Interior Architecture Chapter 1-9

This publication is supported by a grant from
the Graham Foundation for

Advanced Studies in the Fine Arts.
JOHN KURTICH GARRETEAKIN
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VAN NOSTRAND REINHOLD

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Copyright 1993, 1996 by Van Nostrand Reinhold
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I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 RRDfDUN 01 00 99 98 97 96
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Kurtich . John
Interior architecture I John Kurtich, Garret Eakin .
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-442-24669-2
I. Interior architecture. 2. Interior decoration.
I. Eakin, Garret. II. Title.
NA2850.K85 1992 91-44989
729-dc20 CIP
DLSU - C ~ 8 - LRC
CO NTE NTS
1
I NTERIOR ARCHITECTURE:
THE PHILOSOPHY 3
2
CREATIVITY: FROM IDEAS TO REALITY 33
3
THE THIRD DIMENSION: NAVIGATION
OF S PACE 61
4
THE FOURTH D IMENSION: SPACE-TI ME 131
5
LIGHT: SPACE DEFINITIO N 179
6
COLOR: EMOTIONAL CHARACTER 249
7
FURNISHINGS: I NTIMATE HUMAN
COMFORT 305
8
PRESERVING THE P AST: P RESERVATION,
RESTORATION, RENOVATION, AND
ADAPTIVE R EUSE 357
9
STYLE: EXPRESSION OF CULTURE 407
CONTENTS V
PREFACE
Interior Architecture is an exploration of the whole
spectrum of architecture necessary for human ac
commodation, comfort, and delight. We felt that
the separation of architecture, interior design, and
fme arts during the Modernist period has limited
the progress and development of trul y humanistic
architectonic space. Many outstanding designers
practice Interior Architecture, yet the majority
perpetuate the separation, causing the stagnation
of the designed environment. Generations of ar
chitectural, interior design, and fine arts education
have supported this separation by omitting con
centration on each other's discipline. This division
was encouraged by the specialization generated
from the growth of complexity of information,
technology, economics, politics, and social needs,
the consequences of which are with us today.
A recent example of this separation is 333
Wacker Drive, Chicago. The highly praised
building has been featured in a number of publi
cations. The reviews focused on its beautiful rela
tionship to the site and its engaging sculptural
form. However, all the articles stopped short of
reviewing the purpose of the building, which is
to provide flexible offIce space for an unknown
tenant. The floor plan, basically echoing the odd
shape of the site, is far from flexible. This flexibil
ity is further diminished with a curve, notches,
and two acute angle corners. The resultant inte
rior space presents formidable problems even to
the best architect or space planner. What is the
answer to this dilemma between interior use and
exterior form?
T h ~ emergence of Interior Architecture as a
new profession is an idea whose time has come. It
is the link between art, architecture, and interior
design. The professionals practicing in this area
have created this term to express a humanistic ap
proach toward the completion of interior spaces.
This approach, shared by many design profes
sionals, has begun to produce a defmition that is
distinct from current practice. Some of the ideas
that characterize Interior Architecture are strong
three-dimensional development, respect for the
enclosing architecture, sensitivity to the human
experience, primal signifIcance of light, wealth
and energy of color, and furnishings as an exten
sion of the architecture.
This book explores such ideas, using archi
tectural masterpieces from various historical pe
riods, well-known modern examples, related
contemporary design, and unbuilt projects to il
lustrate and underline them. Throughout the
book, there has been a conscious attempt to unveil
the essence of ideas that generate physical form
and space. The exposition of the idea creates
the structure and form of each chapter. For in
stance, chapter 2, Creativity: From Ideas to Real
ity, employs an in-depth case study of a single
project to expose the principles of creativity.
Chapter 5 is a chronological survey of the use of
light to defme space through a series of historic
examples.
This is not a history book of interior design.
The examples presented are not limited to inte
riors. By allowing the ideas to predominate, each
chapter has its own structure with respect to the
presentation of its material. For instance, it may
appear that a Renaissance masterpiece is being
equated with a late twentieth century shopping
mall boutique, when actually two executions of
the same idea are being presented. By posing
PREFACE VII
these juxtapositions, readers may more easily re
late the principle or idea to their own work.
The case study method allows an in-depth
examination, which reveals the reasons behind the
creation of the designs and the decision making
that accompanied their execution. So me case
study projects are used more than once as they
represent the best example for each of several ele
mental ideas. This overlap is cross-referenced
when it occurs so that the reader can skip from
one part of the book to another if foll owing a
particul ar proj ect . Wherever possible, quotations
of artists, architects, and designers are included in
order to reinforce the philosophy revealed by the
case studies.
The book includes relevant information in
related fi elds, such as physics, music, cinema, lit
erature, and fine arts, to name a few. It is our
belief that great Interior Architecture is created by
the fusi on of related disciplines. Extensive refer
ences are therefore included for those readers who
wish to pursue particular subj ects in greater
depth.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
May Hawfield has been a provQca tive inspiration
and example of dedication in bringing thi s work
to realit y. Her contribution, enthusiasm, and ele
gant point of view have been our perpetual in
ternal stimulus. We can only hope that this
experience will be a cornerstone of her bri ght fu
ture.
Susan Perry' s devotion and persistent work
have been indispensible in researching and acquir
ing the essential ill ustra tions and el usi ve data. We
greatly ap preciate her skill and dedication to the
literar y process.
The Art Institute of Chicago has been very
supportive in this endeavor. The School of the
Art Institute has pr ovided several grants , student
assi stants, and a ri ch, intellectual atmosphere in
which to work. Roger Gilmore, former dean,
Martin Prekop, dean, and Peter Brown, vice pres
ident of administration, have been strong advo
cates of the project. The John M. Flaxman Library
wi thin the School, directed by Nadine Byrne and
assisted by Roland Hansen, provided us wi th re
search assistance. The extensive collection of The
Museum of the Art Institute was a remarkable
resource: American Art , Asian Art, European
Decorative Arts and Sculpture, European Paint
ing, Twentieth Century Painting and Sculpture,
the Thorne Miniature Rooms, Adler and Sulli
van's Trading Room, and the R yerson/Burnham
Libraries. Jack Brown, director, and Mar y Wool
ever, architectural librarian, provided full access
to the Libraries. We are indebted to this grea t in
stitution's resources and professional staff.
The Graham Foundation fo r Ad vanced
Study in the Fine Arts, Chicago, under the direc
torship of Carter Manny, has generousl y sup
ported the completi on of thi s book.
The additional museums and institutions
ha ve been most professional in sharing their fme
collections: the Loui s Kahn Collection, Univer
sity of Pennsylvania, directed by Julia Moore
Converse; the Muse um of Modern Art , New
York; the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York; the American Museum of Natural History,
New York; Fondation Le Corbusi er, Pari s; the
Gett y Center for the Histor y of Art and the Hu
manities, Santa Monica; the Deutsches Architek
tur-Museum, Frankfort am Main; the Alvar Aalto
Foundation , Helsinki ; and the Dulwich Pict ure
Gallery, London.
We appreciate the generous access extended
by the following in Chicago: Crate and Barrel,
Vivere of the Italian Village, North Pier, The
Rookery, Cobbler Squa re, the Florian residence,
Roosevel t Universit y, the Glessner House, the
Marriott residence, the Claridge Hotel, the
Gretchen Bollinger Showroom, the ICF Show
room, the Palazetti Showroom, the Herman
Mill er Showroom, and the Knoll Internati onal
vlll PREFACE
ean,
res
dvo
rary
and
h re
;.-The
- -able
Dpean
Paint
prure,
ulli
'Tl ham
1\-001
Jccess
:at 111
-Jnced
di rec
- sup
utl ons
r fme
'1lver
toore
N ew
N ew
-w ry,
-; the
1e Hu
chitek
Aalto
Pi cture
tended
Barrel,
r. T he
Idence,
e. the
the
how
-lerm an
l:Hional
Showroom. Locations in New York: the Mallet
residence, the Cohen residence, and the Rainbow
Room of Rockefeller Center. Other locations in
clude: the Douglas residence, Harbor Springs,
M ichigan; the Madonna Inn, San Luis Obispo,
California; the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monte
rey, California; the Farnsworth H ouse, Plano, Il
linois; and the Knoll International Showroom,
Paris, France.
Without the energetic contribution of our re
search assistants, this publication would not have
been possible. They include Jennifer Ehrenberg,
D onna Falk, Kirsten Gladsky, JoAnn Stannard,
and Glenn Traer .
Many caring individuals have graciously
contributed their resources and expertise to this
book. They include Paul Beitler, Mike DePoy,
Mi chele Dremmer, Robert Fitzgerald, Joseph
Gonzales, Elaine Harrington, Professor Kevin
Harrington, Steven Holl, Professor Donald
Kalec, Ronald Krueck, Celia Marriott, Anders
Nereim, Jonathan Sherman, Allison Sky, Claudia
Skylar, Christopher Wadsworth, Dieter Wagner,
and James Zanzi.
We have special appreciation for the wonder
ful photographic collections of Hedric Blessing,
Chicago; Art Resource and ARS, New York; and
ESTO Photographics, New York; that remain
extensive resources for Interior Architecture.
Cynthia Davidson-Powers, former editor of
Inland Architect, published our flISt piece, "The
Rise of Interior Architecture," January 1984,
which was the outline for this book. We appreci
ate her support. After reading this article, Wendy
Lochner, senior architecture editor of Van Nos
trand Reinhold Company, had the vision to
propose that we write a book on Interior Archi
tecture. In addition, we wish to thank Frances
Koblin and Anthony Calcara, production editors;
Mimi Mikels, copy editor; Everett Smethurst, ed
itor; John Pile, critic; and Lilly Kaufman, execu
tive editor.
Finall y, our families displa yed great patience,
generous encouragement, and a sense of humor
during this project. In thanks , this book is dedi
cated to Lois Eakin, Amy, Elliot, and David
Eakin, and to the loving memory of Elizabeth
Kurtich.
PREFACE IX
THE ENTRANCE HALL, HILL HOUSE,
HELENSBURGH, DUNBARTONSHIRE,
SCOTLAND. CHARLES RENNIE
MACKINTOSH AND MARGARET
MACDONALD MACKINTOSH, 1902
1904.
Courtesy oj The Art Institute oj
Chicago.
-lOUSE,
H IRE,
E
IT
1902
C H APTER 1
INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE: THE PHILOSOPHY
What is Interior Architecture? Is it a vIsIonary
movement in response to a current need, or is it a
name attached to a passing trend? Why do some
designers use the term? Is there a need for a new
humanistic force to respond to the demands gen
erated by the intensity of the information age?
Can this new spirit engender intellectual and emo
tional well-being? Why is there such a rift be
tween interior designers and architects? Could the
current polarized design professions ever accept
Interior Architecture as this new vision?
Some progressive design 6rms began using
the term Interior Architecture in the ea rly 1970s.
They felt at the time that no term properly de
scribed the unigue guality of their work. They
sensed a need to separate themselves from the cur
rent practice of arc hitecture. They also did not feel
any close allegi ance to traditional int erior design
or decorating firms. Concurrently a few of the
progressive design schools introduced the term to
emphasize the allegiance with architectural think
ing. Many interior des ign programs we re part of
home economics departments, which taught style
and decoration as a complement to homemaking
classes. This approach did not satisfy the needs of
serious career-oriented students. A new profes
sional emphasis was born out of the emerging
demands under the banner " Interior Architec
ture."
After World War II , with the rise of the large
corporate architectural 6rms, specialization be
came a matter of course, affecting the smaller
6rms and influencing the manner in which de
signers and architects were educated. Generations
of architectur al and interior design education sup
ported this separation by omitting concentration
in each other's discipline. There were few decent
models of an architect who cared as much for
interior space a" for exterior shell. Designers dis
dained the elitist architects for their compulsion
for purity and maintenance of concept. Architects
generall y considered designers to be fri volous
with no philosophical base of knowledge to guide
their work . Architects did not understand the in
timate gualities of carpet, fabrics, and wall cover
ing. Many designers disregarded the gualiti es of
the enclosure and simply made their own state
ment. The archit ects were merely technicians
whose job stopped after "bricks and mortar." To
fuel the 6re, often clients gave more respect to the
designers because they were making decisions
that they could intimately unders tand. Sadly
enough, all these accusations are true.
Interior Architecture is the holistic creation,
development, and completion of space for human
use. It follows the dicta of Vitruvius's classic def
inition of architecture-6rmness, commodity,
and delight. It focuses on humanistically con
ceived space, distinguishing Interior Architecture
from the current practice of either ar chitect ure or
interior design.
Interior Architecture is expressed in several
ways. First, it can be the entire building designed
as an external shell containing integrated and 6n
ished interiors. Second, Interior Architecture can
be the completion of space within an existing ar
chitectural enclos ure. Finally, it ca n be the pres
ervation, renovation, or adaptive reuse of
buildings, historic or otherwise, with a focu s on
the design of interior space.
The fmt aspect of Interior Architecture rep
resents the usual practice of such masters of archi
tecture as Frank Lloyd Wright, Le Corbusier, and
Alvar Aalto. They desi gned their enti re environ
ments, from exterior encl osure to all as pects of
the interior, including spatial arrangement; li ght
ing, color, and texture; furniture; and all the de
tails of human use. They were coordinators of all
INTERIOR AI1.CHITECTURE: THE PHILOSOPHY 3
the arts and disciplines necessary to complete a
piece of architecture. Their attitude toward archi
tecture was not limited by boundaries of speciali
zation that currently dominate architectural
design.
The second aspect represents a new practice
that is emerging from architectural and design
firms that have recognized interior space to be as
important as the exterior. This new movement is
carrying on the tradition that the masters prac
ticed, giving meaning and completion to the
anonymous buildings that predominate the de
signed environment. These practitioners are sen
sitive to the architectural shell that they have to
complete, and their design solutions are not lim
ited by the confmes of specialization.
The third aspect represents a practice that
recognizes an increase in the need for preserva
tion, restoration, renovation, and adaptive reuse
of buildings, historic or otherwise, as the decline
of new construction persists. Such projects re
quire a perceptive understanding of history, care
ful research and thorough analysis of existing
conditions, and a sensitive approach to how the
interiors relate to the building as a whole.
These three aspects share one common theme
-the completion of interior space. In order to
complete interior space meaningfully, a thorough
understanding of opportunities and constraints of
the architectural enclosure is essential to the ap
propriate plan development. Interior Architecture
not only accommodates functional and technical
requirements but exploits the aesthetic potential
inherent in the enclosing architecture and the de
SIgn program.
Interior Architecture is comprised of the fol
lowing elemental ideas that distinguish it as the
link between architecture and interior design:
1. Inside/ Outside. Interior Architecture respects
the enclosing structure and consistently uses it as
a point of departure.
2. The Third Dimension. Projects are thought of
as three-dimensional spaces complete in them
selves regardl ess of shape, size, or proportions.
3. The Fourth Dimension. The fourth dimension
is generated as a conscious expansion of human
experience in space and time.
INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
4. Light. Light is recognized as the primary me
dium for defining interior space.
5. Color and Materials. Color and materials de
fine the human character ofInterior Architecture.
6. Furnishings. Furnishings are rendered as an ex
tension of the architecture with custom-designed
elements cl early a mark of the movement.

THE MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE
FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
The ideal practice of architecture has al ways been
the design of the complete environment, from the
site plan and exterior enclosure to all aspects and
det ails of the interior. Throughout history only a
few architects of talent and vision have been able
to accomplish such all-encompassing design. In
the twentieth century, three architects stand out
as practitioners of complete design: Frank Lloyd
Wright (1867-1959), Le Corbusier (1887-1965),
and Alvar Aalto (1898-1976).
Frank Lloyd Wright believed in the concept
of organic architecture-building with nature in
stead of against it.
In Organic Architecture, then, it is quite impossi
ble to consider the building as one thing, its filmishings
another and its setting and environment still another.
The Spirit in which these buildings are conceived sees
all these together at work as one thing. All are to be
studiously Joreseen and provided Jor in the nature ojthe
stntcture. All these should become mere details oj the
character and completeness ojthe structure. Incorporated
(or excluded) are lighting, heating and ventilation. The
very chairs and tables, cabinets and even musical instnt
ments, where practicable, are oj the building itself,
never fixtures upon it. No appliances or are
admitted as such where circumstances permit the full
development oj Ihe organic character oj the building
scheme.
'
Wright realized his philosophy with the de
velopment of the Prairie house. He designed a
succession of such houses in the early years of the
twentieth century, culminating in the Robie
House, Chicago, Illinois, (1909). Wright made a
commitment to the integration of inside and out
side with his open-space planning and concern for
natural light and ventilation. His Prairie houses
4
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',"
P LAN, WARD W. WILLETS RESIDENCE,
HIGHLAND PARK, ILLINOIS, FRANK
LLOYD WRI GHT, 1901.
The windmill plan was the remit of a
central space dominated by the hearth
Ivith wings exten ded to the landscape.
Courtesy of The Art Institute of
Chicago.
were expressions of the prairie landscape, a lUtu
ral, organic response to nature.
Wri ght's houses centered on the hearth, and
from this would radiate horizontal wings of inter
locking space. By designing from the inside out,
his exterior shell would be a direct expression of
the space it contained. There was no separation of
architectural part s. There was no compromise
made with the interior space through irrelevant
design of the shell. Interior space was not con
fined to the actual interior, for Wright would con
tinue his interiors visually by extending ter races,
t rellises, and ret aining walls beyond the glass lines
of window openings (see Chapter 4 for a discus
sion of the four-dimensional features of Wright's
interpenetration of inside and outside space) .
Wright did not stop with the architectural
shell and its devel opment of interior space, but he
took on the res ponsibility of completing the in
terior space with built-in or custom-designed
furniture, built-in lighting fixtures, speciall y
designed carpeting, patterned leaded glass win
dows , and extensive interior trim and molding,
all of which were in direct response to and an
extension of the overall architectural scheme.
The Robi e House was a masterpiece of de
sign. The li ving room and dining room were
placed on either side of the central hearth of the
hous e with not only spatial connections between
the rooms occurring on either side of the fireplac e
but a large opening above the mantel that pro
vided a two-way vista between the rooms. The
INTERI OR ARCHITECTURE: THE PHILOSOPHY 5
trim articul ated and echoed the ribbon windows
of the longitudinal walls, and this rhythm was
further enhanced by the built-in li ghting ft xtures
that crowned the overhanging lowered ceilings
above these wall s (see C hapter 5 for a further di s
cussion of Wright' s mastery ofli ght).
Furniture included built-in pieces, such as the
bench-and-stora ge unit at the li ving room ftre-
INTERIOR ARCH ITECTURE
DINING ROOM, FREDERICK C. R OBIE
RESIDENCE, C HICAGO, ILLINOIS.
FRANK LLOY D WRIGHT, 1909.
The high-backed chairs create an
intimate room within the di ning 1'00111.
Courtes ), oJ Th e Domino 's Center/or
Architecture and D es(f?I1.
pl ace, the dining room sideboa rd, and custom
fr eestanding pi eces, such as the dining room tabl e
complete with space- enclosin g chairs and fou r
corner light fixtures. Here, Wright des igned a car
pet that unified the flo ors of the two rooms with
a r epetitive geo me tri c motif that responded di
rectl y to the patterns created by the colored glass
in the leaded w1l1dows of the longitudinal wall s.
6
R O BIE
tom
t able
j fo ur
a car
. w ith
fed di
d glass
alls.
LE CORBUSIER
Quite the opposite from Wright's architectural
philosophy but equally complete in design con
ception and execution was the early domestic
work of Le Corbusier. In defining architecture,
Le Corbusier distinguished between aesthetic and
functional considerations, aesthetic bei ng clearly
essential to the definition of a piece of architecture
versus a building.
You employ stone, wood and concrete, and with
these materials you build houses and palaces; that is
construction. Ingenuity is at work.
But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good,
I am happy and I say: "This is That is
Architecture. Art Enters in.
My house is practical. I thank you, as I might
thank Railway engineers or the Telephone seYIJice. You
have not touched my heart.
But Si<ppose that walls ris e towards heaven in such
a way that I am moved. I perceive your intentions.
Your mood has been gentle, brutal, charming or noble.
The stones you have erected tell me so. You jix me to
the place and my eyes regard it. Th ey behold something
which expresses a thought. A thought which reveals
without word or soul1d, but solely by means of
shapes which stand ill a certain relationship to Ol1e al1
other. These shapes are such that they are clearly re
vealed in light. The relationships betweel1 them have
1I0t necessarily any referel1 ce to what is practical 01' de
.,'criptive. They are a mathematical creation of your
mind. They are the e of Architecture. But the
!lse of inert materials starting from collditions
more or less utilitarian, you have established certain
relationships which have aroused my emotions. This is
Architecture
2
In 1914 Le Corbusier developed an open pl an
theory based on the structural possibilities of rein
forced concrete. He called his system Dam-ina and
st ated that the structural basis of the house should
consist of a frame of six concrete columns sup
porting all concrete floor and roof slabs, linked
together with cantilevered concrete stairs. These
being the only fixed elements of the house, every
thing else-the walls, windows and doors, fire
pl aces , and so forth - could then be fl exible since
they were nonstructural.
Le Corbusier consciously separated his
houses from the ground in order that the ground
might be free of human-designed obstacles. He
then would punch out space in his house structure
in order to bring trees and vegetation into terraces
and roof gardens, integrated with the house
proper.
This architectural development was epito
mized in the Villa Savoye, Poissy-sur-Seine,
France (1929-1930). The villa is a cube of space
quite set apart from the surrounding environ
ment. The living quarters, locat ed one floor above
the ground level, are arranged about a garden
court, which shares a band of ribbon windows
(without glazing) with the living room. A ramp
connects this court to yet another smaller roof
garden above the living quarters.
PERSPECTIVE DRAWING, DOM-INO
SE. LE CORI:lUSIER, 1914.
Th whnnns are set back from the slab
edge to' ill/ow for maximum .(Jeedol1'l of
Droils de reproduClion
perws par la SPADElv!
199/RS N. Y/SPADEM
INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE: THE PHILOSOPHY 7
VIEW fROM THE SO UTHWEST, VILLA
SAVOYE, PorSSY-SUR-SEINE, FRANCE.
LE CORBUSIER AND PIERRE
JEANNERET,1929-1930.
This structure profoundly contrasts
nature in form yet is sensitive in concept.
Photograph by John Kurtich .
. The_ramp, a central spiral stair , the living Architecture should always offer a means whereby
room varioLls columns and light the organi c connection between a building and nature
ftxtures serve as scu1p"tu.r:al elements in the three- (including man and human life as an element ojgreat er
dimensional spatial grid impor:an ce than others). is providedJor. This is alsothe The inter
penetration of outside to inside byes of space most lmpo,rtant thll1g 111 architectural standardISatIOn .
cut into the volume create a fourth dimen:s'onal But thiS plesupposes the development not only oJbulld
I
't (Ch 4 C d' . f h components but oj a whole new arctlltecfural ap
qua 1 y see apter lor a IScussl0n 0 t e lour- 1 fi fh' 3
. I f h' '11) proaCrl or IS purpose.
dImenslOna aspects 0 t IS VI a .
'" Aalto cl early saw architecture as a result of a
ALVAR AALTO phy$i.pl understanding between humanity and
felt that nature should be the inspira
The holism practiced by Alvar Aalto was guided tion, the -guide, and the ultimate teacher of those
by his humanistic concern for artistically solving designing :,building forms and habitats for human
functional problems. ity. He that nature was the softener
/
INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE 8
-aLA
S CE.
,Jz ereby
i nature
/ greater
: ,1 150 the
ult of a

