propeller sizing:
• The larger the propeller diameter, the more efficient the propeller is. The limitation is
propeller tip speed which should be kept below sonic speed.
• The propeller tip speed is the vector sum of the rotational speed and the aircraft’s forward
speed:
(V )tip static = πnd 60 where : n = rotational rate (RPM), d = diameter
and : (Vtip )helical = (V ) +V 2

2
tip
• At sea level the helical tip speed of a metal propeller should not exceed 950fps. A wooden
propeller, which must be thicker, should be kept below 850fps. To reduce the noise, the
upper limit for all propeller types should be about 700fps.
• To estimate the propeller diameter the following equations can be used. The results
should be compared with the results obtained from tip-speed considerations and the
smaller of the two values can be used. (it is recommended to use the manufacturers’ data)
Two blade : d = 22 ⋅ 4 hp , Three blade : d = 18 ⋅ 4 hp , Three blade (agricultural) : d = 20 ⋅ 4 hp
• A fixed-pitch propeller is designed for specific flight regime. They are called “cruise prop”
or “climb prop”.
• The inner part of propeller contributes very little to the thrust. A spinner is a cone which
pushes the air out to where the propeller is more efficient. Maximum radius of spinner can
be 20-25% of propeller radius.

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Page 209 of 270
Propeller efficiency:
• Installed propeller efficiency depends – Propeller blockage
upon the following factors: – Number of blades
– Activity factor AF – Tip Mach number
– Airfoils of the blades – Single or counter rotation
– Pitch distribution – Disk loading and power loading
Effect of number of blades and of disk Installed propeller efficiency

loading on propeller efficiency From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam
Piston engine installation:

• In piston engines cooling is a major concern
• Up to 10% of the engine’s power can be wasted by the drag associated with taking in
cooling air, passing it over the engine and exiting it
• The cooling air intake should be about 30-50% of the engine frontal area. The cooling air
exit area should be about 30% larger
• To control the cooling air flow cowl-flaps are used.
• The baffles are flat sheets of metal which direct the airflow to the engine compartments
• The firewall is typically a 0.015-in steel sheet attached to the first structural bulkhead of the
fuselage or nacelle. It prevents a fire in the engine compartment to be spread into the rest of
the aircraft.
• In canard configuration the cooling air intake frontal area should be larger as boundary layer
at the end of the fuselage is very thick
Piston engine installation

Page 210 of 270
Fuel system: Fuel system

• Fuel system includes the fuel tanks, fuel installation
lines, fuel pumps, vents, fuel-management
controls, fuel quantity measurement and (PIPER PA-38-112)
indicating system and fuel flow quantity
measurement and indicating system.
• There are three types of fuel tank:
– Discrete: metallic or composite,
fabricated separately and mounted by
bolts or straps.
– Bladder: made by stuffing a shaped
rubber bag into a cavity in the
structure. They are thick and heavy
but self-sealing.
– Integrated: is a part of aircraft
structure. It is a cavity within the
airframe structure that are sealed to
form a fuel tank.
• The required volume of the fuel is
calculated during mission sizing. This can
be used to calculate required volume of
tanks. The available volume inside the
wing or fuselage can be estimated using
the sketches. From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam

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Aircraft Design
Wing design considerations I

Semester I
Wing design considerations I Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Vertical position of wing:

• If “everything else” in the aircraft with different wing positioning (low wing - LW, mid wing -
MW, high wing - HW) is the same the following comparison can be done:
– Lateral stability: HW has the highest lateral stability and LW has the least. (As the
result of sideslip, more lift will be generated on the lower wing. The lower the centre of
gravity is the greater will be the moment arm.)
– Interference drag: LW has the highest interference drag and MW has the least. (In
LW flow speed on upper surface of wing in more than on lower surface in HW. In MW
because of less height of fuselage above or under the wing, best fillet could be
designed.)
– Visibility from cabin: HW has the best visibility from cabin and LW has the worst. (If
upward visibility is needed then the order will be changed. In some small aircraft, the
wing panels above the cabin are transparent. This is one reason that MW
configuration is more preferable for fighters!)
– Landing gear weight: LW has the lightest landing gear and HW has the heaviest. (If in
HW landing gears are connected to wing, they need very long strut and if to fuselage
they need a big bay.)
– Crashworthiness: LW is more survivable in crashes and HW is less. (In HW the
fuselage, where the payload is, should bear all the impact loads generated by the
wing in a crash. Moreover in the case of emergency landing on the water, part of the
fuselage which is under the wing will be immersed in the water.
Page 212 of 270
Vertical position of wing:

– Transport and cargo application: HW is more preferable configuration for cargo
application and MW is less. (In HW no special ground equipments are needed for
loading and unloading. In MW the centre-wing passes through the fuselage, occupies
part of that and prevents easy loading and unloading.
– Weapon loading: HW is more preferable configuration for loading or unloading the
wing-mounted weapons and LW is less. (In HW the distances of hard-points from
ground provide easy access)
– Water clearance for flying boats and amphibious: HW has more clearance when an
aircraft operates on the water and LW has less. (In HW the wing is not in touch with
the water during takeoff. As the result, drag forces is extremely less than the LW
configuration when wing is in touch with the water in takeoff)
– Stability on the water for flying boats and amphibious: LW has more stability and
better operational characteristics that the other two. (In LW the wing surface can be
used as a platform for loading and unloading. Also it has larger surface in touch with
the water during landing and takeoff which increases aircraft stability.)
– Structural considerations: LW and HW has lighter structure in comparison with MW.
(As in all the configurations, fuselage volume is occupied by the payload or the
engine/s, it is impossible to cut the internal volume of the fuselage by the beams or
other structural elements. As the result in MW configuration it is required to use
massive ring frames which increase the weight if midpart of the wing and fuselage.

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Page 213 of 270
Wing loading:
• As the result of sizing there is not a specific number for wing loading but the wing loading
could be varied in a quite large range, depending upon performance parameters. The
question is high wing loading is better or low wing loading.
– Takeoff and landing field length: As it was discussed it is directly related to the
amount of wing loading. The lower wing loading is the shorter is the field length. The
wing area can be kept small by using flaps.
– Cruise performance: The higher wing loading is the closer the cruise lift coefficient to
that at (L/D)max. (this is the reason why transport jets tend to have high wing loading
and use very effective flaps)
– High altitude flight: For flight on high altitude a large wing area (low wing loading) is
required. (this is the reason why U-2 has very large wing area and moderate speed)
– Ride trough turbulence: The lower the wing loading is, the higher is the response of
the aircraft to the changing of angle of attack which translates into poor ride quality.
(This is the reason why flight on big jet transports with high wing loading is more
comfortable than flight on small jet transport with low wing loading. The flight of GA
aircraft is usually very uncomfortable and bumpy.)
– Weight: The wing weight is a direct function of its area. The larger wing is, the lower is
the wing loading and the higher is the weight of the wing.
– Manufacturing cost and complexity: The high wing loading wing is manufactured by
using more expensive material and more complex manufacturing operations. Hence
high wing loading wing is more expensive and more complicated in production.
Wing sweep:
• Three main configuration will be considered: forward sweep - FS, aft sweep - AS and no
sweep - NS. Variable sweep and oblique wing are not discussed as they are the
combination on these three main configurations.
– Compressibility drag: FS and AS have similar favourable effect on compressibility
drag. It means that FS and AS yield similar reduction in compressibility drag.
– Weight: NS configuration is the lightest. FS is associated with structural divergence
phenomenon. To prevent divergence it must be designed stiffer hence it is heavier
than AS. By tailoring the ratio of bending to torsion stiffness (using the composite
materials) it is possible to control structural divergence in FS configuration.
Effect of sweep on Effect of sweep on wing http://www.centennialofflight.gov

compressibility drag weight From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam
Page 214 of 270
Wing sweep:
– Stall behaviour: In AS configuration, wingtips stall first which leads to reduction of the
ailerons effectiveness and loss of lateral control.
– Balance: AS or FS can be used for increasing or decreasing aircraft longitudinal
stability. If the sweep angle is slightly increased/decreases, the aerodynamic centre
(AC) moves faster than centre of gravity (CG) and increases/decreases the aircraft static
margin (SM). Also it changes the longitudinal moment arm which has a beneficial effect
on the inherent longitudinal damping characteristics of the aircraft.
– Pitch altitude and ride: Increasing the sweep angle reduces the lift-curve slope. As the
result of that the aircraft with high sweep angle tends to have more pitch attitude at low
speed therefore they have less runway visibility. On the other hand, high sweep
improves ride quality.
Effect of sweep on stall behaviour