r insplfa
r of those
human
softener
through its vocabulary of colors, textures, and
forms and that the architect should utilize this vo
cabulary as a major design resource. This notion
was summarized in a lecture entitled "Between
Humanism and Materialism," which he gave at
the Central Union of Architects in Vienna, 1955:
"It seems to me that there are too many situations
in life in which the organisation is too brutal: it is
the task ofthe architect to give life a gentler
Aalto is as well known for his glassware,
lighting fixtures, and furniture as for his architec
ture. His forms are ri ch with metaphorical refer
ences to his na tive Finland withou t sacrificing the
LIVING ROOM, VILLA MAIREA,
N OORMARKKU, FINLAND. ALVAR
AALTO,1937-1939.
The warmth oj this room is created by
[he idea oJbringing theJorest inside.
Photograph by Kevill Harrington .
intimate human needs. This combination of hu
manism and artistic exploration led Aalto to his
greatest residential achievement, the Villa Mairea,
Noormarkku, Finland, (1938-1939).
The L-shaped villa forms two sides of a
courtyard, looking out to the forest beyond. The
plan of the villa is an experimental manipulation
of space. No formal or traditional concepts of
space definition are employed, such as axial sym
metry or formal sequence. Instead, there is a "for
est space," the villa's single living room, which is
open not only throughout its interior dimensions
but also pulls the vertical proportions of the actual
forest beyond into the space. This is further en
hanced by the use of natural wood for the ceiling,
the columns, the staircase detailing, and the fur
niture. The effect is that of coming into a mani
cured forest resulting in a special sense of place.
His work is clearly driven by his concerns of exe
cuting spaces of functional and human quality.
Aalto's sensitivity to human needs were the basis
of his creative designs.
Wri ght , Le Corbusier, and Aalto each had his
own unique expression of Interior Architecture.
Each was the master of his total environment.
The bes t architects of the twentieth century have
carried on thi s tradition of developing complete
pieces of architecture, avoiding the limitations of
their traditi onal educations.
T HE M ASTERS OF INTERIOR SPACE
The trend in today's commercial architecture is to
build core and shell space that is to be completed
by individual tenants. Quite unlike the architec
ture of the nineteenth and early twenti eth centu
ri es where buildings were designed for specifi c
clients and uses, some of today's buildings are
conceived to accommodate unidentifi ed tenants.
The architectural profession producing these
buildings concent rate on the enclosure, leaving
the contents to be completed by others.
Sensitive designers must meld the existing
architecture with the needs of their clients in a
cohesive composition. Their design solutions for
completing the architectural space are not limit ed
by the confi nes of designer specialization but ex
empl ify a unified approach. Proven mast er de
signers and architects who can serve as models for
''-, the emerging profession of Interior Architecture
~ e Charles Rennie Mackintosh, Sir John Soane,
an';l Eil een Gray.
CHA\LES RENNIE MACKINTOSH
)
C ~ 1 e s Rennie Mackintosh (1868-1928) is well
i<nown for his complete interior spaces. M iss
Catherine Cranston, daughter of a wealthy Glas
gow tea importer, chose Mackintosh to design
her tea rooms such as the Buchanan Street Tea
Rooms (1896) and the Willow Tea Rooms (1904).
These facilities were designed as a response to a
social problem plaguing Glasgow in the 1880s.
The prosperity of heavy industry and shipbuild
ing attracted enough new workers to triple the
population between 1830 and 1860. This phenom
enon created many problems, one of whi ch was
daytime drunkenness of young workers . These
workers had few places to go during lunchtime
except to bars and public houses. To alleviate this
situation, tea rooms sprang up and began to rival
the public houses . Mackintosh designed the
rooms, furniture, china, and murals of many of
the establishments. The aestheti c quality of the
rooms attrac ted people and they quickly became
successful. Some of the rooms continue to be used
today-a tes timony to Miss Cranston's foresight
and Mackintosh' s brilliance.
In the Willow Tea Rooms, the Room de
Luxe is a wonderfully intimate vaulted space con
ceived to symbolize a grove of willows. The
white space contains an energy created by dia
logue between the detailed architectural fenestra
tion and the interpretive furni shi ngs. The hi gh
backed chairs literally represent a forest echoing a
dado line established along the walls. Crowning
the dado on three walls are rows of leaded mirror
glass panels completed on the fourth wall by ac
tual windows overlooking Sanchiehall Street
(Scottish word meaning alley of willows). The
surrounding frieze expands the room, creating a
dazzling effect reflecting the acti vit y wi thin the tea
room.
The Room de Luxe, being the most complete and
the best known oj lV1ackintosh's tea room interiors, is
on the .first floor overlooking the street. Its white walls,
silver painted high-backed chairs, crisp white tablecloths
and blue willow-pattern crockery, soJt grey carpet,
chairs and settees covered in a rich purple, leaded mirror
glass, enamels in pastel pinks and mauves, and the
Jamous leaded-glass doorway, combine to create a glit
tering elegance, widely celebrated
S
10 INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
. - . ,\,
r
. .. . , " .....
Gl as
19n
. Tea
4(4) .
ro a
Os.
"..l ild
the
nom
- was
T hese
..:htime
:e this
. rival
j the
Jny of
of the

:"e used
resight
am de
::e con
s. The
_ y dia
-enestra
e high
.:: hoing a
row nmg
.3 mirror
:J by ac
1 Street
\s) . The
-:eating a
111 the tea

ren ors, ,
li te walls,
r Jbl ecloths
. y carpet,
.1.1ed minor
. and the
a glit-
THE ROOM DELUXE, WILLOW TEA
ROOMS, GLASGOW, SCOTLAND.
CHARLES RENNIE MACKINTOSH,
1903-1094.
.\fo detail is left to chal1ce as the architect
has extel1ded the design to the ji<rI1iture,
light fixtures, al1d tableware .
Photograph by Vi,1Cfl1za Frangella.
SIR JOHN SOANE
Sir John Soane (1753-1837), like Mackintosh, was
best known for his interior spaces. He used his
ow n house as a model to develop spatial ideas that
would later appear in his various commissions.
Unlike Mackintosh's interest in decorative de
sign, Soane exploited the possibilities of light and
space manipulation. His surprising inventions to
fo rm new kinds of spatial relationships made him
th e grea test architect of his age.
Soane's house in London (begun in 1792, ad
di ti ons in 1812 and 1824) was a laboratory of spa
tial experimentation. He created an interior
universe of immense complexity in a total volume
that measures less than 90 feet wide, 90 feet deep,
and 30 feet high. Soane favored a layered structur
ing wall system in the Library and Dining Room,
which he considered as one room. The detached
walls, articulated by nonstructural arches that cre
ate deep niches, vibrate with an optical tension
from the Pompeiian red pigment bordered with
complementary green trim. Such saturated colors
for interior space went counter to the prevailing
gold-and-white interiors of the period. Every
available space on the walls of the two rooms is
INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE: THE PHILOSOPHY I I
rich with pictures, sculptures, mirrored niches,
urns, architectural models, and decorative ob
jects, creating a variety of visual stimulation.
The Breakfast Parlour is an ingenious room
created from leftover space hemmed in by a stair
way on one side, the Monumental Court on an
other, and the Dome Room on the third side.
Here Soane used a small pendentive dome, a type
that had never been seen in England before, to
create a space within a space. Instead of a dome
rising on four pendentives common with Byzan
tine and Renaissance domes, it is itself a penden
tive of one continuous spherical surface. The
dome has an oculus ringed by eight convex mir
rors and lit by an octagon-shaped lantern, the
panels of which are painted with biblical scenes.
A larger convex mirror is placed at each of the
four bottom corners of the pendentive surface.
"The complex subdivisions overhead, made
magic by the mirrors, along with the illusion of
LIBRARY, SIR JOHN SOANE RESIDENCE,
LINCOLN'S INN FIELDS, LONDON,
ENGLAND. SmJOHN SOANE, 1812.
Detached walls form a shell rescaling the
room while integrating book sheilles and
fenestration. Pholograph by John
Kurtich.
BREAKFAST ROOM, SIRJOHN SOANE
RESIDENCE, LINCOLN'S INN FIELDS,
LONDON, ENGLAND. SmJoHN
SOANE, 1812.
Spatial mystery is created by the
unorthodox introduction of light which
washes the Willis beyond the dome.
Photograp h by John Kurtich.
I2 INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
SOA NE
FIELDS,
~
"Ie
- 'll luhich
depth in the tiny pictures, contribute to this
room, seeming at once minuscule and cosmic.
Soane' s poignant exaltation of the almost trivial is
peerless, beyond an y hope of emulation. "6
Soane layered his space both horizontally and
vertically, employing many skylights to enhance
the spatial expansion (see Chapter 5 for a discus
sion of Soane's use of natural light). In hi s Picture
Room, Soane hinged multiple panels that would
swing ou t from the wall to reveal more paintings
mounted on the layers behind. The final panels
swing to reveal a balconied window opening into
a vertical space featuring the Monk's Parlour one
story below and a skylight hi gh above the win
dow.
EILEEN GRAY
Eil een Gray (1878-1976) was ori ginally trained at
the Slade School of Art, London, around the be
ginning of the t wentieth century and then ac
quired an apprenticeship to a Japanese lacquer
craftsman. She eventually made Paris her perma
nent home and evolved from making lacquer ob
j ects to furniture, then complete interiors.
In the early years of the Modern Movement,
interiors were largely neglected by even the best
architects. Eileen Gray pioneered the notion that
as much attention should be paid to the design of
interiors as it had been to the exteriors. In 1924,
Jean Badovici wrote of her in the Dutch magazine
Wendingen: "We find in her compositions those
marvelous abs tract geometric elements which
are the charm of modern furniture. Instead of
presenting each piece separately, she makes
them complement each other. Lines of individual
pieces are no longer frontie rs; they extend into
the lines of a wall. It is a richly realized totality
of space.... " 7
In her fust house, E-I027, built at Roque
brune on the French Riviera (1926-1929) she
conceived the project as a tot al design problem,
attending not only to a well-conceived plan of
interior spaces but carefully choosing interior sur
face materials and arranging their colors, design
ing an entire range of furniture, and drafting and
weaving custom rugs for all the rooms.
r 4 INTERIor, ARCHITECTURE
Eileen Gray referred to the open plan of the
modernists as " Ie style camping." Her sensi tivity
to the practical uses of interior space allowed her
designs to transcend the anony mit y of modernist
dictums. Although the house was small-a living
room with an adjoining terrace and two small
bed rooms-she achieved a feeling of spaciousness
with her use of light par tition walls as di viders
and ingenious built-in furniture. The multiuse na
ture of the living room made it the central focus
of the house. The generous interior (21 feet by 46
feet) provided space for repose, repas t, recrea ti on,
and relaxat ion. Her completion of interior space
included wonderful designs of intricate det ail,
wit, and thoughtfulness . Her concern for the con
trol of natural light and ventilation was expressed
in speciall y designed shutters that allowed a vari
ety of sunlight and fresh ai r to permeate the inte
rior conditional to the daily and seasonal changes
of nature. For the bathrooms, she desi gned
hinged mirrors that provided simultaneous mul
tiple views for grooming. Speci al furniture, such
as the "nonconformist chai r," had only one elbow
rest in order to give the human body more free
dom of movement while sea ted. Her st orage cab
inets we re inventive with pi voting drawers,
sliding panels, and built-in electrical li ghting. Her
dictum of design was: " The interior plan should
not be the inci dental result of the facade; it should
li ve a complete, harmonious, and logical life. " 8
Her design of the ki tchen reflect ed this philosophy
by borrowing spatial arrangements "dictated by
the habit of peasant women who prepare their
meals outside in the summer, inside in the winter
. [It 1 can be transformed into an open-air
kitchen by a partition made of glass panels that
fold flat. When ... opened, the kitchen is noth
ing more than an alcove in the courtyard." 9
Charles Renni e Mackintosh, Sir John Soane,
and Eileen Gra y are known primaril y for their
innovative and poetic interiors even though each
produced buildings and archit ectural ext eriors.
All three cared about the fate of the human occu
pant in their architectural creations and thus ar tic
ulated fres h, visionary plans made complete with
custom designed furniture, imaginative lighting,
exciting color, appropriate materials and textures,
and provocative fabrics and rugs.
.... -h u
/" I
I I
/ I
I
of the
e inte
changes
signed
us mul
ore free
'a e cab
rawers,
ng. Her
should
: should
, life. " 8
' losophy
:rated by
reo their
pen-aIr
cIs that
Pu:-;. H OUSE E-1027, CAP-MARTIN
OQCEBRUNE, FRANCE. EILEEN
1920-1929.
-;I,e illvelltive p/a/1 jocused on a
: Illy room that was extel1ded olltside
U <l terrace, taking advantage oj the
Frfllc/I Riviera view and climat e.
oJ The Art Institut e oJ
Clzica,l( o
LIVING ROOM, HOUSE E-I027, CAP
MARTIN ROQUEBRUNE, FRANCE.
EILEEN GRAY, 1926-1929.
Th e planes oj low walls, rIIgs, and art
el1 1phasize the horizo/1lal spatial qualit),
oJtli e room. Courtesy o. fThe Art
InstiWle of Chicago

INTERI OR ARCHI TECTCRE: THE PHILOSOPHY 15
The completion of interior space, emphasiz
ing its architectural character, is practiced by
many enlightened architects and designers. This
act of completion is the essential ingredient in the
pursuit and creation of Interior Architecture. The
architectural shell is more permanent than its in
terior configuration and space, yet the interior de
mands greater attention. The details of interior
space that satisfy the requirements of human Lise
are in fact the purpose of the building.
PRESERVATION, RESTORATION,
RENOVATION, AND ADAPTIVE
REUSE
The fmal aspect of Interior Architecture focuses
on the older building and how it might best relate
to the current needs of society. Preservation is the
act of maintaining all or any part of a building in
order to ensure its historic significance. Restoration
is the act of returning the building in some man
ner to a condition deemed appropriate after it has
been set aside to be "preserved." Renovation is the
act of renewing and updating older buildings'
original uses to satisfy contemporary needs.
Adaptive reuse refers to the recycling of an older
building by giving it a new use through renova
tion.
Most of the work on older buildings affects
their interiors. Not only must designers or archi
tects be competent with current code require
ments, structural realities, mechanical and
electrical services, and economic restrictions, but
they must be knowledgeable of architectural and
social history.
The preservation of a historical building to
represent its original use is the purest of the four
categories affecting an older structure. Preserva
tion may include restoring the building on its
original site or moving the building to preserve
its past. The process of restoration is usually
linked to preservation, in varying degrees de
pending upon the condition of any given build
ing. Total reconstruction of a long-vanished
building based on available research is the most
extreme form of preservation.
r6 INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
During the nineteenth century there was a
great interest in preserving past architectural
monuments in both France and England. Each
country approached the problem in its own way,
France favoring a restorative approach to the
point of adding features that were never originally
built and England maintaining a preservationist
approach that tried to minimize modern restora
tion.
PRESERVATION THEORIES OF VIOLLET-LE
DUe France took a great interest in her historic
sites when Louis Philippe established an Inspector
of Historic Monuments in 1830. The of6ce that
resulted from this appointment made an inven
tory of all the historic buildings and structures in
the country. This inventory was the basis for pro
tecting venerable structures, public or private,
from alteration. The government also hired archi
tects to restore certain old chateaux and churches.
Viollet-le-Duc (1814-1879) was the most famous
of these architects, and through his activity during
the middle of the nineteenth century, he was able
to establish and practice his theories of restora
tion. His definition of proper restoration was very
speci6c. "To restore a building is not to preserve
it, to repair, or rebuild it; it is to reinstate it in a
condition of completeness which could never
have existed at any given time."l o
In describing Viollet-le-Duc's restoration of
the cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris, (1845-1864)
Charles Wethered writes:
Standing in the midst oj once the most picturesque
and still the brightest oj inland cities, Notre-Dame,
"the old queen oj French cathedrals," has been restored
at the cost oja quarter oja million sterling I in the most .
conscientious and conservative manner throughout.
Scrupulous care has been taken not to interfere with
anything oj real worth belonging to bygone ages. Here
there has been no scraping oj the surfaces oj old stones:
in all cases wherever unmutilated they have been left
untouched . .. It is a typical instance oj what the
French understand by restoration-as complete a re
establishment as possible oj everything known to have
existed in the days oj its Jullest splendour. II
Viollet-Ie-Duc wanted to bring the cathedral
up to its originally planned completion by finish
ing all of the uncompleted towers, including the
...-as a
.:w ral
Each
way,
' 0 the
_:"inally
:ionist
"_ tora-
ET-LE
llstoric
-pector
-:: that
al ven
Jres m
'ar pro
-;ri vate,
-1 archi
_'.I rches.

- during
as able
-estora
-as very
_reserve
it in a
never
.1 tion of
- - -1864)
:Cll resque
-Dame,
restored
che most
lIlghout.
rere with
-'es. Here
_ d stones:
been left
.I' hat the
ece a re
to have
-athedral
y fmish
_uding the
-:-"in towers of the west front. He produced draw
- for this project, but it was never realized.
"T"H E PRESERVATION THEORIES OF JOHN
CSKI N In England during the nineteenth
__. ury, architectural preservationists were led by
John Ruskin (1819-1900) and William Morris
3-1--1896) rather than by the government. John
Rus kin's attitude was that restoration was really
...e truction.
Neither by the public, nor by those who have th e
:.lTe of public monuments, is the true meaning of th e
'ord restoration It means the most total
'..;trtlction which a building can suifer: a destruction orlt
which no remnants can be gathered; a destruction
. ."{ II1panied with false description of the thing de
."Toyed. Do not let us deceille ourseilles in this impor
-I/{ lI1atter; it is impossible, as impossibl e as to raise
- .1' dead, to restore anything that has ever been great or
.1II tiful in architecture . .. Do not let us talk then of
_:coration. The thing is a Lie from begi nning to end
The principle o..f modem times (a principle which
lielle, at least in France, to be systematically acted
n by the masons, in order to find themseill es work,
.... : che abbey of St. Ouen was pulled down by the
oist rates of the town by way o..fgiving work to some
-". lIIts,) is to neglect buildings first, and th en restore
.tII afterwards. Take proper care of your monuments,
.1 you will not need to restore them.]2
Protection of ancient buildings, not res tora
tion, was the philosophy preached. " The follow
ers of Ruskin and Morris said that the only
legitimate action open to contemporary workmen
was to arrest the process of decay. No matter how
venerable a building might have been, all later
changes in it were to remain because they were
just as valid as the original portions." t 3
WILLIAMSBURG, VIRGINIA
The major restoration project of the early twen
tieth century, which had great impact upon
American taste and brought about a serious ques
tioning of the limits of preservation, was the com
plete restoration of Williamsburg, Virginia , by
John D. Rockefeller, Jr., in 1926. James Marston
Fitch has pointed out the problems of the Wil
liamsburg restoration:
The first is that tim e has been telescoped: buildings
which neller co-existed at precisely the same point in
time and space halle been restored to an artificial simul
taneity. The resulting image is one of polished and
manicured amenity which is not so much untruthful as
incomplete. It is nonetheless misleading. The second
problem is related to the first. Williamsburg in pre
Revolutionary times was a small provincial capital,
technically backward and riddl ed with class dillisions
ENTRANCE VIEW, G OVERNOR'S
MANSI ON, WILLIAMSBURG, VIRGINIA,
1706-1720 (RESTORATION 1926
ONWARDS).
Th e restorat ion ep itomizes colonial
idealism but is l-InfaithIul to historical
reality. Colonial Williamsburg
Foundation.
I
-----
--
--
including human slavery: It is difficult to "restore" this
aspect of social reality. Slave pens and muddy streets,
hunger and discomfort are difficult to display museolog
ically: the natural tendency of any wraforial staff is to
select, dramatize, hence prettify. Thus the result has
been the creation of a stream of beguiling halftruths
about the American past, all too easily vulgarized and
fed into the bloodstream ofpopular taste. H
THE TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS,
EPHESUS, TURKEY
Preservation and restoration of buildings in the
ancient world was rare, but renovation was com
mon, particularly when a revered temple or mon
ument was damaged or destroyed. Generally such
repair took place as reconstruction, with the ad
aptation of the latest architectural sty Ie prevailing.
Such reconstruction was the ultimate renovation.
The archaic temple of Artemis at Ephesus, Tur
key, constructed ca. 550 B. C. 011 the site of yet an
earlier temple, was famous throughout the an
cient world for its size and rich sculptured reliefs.
Its plan measured 413 feet by 214 feet with 127
RECO NSTRUCTED PERSPECTIVE,
TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS, EPHESUS, 356
B.C. DRAWN BY KRITZ KRISCHEN.
Thi s wonder ofthe ancient world was
meant to represent the safYed grove ofthe
goddess with its sculpted Jorest oj
colul1Ins. Fri tz Krischen, 1938.
sixty-flve-foot-high columns supporting the en
tablature. This gigantic structure was torched and
destroyed in 356 B. c. by a madman to ensure his
immortalit y. The citizens of Ephesus spent the
next 120 years rebuilding (i. e., renovating) the
new temple of Artemis on the same site, follow
ing the same ground plan with identical length,
breadth, and height . Differences occurred in the
refinement of the Ionic order, the sculptural re
liefs , and the fact that the temple was now built
on a platform of thirteen steps , therefore making
it stand 8 feet 10 inches higher than the old tem
ple. This vers ion became known as one of the
Seven Wonders of the World.
THE PANTHEON,
ROME, ITALY
The turning point for the renovation of the Pan
theon, Rome, Italy, (A.D. 120-124), occurred
during the era of earl y Christianity when it was
dedicated in A.D. 608 by Pope Boniface IV to
S. Maria ad Martyres. During the five centuries
------
- --. ---
---
L.-
---
--
--.-
--
--.
n

"as
to
__ : \\"een its construction and its consecration as a
: urch, the area around the building became di
pidated. The interior changed from a pagan
to a Christian church. Various "renova
ons " continued, such as its gilded bronze roof
"e being robbed by Cons tans II in A.D . 663, a
lead roof covering in the eighth century, a
_ II tower over the center of the facade in the late
"-: rreenth century, twin bell towers at the ends of
intermediate block in the early seventeenth
_m ury (dismantled in the 1880s), and a new
_ cco decor to the in terior attic zone in the mid
century.
CAPITOLI N E HILL, ROME, IT ALY
he sixteenth century Michelangelo (1475
-(4) transformed the Capitoline Hill into the sec-
HOTUNDA, PANTHEON, ROME, ITALY,
A.D. 120-124.
Th e spatial power of the anginal tell/pie
Iws bem preserved by rellollatillg the
pajiall structure into a Christian church.
Pholograph by John Kurtich .
ular heart of Rome. He had to retain the existing
Palazzo del Senatore and the Palazzo dei Con
servatori , medieval buildings that existed in a
formless, unplanned relationship. Through
Michelangelo's renovation of the facades of the
two existing buildings and the addition of a third
as a flanking counterpoint to the Palazzo dei Con
ser vatori , he created a united urban interior space.
The boundaries of the space were unified by a
powerful columnar order of primary and second
ary members, which clearly articulated the fa
cades of the Palazzo dei Conservatori and the
Palazzo Nuovo. The expanding oval pavement
pattern created a dynamic tension with the enclos
ing trapezoid of the three building facades. T he
simultaneous contraction and expansion of this
space makes it one of the great interior places of
the human-built environment.
/1;/
0
(
PLAN, CAPITOLINE HILL, ROME,
,/
iTALY, PRIOR TO 1546.
?
The original space was crudely d ~ f i n e d
by three buildings, hailing no lIisual
relationship or harmony. Drawing by
Carrel Eakin, after John Andrew
Callery.
CAPITOLINE HILL, ROME, ITALY,
BEGUN 1546.
Michelal1gelo's renollation brought back
a secular Jocus 10 Rome by unifyil1g the
articulation oj the buildings and plaza.
Photograph by John Kurtich .
o 50 r
~
o 50 I
~
ENTRANCE VIEW, O STERLEY PARK
HOUSE, MIDDLESEX, ENGLAND.
ROBERT ADAM, 1761-1780 .
. 1dam's renovation ofth e original
Elizabethan house is an unhappy
marriage ofeighteenth century classicism
!!l ith stoic medieval massing. Courtesy
. ~ f T h e Art Institut e of Chicago.
PLAN, CAPITOLINE HILL, ROME,
ITALY, MICHELANGELO'S
RENOVATION, BEGUN 1546.
The new scheme contained a clear
geometric order with a formalized
entrance and focal point. Drawing by
Garret Eakin, after the Accademia
Nazional e di San Luca, Rome.
OSTERLEY PARK HOUSE, MIDDLESEX
In 1761 Robert Adam (1728-1792) was commis
sioned to renovate and decorate Osterley Park
House, Middlesex. A country Tudor house built
approximately 1575, Osterley Park still retained
its original corner towers and some Tudor ma
sonry, particularly on the west wing. Adam rede
'signed almost all the interiors and part of the
exterior. An innovative feature of the renovation
was the addition of a classical portico to the me
dieval structure, which now would link the inner
courtyard with the gardens and relate the redecor
ated interiors to the exterior. Pevsner describes
the new portico as follows: "The effect with the
slim unftuted Ionic columns is as delicate and ce
lestial and as chastely theatrical as any opera Gluck
might have composed m these very same
years . " 15
THE ROOKERY, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
The Rookery, Chicago, Illinois (1886), designed
by Burnham & Root, derived its name from its
predecessor, a jerry-built, crowded city building
that attracted roosting birds. The new eleven
story brick and terra cotta building was built as a
massive block with an interior light court. The
original court was covered with a metal-framed
vault, featuring an intricate geometric pattern of
transluscent glass and black iron tracery. Frank
Lloyd Wright (1867-1959) was commissioned in
1905 to modernize the building's central court and
entrance lobbies. Wright's renovation covered
much of the original iron columns and spandrels
with white marble incised with gold patterning.
Later remodelings and repairs destroyed much of
the beauty of Burnham & Root's and Wright's
designs. The stairs and mezzanines of the two en
trance lobbies were eliminated, along with
Wright's marble cladding. Due to persistant leak
age in the light court, the skylight was covered
with an opaque roofIng membrane, eliminating
all natural light from this space. In 1992, a com
plete restoration and renovation of the Rookery's
public spaces have been completed, returning nat-
COURT LOBBY, THE ROOKERY, The meticulous restoration of The
CHICAGO, ILLINOI S. BURNHAM AND Rookay's public spaces has revealed the
ROOT, 1886; LOBBY REMODELED BY remarkable spalial sequence of BUYl1ham
fRANK LLOYD WRIGHT, 1905. & Root's original scheme, climaxing in
RESTORED AND RENOVATED BY the newly uncovered sky/it central court
THOMAS M. HARBOE OF MCCLlER, lobby. Photograph by John Kurtich.
1991-1992.
810 5
ered
:rels

h of

en
-_" ith
eak
ered
.[Jng
'om
ery' s
nat
ed (he
lham
Ig in
[O ur(
CO the central court and a reinstat ement
or the entrance lobbies to Wright's original reno
\'ation (for further di scussion of the restoration
m d renovation of the Rookery, see Chapter 9) .
THE ALEXANDER THE GREAT
. 1.0NUMENT, MT. ATHOS, GREECE
dapti ve reuse of buildings has been relati vely
ommon throughout hi stor y, although many de
.:_ ns remained as unbuilt proj ects. One of the
n: ost outrageous exa mples of adaptive reuse was
!- oj ect proposed by the archit ect Dinocrat es to
. cxander the Gr eat. Dinocrates sa id: "I ha ve
. _de a desi gn for the shaping of Mount Athos
: 0 the statue of a man, in whose left hand I have
-.:-r sen ted a ve ry spacious fortifi ed city, and in
. right a bowl to r eceive the water of all the
_ams which are in that mountain, so that it may
Jr from the bowl into the sea . " 16 Alexander
- naturall y fl attered by his design but found the
- THE GREAT SCULPTED
\1T. ATHOS, GREECE. DRAWING
::;SCHER VON ERLACH, 1721.
:'isiol1 ar), drawing depicts the
of ego, one oj the dri ving
_ In this case, the
"<'11 of renovatil1g NIt. Athos was
J rhe capabilities and resources of
:lew world. Courtesy of The Art
-. ;e
plan impractical as there was no way to furnish
the ci ty wi th its own food supplies. He said to
Dinocrates, " Therefor e, whil e thinking that your
design is commendable, I consider the site as not
commenda ble; but I \vould have you stay with
me, beca use I mean t o make us e of your ser
vices." 17
THE THEATER OF MARCELLUS,
ROME, ITALY
Many houses of medieval Rome were built into
the abundant ruins of t he ancient city, ma king
adapti ve reuse a major mea ns of habitati on. The
ancient buildings were actual! y exploited wher
ever possible for housing. The Theater of Marcel
lus, Rome, Italy, (23-13 B. C.) , was apparently in
a sta te of ruin by the end of the fourt h century
A. D. as it furnished building material for the re
construction of the Pons Cesstius. Several
hundred yea rs later the theater ruins were rea-
THEATRE OF MARCELLUS, ROME,
ITALY, 21-13 B.C.
Unti l the 19205, the exterio r
arches and IJault s oj the theatre were
.fill ed with merchant-squatters. Today,
these arches and vaults have been
emptied and returned to their original
jill1ctiol1 as an arcade without altering
the medieval residential additiolls.
Photograph by J ohn Klmich.
DLSU - eSR - lRC
dapted as a residence and fortress for the Roman
families of Pierleoni , Savelli, and Orsini, respec
tively. When the Savelli family held the theater,
they leased the va ults on the ground floor to
butchers and craftsmen. A new building was ac
tually constructed on the top floor of the theater
when the Orsini family occupied the site.
THE COLOSSEUM , ROME, ITALY
During the eleventh century A.D., almost ail of
the survi vi ng vaulted spaces of the Colosseum
(A. D. 70-82) were occu pied. A deed fro m the pe
riod describes such property:
a crypt in its entirety, all vaulted, with half oj the
Traverine piers on either side, il1 th e Amphitheatre
which is called the bordering on one side on
the cryp t and lot oj Guido de Berta, on th e other the
crypt oj Dada, on the third the crypt and lot oj Singio
rect us and on the fourth the public 1'Oad.
1R
Pope Sixtus V (1 585-1590) had a project to
transform the Colosseum into a factory for wool
spinning. In 1590, he commissioned Domenico
Fontana (1543-1607) to draw up plans that would
readapt the amphitheater into a colony of work
shops for wool spinners, where they could have
PLAN , COLOSSEUM, ROME, ITALY,
REMODELED AS A FACTORY FOR WOOL
SPINNING WHICH WOULD INCLUDE
WORKSHOPS AND LIVING QUARTERS BY Q
DOMENI CO FONTANA, 1590. 48
Cl
This adaptive reu se project, in
o
maintaining the fo rmal integrity of the ..
original building, predates similar Post
4'
their living quarters in the upper stori es and
working areas on the ground floor . The pope died
before the proj ect could be realized.
THE CLUNY BATHS, PARIS, FRANCE
The ancient Roman thermae, known either as the
Cluny Baths or the "Hotel de Cluny," Paris ,
France (ca. A.D. 215), went through several major
adaptive reuse transformations during its long
history. After the fall of the Roman empire, the
massive remains of the original Roman baths lost
their practical use and were eventually acquired
by the monks of Cluny in 1340. On the site, Peter
of Chalus, twent y-first abbot of the order, built
an abbatial mansion call ed the " Maison des
Thermes." During the next century, somewhere
between 1485 to 1498, another dwelling was built
into the structure known as the "Hotel de
Cluny." This then served as a temporary resi
dence for the abbots of the order and their guests.
During the eighteenth century the building was
no longer occupied by the monks of Cluny, al
though it was still owned by them. During the
French Revolution the building beca me national
property but was resold to private owners. The
.
Modern projects of the late twentieth