From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam Effect of sweep on lift curve slope

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Page 215 of 270
Wing overall shape:

• Three main configuration will be considered
and compared with the cantilever wing
configuration: Biplane, braced wing and joined-
wing.
– Biplanes are more compact. For the same Biplane configuration
required wing area they can have smaller
span.
– Biplanes are lighter. (the second moment
of wing cross section area is larger)
– Biplanes are cheaper and simpler to build.
– Biplanes have less L/D. Bending moment distribution
– Biplanes have very low efficiency on high
subsonic speed.
– Braced wings, compared with strutted
wing have lower structural weight
– Braced wings have higher drag coefficient
(for each aircraft it should be studied
whether or not the difference in weight
offsets the difference in drag. A joined wing fighter
– Joined wing can be studied as a
combination of advantages of all three
From Book: The design of the airplane, by D. Stinton
configurations
Wing aspect ratio:

• Two main configuration will be discussed: low aspect
ratio wing – LA and high aspect ratio wing – HA.
– Induced drag: HA tend to have lower induced
drag. CL
L πAe
  = ∞
 D  max 4C D 0 8 6
– Lift-curve slope: HA tend to have high lift-curve 3
slopes.
1
– Runway visibility: HA have good runway visibility
from the cockpit.
– Ride in turbulence: HA have worse ride
characteristic through turbulence.
– Weight: HA are heavier than LA
α
– Span: HA have larger span
– Aeroelasticity: LA have better aeroelastic Effect of aspect ratio on lift-
stability curve slope
– Lateral stability: LA have better lateral stability

Page 216 of 270
Wing thickness ratio:

• Two main configuration will be discussed:
thick wing and thin wing.
– Subsonic drag: Increased thickness
means higher profile drag in the
subsonic flight regime.
– Supersonic drag: Thick wing generates
more wave drag in the transonic and
supersonic flight regime.
– Weight: With increasing the thickness
both bending and torsional stiffness are
increased. Hence thinner the wing is,
heavier it is.
– Maximum lift: Up to 14-18% thickness,
maximum lift coefficients of airfoils tend
to increase.
– Fuel volume: Increased thickness
translates into greater fuel volume. To
have more space in the wings for fuel,
designers tend to choose as thick airfoil
as possible
Effect of thickness ratio on drag, weight and
– Payload: It is easier to mount and carry maximum lift
any payload under the thick wing From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam

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Page 217 of 270
Wing taper ratio:

• Two main configuration will be discussed: high taper ratio
and low taper ratio.
– Weight: The weight of the wing with low taper ratio is
less than the weight of the wing with high taper ratio
as the wing lift distribution tend to zero at the wing tip
the area of the wing near the tip is not fully loaded.
– Tip stall: The tip of the wing with low taper ratio tends
to stall sooner as it flies on lower Reynolds's number
and has lower maximum lift coefficient.
– Fuel volume: The larger taper ratio is, the more is fuel
volume.
– Cost: Untapered wing (taper ratio = 1) has less Effect of taper ratio on local
manufacturing cost as all the ribs are similar lift coefficient
– Variable taper ratio: In some configurations the use of
broken or curved leading or trailing edge is
advantageous. This is to: increase the root thickness
to reduce the wing weight, decrease the root thickness
ratio and increase the root sweep angle which reduces
the wave drag on supersonic speeds, create room
behind the wing spar for the mounting and retraction
of the landing gear. From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam
Wing twist:
• Different angles of twist will be discussed: (wash-out or negative twist is when the tip airfoil
has lower angle of incidence than root airfoil. Wash-in or positive twist is when the tip airfoil
has higher angle of incidence than root airfoil).
– Wing tip stall: Wash out delays wing tip stall. Tip stall generally occurs in an
asymmetrical manner and can cause serious roll control problems. Aft swept wings must
be twisted to prevent tip stall.
– Induced drag: Negatively twisted wings generate less induced drag than positively
twisted wings.
– Weight: Washout tends to decrease the aerodynamic loading at the tip. This decreases
the wing bending moment at root, which results in lower weight.
– Complexity: Both wash-out and wash-in increase the complexity of wing manufacturing.
(untwisted wing is much more cheaper)
Twist angle

Page 218 of 270
Wing dihedral:
Different angles of dihedral will be discussed (A negative dihedral angle is
called anhedral):
• Stability: Both spiral stability and dutch roll
stability are affected by dihedral angle.
Positive wing dihedral causes the rolling
moment due to sideslip derivative (Clβ) to
be negative. Sideslip derivative affects
both spiral and dutch roll stability. More
negative Clβ means more spiral stability Dihedral and anhedral angle
but also less dutch roll stability. All aircraft
must have a certain amount of negative
rolling moment due to sideslip (dihedral Nacelles and wing clearance
effect). High wing aircraft have inherent
dihedral effect. Swept wing aircraft have
also inherent dihedral effect due to sweep.
• Ground and water clearance: Airplane
wings, nacelles and/or propeller must have
a minimum amount of ground and water
clearance. This clearance in affected by
landing gears height and also wing
dihedral angle.

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Page 219 of 270
Wing incidence angle:

The factors affect the decision on wing incidence angle are:
• Cruise drag: The incidence angle should be chosen so that during main part of cruise flight
fuselage cruises without any angle relative to wind. If fuselage cruises nose down/up, the
total drag of fuselage is increased.
• Floor attitude in cruise: The floor attitude in cruise is influenced by the choice of incidence
angle. It will be difficult to walk in the aircraft if the floor attitude in cruise differs too much
from horizontal. (It is obvious that during a cruise flight, with burning the fuel, aircraft weight
and CG position are changed therefore the floor attitude will be changed.)
Some aircraft have variable incidence angle. It allows them to have a short landing gear because
the aircraft does not need to rotate to a high fuselage angle for additional lift during takeoff
and landing.
Angle of incidence
http://www.aerospaceweb.org/
http://www.midwaysaircraft.org Wing with variable incidence angle on F-8 Crusader

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Page 220 of 270
Aircraft Design
Wing design considerations II

Semester I
Wing design considerations II Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Airfoil families: NACA 0012

• The early airfoils mainly designed by trial and error
• The NACA airfoils designed mathematically 0 – percent camber
• The modern airfoils designed for the specific requirements 0 – location of max camber
– (The best reference is: Theory of wing section by Abbott)
12 – thickness ratio
Airfoil families

Page 221 of 270
Airfoil types:


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Page 222 of 270
Which airfoil is better?