o
century, such as Les Espaces d'Abraxas,

Marne-Ia- Vallee, by Ricardo Bofi ll . eo
From the Resource Collections ofthe
(J
Q Q )
D
Celly Centerfor the History ofArt and
, q 0
the Humanities.
15 the
Paris,
11aJor
long
, the
:- lost
uired
Peter
built
des
here
built
- I de
resl
.:Jests .
.: was
-y , al-
g the
(ional
-. The
::'_O[ 's chapel was converted into a dissecting
m . In other parts of the building complex ap
_red a bookseller, a laundress , and a cooper.
~ t ' rap of the tower became an observatory, used
:he astronomer Messier for half a century. Fi
.. in 1843, the state bought back the Hotel de
.lC . y, acquiring the Palais des Thermes shortly
__ cafter. The building complex was then con
-::.-d into a museum devoted to French history,
::h it remains taday.
IT CASTELVECCHIO, VERONA, ITALY
. Castelvecchio, Verona, Italy (1353), was rad
. transformed into the cit y's premier archae
peal and art museum in 1957-1964 by Carlo
FRIGlDARIUM , CLUNY BATHS , PARIS,
FRANCE, CA. A.D. 215.
The soarirlg vaults of the original
frigidarhlln provide a historically
auther/tic sellin,I( for displaying ancient
Callie sCtllpture. Photograph by J ohn
Kurtich.
EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF CANGRANOE,
THE CASTELVECCHIO l\(l USEUM,
VERONA, ITALY . RENOVATED BY
CARLO SCARPA, 1956 O NWARD.
SCa/pa's genius lies ill his skill at
integrating new structure and technology
which at once blends and COl1rrasts with
rhe origilwl medielJa l fortress.
Ph otograph by John Kurrich.
Scarpa (1906-1978). Scarpa achieved three things
in this adaptive reuse project. First he accepted
and presented parts of the building complex as
historically preexisting, therefore maintaining
their original integrity. Second, he laid bare
through conceptual surgery all the genuine sur
vivals of the Castel vecchio. Finally, he added new
parts, which would bind together the entire com
plex and fill in the gaps without destroying the
patina or even the mishaps and wounds of time.
At the Castelveuhio, tall towers, walls, canals,
reflecting pools, hedges, and alleyways are all intelTe
lated, pushed back to the boundaries of th e spacious
lawn, and each element enhances all the others. They
are set around a space which is not a garden but an
ancient agora. A drawing ofthis project reveals the way
Scarpa related the space in front of the gallery to the
whole network of structural divisions within the rooms
... Scarpa not only reveals the essential coordinates of
the complex but also the materials that constitute its
corporeal essence. This is the story of what happened at
Castel vecchio, both directly, in the excavation and re
discovery of old stonework, marble, and brickwork, and
also in Scarpa's familiarity with the city, enabling him
to absorb the local color ofits walls, streets, pavements,
and stone cladding. In this way, not the form but the
corporal essence of medieval Verona comes to life in the
restoration, utterly creative and yet consistent with
Scarpa's own genuinely modern training. 19
THE SALINE ROYALE,
ARC-ET-SENANS, FRANCE
A recent adaptive reuse has been made of the Sa
line Royale, Arc-et-Senans, France, (1775-1779),
originally designed by Claude-Nicolas Ledoux
(1736-1806). The city was planned as a large el
lipse, with the director's mansion occupying the
central position. Radiating from this center were
symmetrically placed buildings at the circumfer
ence which housed the saltworks and lodging for
the employees. Only half of the ellipse was con
structed, including the director's mansion, and a
monumental gate to the complex, on axis with
the mansion. In planning such a complex,
Ledoux did not want civic art to be strictly utilitar
ian, he did not want the city to be simply an agglomer-
MAIN GATE, SALINE ROYALE, ARC
ET-SENANS, FRANCE. CLACDE
NICOLAS LEDOUX, 177:5-1779.
Th e monumentality of th e gate Is 1II0re
successfu lloday as a porlal to a
convention and research center than It
was as th e entry to a factory town ,for the
production of sail. Photograph by JOhll
Kurtlch.
ation of houses; he wanted it to be the crown of all
architectural endeavors: ... j'ai place taus les genres
d'edifices que reclame l'ordre social, on verra des usines
importantes ... donner naissance a des reunions po
puleuses. Une ville s'elevera pour ies enceindre et ies
couronner.
20
The remains of this city were taken over by
the French government in 1927 and went through
a long process of restoration and adaptive reuse,
which has now turned the complex into a conven
tion center, with one of the saltworks converted
into a theatre, others into hotels, the director's
mansion into convention meeting rooms , and an
other perimeter building into the headquarters of
the Fondation Claude-Nicolas Ledoux, an orga
nization researching a variety of future perspec
tives.
I of all
_ genres
: Hsines
,'tIS po
t' et les
yer by
-hrough
, reuse,
:onven
nverted
lrector's
and an
arters of
an orga
perspec-
P RESERVATION IN THE
U NITED STATES
Until very recently in the United States, preser
'.-ation, restoration, renovation, and adaptive
r use were considered unpopular forms of work
PLAN , SALINE R OYALE, ARC-ET
SENANS, FR ANCE. CLA UDE-NICOLAS
LEDOUX, 1775-1779.
Th e realized portion oflhe plall created
a alld elegant asselnbly oj
buildings alld space . Courtesy of Th e
Art Il1 stitl-lt e oJChica.J!.o.
AERIAL PERSPECTIVE, SALINE ROYALE,
ARC-ET-SENANS, FRANCE. CLA UDE
NI COLAS LEDo u x, 1775-1 779.
Th e ideali zed Ilision included a complete
ellipse in plan with radiatil1g axes,
Jowsed on the centralized director's
111al1siol1, symbolized the aUTOcratic
society oj the times, Courtesy oj The
Art Institute oJChicago.
that architects and designers would do. Following
the oil embargo of the 1970s a reevaluation of
older buildings has brought a signifIcant change
in thi s attitude. No longer does the U.S. economy
support the construction of new buildings to the
same degree as the boom years following World
INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE: THE PHILOSOPH Y 27
War II. The importance of older buildings, struc
turall y, aesthetically, and economically have
brought about a new interest in preservation tac
tics. The rethinking of the Modern Movement
also contributed to this attitude.
When the Modern Movement was at its
height most architects and designers would not
have considered preservation projects as desirable
or serious work. Led by Mies Van der Rohe in
this country after the late 1940s, the Modernists
followed a hard line of purity.
When the Modern Movement was finally
challenged by a so-called Post-Modern transition,
the spell of purity was finally broken. However,
a return to classical details, color, and eclectic or
namentation revealed a surprising amount of shal
lowness in the resulting work. Few contemporary
architects and designers have been trained in the
classical tradition, undermining Post-Modern
ideals, yet this did lead to a rediscovery of the
history of architecture and design.
The realization of the architectural heritage
of the many older, non-Modernist buildings has
brought about a serious reevaluation of these
structures. Preservation tactics have created a new
life for many of these buildings which, in turn,
have revitalized the urban environment of many
cities. The bes t of toda y's architects and designers
are now practicing preservation, restoration, ren
ovation, and adaptive reuse with enthusiasm
equal or greater than that attached to new work.
One of the shortcomings of this current trend
is that the education of architects and designers
has not kept pace with reality. Architectural edu
cation still stresses form making. Design educa
tion does not emphasize relationships of interiors
to their architectural shells. A complete approach
to building design is sadl y lacking in most aca
demic settings. Schools need to balance their new
construction emphasis with an appreciation for
the preservation of older structures.
SUMMARY
Interior Architecture can achieve this holi sm
through the linking of architecture with interior
design. It requires a fresh look at the real objec
tives of architecture in its broadest sense and the
education necessary to bring this about. The fol
lowing chapt ers focus on the importance of crea
tivity , the elements of Interior Architecture that
provide the link between the existing practices of
architecture and interior design, and the futur e of
Interior Architecture based on the realities of the
present.
NOTES
1. Edga r Kaufmann and Ben Raeburn, Frank Lloyd
Wright: Writings and Buildings (New York: Meridian
Books, 1960), p. 102.
2. Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture (New York:
Dover Publications, 1986), p. 203.
3. Malcolm Quantrill , AllJar Aalto (N ew York: Schocken
Books, 1983) , p. 6.
4. Ibid. p. 7.
5. Jacki e Cooper, ed., Mackinto sh: Architecture (New
York: St. Martin's Press, 1978), p. 70.
6. Charles Moore, Gerald Allen, and Donlyn Lyndon,
Th e Place oj Houses (N ew York: Holt, Rinehart and Win
ston , 1974) , p. 233.
7. Peter Adams, Eileen Gray: Architect/Designer (New
York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1987) , p. 166.
8. Ibid. p. 198.
9. Ibid. p. 214.
10. Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc, On Restoration,
and a Notice in Connection with Historical Monuments oj
France (London: Sampson, Low, Marston, Low, and
Searle, 1875), p. 9.
11. Ibid. p. 79-81.
12. John Ruskin, The Seven Lamps of Architecture (New
York: The Noonday Press, 1961), p. 184-186.
l
olism
renor
)bjec
lci the
fol
crea
that
ces of
-I re of
of the
Lloyd
eridian
York:
-r:ocken
t
New
. ' ndon,
.i Win
(New
, rati ol1,
ell IS of
and
r, (New
" Charles 13. Hosmer, Jr., Presence of the Pas! (N ew
York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1965), p. 24.
.! , J ames Marston Fitch, Americal1 Building: The His! orical
E'T(e.( That Shaped It (Boston: Houghton MifAin Com
?In\ . 1966) , p. 252.
::, Nikolaus Pevsner, The Bll ildings Middl esex
Harmondswor th: Penguin Books , 1951) , p. 128.
Vitruvius, The Ten Books 011 Architect ure, tr ans. by
\orris Hi cky Morgan (New York: Dover Publicati ons,
%lJ) , p. 35 .
17. Ibid., p. 36.
18. Richard Krautheimer , Rome: Profile of a City, 312
1308 (Princeton: Princeton Uni vers ity Press, 1980) , p .
300.
19. Francesco Dal Co and Giuseppe Mazzariol, Carlo
SCaJP I1: The Complete Works (New York: Rizzoli , 1985),
p 159.
20. Emil Kaufmann, " Three revolutionary architects ,
Boull ee, Ledoux, and Legueu," Tral1sactiollS o{ th e AInCl'i
call Philosophical Societ)" Vol. 42, part 3, 1952, p. 512.
INTERI OR , RCHI TECTURE: THE PHI LOSOPHY 29
DETAIL OF DINING AREA, "PAINTED
APARTMENT," 2400 LAKE VIEW
A VENUE BUILDING, CHICAGO,
ILLINOIS. KRUECK AND OLSEN, 1983.
Photograph by John Kurtich
l 'dNTED
lEW
;0,
:-1 , 1983.
c
C
0 -::
CHAPTER 2
CREATIVITY: FROM IDEAS TO R EALITY
C REATIVITY AND THE CRAFTING
OF INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
What is creati vity? Is it a m ys terious gift available
only to a chosen few? Must one wait for the pro
ro und moment of inspiration? Are certain condi
tions necessa ry for creativity to flouri sh t
Creati vity is the struggle to fl11d and release
wf1at is within. The struggle is a process of clari
fying the essence of the opportunity-paring
down the extraneous notions to reveal the inher
ent rel ati onships. Creati vit y is the abilit y to invent
ra ther than imitate.
Crea tivity is not a mysterious subject: It can
be understood and developed like any other tool
of the archi tect or designer. Furthermore, creativ
:ty is not an isolat ed euphoric moment in the de
sign process but must be integral and continuous
o the work. Creati vit y is a process of recognizing
-he probl em, understanding the situation, fmding
relationships, visualizing the solution, and testing
~ h e consequences . Dr. Ed wa rds, in her book,
Drawil1g 011 the Artist Withil1, sums this process up
as follows: "1. First Insight 2. Saturation 3. Incu
ation 4. Illumination 5. Verification." I
The two ingredients required to bring crea
nvity into existence are process and setting. The
?rocess in pure artistic expression is generally in
.ernal and thus uniquel y and independentl y devel
oped by the artist. Conversel y, the process in
design usually involves the dynami c interaction of
:he designer with client s, consultants, and associ
ates. This process is therefore dependent on the
bility of the designer to relate to and control the
obstacl es and opportunities formed by the various
:-arti ci pants in the process.
CREATIVITY: EXTERNAL
INFLUENCES
A creative setting is most influenced by external
forces such as society and indi vidual patrons.
There are certain periods in history, such as fifth
century B. c. Athens during the age of Pericl es,
sixteenth centur y Renaissance ltal y, and late nine
teenth century Chicago after the 1871 fne, in
which an unusual abundance of creative work was
produced. These periods were characterized by
political sta bilit y, expanding economy, and supe
rior building construction. For tunately these situ
ations produced many patrons, which in turn
produced a setting in whi ch creativity could fl our
ish. These essenti al ingredients of creativit y are
important to consider in any historical period af
fected by accelerat ed changes in technology and
societ y.
During the mid-fifth century B. c., Pericles
rose to power in the demokrat ia (people' s rul e) of
Athens, Greece. The Greeks fmally had rid them
selves of the Persian threat , although Athens had
been sacked by the Persians. During a fourt een
year period of peace, Athens qui ckly recovered
and rebuilt itself as a maj or power; with "protec
tion" money from weaker city-st ates, Pericles de
cided to rebuild the des troyed temples of the
Acropolis, parti cularl y the one dedicated to the
patron goddess of the city, Athena, as the greatest
architectural achievement of his age . He felt that
"the brilliance of the present is the glory of the
future stored up for ever in the memory of
man. " 2
Athena's temple, known as the Parthenon,
was built under the artistic guidance of the mas ter
CRLHI \ ITY: FROM IDEAS TO REALITY 33
J
sculptor, Phidias, who also constructed its huge
cult statue of Athena in gold and ivory. The tem
ple was truly a culmination of the Doric order,
built with more reflOed and complex proportions
than any of its predecessors (the front had eight
columns instead of the usual six). The richness of
the exterior sculpture was a departure from the
usual Doric simplicity: the pediments were ftlled
with sculpture in the round; the metopes were
high relief sculpture; a continuous frieze on the
exterior cella walls brought integrated Doric with
Ionic features that would affect future Greek tem
ple architecture.
Michelangelo (1475-1564), bridging the tur
bulent period between Italian renaissance and ba
roque, was one of the greatest creative forces in
the history of art. He was a master of sculpture,
painting, and architecture, all of which he viewed
as one art. With this renaissance view he was able
to produce work with great creativity, harmony,
THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS, GREECE,
FIfTH CENTURY B.C. FOR THE
REMAINS OF THE CURRENT BUILDINGS.
The Acropolis is symbolic of the
stability and rich creativity nWl1(fest
during the YI/{e of Pericles. Photograph
by John Kurtich .
and balance. Through one of his unfinished
works, the Atlas figure for the tomb ofJulius II,
one can speculate on his process. The unfmished
figure appears to be bursting to life out of the
marble block, yet the rough hewn stone is a met
aphor for the enslaved figure. Michelangelo saw
the block as a container the form was inhabiting,
perhaps waiting for the artist to reveal its pres
ence. In 1505 Michelangelo went to Carrara with
two workmen for eight months to select the stone
to be quarried and used for the tomb. He had an
ability to visualize his sCL1lptures in the raw mate
rial, and he took grea t care in selecting the blocks
and quarries from which they were cut. This cre
ative setting could only be realized in a period of
prosperity and stability.
Louis Sullivan (1856-1924), who had been
working for Frank Furness (1839-1912) in Phila
delphia, was drawn to Chicago after the Great
Fire of1871. Chicago's catastrophe created a great
I
:E,
NGS,
'(
raph
shed _ . and for architects and their building skills,
I S II, .':'."n Sullivan arrived in Chicago, he walked the
s hed looking at the new archit ecture, He was
f the :'cessed by the Portland Block, designed by
met
"am LeBaron J enney (1832-1907). He, in
saw
-r: . secured a position with Jenney 's fIrm, Even
Itlng, -1", h he stayed with Jenney for only one year,
pres
eW that Chicago would be the setting for his
with !.ue work.
stone
Sullivan believed that nature was the source
ad an
_nd inspiration of true art through poetic expres
nate sion. He said in his essay, "Ornament in Architec
locks
..ire " (1892):
s cre
"But Jar this we must tum again to Nature, and
od of
"F ell ing to her melodious voice, learn, as childrerl
I, t!l e accent oJits rhythmic cadences. We must view
been
_ :/Illrise with ambition, the twilight wistfully; then,
Phila
.11 0111' eyes have learned to see, we shall know how
Great
" is the simplicity oj nature) that it brings forth in
great
;if}' such endless variation, We shall lea rn from this
"ATLAS" (ALSO KNOWN AS THE
" A HAS BOBOLI SLAVE" OR "A
PRISONER"), SCULPTURE BY
MICHELANGELO, CA. 1516-1534,
MUSEO ACCADEMIA, FLORENCE,
ITALY,
Thejigure perhaps has more emot ional
power being IInfi11 ish ed-a frozen image
of '.I workil1g method,
Ali/iarilArl Resol,lrce, N, y,
to consider man and his ways, to the end that we behold
the unJolding oj the soul in all its beauty, and kl10w
that the of a living art shall float a<-,?ail1 il1 the
ga rden of our world,"3
He contrasted massive male forms in his
buildings with lyrical, feminine ornament based
on nature, In essence he created a balance between
the animus and anima of a building, understand
ing in the architectural sense the harmony Carl
Jung would develop about human psychology
thirt y years in the future. H e did not believe that
architecture should be restricted by intellectual
dogma but should be democrati c in form and
spirit.
This belief was the basis for the design of the
Auditorium Theater, Chicago (1887-1889), de
signed by Adler and Sullivan. The desire to create
an acoustically appropriate space for music gen
erated the volume, This volume was articul ated
to equitably di. stribute the seating. By eliminating
CRE:\ Tl n TY: FRO NI IDEAS TO REALITY 35
j
the boxes of nobility, they were making a radical
departure in theater design. This bold step estab
lished Sullivan's democratic principles toward ar
chitecture. The structural ribbing spanning the
volume was balanced by the intricate ornament
and lighting to make an elegant but powerful
statement reflecting the optimism of the time.
CREATIVITY: INTERNAL
METHODOLOGY
An ideal setting creates an atmosphere in which
artists can flourish, although their method of
working is not always obvious. This process is
AUDITORIUM, AUDITORIUM THEATER
BUILDING, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS.
ADLER AND SULLIVAN, 1889.
The theater is bold in form, balanced by
delicacy in decoration. The lightillg
dramatizes the stage whil e rhythmically
giving sca le 10 the ceilin}? ribs.
Photograph by Johll Kurlich.
based on a deep understanding of the nature of the
problem or materials with which the artists are
working.
Like Michelangelo and Sullivan, Louis I.
Kahn (1902-1974) had a deep understanding and
respect for the materials he used. Upon consider
ing the nature of brick, he said:
1J you think oj brick, and you're consulting the
Orders, you consider the nature oj brick. You say to
brick, "What do you want, brick?" Brick says to you,
"1 like an arch." ... You can have the same conver
sation with concrete, with paper oj papier-mache, or
with plastic, or marble, or any mat erial. The beauty oj
what you crea te com es ~ f you honor the material Jor
what if really is. 4
Kahn felt that the beauty of materials is clear
est when used honorably and appropriately. The
Salk Institute of Biological Studies, La Jolla, Cal
ifornia, 1962-1966, is a beautiful example of the
process Kahn used to select and use materials. The
palette of materials was chosen to withstand the
EATER
a d by
"S
li cally
. of the
sts are
ouis 1.
ng and
,nsider
.r illg the
11 say to
: to you,
con vel'
Ill che, or
heallt )' of
ceria I for
I
climate at the ocean's edge. The unique combina
tion of concrete, teak, glass, and slate is clearl y a
solution to the understanding of the nature of ma
terials appropriate to the situation. Kahn's affinity
for materi als was paramount to his philosophy of
design.
COURTYARD, SALK INSTI TUTE, LA
J OLLA, CALIFORNIA . LOUIS 1. KAHN ,
1959-1965.
T he beautifUl architectural complex
seems to become more at one with the
site as the years oj sun and ocean sprays
create patina on th e tea k, concrete and
slate. Photograph by J ohn KUI,ti ch.
CRE.-\ Tl\-I T'I : FRO.\ IDE.-\S TO REALITY 37
Working intuitively, Jackson Pollock (1912
1956) developed a process of painting that allowed
him to be spontaneous. Concerning his process,
he said,
On the (loor I am more at ease. I feel nearer, more
a part ofthe painting, since this way f can walk around
it, work Jrom the Jour sides and lit erally be in the paint
ing. When I am in my painting, I'm not aware ofU/hat
I am doing. It is only after a sort oj "get acquainted})
period that I see what I have been about. I have no
]ears about making changes, destroying the image, etc.,
because the painting has a life oJits own. I Ify to leI il
come through. 5
Pollock's ability to become lost in his work
is central to his creative process. Hi s loss of self
consciousness or ego allows him to become a part
of the work and intensely concentrate on the pro
cess. "Lost in the present" (, is described by Abra
ham H. Maslow as an essential component for
creativeness of any kind. Maslow says of this cre
ative process, "The best way to view a present
problem is to give it all you've got, to study it
and its nature, to perceive within it the intrinsic
interrelationships, to discover (rather than to in
vent) the answer to the problem within the prob
lem itself." 7 It is the understanding of the essence
of process that frees the artist of dogma and -i sms
to truly create.
JACKSON POLLOCK PRETENDING TO
WORK ON PAINTING ENTITLED
"NUMBER 32, " CA. 1950.
Huge cal/vasses worked 0 11 th e floor
allowed Pollock freedom to be
spOI1I(l11eOIAS and directly relale his
method to the lallglAage of expression.
Photograph by Rudolph Burckhardt.
Jackson Pollock Papers. Archives of
American Art. Smithsonian Institutioll.
~ S INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
THE PAINTED AP_\RL ~ E ~ T
The story of the . roc - - o f completing The
Painted Apartment is ha!"a : rized by a patron
who had an idea and an ,u-h.:(c (ure firm's intense
commitment to that -d a. Thi modest project
was raised to the In-e! 0:- il:e art by the patron's
and the architect's inter - : iT! creat ing something
special. The stor y contain- an inspiring example
of a rich creative proce- wirhin an idealized set
ting.
The painted apartm n . Chicago (1983), by
Krueck and Olsen, i locared in a Mies van der
Rohe aluminum and glass to\\-er facing Lake
Michigan. The building contains his formula
lobby of glass, marble, and Barcelona chairs. The
core elevators, accessing anonymous hallwa ys,
complete the sequence of Miesian experiences
leading to the Painted Apartment. The entry door
is the last connection \,;ith the familiar. Upon
crossing the threshold, one is met by a trans
formed world. This new v,'orld IS abstract, cur
vilinear, translucent, soft. preCIse, sensuous,
diaphanous, shiny, sexy, elegant. Light is the
source of thi s magic. Curving perforated metal
screens sift; abundant high-gloss lacquer reflects;
undulating glass block glows; chrome and glass
sparkle; window louvers fIlter; velvet shimmers.
The cyclic continuum of light seems to be at one
":i rh the sculpture of the space. The space is ever
.::hanging in its focus, refl ecti vit y, apparent size,
The .::olor, transparency, and energy. The study and
:ron ::ontrol of this energy is the essence of the creative
_ct resulting in the Painted Apartment.
)ject
on's THE CLIENT Celia Marriott is the Associate
l Wg "Jirector of Media Programs at The Art Institute
nple a:- Chicago. Her main responsibilit y is to com
set ::nunicate to mass audiences the signifl cance of the
museum's art exhibitions. ThiS daily immersion
, by :n works of art keeps Marriott sensiti ve to the
der "alue of creativity. The artists she exposes to the
Lake ? ublic took risks in creating their art . By accept
nula _, g these risks, the artists confronted the pros
T he rects of self-doubt, failure, and embarrassment.
,' ays, he appreciates their courage and extends that
: _ Iri t into her work and personal life. This was
door .:i emonstrated by her desire to create a new level
J pon m-experience in her own lifestyle.
rans- Upon asking M arriott how such a remark
cur _ble piece of interior architecture was accom
J OUS, ? lished, she said, "Find a creative person and say
::; the 'es! " This seemingly simplisti c answer becomes
metal .::omplex when considering underlying implica
fl ects; 20ns of the parts of the sta temen t.
glass First, to fwd in this case means much more
nlers. :nan thumbing through the pages of eleven
It one architectural and design firms in Chi cago
and call ing to arrange interviews. To intelligently
select among architects, one must have a well
developed sense of personal taste. Since Marriott
has a remarkable exposure to art and architecture,
she was well prepared to fmd an appropriate ar
chitect. " It was a good match, " says Marriott of
the resultant relationship between her and her ar
chitect. This positive relat ionship is crucial to the
success of any creative project.
Second, identifying a creative person as
sumes that creativit y is understood and accepted
as an essent ial component of the professional.
Without thi s basic belief grounded in the client it
is difflc ult for even a hi ghl y creative professional
to achieve progressive work. It is necessa ry for
the client to unders tand the importance of work
ing with the professional to achieve a common
goaL Creative work by its very nature is about
exploring and pursuing new ideas. This process is
not linear and can become uncomfortable for the
most savvy client and professionaL Therefore, es
tablishing and maintaining a relationship of trust
becomes crucial when discovering and resolving
the multitude of obstacles of creative work.
Third, to say "Find a creative person and say
yes!" means "Yes, I trust you." For a client to
trust a young architect with one of the largest
investments of her lifetime is daring. Of course
Marriott made this statement aft er the apartment
LOBBY , 2400 LAKE VIEW AVENUE
BUILDING, CHICAGO, I LLINOIS.
L UDWIG MIES VAN DER ROHE. 1963.
Mies Ilal1 dey Rohe's elegal1l, orliloJ( ollal
lobby sets th e stage for th e Painted
Apa1'lmel1t's wild j /./ xtaposil ioI1 .
by J ohn K/./ytidl.
was completed and was fully recognized as a suc
cess. Yet the importance of a client's brave accep
tance of new ideas in the creative process cannot
be overemphasized. This is not to say that a client
should not question the judgments and functional
decisions of the architect. But to overly police and
challenge each decision becomes a constant inhi
bition to free creative work. Much of the success
of any original project is owed to the enlightened
client or patron.
Celia Marriott would certainly be considered
a modern day patron. Her project, a small apart
ment renovation, was not the kind of work gen
erally sought after by creative designers. Yet
Marriott established the atmosphere in which
creativity could flourish. It is precisely this nour
ishing setting that allows good designers to
achieve their most innovative work.
Marriott lives in a highrise apartment building
designed by Mies van der Rohe in 1963. In the same
year Mies said it was his duty to use "the scientific
and technological driving and sustaining forces of
our time." 8 Further he said, "I work so hard to find
out what I have to do, not what I like to do." 9
Mies was not interested in building for a single per
son or site but solving general "problems of build-
MODEL APARTMENT, 2400 LAKE VIEW
AVENUE BUILDING, CHICAGO,
ILLINOIS , 1963.
The l110del apartment's design and
decoration had lIothing to do with the
architecture. This is all exal11ple ofwlzat
1I1ferior Archit ecture is nol.
Center, Il1c. , Chicago,
Illinois.
ing." Therefore, his work in some cases became
anonymous and impersonal, reinforced with his
desire to abstract elements to the essential.
When Mies's building was completed, a
model apartment was constructed to give person
ality to the interior and suggest to potential resi
dents how the spaces could be finished. The
furnishing and decoration of this apartment was a
reaction to its anonymous quality, a denial of the
inherent potential of the spaces. The designers
seemed intent on transforming the spaces into
something they were not. A high contrast color
scheme was employed. Light-colored furniture
filled the room of dark walls and floors. Drama
was created at the expense of exploiting the spec
tacular views of Lake Michigan and sunlight. An
eclectic collection of furniture included Barcelona
chairs, white sheepskin rugs, pseudo bamboo
chairs, chrome, steel, and glass-topped tables, tra
ditional shaded lamps, an ill-suited chandelier,
and pinch-pleated drapes. The overall combina
tion suggests an artificial world, unrelated to its
location. This kind of mindless interior decora
tion is a prime example of why there has been a
wide separation between architects and interior
designers. Interior Architects explore the architec
H'b--
V
' l
J .. "
!me
his
I, a
;on
reSl
The
-as a
.- rhe
:ners
into
:olor
irure
rama
-pec
:. An
lona
n boo
. tra
leli er,
lbina
to its
~ c o r a
)een a
lten Or
:hitec
- ----,
- 'r-Cl --
-,
1""'
1 I
__ 1
LL .. I
~ Mi.u van der Robe
REMODELED PLAN, "PAINTED
APARTMENT, " 2400 LAKE VIEW
I LLINOIS. KR UECK AND OLSEN, 1983.
The new plan freed the expansive view
and contrast ed the rectangular enclosure
with energi z ed curves. Drawing by John
Kurtich.
853 after Kruock & Ol sen
CRE:\Tl\-ITY' FRO.\I IOU"S TO REA LITY 41
ture and the larger environment as a point of de
parture for their concepts. Such concepts are
central to developing appropriate and meaningful
interiors.
Marriott's three-bedroom apartment enj oys a
spectacular view of Lincoln Park and Lake Mich
igan, yet the interior is an anonymous composi
tion of rectangular volumes and minimal details.
The original plan was functional. The interior was
previously furnished in the spare Miesian tradi
tion with contemporary art on the white walls
and free standing furniture placed on an oriental
rug. The basic appearance of the apartment had
been unchanged for ten years until a particular
event occurred.
As her children reached college age and
began considering where to go to school, Mar
riott started to realize the freedom she might have
with this change in the family. With t wo extra
bedrooms there was an opport unit y to open up
the space to make it function more appropriately
for her changing lifestyle. She always felt the liv
ing room seemed like a shoebox and did not take
advantage of the view. Also, enlarging the living
room would accommodate her desire to entertain
-from dinner parties for six to cocktail parties
for seventy guests.
THE ARCHITECT Celia Marriott commis
sioned Ronald Krueck (1946- ), of Krueck and
Olsen Architects, to design her residence. He
studied architect ure at the Illinois Institute of
Technol ogy (IIT), Chicago. lIT's School of Ar
chitecture is well known for its rigorous training
established by the former head, Mies van der
Rohe. 10 The institution has also produced its own
share of influential twentieth century architects,
such as Myron Goldsmith (1918- ), John Vinci
(1937- ), and HelmutJahn (1940- ).
Mies strongly believed in creating buildings
that were characterized by the "spirit of the
times." H e thought of his work not as single
buildings but as prototype solutions to particul ar
problems, for example mass housing (860-880
Lake Shore Drive Apartment Towers). Mies, the
abstractionist, reduced his buildings to the essen
tial parts, replacing the embelli shment of orna-
EAST FACADES, 860-880 LAKE SHORE
DRIVE APARTMENT TOWERS,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. LUDWIG MIES
VAN DER ROHE WITH ASSOCIATE
ARCHITECTS PAC E AND H OLSMAN,
HOLSMAN, KLEKAMP AND TAYLOR,
1952.
The abstract facades emphasized the
Cha/lgillg quality oflight-refiections,
shadows, and highlights-to perpetuate
visual interest. Photograph by John
Kurtich.
8105
ment with reveals and the play of reflections on
;:-l ass. Because his ideas had such sureness and
clarity embodied in the work, he evolved into one
of the masters of modern architecture.
Ronald Krueck and Keith Olsen both gradu
Jred from Mies's famous school. Krueck also
: ught there for seven years and learned well the
:nas ter's discipline and methodology of working.
Whi le teaching, Krueck also studied painting for
:hree years at The School of the Art Institute of
Chicago where he learned to appreciate color and
Krueck as painter learned how Lichtenstein
_pplied color as distinct dots, forcing the eye of
:he perceiver to mix the dots and read the result
color. Lichtenstein is interested in the poten
_ al of paint and how this medium can transform
. meaning of the image. For example, his pro
:.: ne copy of a Picasso still life (Still Life, 1964) is
. xecuted with pure glossy paint on plastic-a
:::. ea p, artifIcial industrial product. Lichtenstein
::a- thereby transformed or recreated the Picasso
"":. : 0 an image of consumerism with all of its coar
edges. This transformation of a carefully
'::"losen subject forces one to consider what has
- 2?pened to our society in the industrial world.
;{:- use of benday dots to replace brush strokes
: only becomes a metaphor of mechanization
... : marks his work as individual.
Krueck is interested in transformation of
- "-ee-dimensional space into a four-dimensional
-:- rience. He also becomes interested in the pro
of painting benday dot patterns and its appli
-:011 to architectural surfaces. The dots are
?plied through a screen with the imposition of
:-:e color upon the other. This causes the optical
:-_: rern to be read.
,HORE
Krueck's interes t in color was extended by
-e study of light as an art form. Dan Flavin's
lIES
;hr sculpture taught him how light could de
-Oy space, imply edges or planes, and paint sur
'.\ 1AN,
.O R,
-es with light. The artful use of color and light
an extension of what Krueck learned from IIT
_:::o mes central to his work.
he
'(IllS ,
wale _:U: MEETING Celia Marriott and Ronald
-:.;eck had been friends for ten years prior to the
m missioning for the design of her apartment.
Roy LI CHTENSTEIN , AMERICAN,
B.I923, "BRUSHSTROKE WITH
SPATTER," OIL AND MAGNA ON
CANVA S, 1966, 172.7 x 203.2 CM,
BARBARA NEFF AND SOLOMON
BYRON SMITH PURCHASE FUND,
1966.3 .
Th e painting's ha(j:tone qualities
di;played a method to express light i11 a
graph ic medium . 1990 The Art
Institute oj Ch icago, All Rights
Reserved.
To Marriott the firm's work conveyed an image
of high quality and sophistication. Projects such
as the Steel and Glass House and the Victorian
Town House Extended were perceived by Mar
riott as too large and expensive for her own
means. Yet when she saw the Thonet showroom
installation in the Chicago Merchandise mart, she
started to consider Krueck and Olsen as potential
architects for her apartment.
LSU - CSB - LRC:REATl\ IT Y: FROIVllDEAS TO REALITY
43
/I
DAN FLAVIN: "INSTALLATIONS AT THE
GREEN GALLERY, NYC. 1965," NEW
Y ORK, NEW Y ORK.
Th e un.adorned application offiuorcscel1t
lights to architccture is pOle/1I il1
tral1sformins space. Copyrisht 1992
DAN FLA VINIARS, N YC.
The Thonet installation brought a lot of pub
lic att ention to Krueck and Olsen because it was
the first time that the young firm was compared
to more established and famous architects. Five
architects were commissioned for the installation,
including Stanl ey Tigerman (1930- ), Helmut
Jahn (1 940- ), Kenneth Schroeder (1 943- ),
Thomas Beeby (1941- ), and Ronald Krueck
(1946- ).
The associ ation proved to be a potent image
builder for the young firm. The important ele
ment to Marriott was not thi s presti gious associ
ation but the image that the architects created for
a very modest $5,000 budget. Thonet ' s assign
ment was simple: In a given space within the Chi
cago showroom, build a temporar y environment
to displ ay the manufacturer's well-known furni
ture.
While viewing the exhibition Marriott said
to hersel f, "1 could live in a space like this. "
Therefore, the image of Krueck and Olsen as
being expensive architects was di ssolved. This
was the fir st step toward the commissioning and
the idea of the apartment.
When talkin g with Krueck about a particular
project their firm has desi gned, he insist s upon
looking at the cominuu:-n or progression of work
that led to that panicular project. He views his
firm's work goina in a pecifi c direction, ri ght or
wrong, but in one direcrion. The reasoning is
clear. If the firm cominue in one direction, it will
either come to a dead end after exhausting all the
possibilities in that area or fmd new and unex
plored possibiliti es. So far. there is no dead end in
sight, and the possibilities ha ve been transformed
into a distinctive architectural ex pression. Leading
architects and designers haw al \Va ys developed a
personal style that identi fIes and elevates them in
the professional world. As m any business, pr od
uct identity is critical to the relative success in a
hi ghl y competiti ve profes sion .
The Thonet installation had great identity
when compared to the rooms or vignettes by the
other four architects. The Krueck and Olsen was
neither a room nor a vignette but an installation
that implied space through the use of light and
two-dimensional painted surfaces. The fr ee stand
ing space was defined by employing eight foot
lengths of fluor es cen t li ghts as a series from floor
to ceiling. The floor and ceiling were painted a
glossy finish to create horizontal edges and reflect
and extend the bright light sources . A stack of
bentwood chairs were carefully placed in the
composition as the only real element in this rather
cold and surreal space. The whol e effect seemed
very unfamiliar and artisti c as opposed to archi
tectural. The implied definition of the edge was
so cl ear that when one approached the space, the
impulse was to reach out and make sure there was
not glass defming the volume. The Thonet chairs
were pl aced symbolically in a "museum case" of
light with the intent of eliciting an emotional re
sponse. The architects were experimenting with
the fourth dimension as metaphor for this piece of
interior architecture.
To most people, it would be difficult to
translate the idea of the Thonet installation into an
image of home. Marriott's imagination was stim
ulat ed by thi s rather austere space and saw it as
more of a three-dimensional painting with li ght.
It reminded her of work by the sculptor, Dan
Flavin. The fantastic idea of living in a work of
art beca me an exciting possibility.
44 INTERI OR ARCHITECTURE
:york
s his
ht or
ng IS
( will
III the
llnex
in
lrmed

)ped a
[em m
prod
ss m a
:i entity
by the
was
lllation
ht and
)
: stand
ht foot
m floor
inted a
. reflect
tack of
in the
5 rather
seemed
) archi
1ge was
lace, the
lere was
et chairs
case" of
ional re
ing with
; piece of
[f!Cult to
)!1 into an
\\' as 50111
saw it as
' it h light.
Dan
work of
The concept was further reinforced when
\ 1arriott realized she would never be able to buy
art she had grown to appreciate through her
',\'ork at the museu m. After seeing the $120,000
? rice tag on a painting that she liked by Cy
T \v0111bly, the pri ce of redoing her apartment
- emed less extravagant. The implications of this
: hinking would transform her lifestyle. The
:hinking led quickly to a commission for Krueck
: 0 design her apartment.
THE DESIGN Ronald Krueck measures the
: la ti ve successes of hi s firm's projects by how
:omplete the transfor mation from reality to a new
-eali ty has been made. This actuality of archit ec
,He as experience is very fragile. He is aware that
:_e slightest imperfection can diminish or spoil
:. e aes thetic experience. In striving for this im
?ossible perfection, the firm spends endles s hours
: mdying, experimenting, modeling, researching,
rethinking each concept, material, and detail.
T ey feel it is only through the intimate under
-tanding of problems that solutions can surface
and become integrated into the whole. This is the
basis for what we call creativity.
When the Krueck and Olsen team talk about
. heir work, they often use terms such as force,
it wants to, lens ion between, and movement.
They work very hard to uncover these underl ying
-:'..Ialities of design probl ems so that the truth or
most appropriate solution ma y be seen. The
:r!.aj or objective of their search is to fmd new ways
ra nsform reality. They are trying to see a new
- 3li ty inherent in the probl em through disci
_.:ned study. Most creative archit ects and design
believe that each problem that they work on is
ugue and contains a special solution. Yet few
ercise a discipline in design that reveals sLlch
solutions as thi s team.
For anyone to discover fresh or new ideas
- a certain freedom from the pressures of
_ or ideologies. To gain that fr eedom, one
become "at one" with a problem. Being "at
_.. o r totally immersed in a probl em allows the
_, .:- ner to see the appropriate solution without
_:nal influences. To create a situation that al
the des igner to spend the time to uncover
THONET SHOWROOM, MERCHANDISE
MART, CHICAGO, iLLLNOlS. KRUECK
AND OLSEN, 1982 .
The abstract illllsion of space created by
pe10rated screws, .fluorescent light, and
surfaces colllrasts th e bentwood
chairs to fOlom a surrealistic di splay.
Hedrich-Blessing All Rights
Reserved.
the best solution is difficult today. It is , in fact,
contrary to this place in time, which has placed
such emphasis on speed. "Time is money" has
never had such meaning as now, and it is certain
to continue into the future.
Like Mies van der Rohe, Krueck and Olsen
have strategies to make time to develop their ar
chitecture. First , as Mies did , the archit ects use
one project to fmance ano ther. This setting of
priorities is a conscious decision to make more
avail able time for projects of high design poten
ti al. This strategy is fairly common in the bett er
design firms. The qualiti es that contribute to this
high prioritization may be a good budget, an in
teres ting client, timing, quality of the site, or pro
gram potential. This is not to say the architects
are at all irresponsible concerning the projects that
do not receive a hi gh priority, but that the priority
( FE .. FROM IDEAS TO REALITY 45
AERIAL VI EW OF LAKE SHORE DRIVE,
IN 1970, LOOKING NORTH, CHICAGO,
ILLINOlS.
Th e COrllraS I o.fgeolnetric human-made
stn/(ffll' eS agaill st the lake shore edge
forms a dynamic lIi eU! ./iom the
apartlllent. PholOJ?raph by J Oft/1
Kfll'tich .
D RIVE,
{ICAGO,
I I-made
edge
ranking allows them to concentrate on work of
greater potential.
Another strategy to make more time for de
sign is to position themselves in the public's eye
as high quality professionals. Therefore, it is log
ical that the fees should be higher for the work.
The reasoning is that Krueck and Olsen typically
provide much more service. This kind of thinking
certainly decreases the number and type of clients
[hat are attracted to the firm. Such a commitment
,1llows the young firm to have more creative con
Irol of its architecture.
The Painted Apartment in Mies van der
Rohe's Lincoln Park apartment building has its
roots in its predecessor, the famous 860-880
Lakeshore Drive apartment towers. His original
proposal for the apartment plans kept the core
d ements (kitchen and bathrooms) located along
:!1e interior corridor wall and left the remaining
space free of permanent walls. This plan allowed
:he exterior curtain wall to be free and unbroken,
::- mphasizing the spectacular views. Mies' original
?roposal was rejected by the developer as im
:-ractical and unmarketable. The Lincoln Park
::"u ilding followed suit and was executed with tra
.:ii tional apartment plans. This compartmentaliza
"on was what Marriott disliked. With this
:.cuation in mind, the architects studied the apart
m nt to find what could be altered to correct this
:-wblem.
The view during the day is spectacular,
....nobstructed across Lincoln Park and Lakeshore
~ i \ ' e to Lake Michigan. With an eastern orienta
n, the light quality changed radically from
_orning to evening. At night that view dissolved
_:0 blackness, becoming a mirror image of the
:e-r ior rather than a visual extension of the space.
-:e only life in the curtain wall at night was the
- -='ec tion of lights and forms off the glass. These
:'3ervations led to the thought that the architec
:al concept must relate to the daily changing
_Jali ties of light that transform the apartment.
The predecessor to this project was the Steel
_ Glass House, completed in 1981. In this proj
_:: . the architects experimented with textures of
=- .1S5, ranges of materials from industrial to sen
-i..l . and qualities of light during the day and at
night. They were fascinated by being able to re
verse the perception of solids and voids through
manipulation of light. Their choice of colors
would vary from cool tones during the day to
golden at night. The spaces they created could
best be described as parallel and perpendicular
stratifications. This layering was further rein
forced through contrasting one material against
another, creating a "tension between flatness and
dimensionality." 11
In contrast to the rectangular solution to the
Steel and Glass House, the Painted Apartment
employs free-form curvilinear lines, planes, and
forms. These organic shapes are in direct contrast
to the rectangular enclosure, breaking the boxlike
feeling of the original plan, satisfying the owner's
interest, and resulting in only a relationship with
the curvilinear forms of the park and shoreline far
below. Such forms dramatized natural light, em
phasizing the ever-changing quality of the inte
rior. The idea of destroying the rigidity of the
rectangular plan was literally achieved by demol
ishing all of the bedroom walls and shifting the
in-board corridor to the curtain wall. Early in
the design process it was decided not to alter
the kitchen and two bathrooms. This decision
was easy as Marriott explains she was not inter
ested in kitchens and bathrooms and was con
vinced by the architects that the budget would not
allow for remodeling these areas. Keeping the
rooms with plumbing intact created fixed vol
umes with existing access points. It became ob
vious to the architects that these rooms would be
accessed via adjacent spaces as opposed to through
a typical hallway. This relationship was not tra
ditional, yet it seemed natural to enter the kitchen
via the dining room and access the baths through
the bedrooms.
With the objective of expanding the views
and "breaking the box," the architects discovered
the seemingly illogical placement of circulation
along the window wall worked well in several
ways. First, the width of the public view was
greatly expanded by borrowing window space
from the adjacent private bedrooms. This act also
increased the apparent size of the apartment by
eliminating the original, dark internal corridor.
CRE.\Tl \ ITY: FROM IDEAS TO REALITY 47
'C ROOM AND STAIRCASE, STEEL
G LI.SS HOUSE, CHICAGO,
OI S. KRUECK AND OLSEN, 1982.
':'_')' lI1 metrical composition,
_ .1/-, . and imporlance of light
.1.' a basis for the des(gn of the
_ 'lell t. Hedri ch-Blessing All
-5 Reserved.
LIVING AND DINING AREAS, PAINTED
APARTMENT, 2400 LAKE VIEW
ILLINOI S. KRUECK AND OLSEN, 1983.
The organic shapes formed in steel and
glass are illuminated by back lit glass
block walls which are extended visually
in the rej!.ectivefioors and ceiling.
Photograph by John Kurtich.
CREATI\' ITY: FRO.\! IDEAS TO REALITY 49
People are naturally drawn to the view upon en
tering the apartment, so why not pull the walls
away from the glass and let that be the passage
way. The only problem was how to make the
bedrooms private without doors. The general
idea was discussed with Marriott . She liked the
idea and felt that if there was visual privacy in her
bedroom and some sort of enclosure for the guest
room, it would work. To provide that enclosure
and keep the window wall free and unbroken as
LIVING AREA, PAINTED APARTMENT,
2400 LAKE VIEW AVENUE BUILDING,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. KRUECK AND
OLSEN, 1983.
The window wall was freed ofany wall
interruptions and accent uated by the
long, luxurious banquette. Photograph
by John Kurti ch.
Mies had originally intended would require some
creative analysis.
In studying the window wall condition, sev
eral questions arose. How to provide a door with
out interrupting the continuity of the curtain
wall? How to treat the bedroom windows to en
sure privacy and sun control? What to do aesthet
icall y with the con tin uous baseboard heater
t
First,
the architects devised special telescoping sliding
pocket doors enclosed in storage units, which sep
50 [NTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
G,
>all
sev
' ith
"t am
en

:irst,
ding
sep
arated the living room from the bedrooms. These
-ectional doors glided on three tracks recessed in
:he ceiling and floor. This solution was the least
obtrusive and provided a generoLls opening for
::1fculation. Not only did the doors ensure the
-ontinuity of the curtain wall but became a beau
"' ful design detail. The ends were rounded, and
;.: mple recessed finger pulls were rOll ted into the
:ices. The doors are generally left protruding
::-om their storage positions as though they were
_nxious to be pulled out ready to expose their
metallic lacquered finish. It is no accident that the
felt compelled to express movement in
=_ e design of these doors because it was his goal
:n t ransform functional reality into dynamic ac
.:..tall ty. What could have become a standard solu
en became a beautiful detail, driven by the
- - hitect's disciplined search for creative expres
'1 .
Housing one set of the doors, a subtly curv
storage wall was employed as an unorthodox
o::.lrion to establish a dynamic separation be
. en the living area and the guest bedroom. This
g unit was treated as a piece of furniture with
_ 'eals at the floor and ceiling, implying a con tin
of the horizontal surfaces. The soft curve
- :med by floor-to-ceiling flush doors, absent of
, hardware, was finished in metallic, high-gloss
-.::; uer . Curving this wall and omitting any trace
- transformed the functional volume
DETAIL OF SLIDING DOORS, PAINTED
APARTiV1ENT, 2400 LAKE VIEW
The lacquered, telescoping doors, with
their rOlll1ded ends a/1d rOlAledfinger
plilis, becal/le a beauttjid, JUI/ctional
detail to discouer. Plrotograpll by John
Kllrtich.
into an abstract component of the overall com
position.
Glossy reflective surfaces throughout the
apartment were brilliantly employed to demater
ialize and blur the edges of the space. Twenty
different shades and colors of equal value were
applied to the surfaces to exploit the opportunity
for color to reflect on color, creating a richly ever
changing surface. The floors and ceilings were
painted with fIve shades of gray in graduated
bands, dramatizing the decreasing brightness of
natural light from the window wall. Overlaying
this background were patterns of ribbons and
benday dots, delineating lines of force and result
ant shadows from the perforated metal screens
dividing the living and dining areas. This subtle
concretization of abstract forces within the space
became a sensual score of the architect's creative
vIsIon.
The dividing screens were made up of three
layers, which merged and split to define specific
areas of lounging and eating. A decision was
made on site to echo the distant landscape in the
vertical shapes of the screening material while
studying the relative transparencies of different
perforations. Such a design opportunity could only
be revealed if the architect were open to sponta
neous alterations during construction. On-site
creative decisions are often very important to the
success of a project, even though the construction
CREATI VITY: FRO'.! IDEAS TO REALITY 5I
I
SCREEN DETAIL, PAINTED
The sensuous perforat ed screens imply
divisions oJspace without Joul/inS
rooms. by John Kurlich.
FLOOR AND SCREEN DETAILS, PAINTED
The painted floor detail s lIisually extel1d
the energetic moves established by the
metal screens. Photograph by John
Kurtich.
and budget processes do not encourage change.
Therefore the designer must be decisive and per
suasive to capitalize upon creative opportunities.
The construction of the screens were articu
lated as though they were a sophisticated curtain
wall consisting of curved, perforated sheetmetal
sandwiched between painted steel angles bolted
together. The meticulous spacing of the polished
acorn bolts displays the architect's desire to ex
press the clarity of the construction. Simulta
neously, the bolts act as jewelry.
The overlapping layers of perforated sheets
of aluminum were carefully selected to create vi
brant moire effects. This is the dominant force in
the apartment. These perforated sheets filter light.
They imply space. They create energy. They
invite movement. One is captivated by the
ever-changing patterns of sifted light while the
curvilinear forms recall the landscape far below.
The layering of patterns is a consistent theme
throughout the space. The overlap of translucent
screens on curved glass block panels mixed with
the opaque jalousy shades produces a complex ki
netic texture. All of the surfaces contribute to the
complexity or dramatize the patterning, charging
the space with energy.
This energy depends on the ever-changing
quality of light. Illumination comes exclusively
from the window wall and two glass block walls,
which are back lit by fluorescent tubes. In the
morning, direct sunlight floods the interior. The
bright rays of light are screened, colored, re
flected, and distorted by the complex surfaces.
Afternoon brings reflected light. The softer illu
mination heightens the view of the lake. A feeling
of serenity and expansiveness pervades. Dramatic
changes occur at night. The window wall be
comes a black face mirroring the collage of forms
and light. The glass block walls become the dom
inant light source. The curved wall is illuminated
only from the floor by cool white fluorescent
tubes. The flat wall is lit along its perimeter by
warm fluorescent tubes. This illumination bal
ances the color composition of the interior light .
DESK, PAI NTED APARTMENT, 2400
L AKE VIEW AVENUE BUILDING,
C HI CAGO, I LLINOIS. KRUECK AND
OLSEN, 1983.
Th e tiered desk lerminares the end of the
soIa, posilianedfor goo d
and IJiew, Photograph by John Kurtich,
DINING AREA , PAINTED APARTMENT,
2400 LAKE VIEW AVEN UE BUILDI NG,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, KRUECK AND
OLSEN, 1983.
The steei and glass dining table WI1S lin
extension of the language of the screel1S,
establish in!!, a dialaglle between the two
elements , hy J ohn Kurtich,
ki
[0 the
rgmg
ngmg
sively
walls,
.n the
. The
:i, re
-faces.
r illu
eel ing
tma ti c
II be
forms
dom
The curved glass block wall not only masks teet 's commitment to integrate walls, lighting,
inated
_ =:-Jce beyond but is spli t horizontally by a and furniture are accomplished in an unprece
, scent _ ard for the dining area. Spanning floor to dented way. This crea tive approach is a direct re
ter by
--.Il g . the glowing walls are extended into the sult of the rigorous study of these functional
n bal
surfaces of the floor and ceiling, elements with the intent to discover fresh solu
li ght .
- J,oh refl ection blurring the edges. The archi tions to common problems.
CREATIVITY: FROM IDEAS TO REA LITY 53
The design of the furniture is viewed by the
architect as one of structure. Each piece must be
studied in three dimensions with careful consid
erati on of the adj acent forms. These miniature
structural forms, with their elaborate details, are
rendered as focal points. Clear glass tops are sup
ported by plate steel bolted to the floor. The sim
ple constructi on of the bases consist of double
vertical plates sandwiching horizontal support
members. The shapes of the members are curvi
linea r and express the transfer of weight. Select
pieces of the supports are painted primary red to
dramatize their focal intent. The pure red color is
also intended to be the base color that all other
colors in the apartment are judged against. Red
acts as a cons tant that dramatizes the chameleon-
COFFEE TABLE, PAINTED APARTMENT,
2400 LA KE VIEW A VENUE BUILDING ,
C HICAGO, ILLINOIS. KRUECK AND
OLSEN, 1983.
Th e colree table structure is stabilized by
bolting steel sections to the floor while a
tenuous steel tube becomes a tenuous
counterpoirll. Photograph by J ohn
Kurti ch.
port
like qualit y of the muted surface colors. The re
IrVI
veals in the furniture as well as the screen wall are

also painted red. This idea originated from a de
d to
sign dra wing of the Steel and Glass House. While
r 1S
designing the facade , the architect could not see
Ither
Red
eon-
LIVING AREA, PAINTED APARTMENT,
:':!.!)O LAKE VIEW A VENUE BUILDING,
=H ICAGO, ILLINOIS. KRUECK AND
L 1983.
'If iolor and materials oJ til e apartmel1l
<.1 by
.Tt' selected Jor th e affinity to light.
Ie a
were mixed and tinted gray
';r.1I l1atize the chameleon quality of
Photograph by John
,.;ich.
the reveal detail due to the small scale of the dra w
ing. T o emphasize this detail, he used a red line.
He liked it. This idea was carried over to the
Painted Apartment as a progression of his creative
search.
Three freestanding glass-top tables were de
si gned and installed. The dining room table is
round, supported by six symmetrical supports,
which are like petal s of an opening flower. The
individual supports, with bolted, knuckle connec
tions , act like arms with hands , which solve the
need for leveling the table top. The dimensions
and placement of the supports were determined
by the width of Mies van der Rohe's MR Chair.
The creative aspect of the design was driven by
the expression of the functional needs of dining.
The coffee table is an asymmetrical composition,
responding to its edge conditions, which is gen
erated by the living room' s furniture arrange
ment. The table is an exploitation of the
sandwiched construction or language of the per
forated screens. Red plate and tubular steel sup
port the glass top, providing the vivid accent.
Gray bent plates slip away from the red support,
extending beyond the glass top, offering a sec
ondary surface oriented to the movable chairs op
posing the built-in sofa. Again, the form of the
table is responding to the functional needs, or, as
the architect refers to it, the powers and for ces of
the space. The third table, acting both as an end
table and a tiered desk, becomes a sculptural
counterpoint to the long, curving sofa. The desk
is oriented to allow Marriott a commanding view
of the apartment as well as the lake. Similar in
construction to the coffee table, the desk repeats
the red accent color in its three support members.
The adjacent sofa is upholstered in pale gray
lavender velvet with a roll ed bolster as a backrest,
sustained by red tubular supports. Multi colored
satin pillows punctuate the sofa, which provides
the major softening element of the apartment. All
of the furniture is in di alogue with the enclosing
architectural elements and finishes. The furniture
pieces are beautiful details in themselves, yet al
ways subservient to the whole.
SUMMARY
The struggle to create this apartment had it s roots
in studying, digesting, and expressing the inher
ent and unique relationships within the project.
Clarifying these relationships , without extraneoLl s
content, gives the Interior Architeccure an endur
ing presence. Because the ideas expressed are poi
gnant, without historic precedent, there is a
timeless quality that transcends fashion or trend .
The architect has exposed the essence of deSI gn in
a very creative expression. Trul y creative people
must have the courage to be ,villing to break the
rules when necessary to achieve the unexpected.
The struggle requires inexhaustible perseverance
and discipline to elevate design to a work of art.
The crossover of knowledge in the ar ts dissolves
the traditional boundaries of design and must be
acknowledged as a critical , creative source. The
setting for creativity requires an enlightened client
or patron who fosters an atmosphere where imag
inat ive ideas can flourish. An intense and passion
ate creative desire must exist within the designer
to exploit the opportunity.
The major creative tool necessary to achi eve
Interior Architecture is the development of the
third dimension. Chapter 3 explores this subj ect
through the use of case studi es.
NOTES
1. Betty Ed wards, Drawing on the Artist Withirl (New
York: Simon & Schuster, 1986) , p. 4.
2. Rex Warner, Men o/Athens (New York: Viking Press,
1972), p. 86.
3. Robert Twombly, Louis Sulfivall , Th e Public Papers
(Chicago: Uni versi ty of Chicago Press, 1988), p. 89[f.
4. John Lobell , Between Silence and Light (Boulder, CO:
Shambhala, 1979), p. 40.
5. Possibilities (Winter 1947) , p. 79.
roots
inher
OJect.
.neous