• For conceptual design work rely on the existing airfoils.
• The first consideration is the “design lift coefficient”. This is the lift coefficient at which the
airfoil has the best angle of L/D.
• For conceptual design work we can assume that the “wing design lift coefficient” is equal to
the “airfoil design lift coefficient”.
• The “design lift coefficient” can be calculated by: CL=(1/q)(W/S).
• At the early stages of conceptual design it could be assumed around 0.3-0.5.
• In selecting an airfoil for high subsonic speeds, The critical Mach number should be
considered (supercritical airfoils).
• In modern airfoil design it is desirable to maintain the flow laminar over the greatest part of
the airfoil.
• Some of the airfoils (especially cambered airfoils) generate considerable pitching moments,
which should be considered. These airfoils could be recommended for tailless or canard
aircraft.
• At the early stage of design, the airfoil could be selected from the catalogues or even
similar to the previous successful designs. For more precise design, it will be based on
inverse computational solution and further optimisation.
• Airfoil lift coefficient should be corrected for wing (divide it by 1.05 – 1.1 for wing to count
interference effect) and also for sweep angle (multiple it by cosΛ3/4). (see slide 9)
Therefore the main parameters which should be considered are: airfoil drag coefficient,
airfoil lift coefficient, airfoil critical Mach number and airfoil pitching moment
Flaps:
• The following factors affect the decision of flap size and type:
– High lift requirements: The flap type and size should be selected according to The
required values of maximum takeoff and landing lift coefficients, obtained from
sizing calculations.
– Trim considerations: Flaps cause significant changes in pitching moment due to
changing the wing camber and changing the downwash on the horizontal tail. To
“trim out” these flap induced pitching moments, considerable down loads may be
required on the horizontal tail. (or it should be bigger). It should be considered that
from a performance point of view only the trimmed lift coefficient can be used in the
calculations not untrimmed.
– Drag considerations: Flap deployment always results in an increase in drag. In the
selection of a flap system, the lift to drag ratio for the takeoff flap down
configuration in an engine out climb (one of the critical configuration for sizing the
aircraft) should be considered. (because of relationship between the flap
deployment and drag incensement, usually the flaps set at lower angle in takeoff
than in landing.
– Cost, complexity and maintenance: The higher is the lift generated by flap system,
the more complex and more expensive they are. Moreover it increases the
maintenance cost and time.
Page 223 of 270
Flap types:
From Book: The anatomy of the

airplane, by D. Stinton

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Page 224 of 270
Aerodynamic effect of flaps:

High lift Devices ∆CLmax
Flaps
Plain and split 0.9
Slotted 1.3
Fowler 1.3
Double slotted 1.6
Triple slotted 1.9
Leading edge devices
Fixed slot 0.2
Leading edge flap 0.3
Kruger flap 0.3
slat 0.4
Above values can be used only for

the first estimation From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam

Page 225 of 270

• To find the lift increment due to flap
deployment:
– Use your sketch calculate flapped wing
area (Sflapped/Sref).
– Use experimental data to find out lift
coefficient increment for the airfoil. (if no
data are available, the table on slide 7 of
this lecture can be used.)
– Use the following equations to find the lift
increment of whole aircraft. For takeoff flap
setting multiple these values by 60-80%.
– For more accurate calculation use
Torenbeek’s book
S 
∆C L max = 0.9(∆C L max )airfoil  flapped  cos Λ hinge line
 S  “flapped” wing area
 ref 
 S flapped 
∆α = 0.9(∆α )airfoil   cos Λ hinge line
 S 
 ref  From Book: Aircraft design, a

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Page 226 of 270
Ailerons:
• Aerodynamic effect of ailerons is similar to that of
the plain flaps.
• Ailerons loose their effectiveness at high angles of
attack.
• Adverse yaw is the negative yawing moment
created by the ailerons. To decrease the adverse
yaw we use differential aileron controls or Frise
ailerons.
• “Aileron reversal” can be seen on swept aft wings.
At high speed (high dynamic pressure) ailerons
loos their effectiveness due to lack of torsion
stiffness of the wing. Because of that these aircraft “Differential” aileron control
usually are equipped by inboard and outboard
ailerons and outboard ailerons are locked-in-place
on high speeds. (Boeing 707, 727,747 and …)
• The outboard flow on the swept wings tends to
become parallel to the aileron hinge line. (In some
aircraft to control this flow the fences are used.
• The hinge line and actuating lug positions must be “Frise” ailerons
calculated according to aerodynamic centre of the
ailerons in order to reduce the loads on pilot’s
hand/s From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam
Spoilers:
• Spoilers spoil the airflow over the part of the
surface immediately behind the spoilers (wing
area is reduced hence lift is reduced)
• During landing or aborted takeoff, when the flaps
are down, spoilers are extremely effective as
they interrupt the airflow over the flaps.
• Spoilers can be used for roll control.
• Spoilers generate positive yawing moment –
proverse yaw.
• During landing when the flaps are down spoilers
are not used but exactly after the first touch with
the ground, applying the spoilers extremely
increases the aircraft drag and also reduces the
lift which increases the break effectiveness.
• Spoilers are extremely useful during descent,
when an appreciable increment in drag is
needed to obtain a high rate of descent. Spoiler
• In some cases spoilers are called airbrakes
(speedbrakes). In this case they are installed on
upper and lower surfaces of the wing.
Page 227 of 270
Flow control devices:

• On the swept aft wings, the third component of airflow towards the tip can generate loss of
stability. The spanwise component of motion causes the thickening of the boundary layer and
also its separation on wingtips. As the result it causes the loss of overall lift and misbehaviour of
the ailerons. To avoid this effect different devices can be used to reenergise the airflow and
preventing the formation of thick boundary layer.
Vortex generators
Pylons which are shaped like
vortilons for generating the vortexes
Leading-edge extension
LEX
Boundary layer fence Notched leading edge


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Page 228 of 270
Wing Tips:
• For detail see “Aeronautical Engineering I”

Wing structural arrangement:
Definition of major structural wing component
Wing structural arrangement

Boeing 767

Page 229 of 270
Wing structural arrangement:
Wing cross section DC-10
Double slotted and leading

edge flap installation DC-10


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Page 230 of 270
Aircraft Design
Empennage design considerations

Semester I
Empennage design considerations Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Empennage overall configuration:

• Aircraft empennage can be designed in different configurations. They could be studied in
three main configurations: conventional, canard, three-surface.
• To keep the aircraft weight as low as possible it is obviously desirable to keep the
empennage area as small as possible. To achieve that it is possible to locate the empennage
components at as large a moment arm as possible relative to the centre of gravity.
Different empennage configuration

Page 231 of 270
Neutral point and static margin:
•An aircraft may be uncontrollable in one/two axes but it must be stable in all three axes
(remember the childhood paper planes. They were stable but not controllable)
•A designer should have a good sense and understanding about neutral point (NP) and static
margin (SM).
Power-on,
power-off,
stick-fix
and
stick free
SM

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Page 232 of 270
Empennage sizing:
• Use the statistics to find horizontal and vertical
tails volume coefficient.
• Use the following equations to find areas of
horizontal and vertical tails.
VH S C V Sb
SH = and S v = V
xH xV
where : xH = horizontal tail arm
xV = vertical tail arm
S = reference area
C = wing MAC
• In these equations if the tails’ arms are
reduced the tails’ areas will be increased.
• For the statistics see Roskam’s book.
• In some references tail arms are defined as
the distance from the tail quarter chord to the
wing quarter chord (e.g. Raymer’s book). In
conceptual design it is reasonable to assume
that CG of the aircraft is somewhere around Definition of volume coefficient quantities
0.25MAC From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam
Empennage sizing:
• If no statistics are available the following table can be used (for
detail see Raymer’s book)
xH xV
VH VV C
≈
C
Passenger turboprop 0.8-1.1 0.05-0.08 2.0-3.0
Passenger jet 0.65-0.8 0.08-0.12 2.5-3.5
Jet transport (sweep) 0.5-0.6 0.06-0.10 2.5-3.5
Jet transport (no sweep) 0.45-0.55 0.05-0.09 2.0-3.0
fighter 0.4-0.5 0.05-0.08 1.5-2.0
The influence of the wake of wing/

horizontal tail on the horizontal/vertical tail From Book: Design of Aircraft, by T. Corke
Page 233 of 270
Empennage planform:
• It is recommended to use statistics to find horizontal and vertical tails geometrical
specification (e.g. aspect ratio, sweep angle, taper ratio, thickness ratio, dihedral angle, …)
• The tail airfoils are usually symmetrical (e.g. NACA 0009 or 0014). For big jet transport
aircraft unsymmetrical and even cambered airfoils can be used. For canards cambered
airfoils are usually used.
• Horizontal tail always must stall later than wing and canard always must stall sooner than
wing
• Horizontal tail and vertical tail sweep angle should be more than of the wing (critical Mach for
them should be about 5% more than critical Mach for the wing)
• Some recommendations:
– Thickness ratio: Horizontal and vertical tails thickness ratio should be 1% or 2% less
than of the wing
– Aspect ratio: For high aspect ratio wing, horizontal tail aspect ratio is recommended
equal to 3.5-4.5 and for low aspect ratio wing, it is recommended equal to 2-3. Vertical
tail aspect ratio can be chosen between 0.8-1.2
– Taper ratio: For conventional arrangement, horizontal and vertical tails taper ratio equals
0.3-0.5, For T-tail configuration vertical tail aspect ratio equals 1
The best method is to collect the statistic for each design