:e POl
is a
trend.
sign 111
people
the
pected.
.- erance
of art.
ssol ves
nust be
:e. The
d client
e imag
JaSSlOn
!esigner
achieve
: of the
, subject
hin (New
.ing Press,
blic Papers
). 89ff.
Il der, CO:
:\ braham H. Maslow, The Farther Reaches of Human
';il lrc (London: Penguin, 1971), p. 60.
- Ibid. p. 61.
\ 1uriel Emanuel, ed., Contempora ry Archileo.' (New
rk: St. Martin's Press, 1980), p. 548.
l id.
_ :\t IlT, spending weeks reproducing in ink on mylar
. . !ies brick wall is a tr aditional probl em aimed at dis ci
_ ning the eye and hand of the student. One of the origi
: \'isual training exercises taught by Mies is a five-week
': composition problem. In this period the students are
'sork with two elements only: a t wenty-by-thirt y-in ch
Strathmore board and two lines of black casin
_ ?<' r. which must be less than one-quarter inch thi ck.
--e problem is to develop a composition using the entire
Jd divided into four rectangles with the black lines.
- ;5 composition must be in perfect balance bet ween op
sing rectangles, lines, and overall composition. Cra ft s
.::nship is of equal importance in this minimalist exercise.
-: fi rst one wonders how a student could spend five
.es completing such a primary problem. Yet soon into
-- _ process of solving or discovering the problem, the
=lstics of the exercise become evident and pose a series
- mechanical problems.
First, how does one cut a line out of a thin sheet of
rer thirty inches long? Usually after various attempts
knives , scissors, and straight edges , the student dis
'ers the difficulty of achieving any precision without
" -ing a more sophisticated method using special tools.
:utt ing tool needs two blades to make parallel cuts
and must be adjustable to produce va ria ble width. Most
of the students end up spending a day in the model shop
building thei r own version of the needed cut ting tool.
Once this obstacle is conquered, the next logist ical prob
lem surfaces. After cutting the Jines, how does the student
apply the long delicate material to the pure whi te
What happens if the line is too thick or thin or placed in
the wrong What if the adhesive oozes out from
under the cas in paper? These problems lead to an investi
gation of adhesives, spray-on glues, and double-stick
tapes to find out what works best. With these logisti c
probl ems discovered and resolved, the student can now
begin to work on the compositional portion of the exer
cise without spending a sma ll fortune on Strathmore
boards.
Trial and error becomes the main process of devel
oping the composition. A composition is developed, and
it is critiqued again and again until the student starts to see
the visual relationship between line weight, planar shapes,
and plate composition and how they balance. This process
starts the student not only to understand composition bur
reveals the discovery process of creative work. The stu
dent finds that the apparent problem may be underscored
by various logistical problems that must be discovered
and resolved before actually wo rking o n the real problel11.
The development of thi s discipline is inherent in the insti
Clition. Thi s seemingly tiresome and dogmatic educational
method has produced its share of well- trained modernists
working in steel and glass searching for God in the detai ls.
11. Nory Miller, "Mies in Wonderland ," Progressive Ar
chilull/re, December 1981, p. 67.
P AR..
;tR Ll GHTrNG, UNITY
. C HCRCH, OAK
._. LLOYD
Phot o\: III/ Kurti(h.
C H A P TE R 3
THE THIRD DIMENSION: NAVIGATION OF SPACE
Human beings and the higher animals are highly
dependent upon accurate depth and distance per
ception for successful navigation through the
physical world. This means having the ability to
perceIve a three-dimensional world. In the
human-designed environment , architectural space
is ph ysicall y three dimensional. However all
spaces are not equal in terms of three-dimensional
development. As one of its aspects, Interior Ar
chitecture exploits the three-dimensional world it
creates, ensuring every spatial entity as complete
in itself regardl ess of shape, size, or proportions.
Very often in today's complex and tempo
rary world, designers are faced with composing
space that is only a portion of a whole. These
spaces, often in anonymous high-rise buildings,
beg for completion as a whole as opposed to parts
of a larger body. The spaces require fl exibility and
expandability in three dimensions. Understand
ing the dimensi onal qualities of space and theIr
interrelations is key to the aesthetic and functional
success.
The human being uses a complex arrange
ment of physiological , kinetic, and pictorial cues
in order to form a three-dimensional picture of
the world. The physiological and kinetic cues are
directly linked to the activity of the observer and
thus constitute primary cues for depth perception.
The pictorial cues are more secondary in nature as
they are the devices that artists, particularly in
western civilization, have been using for centuries
to create three-dimensional impressions. These
cues can produce dramatic effects, such as the vi
sual expansion of existing space or the creation of
an architectural space when it actually does not
eXIst.
Chief among the physiological cues is slel'eop
5is, an amazing and elegant faculty of the central
nervous system. N ormally, within the central
nervous system, any given point on the retina of
one eye is parried with a corresponding point on
the retina in the opposite eye. Rays of light re
flected from the object on which one's attention is
focused are always brought to bear on corre
sponding points of the two retinas in the central
areas of highes t resolution. Because of the slight
spatial separation (about ten centimeters) of the
eyes, their respective views of the world are ever
so slightly different. Consequently, images of ob
jects closer or further from the viewer than the
object of regard will fall on slightly noncorre
sponding points on the two retinas. The brain
utilizes the degree of location disparity of the im
ages of an object to judge the distance of that
object from the observer. Constant, unconscious
DIAGRAM OF STEREOPSIS.
Stereopsis records the disparity oIdepth
perception between an individual's right
and leji eye. Drawing by Jennifer
Ehrel1berg.
THE TH IRD DIMENSION: NAVIGATION Of SPACE 6 I
assessments of the rela tive image disparities of all
objects in view are integrated by the brain into a
ri chly three-dimensional percepti on of one's sur
roundings. Witness ho w the wo rld "collapses"
w hen one eye is covered by the palm of the hand.
And yet not all sense of depth is abolished by
thi s maneuver. Other useful cues still exist. The
human being is in constant motion. Rarely is
one's head stati onary for very long: Ever y move
ment changes the position of one's eyes in space,
continually shifting the images on the retina.
These shifts provide important kinetic cues to
thr ee-dimensional perception. When one is ob
serving the world whil e moving abo ut, generally
those objects close to the viewer appear to move
a.
DIAGRAMS OF PI CTORIA L CUES .
Pictorial CIIe.' demonstrate how depth
perception affects a human being's sense
of movement.
a. Linear perspective b. Size
co nstancy c. Shade and
shadow d. Interpositi on
Drawing by Carrel Eakin.
c.
at a greater speed than the more distant ones. Ob
j ects nearer one' s point of fi xa ti on also appea r to
move in the opposi te direction to the observer
while those beyond the point of fixation seem to
move w ith the observer. Thi s apparent motion of
o bj ects , the direction of which is governed by dis
tance from the observer, is called motion paral
lax .
1
For motion parall ax to work electively as a
cue to depth perception, one's perceptual system
must fir st organize the overall pattern of objects
in the field of view before moti on is introduced.
The pictorial cues are those which the art ist
must master in order to achieve realistic represen
tations of the world. These include perspective,
size, shadow, and int erposition. Perspective is the
b.
I
I-
1
r-
~
==
r--- I
I--
I--
I--
-
d.
most familiar cue. Perspective includes linear per
Jb
spective (parallel lines that regress into the depth
r to
of the real world appear to the eye as converging
rver
lines), texture gradient 2 (texture density increases
i1 to
with distance), aerial perspective (the effect from
n of
the scattering and fIltering of light, producing a
dis
bluish tint and increasingly less distinct detail as
lral
distance increases), and foreshortening (the dis
as a
tortion of an object because it is no longer being
item
viewed in the frontal plane).
jects
The cue of size depends upon the viewer's
ed.
familiarity with an object's characteristic size. Size
lrtis t
constancy comes into action here; the image of an
~ s e n
object doubles in size whenever its distance is cut
nve,
in half, a fact of geometric optics. However the
s the
brain "knows" that two identical objects are the
same size in physical reality and infers from
the disparity of the image sizes of the two objects
that they lie at different distances from the ob
server.
Shadow and shading is an important cue be
cause normally objects are illuminated with a non
uniform distribution of light. The nonuniformity
occurs because the object is three dimensional and
produces patterns of light and shadow on its sur
face. There are two kinds of shadow, attached and
cast. Attached shadow seems to produce a greater
image of depth. Shadmg on a surface is similar for
either a depression in the surface or an elevation,
providing some am biguity unless the vIewer
knows the direction of the light source.
Interposition is the partial blocking of one
object by another. 1he object being blocked is
perceived as being farther away. Artists have used
this cue for hundreds of years, and It proves to be
a very strong depth cue.
The development of the third dimension is
one of the major elements of Interior Architec
ture. This aspect works at multiple scales, involv
mg not only the spa tial arrangement of the overall
architectural complex but the very surface treat
ment of furniture pieces. The excitement of mov
mg through articulated three-dimensional space
stimulates the participant's perception of and sub
sequent navigation through the space by means of
an interaction of the physiological, kinetic, and
pictorial cues.
UNITY CHURCH, OAK PARK, ILLINOIS
A preeminent example of such three-dimensional
experience is the spatial sequence of Unity
Church, Oak Park, Illinois, designed in 1904 by
Frank Lloyd Wright (1847-1959). The binuclear
plan is composed of an entry loggia connecting a
large cubic sanctuary (Unity Temple) with a rec
tangular parish house (Unity House). The domi
nant temple form is massive in scale and austere
in fmish. The monolithic concrete structure is re
lieved only by vertical slits of leaded glass and
abstractly detailed column capitals. One enters
along the sides of the temple to stairs Banked by
monumental planters. This leads to a raised ter
race, revealing a light screen of glazed doors
where the monolithic forms open and welcome
the visitor.
Entering the loggia, one is compressed by the
low, long-span ceiling. This is the pausing space,
which allows one to enter either the open, glass
walled Unity House or the opaque, cloistered
Unity Temple. Moving into the dark cloister, one
is further compacted through smaller passages,
which leak views into the temple. One realizes
that its main Boor level is above the loggia and
cloister. Various passages along the way lead to
the Boor of the main space. Stairs in the four cor
ners allow one to continue up to the six discrete
balconies of terrace seating. From the dark clois
ter, one experiences a highly controlled three
dimensional journey weaving up through com
pressi ve forms to the explosive main space filled
with natural light. To continue up to the balco
nies, one turns to the corner stairs with their series
of intimate volumes punctuated by glimpses to
the outside through vertical slits of leaded glass.
Visitors enter from behind a wall of raised seat
ing, turning and penetrating into the main space.
From the para pet of the balcony, one again ani ves
at the main space to experience its volume from
another vantage point.
Several elements accentuate the three-dimen
sional development of the temple. First, the deep,
coffered ceiling with geometric stained glass,
framed by medium-toned oak trim, crowns the
volume with golden light. The ceiling rests upon
TH E THIRD DIMENSION: NAVIGATION OF SPACE 63
EXTERIOR VIEW OF UNITY CHURCH,
OAK PARK, ILLINOIS. FRANK LLOYD
WRIGHT, 1904.
The monolithic fortress -like struct ure
masks all internal spatial complexity of
warmth and intimacy. Photograph by
John Kurtich.
, ':' . :-;.
. f

"J. ' I .,(.' '.I
.
;, ... : i
. I
"\ ,r.
: I
_ . : .JJ _
"f')
\ ... ..
PLAN OF UNITY C HURCH, OAK
PARK, ILLINOIS. FRANK LLOYD
WRIGHT, 1904.
The e/Jol"tion ofa plan was in
response 10 differing ecclesiasti cal
Clctitli(ie.r . CourteJY o/Tl1e Art Institute
of Chicago.
c- . -..-_--- _ ____
) AK
ENTRANCE LOBBY , UNITY CHURCH,
YD
OAK PARK , ILLINOIS. FRANK LLO YD
WRIGHT, 1904 .
was In
The low-ceilinged horiz ontal el1t ry
tal
10,((.Ria provides a dynam ic spatial
rt Institute
counlerpoilll 10 the adjacent verti ca l
spaces. Photograph by J ohn Kurtich .
ELEVATION OF UNITY CHURCH, OAK
PARK, ILLINOIS. FRANK L LOYD
WRIGHT,1904.
The planters and steps flanking the Jront
Jacade introduce Wright's cirwiLOll s
entry sequence into Unity Church.
Cou rtesy oj T he Art In stitute oj
Ch icago.
THE THIRD DIMENSION: NAVIGATI ON OF SPACE 65
SECTION OF UNITY CHURCH, OAK
PARK , ILLINOIS . FRANK LLOYD
WnIGHT,1904.
TI-,e tiered seating oj Unit), Temple
reillJorces the Ilerticality oj til e main
sanctuary. Courtesy of Th e Art
1I1stilUte ofChicaJ;o.
SANCTUARY, UNITY TEMPLE, UNITY
CHURCH, OAK PARK, ILLINOIS.
FRANK LLO YD WRIGHT, 1904.
Wrighl ' s use oj cleresfor), windows and
skylighls as a venira! co /malioH 10 Ih e
heavens, heighlel'lS the /1I)'slica!
ailllosphere ~ r the sa nctllary. Pholograph
by John KUrlich.
: rans parent cleres tory windows that alternate
\\' ith the massi ve column ca pitals, providing reli ef
: 0 the enclosure. Sus pended from the four corners
or" the coffered ceiling, clusters of stained-glass
flxtures interpose the volume, accentuating
'1
: he vertical lines of the corner stairs. The interpl a y
or mass and volume produced by t he verti cal
: :airs and the hori zontal balco ni es is made di stinct
c : strong li ght and shadow. Medi um-t oned
'ood banding is used to complicate the simple
:-IITY
" rms whil e knitting together the composition as
'\hole. These bands crea te a plasti c effect, sepa
. ';:' the three colors: gray, yell ow, and green.
alld
- _ [[im bands and colors creat e cons tant visual
ille
'ement whil e interacting with the three
ill nsional for ms .
\t1ANIFEST A nONS OF THE THIRD
D IMENSI ON
_'nitv Church illustrates a number of V>laYS in
,uch the three dimensionality of space can be
and developed. Identi flcat ion of the
-:ous manifes tati ons to achi eve powerful three
::>:1sional expres sion is essential for the under
of Interior Architecture. Following this
" g of the vocabulary of the third dimensi on lS
:-:es of exam pIes.
Sequence of Spaces
_ Extension of Space be yond the Enclosure
- Interl ockin g Form and Space
- Spati al Interpos ition
" Dynamic Tension through Compress ion and
Expansion
6. Perspecti ve
- Aedi cul ar Development
'" Verti cal Devel opment of Ho ri zontal Pla nes
Exploitatiol1 of Scale
Ani mati on through Furnishings
Reaction to C on text
- Excava ted Interi or Architecture
Cons tructed Interior Archi tect ure
S EQUENCE OF SPACES
BATHS OF CARACALLA, ROME
A seri es of spaces in an ordered sequence is a clas
sic way to establish the three- dimensional devel
opment of a building complex. When axially
pl anned, the abilit y to look int o the unentered
PUN OF .>. R O.'-'I.A,N B,A, TH DRA WN BY
LEON R nTISTA ALBERTI FRO,Vl THE
ITALI AN EDITION OF
DIE LEONBA Tl STA
A LBERn " 1565.
Ti, e axial .(pari al seq"cllce jill/ lid ill the
planlling of Romall baths prolJided elier
ui'lJolding three dimellsiollal IJ i.(tas.
CO IlI'tesy of Th e A I" Ilis titu le Chicago.
THE THIRD DIMENSION: NAVIGATI ON OF SPA CE 67 - - --- - ----- ---------- --
portion of the sequence further rein forces the
sense of the third dimension. The anci ent Romans
were masters at exploiting the third dimension
through elaborate, axial sequence of spaces. They
used this as the organizational device for their
thermae or public baths; the baths reached their
zenith with those ofCaracalla (A.D. 211-217) and
Diocletian (A.D . 302), Rome.
The layout of spaces for the baths, such as
Caracalla, positioned a large, circular space,
known as the calidarium (hot bath) at the head of
the central axis in a southwest orientation to max
imize the greatest amount of natural hea t and light
from the afternoon sun. Moving into the next
space on the central axis w ith the calidarium was
a small tepidavium (warm bath), which opened on
a large Ji'igidarium (cold bath). The frigidarium es
tablished a cross-axis, which connected a sym
metrical senes of antechambers leadi ng to
colonnaded pal aes trae
3
as the terminati on. The
main axis through the Ji'igidarium connected it to a
large natalia (swimming pool) as a termination.
The bath chambers were enclosed with cross
vaulting res ting on huge columns, which formed
a succession of canopies, further enhancing the
third dimension. The spatial sequences were most
strongly developed in the two horizontal direc
tions of the main axis and its cross-axis, and the
THE NATATIO (SW IMMING POOL) OF
THE BATHS OF CARACALLA, ROME,
ITALY, A.D. 211-217.
Open to (he sky, the natatioformed a
iWllen from th e su ltry climate.
Photograph by J ohn Kurlich.
participant could always view the spaces beyond,
richly articulated with the vaulting, colonnades,
mosaic surfaces, and shimmering pools of water.
lL REDENTORE, VENICE
Andrea Palladio (150 - 1580) studied the remains
of the baths of Rome, part icularly the Baths of
Caracalla; from these studi es he drew reconstruc
ti ons of the baths, which would influence him in
his design of II Redentore (1577-1592), Venice.
At the time Palladio designed this church, there
was much vacill ation bet ween the centrally
pl anned churches that Renaissance architects fa
vored and the more traditional longitudinally
planned churches from the medieval period pre
ferred by the clergy. Palladio combined the two
plan types because this particular church had to
accommodate three activiti es that were somewhat
independent of each other: a choir space for mo
nasti c functions, a central space (called the tribune)
for votive activities, and the nave and adjoining
chapels for congregational functions . The central
altar, located in the tribune, had to be visible from
all par ts of the space. A spatial separation between
the tribune and nave/ chapels was achieved by nar
rowing the nave with piers as it connected to the
'.
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ter.
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s of
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I '
_ SECTION OF IL
-:il) ENTORE, VENICE, [TAL Y. ANDREA
P .\ LLADlO, 1577-1592.
Light entering alollg the nave chapels, at
ihe ceiling vault and around the central
L' me, extended the three dimensional
_F.jiiai experience !Jertica ll y. Co urtesy
-The Art Institut e of Chicago.
"\

PLAN OF IL REDENTORE, VENICE,
ITALY. ANDREA PALLADIO, 1577
1592.
This plan illustrates three disti,l({
spa ces: a longitudin al nave with adjacent
chapels, the dom ed tribune containing
the altar, and the choir space. Courtesy
of The Art Institute 0.[ Chicago,
THE NAVE, IL REDENTORE, VENICE,
ITALY. ANDREA PALLADIO, 1577
1592.
Palladio adapted the basilican form for
the church's nave to accommodate the
processional needs ofthe worshippers.
tribune. The boundary of the choir, located be
hind the altar, was defmed by a hemicycle of col
umns, which created a screen trans parent to light
and sound but provided the monks with some
visual privacy.
Palladio solved the spatial requirements by
joining independent shapes together as an axial
sequence of spaces not unlike the ancient Roman
baths. The rectangular nave was similar to the
frigidarium, the centralized tribune was like the tep
idarium, and the choir akin to the calidarium. The
spatial boundaries of each (the piers between the
nave and tribune and the columnar screen be
tween the tribune and choir) contributed a strong
sense of the third dimension as one could view the
entire spatial sequence anywhere along the route
and see the spaces beyond through their bounda
ries. Palladio used Roman vaulting techniques,
which further emphasized a three-dimensional de
velopment of plastic wall masses penetrated by
arched niches for light.
EXTENSION OF SPACE BEYOND
THE ENCLOSURE
A greater sense of three-dimensional space can be
achi eved by extension of space beyond the enclosure.
By extending elements, implying encl os ure, and
forming focal points, grand three dimensional
vistas can be formed.
VILLA ALMERICO-VALMARANA
(LA ROTONDA), VICENZA
Andrea Palladio (1508-1580) exploited this idea in
several of his villas for wealthy landowners. His
famous Villa Almerico-Valmarana (La Rotonda)
(1565-1566, 1569) was sited at the crest of a hill
overlooking the owner' s land . The symmetrical
plan was organized around a central dome with
two identical axes radiating from this center.
These axes are physically expressed as halls lead
FROM ONE OF THE PORCHES OF
- - : I L L ~ ALMERICO- V ALMARANA
_ ROTONDA), VICENZA, ITALY .
B PALLADIO, 156511566-1 569.
It' l l ' ji-ames the mail1 access to (he
-"",1111 th e city. PhotoJiraph by John
~ - ~ J .
_,!D b
'osure.
" and
,10nal
lea in
,. His
onda)
a hill
!trical
with
enter.
lead-
THE VILLA ALMERI CO-VALMARANA
(LA ROTONDA), VI CENZA, ITALY.
ANDREA PALLADIO, 1565/1566-1569.
Respondillg to nwgl1i)icent views Jar the
hilltop site, Palladio designed a
symmetrical villa with four identical
porticoes to celebrate th e vistas.
Photograph by John Kurt/eli.
THE THIRD DIMENSION: NAVIGATION OF SPACE 7 1
ing to four porticoes facing north, south, east , and THE BRICK COUNTRY HOUSE
west. Colonnades on these porches framed the
view, thereby establishing a grand foreground to Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886-1969) designed
the expansive vista defmed by land forms , walls, a project in 1924, the main feature of which was
sculpture, buildings, and landscape . the extension of space beyond the formal enclo
.
1T:i -
GROUND FLOOR PLAN OF BRICK
COUNTRY HouSE BY LUDWIG MIES
VAN DER ROHE, 1924.
The plan illustrates how the use and
placement oj three long walls [lisually
borrowed outside space, the
normal col1strairll Soj inside to outside.
Collection, The oj Modern
Art, New York. Gift oj the architect.
sure-the Brick Country House. This proj ect w as
never executed , but it represented Mies' s explo
ned
ration into spatial definition, which was both lin
~ v a s
ea r and plastic. The nucleus of the house was
clo
made up of a series of spaces, defi ned by orthog
onal brick wall s, but partiall y open to each other
co all ow a continuous flow of movement. His
spaces, instead of being definite " rooms," actuall y
melted one into the other. The viewer, moving
chrough this spatial conti nuum, could experience
three-dimensional dissolves as no movie fd m
ould emulate. The fl ow of space extended out
\\ard into the lands cape, guided by three long
\nlls that dynamically claimed the ext erior vist as
as part of the three-dimensional composition.
G ERMAN P AVILION, BARCELONA, SPAIN
\I1ies's German Pa vili on, Barcelona, Spain,
1929), achieved in real ity what he theorized in hi s
Bnck Count ry House proj ect. Built as the Ger
man government 's contributi on to the Barcelona
International Exposition, it represented a new cul
mination of open spa ce planning. Constructed in
:he rich and noble materials of Roman tra vertine,
green Tinian marble, Moroccan onyx dode, gray
tinted glass , and chromium-plated steel columns,
the pavili on realized the vibrant and dynamic
three-dimensional extensi on from enclosure to
beyond. Mies trans cended the influences of Theo
van Doesburg's de Stij l paintings (s uch as
"Rhythm of a Russian Dance, " 1918) and Frank
Lloyd Wri ght's Prairie house open plans (such as
the Robie House, Chicago, 1909).
Visitors had to move through the pa vilion to
appreciate the concept of spa tial con tinuum fr om
outside to inside to outside. The j ourney through
the building required participants to change direc
ti on a number of cimes, exposing them to shifting
vistas that reinforced the three-dimensional spatial
extensions. The flo wing space was further em
phasized by refl ections from the polished marble
planes, the glass surfaces, the shiny columns, the
luxuriant colors, and the rippling wa ter of the
black-glass-lined pool. Since the structure was ac
tually supported by the steel columns, the wall
pl anes were totall y free to defll1e space as gliding
and floating geometric planes, partially enclosing,
partially revealing surpnses as one moved
through the eloquent complex.
FLOOR PLAN Of THE GERMA N
P AVILIO N, BARCELONA, SPA IN.
LUDWIG MIES V AN DER ROHE, 1928
1929.
Positioned all a ra ised IralJerlille plinlli,
topped by a fiat roo}; the as)' l/Il/1elrical
.freestanding walls appear 10 glide past
each other, crealingfiuid sp ace.
Collection, Th e Museum of Modem
Art, New York. Gift oIthe archil eet.
THE THIRD DIMENSION: NAVI GATION OF SPACE 73
INTERI O R VIEW OF THE GERMA N
PAVILION, BARCELONA, SPAIN.
LUDWIG MIES VAN DE R ROHE, 1928
1929. RESTORED BY C IllSTJ AN CIRI CI,
FERNANDO RAMOS, AND IGNASI DE
SOLA-MoRALES, 1986.
UsinJZ the sain e sumptuous materials 017
the interior alld exterior adds to the
sensat ion space.
Photogl'aph by Don Kala.
74 INTERIon ARCHITECTURE
KNOLL [NTERNATJONAL S HOWROOM,
PARIS, FRAN CE. CHA RL ES PFISTER,
1989.
Th e mirrored steps illvite the lJisiror to
experience the sensation of beinx
.fragmented in space. Photograph by
John KHrti ch.
...-
KNOLL INTERNATIONAL SHOWROOM,
P.\ RIS, FRANCE
The Knoll Interna tiona I Showroom (1989) in
Pa ris, France, designed by Charles Pftster (1939
: 90) is an exciting use of reflective materials to
exaggerate the perception of interior space. Mir
rors provide not onl y the illusion of more space
:han actually exists but also the visual fabrication
of interlocking space that continually confronts
.m d surprises the visitor. This amounts to the vir
: ual extension of space beyond the enclosure.
Knoll is located in a narrow building on the BOll
:evard Saint Germain. PfIster decided to manipu
~ a t e reflection to not only perceptibly widen and
deepen the existing space but to develop a strong
[hree-dimensional sense of space as one penetrates
[he showroom. The main entrance envelops the
\' isitor within the oversized window display, de
:ined by floor-to-ceiling glass on the street wall,
:o rming a corner, and floor-to-ceiling mirrors on
~ h e wall to the left of the displa y space, doubling
:(s apparent size. Molded chair torsos are SllS-
ROOM,
f ER,
iro!' to
by
pended at random heights in the window display,
appearing as giant, curved color chips, which im
mediately announce Knoll's available color spec
trum. One is able to walk through and about this
room-size window display for closer inspection
of any sample.
The receptionist's station divides the initial
entr y space from the main body of the show
room, where various groupings of Knoll's furni
ture are exhibited. The main space is molded into
subareas by wall partitions that appear as two
dimensional cutouts of evenly stepped panels.
These di viders create stunning spatial apparitions
through a combination of their geometry and
their highly reflective surface treatment. A mix
ture of mirrors and reflective black surfaces clad
the partitions. Some of these partitions join to
form inside corners of multiple reflections, which
fool the eye, confusing the actual boundaries.
Concealed behind one of the stepped walls is
the stairway to the second floor. The cutout
"steps" of the partition match the measurements
of the risers and treads of the stairs, establishing
THE THI RD DIMENSI ON: NAVIGATI ON OF SPACE 75
geometric unity. Pfister has carpeted the treads,
but mirrored the risers, so that people ascending
are faced with horizontal strips of their reflected
body images, each slice presenting an increasingly
smaller body reflection. There is no way to avoid
seeing this spatial disto.rtion of oneself while as
cending, short of a blindfold. The experience,
however, is a fascinating lesson in mirror optics,
which greatly enhances the three-dimensional po
tential of the common stair.
In a very small basement space, Knoll's fabric
sample room and "vault," is fully exploited by
mirrors. By cladding almost every surface with
mirrors except the floor, the "barbershop effect"
comes into full force, creating horizontal spatial
infinity as one both traverses the stair and occu
pies the samples room.
INTERLOCKING FORM AND SPACE
ROBIE HOUSE, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959) was the master
of interlocking form and space . He developed
through his Prairie houses a spatial freedom that
continuously interlocked with the form needed to
defIne it. Generally the Prairie house radiated out
ward from a powerful, central masonry hearth,
which anchored the plan. By establishing a verti
cal element of strength and solidity in the form of
a hearth, the rest of the house could be freely
opened to extend into the landscape. His interiors
became a series of interlocking spaces, without
doors, separated by skillfully contrived vistas
through the use of freestanding walls, built-in fur
niture, variations in ceiling heights, changes in
floor levels, unexpected light sources, controlled
glimpses of outdoor landscape, and dramatic use
of building materials. The flow of space in terms
of its ability to interlock throughout was the most
intriguing feature.
Wright generally used a larger space as a cen
tralizing element, usually a two-story li ving room
that also highlighted the verticality and strength
of the central masonry hearth. From this space,
various wings of the house extended in all direc
tions. One was not only aware of the way in
which the interior flowed through these wings,
but also how the space flowed beyond them to the
outside, interlocking with the landscape through
cantilevered, horizontal roof planes; extensive,
multileveled terraces; and linear para pets that both
linked and subdivided the exterior space to inter
mingle brilliantly with the house itself.
Wright's Robie House, Chicago, Illinois
(1909), represents the epitome of his Prairie
houses. The exterior south facade, along Fifty
Eighth Street, is a composition of ribbon win
dows, floating roofs, horizontal masonry masses
anchored to short upright masonry posts, and the
vertical accent of the centralized hearth. A highly
three-dimensional quality dominates the facade
by the resulting solids and voids created by the
linear balconies, ca ntilevered roofs, ribbon win
dows, and vertical accents.
Wright employed visual refinements to em
phasize the horizontal nature of the house. The
living and dining room balcony running most of
the length of the south facade is actually sup
ported by metal beams cantilevered at prescribed
intervals from the interior floor. By capping the
brick parapet above and below with stone, he cre
ated the effect of a giant brick bridge spanning
between the two end vertical brick posts. The bal
cony's overhang puts the ground floor below into
shadow, as do the horizontal roof overhangs cast
ing strong shadows on the ribbon windows
above.
The living and dining portion of the hOllse is
located one flight of stairs above the entry ground
level, recalling the traditional Italian piaI/O nobile.
The rooms of the ground floor have low ceilings
and are relatively dark, encoura ging those enter
ing the house to immediately ascend a staircase;
this vertical shaft of interlocking circulation space
uses the contrast of light differential to dramatize
movement from darkness to light. The spatial
complex of the piano nobile was made unconven
tional by the way Wright bonded the living room
to the dining room, separated by a central hearth,
which was punctuated to allow the two spaces to
interlock and flow together. The boundaries of
both rooms, made up primarily of windows,
glazed doors, and thin screens, create a sense of
IgS,
the
Jgh
lye,
loth
ter
11 0 15
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lfty
WIn
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i t he
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; the
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em
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u tize
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.