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Page 234 of 270
Control surface sizing:

• Tails and control surfaces sizes are the main items that need to be corrected for several
times during preliminary and detail design stages according to the following
requirements:
– Longitudinal/lateral/directional stability requirements
– Longitudinal/lateral/directional control requirements
– Longitudinal/lateral/directional stick/rudder pedal force requirements
– Aircraft mass distribution
– Spin considerations
• The geometrical dimensions of control surfaces are related to their position, angle of
deflection, wing airfoil and sweep and …
• Ailerons usually extend from 50% to 90% of the wing span
• The area of the elevators is reducing with the increasing of the aircraft cruise speed. The
SELEV/SHT can be chosen between 0.25 for jet transports to 0.45 for GA
• The SRUD/SHT can be chosen between 0.35 to 0.45
• The trim tabs areas can be chosen as Strim/Selev or Sail or Srud=0.06…0.12
• Control surfaces are usually tapered in chord by the same ratio as the wing so that the
control surface maintain a constant percent chord
Control surface sizing:

• Ailerons and flaps are typically about 15-25% of the wing chord. Rudders and elevators
are typically about 25-50% of the tail chord.
• Rapid oscillation of the control surfaces is called “flutter”. It can be minimized by using
mass and aerodynamic balancing. Mass balancing refers to the addition of weight
forward of the control surface hinge line to balance the surface around the hinge line.
Aerodynamic balance refers to the portion of control surface in front of hinge line, which
lessens force required to deflect the surface, and helps to reduce flutter tendencies.
• For a moveable surface trailing a fixed surface, assume that the centre of pressure is at
0.33 of the moveable chord length.
• For a moveable surface in the freestream , assume that the centre of pressure is at 0.20
of the chord length.

Page 235 of 270
Spin:
• A spin may be defined as an aggravated stall that
results in what is termed “autorotation” wherein
the airplane follows a downward corkscrew path.
• The autorotation results from an unequal angle of
attack on the airplane’s wings. The rising wing
has a decreasing angle of attack, where the
relative lift increases and the drag decreases. In
effect, this wing is less stalled. Meanwhile, the
descending wing has an increasing angle of
attack, past the wing’s critical angle of attack
(stall) where the relative lift decreases and drag
increases.
• Spin recovery procedure:
– Step 1: Reduce the power (throttle) to idle.
– Step 2: Position the ailerons to neutral.
– Step 3: Apply full opposite rudder against
the rotation.
– Step 4: Apply a positive and brisk, straight
forward movement of the elevator control
forward of the neutral point to break the
stall.
– Step 5: After spin rotation stops, neutralize
the rudder.
– Step 6: Begin applying back-elevator
pressure to raise the nose to level flight. From Book: Airplane flying handbook, by FAA

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Page 236 of 270
Tail structure:
Empennage structural
arrangement of Boeing 767

Control surface arrangement:
Typical control surface

cross section
Elevator arrangement
Piper PA-38 Tomahawk
Control surface arrangement

From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam Cessna super skylane
Page 237 of 270
Tab configuration:
Flight controllable trim tab Servo tab
Balance tab Tab arrangement

Cessna citation


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Page 238 of 270
Aircraft Design
Landing gear design and integration I

Semester I
Landing gear design and integration I Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Landing gear terminology:
From Book: Aircraft design, a conceptual approach, by D. Raymer http://www.b737.org.uk/landinggear.htm

Page 239 of 270
Landing gear types – fixed or retractable?

• Fixed landing gear generates considerable
amount of drag. To reduce the gear induced
aerodynamic drag, landing gears can be
covered by fairings (fairings reduce landing
gear drag up to 50%).
• Fixed landing gears are cheaper, lighter, less
complex, more reliable and easily maintainable
• Generally the aircraft with cruise speed less
than 120-140kts tend to have fixed landing Hermes 450 with fixed landing gear
gears.
• This is a multidisciplinary optimization problem
to find which type of landing gear better suit the
aircraft (is more efficient)
• Experience indicates that agricultural, piston
trainer, low speed GA and very light aircraft
(VLA) including low speed UAV tend to use
fixed landing gears
• Almost all the aircraft with fixed landing gears
have properly designed fairings. X-45A with retractable landing gear
• On the recent aircraft the tendency of choosing
the bended full composite leaf springs for the www.israeli-weapons.com
fixed landing gear application is increasing. www.airforce-technology.com

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Page 240 of 270
Landing gear arrangements:

• The “single main” gear has one main gear
fore or aft of CG with the auxiliary wheels
at the tail and wingtips.
• “Bicycle” arrangement has two main
wheels, for and aft of CG with small
outrigger wheels.
• The “tail dragger” landing gear has two
main wheels forward of CG and an
auxiliary wheel at the tail.
• “Tricycle” arrangement has two main
wheels aft of CG and an auxiliary wheel
forward (nose wheel) of CG.
• “Quadricycle” is like bicycle arrangement
but with wheels at the side of fuselage.
• The “multi-bogey” gear has multiple
wheels in bicycle arrangement Landing gear arrangements
• The other types of landing gears like
droppable gears, air cushions, air bags
and skids have rare and specific
application. From Book: Aircraft design, a conceptual

• Single main gear is used for many sail planes because of its
simplicity.
• Bicycle gear is used on aircraft with narrow fuselage and wide wing
span. (aircraft must land and takeoff in a flat attitude with high lift at
low angles of attack.) U-2 – single main gear
• Tail dragger was the most widely used arrangement on the early
aircraft. It provides more propeller clearance, generates less drag,
more suitable for rough surfaces and allows wing to generate more
lift during takeoff. However it is inherently unstable. If the aircraft
starts to turn, the location of the CG behind the main gear causes
the turn to get tighter. Moreover tailwheel configuration provides
poor visibility over the nose during ground operation.
B-47 – bicycle gear
Ground loop characteristics

of the tailwheel gear DC-3 Dakota – tail dragger
www.radiojerry.com
http://aerospaceweb.org
Page 241 of 270

• Tricycle gear is the most commonly used arrangement today.
Tricycle gear provides good steering and ground stability
characteristics as the moment around the CG tends to stabilise the
aircraft. Also tricycle landing gear improves forward visibility on the
ground and permits a flat cabin floor for passenger and cargo
lading. MIG-29 – tricycle gear
• Quadricycle gear like bicycle gear requires a flat takeoff and
landing attitude. It has the advantage of permitting the fuselage
(floor) very low to the ground.
• Multi-bogey arrangement is usually seen in tricycle configuration. It
increases the reliability (in the event of flat tire especially nose
wheel tyre) and reduces the tyres size (multiple wheels are used to B-52 – quadricycle
share the load between reasonably sized tires). More over it allows gear
to be land and takeoff the aircraft on/from the surfaces with low
Load Classification Number (LCN). An aircraft should be designed
in such a way that its undercarriage will not exceed the lowest LCN
value of the airfields from which the aircraft is likely to operate.
(hence if we increase the number of wheels we can reduce the AN-225 – multi-bogey gear
aircraft LCN number.)
• Except for light aircraft and a few fighters, most aircraft use twin
nosewheels to retain control in the event of flat nose tire. http://aeroweb.lucia.it/
http://aerospaceweb.org

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Page 242 of 270
Landing gear layout requirements:

• Two main criteria are presented: tip over
(longitudinal and lateral) and ground
clearance criteria.
• In all configuration most forward and most
aft CG are two main parameters which have
major influence on landing gear layout.
• Presented data here can be used as the
primary source in conceptual design phase. Bicycle (tandem) landing gear layout
For preliminary and detail design phases requirements
more detail calculation is required.
• It is recommended to use the data of
previous successful designs and tailor them Tail dragger landing gear layout
according to the specific requirements. requirements
From Book: Aircraft design, a conceptual approach, by D. Raymer From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam

• For tricycle gears the main landing
gear must be behind the most aft
CG (for taildragger configuration
the main landing gear must be
forward of the most forward CG).
• For tricycle configuration, the angle
off the vertical from the main wheel
position to the CG should be
greater than tipback angle (this is
the maximum aircraft nose-up
attitude with the tail touching the
ground and the strut fully
extended) or 15deg, whichever is
larger. This must be less than Tricycle landing gear
critical angle of attack of wing with layout requirements
the landing flaps.
• The overturn angle (lateral tip-
over) is a measure of the aircraft’s
tendency to overturn when taxied
around a sharp corner. This is the
angle from the CG to the main
wheel seen from the rear at a
location where the main wheel is
aligned with the nosewheel. From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam
Page 243 of 270

• Any water-spray or rock-drops
caused by the tires especially
nosewheel tire must not enter the
engine inlets. (FOD: Foreign Object
Damage)
• Wheel base and Wheel track are two
main parameters (see Aeronautical
Engineering I) that should be
calculated according to the
mentioned requirements.
Critical angles for FOD in jet engines
Longitudinal and lateral ground

clearance for gear placement


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Page 244 of 270
Landing gear loads:

• The choice of tires and shock absorbers
is generally based on the load
calculation during landing and braking
(main wheels touch down for main
gears, nose wheel touch down and
braking)
• There are a few standard load cases
that should be considered in real design
like one wheel landing, nose wheel
landing and … Forces acting on the aircraft during a braked roll
• Use the tire and wheel catalogues to
select the tyres according to the loading
(don’t forget LCN)  µ ⋅ Pm + D − T = m ⋅ a x
• It can be assumed that nose wheel has 
no brakes.  W − L − Pm − Pn = 0
• To find the nose wheel loading most P ⋅ l + µ ⋅ P ⋅ h − P ⋅ l = 0
forward CG and to find the main wheel  m m m CG n n
loading most aft CG must be
considered. l + µ ⋅ hCG
∴ Pn = W m
• Following equations can be used for
calculation the landing gear loads. For
lm + ln + µ ⋅ hCG
the values of braking coefficient see
“Aeronautical Engineering I”. From Book: Synthesis of subsonic airplane design, by E. Torenbeek
Landing gear loads: • The previous equations can be simplified if we

assume that braking coefficient (µ) is 0.3 and
braking deceleration is 10ft2/s.
• The nose wheel carry only about 5-7% of the
static load in the big aircraft and about 12-17% in
the small aircraft. Less loaded nose wheel make
the aircraft unstable on the ground.
• It is reasonable to add an additional 25% to the
loads to allow for later growth of the aircraft
weight.
• For tailwheel configuration, the similar equations
Geometry for landing gear load calculation can be derived. (see Roskam’s book)
• The landing gears positions are subjected to the
(Maximum Static Load )main = W N a iterative process as the weight and CG position of
B the aircraft are changed during the design
M process.
(Maximum Static Load )nose = W f • Recall: for the unpaved runway the tire pressure
B
must be decreased, consequently the tire
(Minimum Static Load )nose = W M a diameter will be increased (or the number of
B
wheels will be increased).
(Dynamic Braking Load )nose = 10 HW From Book: Aircraft design, a
gB conceptual approach, by D. Raymer
Page 245 of 270
Aircraft turn radius and steering: Ground turning capability

of BAC-111
• Turn radius is one of the main parameters of
the aircraft and the airport where the aircraft
is utilised. It depends on the steering angle
and landing gear base and track.
• Most aircraft receive the steering commands
from the rudder pedal. In some transport
airplanes a cockpit mounted “steering tiller
wheel” is used.
Boeing 767 nose gear steering system From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam

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Page 246 of 270
Aircraft turn radius and steering:

• In the big aircraft, where nose gear Fixed nose landing
steering requires a considerable force, this gear of Cessna-172
force normally produced by hydraulic
system.
• In the light aircraft, where a push-pull rod
mechanism is used, there is a mechanism
which is connected directly to the rudder
pedals (if the aircraft has retractable
landing gear the steering mechanism
connects to rudder pedal only during
landing and takeoff)
• In some of the very light aircraft the
steering mechanism is replaced by
differential braking of the main wheel. (In
some of the big aircraft the steering
capability is augmented by the use of
differential braking or differential thrust.)

Aircraft turn radius and steering:
Boeing 767 nose gear Space shuttle nose

landing gear
From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam http://www.space1.com/
Page 247 of 270
Brakes:
Brake installation
Piper PA-38-112
• The purpose of brakes is to:

– Help stop an aircraft
– Help steer an aircraft by differential braking action
– Hold the aircraft when parked Brake design
– Hold the aircraft while running up the engines Boeing 767
– Control speed while taxiing
• All modern aircraft use disc type brakes (generally on the main wheels)
• All brakes turn kinetic energy into heat energy through friction. The heating capacity of the
brakes is limited and must be accounted for in the design of wheels.

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Page 248 of 270
Aircraft Design
Landing gear design and integration II

Semester I
Landing gear design and integration II Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Tyres:
• Tyres are classified by:
– Ply rating
– Maximum allowable static loading
– Recommended (unloaded) inflation pressure
– Maximum allowable runway speed
• The main types of tyres are:
– Type III: used for most piston-engined
aircraft, has a wide tread and low internal
pressure.
– Type VII: used for most jet aircraft, operate
under higher internal pressure, which reduces
their size.
– Type VIII (New Design): designed for specific
requirements.
Tyre deflection and contact area
• To choose a tyre for a specific design, use the
manufacturers’ catalogues after calculation of
maximum allowable static loading, compatible with
the allowable values determined from a runway
surface viewpoint.
• In specific cases the tyre diameter can be reduced
by increasing the number of plies (consequently From Book: Aircraft design, a
the internal pressure is increased) conceptual approach, by D. Raymer
Page 249 of 270
Tyres:
• Tyres are selected by finding the smallest tyre that will carry the calculated maximum loads. For
the nose tyre the total dynamic load must be carried as well as the maximum static load.
• The weight carried by the tyre (Ww) is simply the inflation pressure (P) times the tyre’s contact
area with the pavement (AP, also called footprint area). (see previous slide): Ww =P×AP
• Tyres participate significantly in the process of shock absorption following a touchdown. The
amount of energy absorbed by the tyres depends on the design of shock absorber.
• The maximum operating speed of the chosen tyre must be greater than the maximum design
takeoff or landing speed.
• Operating a tyre at a lower internal pressure greatly improves tyre life. However this requires a
larger tyre causing greater drag, weight and larger gear bay.
Definition of tyre
geometry
parameters