......."....:
i :.
'. C'
?-RST FLOOR PLA N, R OBIE H OUSE,
;:!-I ICAGO, ILLINOIS. FRANK LLOYD
RIGHT, 1909.
one plan shoHJS that the only spatial
'l terruption between the dining and
.f'ing space is provided by a stair }iwn
.' e ground fioor, and a }ireplace.
C,," rt esy oj Th e A rt insfitut e oj
Ch icago.
I'
I'
I
I,
i:
JJ
I i
,j
S OUTH FACADE OF THE R OBIE H OUSE,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. FRANK LLOYD
WRIGHT, 1909.
The emphasis of this Jacade promotes
horizontality, Jrom the strong
cantilevered rooJJorms to the long,
continuous lines oj capping on the brick
masonry to the highlighting oj the
horizontal mortared joints ofthe brick.
Photograph by John Kuytich .
T HE THIRD DIMENSION: NAVIGATION OF SPACE 77
lightness and openness. Built-in furniture further
underlines the three-dimensional interlocking of
space and form. The dining room sideboard, built
into the north wall, is a kind of miniature reflec
tion of the south elevation of the house itself.
Cantilevered elements combine \yith the post
and-beam bridge effect of the exterior facade. The
free-standing dining room table with its corner
light fixtures and high-backed chairs complete the
extraordinary three-dimensional composition (see
Chapter 7 for further discussion of the Robie
House dining room furniture).
SCHRODER HOUSE, UTRECHT,
NETHERLANDS
The Dutch movement known as De Stijl (The
Style) (1917-1931) had a significant impact on the
concept of interlocking space. (See Chapter 7 for
SOUTHEAST FACADE OFTHE
SCHROEDER HOUSE, UTRECHT, THE
NETHERLANDS. GERRlT RIETVELD ,
1923. RESTORED BY BERTUS MULDER,
1974-1987.
The irllersecting planes which create this
house produce a very flexibl e system of
interlocking spaces within th e interior.
Photograph by DO /1 Kala.

iscussion of this movement and the furnitur e it
roduced. ) Gerrit Ri etveld (1888-1964) used the
Li near, planar, and color theories of De Stijl to pro
duce a variable, interlocking spati al continuum
:or the interior of his masterpiece, the Schroder
House, Utrecht, N etherlands (1924). The first
rt oor was designed with only two fi xed spaces:,
(T he
:he bathroom and the stafrs\ The interior that re
n the
mained could be turned into's mailer spatial units
7 for
. \' sliding panels . These flexibl e panels allowed
lor numerous spatial arrangement s, actually over
la pping or int erlocking one space with another.
This integration of variable space was further
amplified by built-in furniture that did not respect
THE !igid boundari es . The floating quality of the lines
.D, and planes were enhanced by design devices that
JLDER,
1te thi s
W I of
rio r.
PLAN Of TH[ GROUND fLOORS OF
13 "'i LINCOLN'S INN FIELD S. t"
ASEXJ5TINC ABOUT THE YEAR n537.
10 0 10 1:-.0 . 30 so 60 "CCT.
TO 8A!. E. Mf: NT TO 0"ICC
visually reduced any rigid spatial definiti ons of
corners. Primary-colored planes were meant to
provide a continuous experience of color in space,
and as these planes defined spaces within, the re
sulting composition was not restricted by the
basic shell of the house but actually penetrated the
exterior skin and extended the notion of inter
locking space to the exterior world.
SPATIAL INTERPOSITION
SOANE HOUSE, LONDON, ENGLAND
When an interior complex is made up of a series
or sequence of spaces that overlap in such a way
that one space partiall y blocks the view into the
GROUND FLOOR PLAN , SIR JOHN
SOANE RESIDENCE, LI NCOLN'S INN
FIELDS, L ONDON, ENGLAND. S IR
JOHN SOANE, 1837.
Through the device of interposition,
Soane made his rather small inferiors
seem much b(f?ger than they actually
were. Courtes), of Th e Art Ins fitute of
<--1;-02--> --. - 18 12--- X --f0 ...Q -->
Chicago.
THE THIRD DIMENSION: NAVIGATION OF SPACE 79
next, spatial interposit ion exists. A very strong
three-dimensi onal situation can be established
through this arrangement , particularly if the
spaces extend both horizontally and verticall y.
The master of spati al interposition was Sir John
Soane (1753-1837) , as used in his London house
begun in 1792, additions in 1812 and 1824; see
C hapter 1 for material on Soane's
\
The spaces that Soane achieved are intri guing
three-dimensional sequences that lead one
rhrough his house on a seemingly neve r-ending
path of self-discovery. Spaces beyond full view
produce an air of mystery and drama. Soane ma
nipulated the scale of such interpositioned spaces
so that some mi ght be ent ered but others might
be a source of light only. Many of his interiors
\\'ere variations of spati al interposition, such as
the Breakfast Parlour (s ee discussi on later in this
chapt er), the Pi cture Room (see Chapter 1), and
he Dome or Plaister Room and its adjacent
spaces.
The dome actually is not a true dome but a
-:-o nstruction risi ng three stories made of penden
ri ves changing a square space to a circle at the top,
which is covered by a coni cal skylight. Soane pur
sued the 114m/ere mysferieuse by partially illuminat
ing the space by daylight from above and partly
-rom a hidden lamp behind a cornice fragment.
D OME ROOM, SIR JOHN SOANE
R ESIDENCE, LINCOLN'S INN FIELDS,
LONDON, ENGLAND. SIR JOHN
SOANE, 1812.
Til is pa rt of Soan e)s house was the
r<,.<pasitory for most ofh is plaster casts,
and actual
.lII tiquities . Th e orchestration of the
:pace and the way it is illuminated
the third dimensi on.
Ent ering the dome space on the ground floor level
from the east ern part of the house, one tra verses a
colonnaded space on axis with the Dome Room,
the floor and ceiling of which both disappear dra
matically. Besides the spaces beyond in the ve rti
cal, various spaces are interposed in the hori zontal
behind columns and the mammoth collection of
plaster cast s of statues , ar chitectural fragments,
urns, and medallions. The spatial intrigue is fur
ther enhanced by various degrees of lighti ng that
additionally emphasize the three-dimensional
quality of the object-loaded walls and piers. One
can always look through to space beyond many
indi vidual objects, both hori zontall y and verti
ca ll y. In unexpected places, corridorlike subsid
iary spaces will soar vertically and disappear
horizontally above the viewer's sight. Li ghting,
again, through hidden skyli ghts and lamps, ac
cents these spatial deviations.
NEUE STAATSGALERIE,
STUTTGART, GERMANY
Soane's hou se is a fascinating example of interpo
sition of space at an intimate residential scale. In
large publi c complexes, this same three-dimen
sional tool can be magnifIed to produce similar
intriguing spatial sequences. The N eue Staatsgal
erie, Stutt gar t, Germany, (1984) by James Ster
ling (1929- ) is just such a coll age of grand
spaces, punctuated with metaphorical references.
The museum is organized around a heart space
reminiscent of the anci ent Colosseum, Rome.
The round, three-story open-air volume is de
fmed by stone-patte rned walls. The public space
is accessed by three distinct approaches : a centrif
ugal ramp linking two parallel city streets, an
axial staircase connecting a gallery terrace, and a
sunken temple portal joining the lobby below. By
placing the temple in an "excavated" posi ti on,
Sterling has made a unique interposition of a his
toric symbol with the ground plane. The temple,
surrounded by the grea t space, becomes a direct
metaphor, referencing ancient Rome.
Various openings in the "colosseum" wall
frame views of spaces beyond, interposed by frag-
THE THIRD DIMENSION: NAVIGATION OF SPACE 8r
DET.\IL OF CIRCULAR COURT WALL,
'n:E ST.BT GALARIE, STUTTGART,
G 'Y STIRLING, 1984.
- 1 pr PlI.'t5 illf rigll illg spnlial
t.,--pmo'{ : bt yLl ll d if; fo rll1 aI
!.nes. Phlll(l,erapli by John
. 'hr./-/1.
CI Cl'L\R COt.: RT, NEUE
ST.\.\TSG.\URIE. STUTTGART,
. .I-\.\l E5 S TIRLING, 1984.
T he lJ :.,-ul.n COl-lrl , rejere11Cing
imprn; 1 R, mI'. has unexpected punched
ol/r lelld U'5 !l'hich allow glimpses into
space:" 'Ill, 1/5illg th e device of
illferposn PI ro enhance the three
dilll ellSk"',1. experiem f. Ph otograph by
Johll Kllmclr.
T,
(Ourt
:-nents of unrelated forms. The contrasting geom
etry of these forms is successfully conveyed as
of the museum complex due to the
of color and materials. This effective use of
spatial interposition encourages the visitor to ex
::l lore, creates mystery, heightens experience
:hrough metaphor, and establishes a dialogue
I.\-ith the various three-dimensional components
of this fascinating architectural achievement.
DYNAMIC TENSION THROUGH
C OMPRESSION AND E XPANSION
1984.
The placement of objects, patterns, or forms in
Icing
opposition or contrast to each other creates a dy
d pllnched
'il1 mic tension within Interior Architecture. Ele
Ip ses into
:nents with a directional quality placed in contrast
oj
co a static enclosure can infuse energy and drama.
ree
graph by
The implied energy can be manipulated to excite
or surprise the perceiver while giving directional
cues or emphasis to elements in space. Directional
cues can clarify circulation, making navigation
through space more comprehensible. Strong em
phasis on elements in space can be achieved
through contrasting the static with the dynamic.
Michelangelo (1475-1564) was a master of the use
of dynamic tension.
CAPITOLINE HILL, ROME, ITAL Y
On the Capitoline Hill, Rome (1538-1546), Mi
chelangelo (1475-1564) planned a trio of build
ings to form a piazza intended to be the heart of
the city. The space is entered by ascending a mon
umental set of steep stairs to the summit of a hill
overlooking Rome. The perceiver is received in a
trapezoidal piazza defmed by three palaces sym
metrically placed. The main building, Palazzo del
Senatore (completed 1600) terminates the axis ap
proach. Palazzo dei Conservatori (1564-1568) and
Palazzo N uovo (1644-1655) flank the axis and
IHE THIRD DIMENSION: NAVIGATION OF SPACE 83
.... ----
frame the main building by widening toward the
dominant facade forming a wedge-shaped space.
The nonparallel buildings compress the piazza and
emphasize the main building.
The wedge-shaped piazza is contrasted by an
oval mound with a Roman equestrian statue of
Marcus Aurelius at its center. The expansive oval
PIAZZA DEL CAMPIDOGLIO,
CAPITOLI NE HILL, ROME, ITALY.
MICHELANGELO, 1538 ONWARD.
Raw energy eXHdes Jrom Michelangelo's
ingenious resolHtion to a diffiwll
coordination ojdivergent bHilding
JTagmel1ls and leftover space. Photograph
by John Kurlich.
form is further accentuated by a star-shaped radial
pattern in granite cobbles and travertine pavers.
The juxtaposition of converging buildings sur
rounding an expanding oval piazza causes a dy
namic tension in the space. This subtle tension
forms the special character of Michelangelo's
composition for the heart of Rome.
(.
I.
Ingelo's
I{ograph
d radial
pavers.
gs sur
s a dy
tenSlOn
mgelo's
__-\ C RENTIAN LIBRARY, FLORENCE
_!"! Fl orence, at the Laurentian Library (1523
located in the cloister of San Lorenzo, Mi
:helangelo (1475-1564) shows more evidence of
ills control of dynamic tension to define three
':i mensional spaces. The library was originall y
:: anned to be three distinct parts: a dramatic ves
a tranquil reading room, and a va ultlike
-:re books room (unexecuted). The three rooms
- re to contrast sharply in shape and articulation
reinforce their purposes. The vestibule is
.::uare in plan, the reading room rectangular, and
.... e rare books room was planned to be triangular.
The tall square vestibule contains a large
-:1onumental stair that leads to the reading room.
-=-: _e stair spills from the entrance of the reading
-00m with a robust exaggeration of forms split
!1 into three stairs at the landing. The stair fdls
--: room, creating a strong directional quality in
-ont rast to the nondirectional square room. Mi
- _cl angelo accentuated the tensi on between the
___ -los ure and stair by positioning the entrance to
-,e room at ninety degrees to the directional
-_fUSt, thereby avoiding the obvious entry point
-: axis with the energetic stair design. Further
. _!"!s ion is introduced in the room by the treatment
:- he elaborate walls. Paired columns supported
" rather weak volu te brackets are recessed be
, en the plaster walls, giving the impression of
__ at compression in contrast to the expansive
. .li r. The overall scheme is unorthodox, forming
"leasy spatial relationships that create a space one
lots to move through quickly. The purpose of
-:- t ransition space is to establish a prelude expe
:-nce of tension and compression in contrast to
-: restful and sedate reading room.

E:::::::l

1

1 r I

E'

PLAN OF LAURENTIAN LIBRARY, W ITH
UNBUILT PROJECT FOR RARE-BOOK
STUDY, FLORENCE, IT AL Y.
MICHELANGELO, 1523-1559.
This is a hypothetical reconstruction of
Michelangelo's original scheme for the
library: a sqllare vestibule with
dominating stail's, a long, rectilinear,
quiet reading room, and a trianJ?ulal' rare
books room. Drawing by Garret Eakin.
PERSPECTIVE
TROMPE L'OEIL PAINTING A perspective
drawing gives the illusion of depth and distance.
This pictorial phenomenon provides the viewer
with a strong sense of three-dimensional space.
Evidence, such as fresco paintings found in the
House of the Vetti, Pompeii (first century A.D.),
indicates that the ancient world understood the
principle of linear perspective. During the Italian
ARCHITECTURAL FRESCOES, HOUSE OF
VETTII, POMPEII, ITALY, A,D. FIRST
CENTURY,
A number ofarchitecturallJistas halJe
been di scovered in wall frescoes from
Pompeii which illustrate the Romans'
knowledge oJ linear perspective,
Photograph by John Kurtich,
\ -ESTlBLLE .\ .' D STAIRWAY,
LU':RE.' T IA:-; LIBRARY, FLORENCE,
IT_Uy. :vt ICHElANGElO, 1524-1533.
The suirs dominate a space which seems
roo smal! ro colliain them. The structural
e1emems 0 11 Ihe walls seem to reverse
rheir tloYllla l roles-wall panels and
lIi ehe ja/il es wll/ch should be passilJe
crowd and co mpress the columns and
brae 'et5 which should be dominant in
their stmccll ra l roles . Alinaril Art
Resollree, .'ew York.
Renaissance, perspecci ve held a special fascination
for artists because it allowed them to explore the
possibilities of portraYIng three-dimensional
space realistically in their art. Two prominent
Florentine archi tects, Filippo B runelleschi (1377
1446) and Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) had
a profound impact on the development of linear
perspective in the early fifteenth century. Brunel
leschi's unique public perspective demonstration,
"Peepshows," and Alberti's book, Della Pitura,
:E,
533.
r seems
'uetura l

nd
;ive
lI1d
'rt in
ination
ore the
nsional
minent
(1377
72) had
f linear
Brunel
tration,
Pitura ,
P ERSPECTI VE DRAWING BY
-EBASTI ANO S ERLIO FROM LIBR O
PR J.110. ITALI AN EDITIO N, 1566.
Italian Renaissance marked the
, di scovery oj linear perspective,
_l(ollrag ing mal1Y books an d treatises,
. ..-II as Serlio's, to expMlIld and explail1
. I' "londers oj this method oj
.-,press ioll . Courtesy oj Th e A rt
: L, tiHile oJ Chi cago.
"\Tit ten in 1435, detailing t he principles of per
provided rich stim uli that encouraged
_,l ists to experi ment with this scienti flc tech
"Li que. Such exploration sent artists in new direc
-:;, ons, with many designers focu sing on the
: :-eation of illusionar y space, not onl y in painting
2ut also in architecture.
PERSPECTI VE DRAWING BY DANIELLO
BARBARO FROM LA PRATlCA DELLA
PERSPETTlVA D! M ONSIGNOR D ANIEL
B ARBARO, ITALI AN EDITI ON, 1568.
Various meci1allieal devices were
invenred during the ReI1a issallce and
yea rs to and make
more accurate drawings with /i near
perspective. Courtesy o/The Art
Insti tute oJ Chi cago .
Al so as a res ult of thi s experimentation, sev
eral devices were developed to aid the artist in the
ques t for pi ctori al accuracy. The mirror is one of
the most basi c optical instrument s. Flemi sh artists
were known to have used mirrors to illustrate in
teri ors. 4 Another drawing machine used a single
pane of glass, taking Alberti 's deflniti on of the
picture pl ane as a window literally. 5 A more so
phisticated device used a pane of glass wi th verti
cal and horizontal lines, forming a grid.
6
The
most complicated drawing apparatus was the
ca mera obscura, which became a popular drawing
machine by the mid-sixteenth centur y. 7
Trompe l'oeil painting reached a hi gh level
of sophistication during the Renaissance, where it
became a crucial fa ctor in creating successful illu
sionary space. T aking full advantage of the sym
bioti c rel ationship bet ween perspecti ve and
trompe l'oeil, artists were abl e to extend beyond
the traditional enclosure of architecture, literally
exploding the shell illusionisticall y. (See Chapter
4 for further discussion of trompe l' oeil as an ele
ment of t he fo urth dimension.)
THE THIRD DI MENSION: NAVIGA n ON OF SPACE 87
- -
- ~ ~ - ' ~ =
-
--=- .
1",'
- - ~ -
- : ! ' ~ . -
i
1-
.--r
---
PERSPECTIVE DRAWING BY GIACOMO
VIGNOLA FROM LE DUE
REG OLE DELLA PROSPETTIVA PRA TICA
DI M. JACOMQ-BilROZZI DA VIGNOLA.
In LIAN EDItION, 1611.
5,ll1le "dl'awiilg l1lachines" wel'e IJery
;" il/ plex alld cull/bersomf', bllt the ability
',' do proper linear perspectilJe became de
ril!l lellr by the beginning oj the sixteenth
:<'11 til ry . COllrlc_,y of The Art iwtitllte
.' . Chicago.
\ -IEW OF ALTAR AND FALSE CHOIR,
. MARIA PRESSO S. SATIRO, MILAN,
In L Y. DONATO BRAMANTE, 1482
PLAN OF S. MARIA PRESSO S. SATIRO,
i 494.
MILAN, [TAL Y. DONATO BRAMANTE,
Bramante employed [he Renaissance
1482-1494.
F.l inter's new knowledge oj the laws of
The pial! showl Bramante's gel/illS in
" 'lear perspectil!e and translated them
trallslatin,Q the laws ofperspectil!c illto
"ro till'ee dimensional al'chitectllral
an architectural soilition which coliid
:,lil ltions. Photosraph by Thomas Lellll.
Ol!ercome the lill1itatiolls of the site. The
dotted choir on the plall represents the
illusionistic depth throllgh trompe l'oeil
if the obserller stands at point "a."
Drawing by calTct Eakin, after Ri/iello
E. Strada, 1884.
S. MARIA PRESSO S. SATIRO,
MILAN, ITALY
The Renaissance architect and painter, Donato
Bramante (1444-1514), was highly influenced by
perspective and its illusionistic qualities. He ap

plied his extensive knowledge of perspective to
the expansion of the church of S. Maria presso S.
Satiro, Milan, Italy (1482-1492). Challenged by a
site condition that would not allow enough space
to accommodate a cruciform plan, Bramante
completed the shape of his structure through illu-
J
3
sion. The cruciform plan was changed to a T
shape, giving up the choir beyond the altar. The
viewer does not detect the plan substitution until
very close to the altar, because from a distance the
choir is perceived as having useable depth. In fact,
the choir is approximately six feet deep. The illu
sion of the choir is created by steeply raking down
the entablature and capitals, rendering the surfaces
in three-dimensional trompe l'oeil. By manipulat
ing architectural details and painting technique to
achieve illusionary space, Bramante brilliantly
turned the church's limitation into a positive ar
chitectural feature.
TEATRO OU .\lPICO. nCE NZA, ITALY
In the Teat ro O lim ico. icenza, Italy, (1580), by
Andre Pall adio 1- - 1.:>80), accelerated perspec
tive was used to create unexpected three-dimen
sional effects. The x[erior of the building does
not offer any clu [Q i[ dramatic interior. Pal
ladio patterned hi de ign in the Greco-Roman
tradition. The em.icircular auditorium encom
passes thirteen ti er of seats that have unimpeded
views of the tage. Though the proscenium is
richly festooned \\' i[h can' ed statuary, the audi
ence' s attention i immediately directed to the frve
ELEV A nON OF THE SCENAE FRONS,
TEATRO OUMPICO, VICENZA, ITALY.
ANDREA PALLADIO, 1580. DRAWN BY
OCTAVE BERTOTTI SCAMOZZI FROM
THE ITALIAN (ROSSI) EDITION, 1796.
The elevation reveals the differences
between the fiat Jacade and the one-point
perspectives oj the "streets." Courtesy oj
The Art Institute oj Chicago .
TRANSVERSE SECTI ON, TEATRO
OLiMPICO, VI CENZA, iTALY. ANDREA
PALLADIO, 1580. DRAWN BY O CTAVE
BERTOTTI S CAMOZZI FROM THE
iTALIAN (ROSSI) EDITION, 1796.
The transverse section reveals the
amount oj physical compression
l1ecessary to achiC/le the forced
perspective withit? the given backstage
space. Courtesy oj Th e Art Institute oj
Chicago.
f
\
' ~
- ~ "
_ . _ ~ _ _ _ ..!-_ ----2 __. ___
9 0 INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
- - -- -
}
I
I
)), by
's pec
men-
does
Pal
oman
lcom
peded
um IS
audi
le five
s