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Page 250 of 270
Shock absorbers:
• The landing gear must absorb the
shocks of landing as well as taxiing.
• If the aircraft is not equipped with a
shock absorbing mechanism, the tyres
will be the main shock absorber. (this
configuration can be seen on the
sailplanes and a few homebuilt aircraft)
• The solid spring is the cheapest and
simplest type of the shock absorber.
The aircraft equipped with leaf spring
shock absorber tends to bounce a lot
before completely damping all the
energy.
• The bungee gear is not enough reliable
and like the solid spring one causes
the lateral scrubbing of the tyres.
• The oleo shock absorber is the most
common type of shock absorbing
mechanism in use today. It is more
efficient (more reliability, more energy The common forms of
damping compared with less weight) shock absorber
than the other shock absorbing
devices.
Shock absorbers:
• The oleo shock combines a spring
effect using compressed air with a
damping effect using a piston which
forces oil through a small hole
(orifice)
• For maximum efficiency the size of
orifice should be changed (metered
orifice)
A schematic diagram
of an oleo shock
absorber
From Report: Landing gear shock absorber by Chartier, Tuohy, Retallack, Tennant
Page 251 of 270
Shock absorbers:
• The stroke (shock absorber deflection)
depends upon:
– The vertical velocity at touch down.
– The shock absorbing material
– The amount of lift still available
• A rough estimation: the stroke in inches
equals the vertical velocity at touchdown in
ft/sec
Working diagram of an An oleo shock absorber

oleo shock absorber with metered orifice
From Book: Landing Gear Integration in Aircraft Conceptual Design, by S. Chai

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Page 252 of 270
Shock absorber equations:

 1  Wlanding  2
• The maximum kinetic energy which needs to be KEvertical =   Vvertical
absorbed is:  
2 g 
• It is assumed that the entire touch-down kinetic KEabsorbed = (ηLS )shock absorber + (ηT LST )tire
energy is absorbed by the main landing gear. The
energy is absorbed by the tyres and shock and; KEvertical = KEabsorbed then :
absorbers. If the energy were absorbed perfectly,  1  Wlanding  2
the energy absorbed by deflection would be the   Vvertical =
load times the deflection.  2  g 
• Landing gear load factor is the ratio of maximum (ηLS )shock absorber + (ηT LST )tire
load per leg to the maximum static load per leg (or
the average total load summed for all of the shock if N gear = L Wlanding then :
absorbers divided by the landing weight). It is also 2
Vvertical η
called the vertical deceleration rate. The gear load S= − T ST
factor is the criterion for measurement of the 2 gηN gear η
amount of the loads passing to the structure,
payload, crew and passengers. (whether an Suggested landing gear load factor
aircraft is comfort or not in landing). The Aircraft type Ngear
recommended values for Ngear are: FAR 23 3.0
• Using all these equations we can find the total FAR 25 1.5-2.0
stroke of the landing gear (tyre + shock absorber).
About 3cm should be added to the stroke as a Fighters and trainers 3.0-8.0
safety margin. Military transport 1.5-2.0

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Page 253 of 270
Strut-wheel combination and oleo sizing:

• The actual dimensions of an oleo depends upon the
strut-wheel combination layout: telescopic, articulated,
semi-articulated.
• The static position is about 84% of stroke above the fully
extended position for large transport aircraft, 60% for
general aviation aircraft and about 66% for other types.
• The total length of the oleo including the stroke distance
and the fixed portion of oleo will be approximately 2.5-3
times the stroke.
• The nosewheel oleo load is the sum of the static and
dynamic loads due to braking while the mainwheel oleo
is under only the static load.
• The different combination of strut-wheel can be chosen
to reduce the oleo load. This is a multidisciplinary
optimisation problem that needs to be iterated for a new
design.
• The oleo diameter is depended on its internal pressure.
The diameter of the typical oleos can be found by the
following equation if Loleo is load on the oleo:
4 Loleo
Doleo = 1.3
pπ

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Page 254 of 270
Solid-sprig gear sizing:

Deflection geometry
• In this configuration wheel is vertical for a solid-spring leg
when it is under static loading.
• It is assumed that the gear leg is not
tapered and there are two legs:
FS = W N gear 2
F = FS (sin θ )
• In this configuration wheel is vertical

when it is under static loading.
• It is assumed that the gear leg is not
tapered and there are two legs:
S = y (sin θ )
Fl 3
y= ← Bending − beam eq.
3EI
(
S = FS sin 2 θ
l3
3EI
)
• Here: I=beam’s moment of inertia
(I=wt3/12) and E=material modulus of From Book: Aircraft design, a
elasticity conceptual approach, by D. Raymer
Strut-wheel interface:
• Rake is the angle between the wheel swivel axis
and a line vertical to the runway surface.
• Trail is the distance between the runway-wheel
contact point and the point where the wheel swivel
axis intersects the ground.
• The wheel rotational axis is the line perpendicular
to the slide through point P.
Deflection of rake and trial
From Book: Aircraft design, a conceptual approach, by D. Raymer From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam
Page 255 of 270
Strut-wheel interface:
• If the wheel swivel axis passes below the wheel rotation
axis it introduces static stability because any wheel swivel
would tend to lift the aircraft.
• If the wheel swivel axis passes above the wheel rotation
axis it introduces static instability because any wheel swivel
would tend to lower the aircraft.
• If the wheel is in positive trial it is dynamically stable as if
the wheel has swivelled about swivel axis, the runway-to-
tyre friction would tend to rotate the wheel back to its
original position.
• If the wheel is in negative trial it is dynamically unstable as if
the wheel has swivelled about swivel axis, the runway-to-
tyre friction would tend to rotate the wheel away from its
original position.
• Shimmy is a form of dynamic instabilities. It is the oscillation
of wheel about the wheel swivel axis. The causes of shimmy
are: lack of torsional stiffness of the gear about the swivel
axis, inadequate trial, improper wheel mass balancing about A shimmy damper
the wheel rotational axis. To reduce and damp shimmy a
shimmy-damper is often used (or used the wheel-strut http://www.gratisppltheorie.nl/
combination which is not object to shimmy) http://www.ae.go.dlr.de/

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Page 256 of 270
Gear retraction geometry:

• Most low wing aircraft (civilian
jet, fighters and GA) retract
the gear into the wing-
fuselage junction, in the wing
or in the fuselage.
• Most mid and high wing
aircraft retract the gear into
the fuselage. The drag penalty
of this configuration can be
substantial.
• Retraction of the gear into the
nacelles behind the engine is
typical for propeller driven
aircraft.
• The wing-podded
arrangement has minimum
aerodynamic penalty as the
pods placed at the trailing
edge of the wing where some Options for main landing gear retracted positions
area-ruling benefit can be
obtained. From Book: Aircraft design, a conceptual approach, by D. Raymer
Gear retraction geometry:
Aft retracting gear Upward retracting gear Forward retracting gear
• The landing gear retraction mechanism can Force-stroke

be very complicated (however most of them diagram
comprise of four-bar linkage).
• To retract a landing gear, hydraulic or electro-
mechanical retraction actuators are used. The
force-stroke diagram of the retraction actuator
should not be peaky.
• A retraction mechanism normally is equipped
with sensors, locks and micro switches
Page 257 of 270
Seaplanes: Seaplane
geometries
• Using the seaplanes allows to increase
the wing loading (no limitation in takeoff
distance), hence the aircraft has more
efficiency in cruise range and speed.
• To reduce water spray, spray strips can
be attached to the edge of the bottom.
• In the calculations it can be assumed that
friction coefficient of a seaplane during
takeoff and landing is about 0.10-0.15
• Flying boats are often equipped with
beaching gears. Beaching gears help the
aircraft to taxi up a ramp after landing on Float geometries
the water.
• In some cases flying boats are equipped
with retractable landing gears. They can
be operable on the ground and water
• The other devices which facilitate an
aircraft to land on the water are floats.
The hydrodynamic performance of floats
depends on their cross sectional shape.
• Air cushion landing system enhances the
operational capability of an aircraft From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam
independent of runway surface. From Book: Aircraft design, a conceptual approach, by D. Raymer

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Page 258 of 270
Aircraft Design
Weight and balance analysis

Semester I
Weight and balance analysis Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Aircraft weight breakdown: 6 8 13

WE = ∑ Wi , WOE = ∑ Wi , WTO = ∑ Wi
• The following weight breakdown gives an i =1 i =1 i =1
acceptable estimation of the aircraft
weight: • We also can write:
1. Fuselage group WE=Wstructure+Wpropulsion+Wsystem
2. Wing group Where:
3. Empennage group Wstructure=Wfuselage+Wwing+Wempennage+Wlanding
4. Engine group gear
Or:
5. Landing gear group
6. Fixed equipment group W structure = W fuselage + W wing + W empennage + W gear
7. Trapped fuel and oil
8. Crew
Statistical data show that:
9. Fuel
10. Passengers W fuselage = 30 − 40%
11. Baggage
12. Cargo W wing = 30 − 40%
13. Military load
• “Empty Weight” is the sum of the first 6
W empennage = 5 − 10%
components, “Operational Weight W gear = 10 − 15%
Empty” is the sum of the first 8
components and “Takeoff Weight” is the For more detail statistics the following table
sum of the all components. can be used:
Page 259 of 270
Aircraft weight breakdown:

W structure W propulsion W system W fuel
Subsonic Passenger (small) 0.30-0.32 0.12-0.14 0.12-0.14 0.18-0.22
Subsonic Passenger (medium) 0.28-0.30 0.10-0.12 0.10-0.12 0.26-0.30
Subsonic Passenger (heavy) 0.25-0.27 0.08-0.10 0.09-0.11 0.35-0.40
Supersonic Passenger 0.20-0.24 0.08-0.10 0.07-0.08 0.45-0.52
General Aviation 0.29-0.31 0.14-0.16 0.12-0.14 0.12-0.18
Sport and Trainer 0.32-0.34 0.26-0.30 0.06-0.07 0.10-0.15
Agricultural 0.24-0.30 0.12-0.15 0.12-0.15 0.08-0.12
Amphibious 0.34-0.38 0.12-0.15 0.12-0.15 0.10-0.20
Motor-glider 0.48-0.52 0.08-0.10 0.06-0.08 0.08-0.12
Fighter 0.28-0.32 0.18-0.22 0.12-0.14 0.25-0.30
Bomber (small) 0.26-0.28 0.10-0.12 0.10-0.12 0.35-0.40
Bomber (medium) 0.22-0.24 0.08-0.10 0.07-0.10 0.45-0.50
Bomber (heavy) 0.18-0.20 0.06-0.08 0.06-0.08 0.55-0.60
Transport and cargo (small) 0.30-0.32 0.12-0.14 0.16-0.18 0.20-0.25
Transport and cargo (medium) 0.26-0.28 0.10-0.12 0.12-0.14 0.25-0.30
Transport and cargo (big) 0.28-0.32 0.08-0.10 0.06-0.08 0.30-0.35
From Book: Aircraft design, by S Eger


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Page 260 of 270
Aircraft weight estimation:

• To estimate the aircraft weight by using the statistical equations estimate the weight of various
components of the aircraft and then sum for the total empty weight.
• In detail design phase, the total weight of the aircraft is calculated by summing up the real weight
of aircraft parts. Each design organisation has a special department responsible for weight and
balance analysis of the aircraft. One of the challenging area for them is collecting the information
about all aircraft parts which are used in manufacturing and their actual weights. (Usually the
weight of manufactured aircraft is more than the design weight of the aircraft!)
• There are different groups of equation for component weigh calculation in different references.
Some of them give very accurate answer for a specific types of aircraft, while the others give a
good estimation for all types of aircraft.
• This is of great importance to make all the decisions related to general layout of the aircraft e.g.
braced or cantilever wing, pressurised or non-pressurised cabin, wing or fuselage mounted
landing gear, wing or fuselage mounted engines and so on. These decisions have great
influence on the result of component weigh estimation.
• Aircraft weight calculation is an iterative operation. If it is impossible to calculate the weight of a
few components due to lack of information, it is recommended to use the statistical data for
finding their proportional weight and in the further stages estimate their weight more accurately.
• In the new and unusual types of aircraft (like UAVs, MAVs, amphibious aircraft, large transport,
STOL/VTOL, spacecraft and …) due to lack of statistical data it is very hard to precisely estimate
the weight of aircraft components. Hence it is required to increase the number of iteration and
use the real weight of the component (use the detail design weight estimation data).
• For Weight estimation use Roskam’s (vol 5) or Raymer’s book
Aircraft CG: Location of CG’s of major components

• To find the CG position of total aircraft, CG
positions of major components should be found
(as it was on the slide 2).
• Use the aircraft sketches estimate the CG
position of the major structural components.
• CG position of fuel, passengers, crew and cargo
can be assumed at their geometrical centres
• Payload weight and its position and also fuel
weight and fuel tanks arrangement have major
influence on aircraft CG movement.
• Use the following equations to find aircraft CG
position:
n n n
∑Wi X i
i =1
∑WiYi
i =1
∑W Z
i =1
i i
X CG = n
YCG = n
Z CG = n
∑W
i =1
i ∑W
i =1
i ∑W
i =1
i

Page 261 of 270
CG envelope:
• CG envelope can be plotted in terms
of fuselage station and also in terms
of a fraction of the MAC. (AS aircraft
AC usually is calculated in terms of
MAC, it is recommended to plot CG
envelope in terms of MAC.
• Most FWD and most AFT CG are two
main parameters for estimation of the Aircraft general
aircraft longitudinal stability arrangement
CG envelope


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Page 262 of 270
CG envelope – step by step:

1. Prepare a table of aircraft component
weight and coordinate (x,y,z) data.
2. Determine the most critical boundary points
of the aircraft CG envelope. These are (but
not limited to): empty weight, operating
weight empty, takeoff weight, maximum
weight with empty tanks (landing
configuration), different disposition of
payload (loading and unloading
configuration).
3. Mark the point on CG envelope (or moment
envelope – CG envelope is more useful for
designers as it helps to determine the
aircraft layout).
4. Connect the points and find the CG position
possible area.
5. Draw a line to show most fwd and aft CG.
6. On this chart draw MAC (it can be quite
helpful to determine the aircraft stability and
calculate its static margin.
7. Don’t forget to distinguish flight CG
envelope and ground CG envelope!
http://www.islagrandeflying.com/

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Page 263 of 270
Aircraft Design
Stability and control analysis

Semester I
Stability and control analysis Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1
Main rules:
• Airplane must be controllable, manoeuvrable and trimmable to be safe and useful.
– Longitudinal controllability and trim
– Directional and lateral controllability and trim
– Minimum control speed
– Manoeuvring flight
– Control during takeoff and landing
– High speed characteristics
• Aircraft must fly stably (it can be unstable but must fly stably).
– Static longitudinal, lateral and directional stability
– Dynamic longitudinal, lateral and directional stability
– Stall characteristics
– Spin
– Aeroelastic considerations
• Aircraft must possess ride quality such that the crew can carry out its functions.
In this course we present a rapid method for stability and

controllability analysis of the designed aircraft
Page 264 of 270
Longitudinal X-plot
• Longitudinal X-plot gives a good
understanding of compatibility between
aircraft static margin and horizontal tail (or
canard) area.
• CG moves aft with increasing the horizontal
tail area (in canard CG moves fwd).
• AC moves aft with increasing the horizontal
tail area with the higher rate than CG (in
canard AC moves fwd).
• Desired static margin (distance between Longitudinal X-plot
AC and CG) can be found on the graph.
• Pay attention that for horizontal tail sizing in
conventional configuration (canard sizing in
canard configuration), static margin is
calculated as the distance between most
aft CG and AC (the smallest static margin).
• As it was stated before it is recommended
to calculate AC and CG as the fractions of
MAC
• In some books X-plot is called stability
scissors. dCm Cmα
= = X CG − X AC
• Recall: dC L C Lα From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam

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Page 265 of 270
Aerodynamic centre (AC):

• For conventional configuration:
  dε  S  
X acH  C LαH 1 − H  H  
  dα  S  
X acW + F +
C L αW + F
X ac A =
  dε  S  
 C LαH 1 − H  H  
 dα  S  
1+ 
C L αW + F
• For canard configuration:
  dε  S  
X acC  C LαC 1 − C  C  
  dα  S  
X acW + F −
C LαW + F
X ac A =
  dε  S  
 C LαC 1 + C  C  
 dα  S  
dε 1+  Geometric values for AC calculation
: C L αW + F
dα
dε 2C Lα dε 1.62C Lα
For Subsonic = ; For supersonic : =
dα πA dα πA From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam
Directional X-plot Recall : Cn =

N
• Directional X-plot gives an estimation of qSW b
the required vertical tail area for the
specific amount of “yawing moment due
to sideslip derivative” (Cnβ=dCn/dβ)
• Use the following equation to calculate
Cnβ:
 S  X 
Cnβ = CnβWF + C LαV  V  V  Directional X-plot
 S  b 
• The overall level of directional stability is
recommended to be 0.0010 per deg
(Cnβ=0.0010)
• Check if you chose an adequate vertical
tail area when you drew your sketch.
• To compute aerodynamic quantities use
Roskam’s book, part VI.
• In a real design pitching moment due to Geometric quantities for directional X-plot
angle of attack derivative Cmα, yawing
moment due to sideslip derivative Cnβ
are given in TT. From Book: Airplane design, by J. Roskam
Page 266 of 270
Minimum control speed with one engine inoperative:

• In the most aircraft with more than one engine, the aircraft should be able to recover the
moment which is generated due to one engine failure. In the aircraft with more than two
engines, the most critical failure combination should be calculated.
• To calculate the yawing moment due to the inoperative engine/s two factor should be
considered:
– The amount of unsymmetrical thrust.
– The amount of unsymmetrical drag which is generated by inoperative engine/s
• To compensate the yawing moment, the rudder should be deflected to the opposite
direction. To calculate the amount of yawing moment which is generated due to rudder
deflection use the following equation:
N = qSbC nδrudder δ rudder
• For more detail see Roskam’s book, part VI

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Page 267 of 270
Trim triangle:
•In any equilibrium flight
condition the aircraft must
be in moment equilibrium.
•The aircraft pitching
moments depends on:
the lift coefficient at which
the aircraft is flying, The
location of the CG, The
power setting.
•The equilibrium moment
condition can be
generated by deflection
of one (or two or more)
control surfaces.
(stabiliser incidence
angle, elevator deflection,
canard incidence, elevon
deflection, canard and
elevator deflection, CG
movement by pumping
the fuel to aft/fwd tanks
and so on)

Longitudinal control during takeoff:

At the moment of lift-off nose-wheel force equals zero. Also we know that: ∑ M G = I YYθ
ɺɺ
•
• θɺɺ is the pitch angular acceleration at the instance of initiation of rotation. It can be assumed:
– For large transport: 6-8 deg/sec2
– For small transports: 8-10 deg/sec2
– For GA and fighters: 10-12 deg/sec2
LWB
LH
MACWB T
X ma AC
CG D
µR G
R
Z W
http://www.fortunecity.com
Page 268 of 270
Longitudinal control during takeoff:

∑M G = C MACWB qS C − T (Z MG + Z T ) − W ( X MG − X CG ) − LWB ( X ACWB − X MG ) +
D (Z MG − Z D ) + mVɺ (Z MG ) + LH ( X acH − X MG ) = I YY θɺɺ
LWB = C LαWB (α WB + α ground effect )qS
  dε  
LH = C LαH  α H + α ground effect 1 −  − ε ground effect + iH + α δE δ E  q H S H
  dα  
W
mVɺ = Vɺ = T − µR − D
g
D = C Dground effect qS
R = W − LWB − LH
− Z T T + Z D D + W ( X MG − X CG + µZ MG ) − LWB ( X MG − X ACWB + µZ MG ) − C MACWB qS C − I YY θɺɺ

SH =
qC LH ( X acH − X MG + µZ MG )
Using this equation, the sensitivity of SH to thrust, speed and lift coefficient can be
calculated

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Page 269 of 270
Introduction to dynamic stability:

• To study dynamic stability two classes of force must be considered: the inertia forces
and the damping forces:
• Inertia forces drive from the tendency of mass to resist acceleration. A body’s
resistance to rotational acceleration is described by mass moment of inertia. To
calculate aircraft mass moment of inertia (IXX, IYY, IZZ) we can use components weight
table (the methods for estimation of mass moment of inertia are presented in Roskam’s
and Raymer’s books.
• The rotational damping forces, which are proportional to the pitch, roll and yaw rates,
are generated because of a change in effective angle of attack due to rotational
motion. The change in effective angle of attack, and hence the change in lift, is directly
proportional to the rotation rate and the distance from the CG
• The 6DOF analysis allows simultaneous rotations in pitch, yaw and roll, and allows the
aircraft velocity to change in the vertical, lateral and longitudinal directions. The 1DOF
equations can be used for initial assessment of simple flight conditions
Pitch : I YY Qɺ = qSW cCmα α + qSW cCmQ Q
Yaw : I ZZ Rɺ = qSW bCnβ β + qSW bCnR R
Roll : I Pɺ = qS bC + qS bC P
XX W l W lP

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Aircraft Design (2011)

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AIRCRAFT DESIGN (MECH ENG 4108 & MECH ENG 7062)

Date Lecture Topic Due

Mid Sem break 18/04/2011-02/05/2011

2/05/2011 Lecture 27 Tutorial

Dr. MAZIAR ARJOMANDI

Introduction Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1

Aircraft Design School of Mechanical Engineering

What we are trying to do in this course:

Introduction Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 3

Aircraft Design School of Mechanical Engineering

Course specific objectives:

Introduction Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 4

Introduction Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 5

Aircraft Design School of Mechanical Engineering

Due on 20.05.2011 at 3pm 6- Format and clarity 15

Project assessment rubric

Introduction Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 6

Intentionally left blank for your notes

Aircraft Design School of Mechanical Engineering

Introduction Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 8

Who is a good designer?

Introduction Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 9

Aircraft Design School of Mechanical Engineering

Computer & designer relationship:

From Benjamin Cosgrove (Boeing Head Engineer)

Introduction Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 10

The other design

From Lockheed Corp., Dr. Bouchard

Aircraft Design School of Mechanical Engineering

Introduction Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 12

Most design projects use several of these types of design

Introduction Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 13

Aircraft Design School of Mechanical Engineering

Good Designs look simple

An engineering design approach:

Note: Many of these steps are repeated, it’s an iterative process

Aircraft Design School of Mechanical Engineering

Introduction Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 16

Aircraft design methodology

Dr. MAZIAR ARJOMANDI

Aircraft design methodology Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 1

Aircraft Design School of Mechanical Engineering

Design as decision making:

Engineering design process

MDO is an approach for

Aircraft design methodology Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 3

Aircraft Design School of Mechanical Engineering

Aircraft design hierarchy

Structure Propulsion Avionic Payload …

Wing Engine Indicators Passengers …

Fuselage Fuel System Radios Cargo

Landing Gear Air Intake sensors …

Aircraft design methodology Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 4

Aircraft Design process:

Preparation the Request For Proposal (RFP)

Aircraft design methodology Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 5

Aircraft Design School of Mechanical Engineering

Aircraft design methodology Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 6

Aircraft design methodology Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 7

Aircraft Design School of Mechanical Engineering

Aircraft design methodology Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 8

Design and costs

Aircraft design methodology Copyright - The University of Adelaide Slide Number 9