-
I
t
,
L
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--+
'\" i , / / .,.1'-..,
. ~ L.,// / ~
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\ . ' \ ~
.., "
..,
/4// "
c=
J ~ __
P ' c
: j
-, ..,
~
_'-!I.., e.
P LAN, TEATRO OUMPICO, VI CENZA,
ITALY. ANDREA PALLADIO, 1580.
D RAWN BY OCTAVE BERTOTTI
S CENAE FRONS, TEATRO OUMPI CO,
CAMOZZI FROM THE ITALIAN ( ROSSI)
VI CENZA, I TALY. ANDREA PALLADIO,
EDITION, 1796.
1580.
Til e plall reveals rhe "srreer" angles and
Th e stage ofthis theatre is very three
b,/ckstage spa ce required to achieve the
dimensional not only ill its perspeaive
desired forced perspectiue. CNIItesyof
ci ty "streel s," but also ill its richly
The Art Institut e of Chicago.
carved facade. Photograph by Johll
Kurtich .
-
~ ---
openings that lead to the background street per
spectives of "The Ideal City." Vincenzo Scamozzi
(1552-1616) is usually credited for designing the
extraordinary backstage, which creates the illu
sion of a three-dimensional cityscape. Buildings
and streets were constructed of wood and care
fully painted infaux marbre with stucco decorat ion
adorning the facades to capture a guality of real
ism. To evoke a strong sense of depth, the streets
and facades are raked or inclined, accelerating the
perspective view with proportionally diminishing
architectural details toward the rear of the stage.
GARDEN PERSPECTIVE COLONNADE,
PALAZZO SPADA, ROME, ITALY.
FRANCESCO BORROMINI, 1635.
A woman stands at the entry to
Borromini's garden colonnade, showing
her height as compared to the much
higher barrel vault above. Photograph
by John Kurtich.
GARDEN PERSPECTIVE COLONNADE,
PALAZZO SPADA, ROME, ITALY.
FRANCESCO BORROMINI, 1635.
The same woman stands at the rear of
the garden colonnade . Now she is much
taller and bigger when compared to the
enclosing barrel vault. Photograph by
John Kurtich.
Scamozzi used ~ o l o r and light to further enhance
the three-dimensional impact of his permanent set
design.
PALAZZO SPADA GARDEN, ROME, ITALY
The garden colonnade in the Palazzo Spada,
Rome, Italy, (ca . 1635) by Francesco Borromini
(1599-1667), has the magical guality of a stage
set. While renovating Cardinal Spada's palace,
Borromini managed to transform an ordinary
corridor into a passage that appears to be about
ance four times longer than it is. Using accelerated per UNITED AIRLINES TERMINAL,
t set spective, he developed false cues by continually O'HARE AIRPORT, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
reducing the scale of his architectural elements as
they retreat from the entry in concert with the At the United Airlines Terminal, O'Hare Inter
,Y raking floor and diminishing width. Though vi national Airport, Chicago, Illinois, (1987), Hel
:iually exciting, this kind of three-dimensional en mut Jahn (1940 ) was challenged with
Jada, hancement has its limitations; it requires that one connecting two major aboveground flight con
mmI ,-iew the corridor from a particular fixed position courses. To allow for the maximum passenger
stage U1 order to align the distorted architectural ele gateways, an underground corridor was the ob
llace, ments to appear normal. vious solution. At its narrowest, the tunnel be
mary
lbout
C ONCOURSE TUNNEL, UNITED The combination oj kinesthetic
:". IRUNES TERMINAL, O'HARE mOlJement with exaggerated neon
i 'iTERNATIONAL AIRPORT, CHICAGO, perspectilJe was Jelt necessary to relielJe
! LLINOIS. HELMUT JAHN, 1983-1988. an otherwise boring trip through a lon,g
_ EON SCULPTURE BY MICHAEL tlinnel from aile concollrse to another.
H AYDEN. Photograph by John Kurtich.
- = ---
tween concourses Band C is 52 feet wide, and its
length, including escalators, is 860 feet. By using
backlit , multicolored, serpentine walls, the de
signer effectively altered the user's spatial percep
ti on. The undulating walls along the perimeter
foreshorten the corridor's perspecti ve, making the
space appea r shorter than it actually is.
At the mirrored ceiling, the kinetic neon
sculpture by Michael Ha yden (1943- ) adds to
the illusion by radi ating colors up and down the
tunnel. The color mi x, using warm and cool color
combinati ons, also contributes to the depth dis
tortion. The hori zontal people movers accelerate
the shortened effect. rhe only way to accurately
ga uge the depth of the passage is to walk throug h
it. The combined effect of the curved walls, the
energized ceiling, and the peopl e movers creates a
me chan ized trompe I' oeil-a three-dimensi onal
trompe I' oeil for the twent y-first century.
AEDICULAR DEVELOPMENT
TEMPLE OF BACCHUS,
BAALBEK, LEBANON
Aedicular development creates very strong three
dimens ional space. Aedicula is the Latin word for
a little building. In the classical era, such a little
WEST END OF INTERIOR OF THE
TEMPLE OF BA CCHUS, BAALBEK,
LEBANON, A.D. SECOND CENTURY.
A smaller temple, as the holy of holies,
used to exist on the platfontl d ~ f i n e d by
the wide staircase. Photograph by Jol1l1
Kurti eh.
building was used for symbolic and ceremo11lal
functions.
It was applied to a shrine placed at the In end,
.Iiom the entrance, of a templ e to receive the statue ora
deity-a sort oj architectural canop)' in the )orm of a
rudimentary temple, (o mplete with gable-or, to lise
the classical word, pediment. It was also used for the
shrines-again miniature temples -in which the lares
o.r titl.tlar deiti es oja house or street were presertJedB
An example of a little templ e within a large tem
ple is the so-called Templ e of Bacchus, Baalbek,
Lebanon. This ri chly decorated Roman temple
(second cent ury A.D.) had at the alt ar end of its
interior a broad staircase leading up to a small er
temple structure that housed the statue of the
deity. The little temple was an elabora te canopy
supported by engaged columns that alternated
with shrine-niches for additional statues . From
the preser ved ruins, one can appreciate the pow
erful three-dimensi onal effect this interior com
pl ex commanded.
MOORE HOUSE, ORINDA, CALIFORNIA
Charles Moore (1925- ) used the aedicula as the
spatial organizer of his own hOLlse in Orinda, Cal
ifornia (1962). Thi s nO-square foot single room
nOl1lal
lr end,
!Ie of a
-t ructure, remini scent of both a barn and a Japa
III of a
nese pavilion on the exterior, contains two
to use
(oy the square, unequall y-sized, templelike structures
r lares that define two specific places within the larger
ed.
H
interior. The spatial integrity of each of these in
erior pavilions comes from their similar struc
e tem
ural pattern of four round wooden columns
lalbek,
-upporting a roof canopy that ultimately connects
:cmple
and supports the overall roof structure of the en
of its
house. Each canopy lets in filtered natural
;maller
li ght from above. The larger pavilion houses a
of the
:iying/sitting area whil e the smaller contains a
:anopy
sunken tub with a large, freestanding shower

head. These two aediculae successfully create a
From
-hree-dimensional organization, with strong de
pow
-.-elopment in all three directions (length, width,
r com
and height) in the bathtub pavilion, where the
j oor surface drops down as a depressed vessel and
the overhead within the canopy is bri ght with nat
[A
'J ra llight from above.
1 as the
la, Cal
room
MOORE HOUSE,
NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT
When Moore became the chairman of the Depart
ment of Architecture at Yale University (1965),
he renovated a smalJ nineteenth century frame
house in New Haven, Connecticut, (1966) for
himself by totally transforming its interior with
three vertical tubes or interior towers. These tow
ers beca me an abstracted refinement of his aedi
cular approach to the organization of interior
space. The first tower , called "Howard," 9 con
nected the fir st floor near the main entrance with
Moore's studio and office below in the basement.
Its interior surface was metallic gold and could be
viewed throu gh huge circular cutouts. The sec
ond tower, "Berengaria," 10 was silver on its inte
rior and rose from the living room floor to the
top of the house. A stair wrapping around its ex
terior perimeter allowed one to peer into some of
SHOWER AEDICULA, CHARLES MOORE
HOUSE, ORINDA, CALIFORNIA.
CHARLES MOORE, 1962.
In stea d of separate rooms, Moore
designed his house as a series ofopen
aediwlae. Photograph by Morley Baer.
THE THIRD DIMENSION: NAVI GATION OF SPACE 9S
"
\
ISOMETRIC DIAGRAM, CHARLES
MOORE H OUSE, NEW HAVEN,
CONNECTICUT. CHARLES MOORE,
1966.
!vIoore's development oj interior space
became more three dimensional as he
extended the aedicula concept to include
more th an onejloor at a time. Drawing
by William Ttlrnbull,jr. , FAIA.
"BERENGARIA," CHARLES MOORE
HOUSE, NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.
CHARLES MOORE, 1966.
Thi s aedicular tower was the tallest and
most Jormal oj Moore's spatial
organization as it represented the most
complete opportunity Jor vertical
circulation and overview oj the interior.
Photograph by john Kurtich .
O RE
:CTICUT.
!lest and
Ie most
interior.
its fifteen openings (some glazed, some open, and
ne infilled with leaded stained glass) It was
tOpped with a skylig ht. The final tower,
"" Ethel," 1/ started in the basement where a kitchen
~ n d breakfast area were placed, and rose up along
side the rear of the house, which was generously
glazed for views into the garden and was topped
\\" ith a small skylight These three vertical tubes
\\"e re not only spaces wi thin the larger space of
[he overall house, but spatial connectors, verti
.::ally to floor s above and below, and horizontally
to rooms in all directions on each floor.
MAMA MIA! PASTA , CHICA GO,
ILLINOIS. BANKS/EAKIN, 1984.
Th e ce iling became a// opportunity fa
exploit the localion of this restaurant and
put it wore in context with its
sLllTo/mdillgs. P/wto,(Zraph by Orland"
Ca/Jal1b(lN .
VERTICAL DEVELOPMENT
OF HORIZONTAL PLANES
MAMA MIA! PASTA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
The ceiling is often forgott en as a three-dimen
sional design el ement The complexi ty of con
temporary technologies tends to restrict freedom
of manipul ation of this most import ant spatial
plane. Functional requirements sLlch as sprinkl er
systems, air dist ribution, smoke det ectors, speak-
ers, exit signs, acoustical needs, accessibility, and
lighting all contribute to the diffIculty of crea
tively designing three-dimensional ceilings. Ceil
ing height dictates the relative degree of relief that
a designer may exploit. Interest or subtle relief can
be achieved through surface patterns, color varia
tions, applied textures, or multiple ceiling layers
that become activated by light. More three di
mensionality can be achieved where ceiling
heights permit. Vaulting, ribbing, and coffering
are traditional ways of expressing the ceiling
structure. This technique creates scale and
rhythm. Nonstructural rhythmic expression can
achieve the same effects. For example, the ceiling
of Mama Mia! Pasta, Chicago (Banks/Eakin, ar
chitects, 1984), undulates to relieve and articulate
the long, low dining room. The ceiling design
echoes the adjacent Chicago River as a three-di
mensional metaphor. Organizing and confming
the mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems
on the perimeter of the ceiling allowed a pure
surface without access panels, sprinkler heads, or
diffusers.
ALLEE, GRAND HOTEL,
WASHINGTON, D.C. CHARLES
PFISTER, 1987.
The alice ties together t/,C (irm/ai"
entrance lobby with the (ourtyard,
pUI1(fllatin/<z the axis with added depth
by Llti/izill,Q paircd CO/IIII1I1S to defil1c the
p,omenade. Photograph by Johl1
Kllrti(/z.
GRAND HOTEL, WASHINGTON, D.C.
In the Grand Hotel, Washington, D.C. (1987),
Charles Pfister (1939-1990) had the opportunity
to ensure a lofty ceiling height. Pfister needed
such height to satisfy the client's desire to model
the design after the Plaza Athenee in Paris. The
client realized that he could not duplicate the
Beaux Arts architecture but wanted to capture the
same sense of grandness and elegance. PfIster de
signed an impressive, round, colonnaded lobby,
rich with fine materials and graceful details. The
most striking feature is the ceiling. The multiple
tiered rings of plaster rise to form a dome
crowned by a gold leaf oculus. The oculus is em
phasized by integrating lighting within its coffer.
The rings create a highly sophisticated three-di
mensional effect when various lights cast shadows
across their edges. The classical translation be
comes a stylized and impressive volume.
The lobby is connected on axis via a marble
staircase to a long promenade defined by paired
mahogany columns and a vaulted cove lit ceiling.
1987),
tunit y
eeded
model
'. The
te the
lre the
er de
obby,
i . The
ultiple
dome
is em
coffer.
ree-di
adows
)11 be-
marble
paired
LOBBY. GRA ND H OTEL,
W AS HINGTON, D.C. CHARLES
:eiling.
P FISTER, 1987.
The mirroring ofthe ceiling design to
chefioor is a conceptual continuation of
Robert Adam interiors. Photograph by
)01111 Kurtich.
Adjacent to the allee 12 is the oval-shaped Garden
Room restaurant. This room is also topped by a
stepped rotunda. In this case, the steps are
wrapped generously with gathered fabric, which
softens the space, producing a senuous effect. By
hanging ceiling heights and their finish treat
ment, Pfister has been able to transform his hotel
into an exhilarating three-dimensional space.
TRADING ROOM, STOCK EXCHANGE,
CHI CAGO, ILLINOIS
The Trading Room of the Chicago Stock Ex
change, Chicago, Illinois (1893, reconstructed in
the Art Institute in 1976) by Adler and Sullivan,
is another powerful exampl e of three-dimensional
development. In fact, the designers made the ceil
ing the most dominant focal point of the space.
The walls of the enclosure are comprised of either
doors , windows, or chalk boards encased by ma
hogany wainscoting. While the lower portion of
the room has a very businesslike atmosphere, the
upper third of the walls and ceilings are riotous
with light. color, and pattern. The simple rectan
gular shape of the space and its ceiling is relieved
by the unique ceiling treatment. The ceiling is a
highl y elegant composition of alternating coffers
and beams supported by four gigantic columns.
Art glass panels illuminate the perimeter of the
ceiling. All the solid surfaces are embel lished with
intri ca tely stenciled patterns. The delicacy of the
patterns and the warmth of the colors are also
carried into the design of the art glass as well as
the ventilating grilles. By applying this vibrant
THE THIRD DIMENSION: NA VIGATI ON OF SPACE 99
TRADING ROOM, CHICAGO STO CK
EXCHANGE, CHI CAGO, ILLINOI S.
ADL ER AND SULLIVAN , lS<)4.
RECO NSTRUCTED AT THE ART
INSTITUTE OF CHICAGO, 1<)77.
The perilneter skylight separa tes tile
centraL ceilillS frOIn the traditio/tal 1110li s,
IltakirlJ? a s/,tbtle ce/1tral space dejilled
fronl the large r ouemll
shell, PholosrapiJ by Joll/'I Kllrlic/i.
surface treatment to the entire ceiling, a strong
and cohesive three-dimensional effect was
achieved within the simplest of archit ectural
frameworks. Sullivan's inspired appr oach to this
proj ec t transported a place of day-to-da y business
into the realm of art .
STATE OF ILLINOIS CENTER,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
The floor is probably the most neglected surface
for interior three-dimensional development. Since
the floor is usuall y the main means of circulation,
it is impractical to create a sculptural composition
full of three-dimensional obstacl es , However, this
does not mea n that the floor should be ignored as
a spatial opportunity, H elmut Jahn (1940- ) did
not exclude the floor in hi s vertical expansion of
interior space of the State of Illinoi s Center, Chi
cago, Illinois, (1979). The floor at the street level
is actually a large mezzanine, with a centralized
sublevel restaurant and shop area. A gigantic cut
out is centrally located, revealing a spiralling geo
metric design remini scent of the floors of the
enigmatic tholoi of ancient Greece, such as those
found in Epidaurus or Delphi.
Seen from the top of the building, the pa ttem
of the floor is projected on both levels. Smaller
cutouts ac cent the edges, accommodating vertical
circulation via escalators and elevators. Jahn em
ploys a cascading w aterfall between the entry es
calators to dramatize the descent to the lower
level. The various cutouts allow visitors to survey
two floor levels simultaneously as they move
throug h the interior , enriching the three-dimen
sional experi ence.
GUGGENHEIM MUSEUM,
NEW YORK, NEW YORK
A continuous three-dimensional floor can occur
with the use of the ramp and the stair. The cork
screw ramp of the Solomon R. Guggenheim
Museum, New York, New York (1956-1960),
designed by Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959), is
the ultimate spatial statement of ramp-becoming
floor. No longer is the ramp merely the means to
move from one level to another but is the deter
miner of any given level for the entire displ ay area
of the museum.
Wright had several reasons to justify the
great spiral space. First, visitors were meant to
take an elevator to the top of the museum and
slowly work their way down the continuous
ramp, looking at the art with a minimum of fa
tigue. Second, the solid walls of the ramp which
formed the exterior shell of the building, would
slant outward, creating what Wright argued was
similar to the surface of a continuous painting
easel, providing a more accurate presentation of
paintings. Finally, Wri ght rationalized his non
ntry es
~ lower
lsurvey
y move
-dimen
m occur
he cork
genheim
5-1960),
1959), is
commg
means to
:1e deter
play area
stify the
meant to
eum and
mtinlloll s
1m of fa
np which
, would
glled was
painting
Itation of
his 110n
VIEW FROM THE SIXTEENTH LEVEL,
LOOKI NG DOWN, THE STATE OF
ILLINOIS CENTER, CHICAGO, I LLINOIS.
HELMUT JAHN, 1980.
J.llll1 's use oj a spirallil1gfioor pattern at
;II C subterraneall level visuall y exte/lds
:/ie vertical space. PhotoJiraph by John
i'lirrich.
VIEW FROM THE TOP RAMP, LOOKING
DOWN , SOLOMON R. GUGGENHEIM
M US EUM, NEW YORK, N EW YORK.
FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT, 1')56.
The sp iralinJi ramp Jieneralcs humml
rnOven-lel"lf, establishil1,q a kinelic
counr.erpo il1t 10 rhe .fixed inanilllate arr.
Pholo,qraph by Johl1 Kurtic/-t.
THE THIRD DIMENSIO N: NAVIGATION OF SPACE 10 1
rectilinear spatial desIgn by taking a "cue from
found er Guggenheim's notion that the rectilinear
frame of reference in a painting had more to do
with the frame than with the painting ... The
result, as Wright promised, is 'a grea t repose, like
the atmosphere of an unbroken wave.' "13
No photograph can substitute for the expe
rience one has of walking the grand ramp. Wright
capitalized on the force of gra vity to help propel
t he visitor through his museum, adding unex
pected kinesthetic excitement. Standard paintings
take on a secondary Importance when displayed
in this giant helix, for they have to compete with
the ever-changing views of the central space and
the exciting way people themselves are displayed.
The three-dimensi onal result of this spiral incline
has created one of the most dynamic plastic inte
riors of the twentieth century with its uncompro
mising vertical continuity.
EXPLOITATION OF SCALE
A conscious understanding and the deliberate
exp loitation of scale is one of the most Important
elements to defme three-dimensional interior
architecture. Scal e is the relationship of elements
or parts to their combined whole, to one another,
and to the human body. Alter ing the size and its
proportion can drastically affect the scale and
therefore deliver a message to the perceiver about
what a person's relationship is to the defmed
space. During the Got hic period, the ca thedrals '
soaring interiors were intended to intimidate their
human users by reducing mortal importance in
comparison to the omnipotent church. Histori
call y, most public architecture has employed
grand scal e to create a sense of drama while em
phasizing the period's significant political or social
ideologies.
Scale can also be thought of in terms of ex
perience: primary, secondary, and terti ary. Pri
mary scale is perceived upon the initial entry into
a room or space. It is the larger space-defining
elements that one comprehends. These archi tec
tural elements gene rail y set the stage for second
ary scaling features, such as wall and ceil ing
fenestration, which further break the scale into
smaller components. The terti ary elements, such
as texture, pattern, and decorative embellish
ments enriches the reading of the space at the in
timate scale.
TRADING ROOM, STOCK EXCHANGE,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
A clear example of these three levels of scale
working simultaneously to create a strong three
dimensional space is the Trading Room of the
Chicago Stock Exchange, Chicago, Illinois
(1893), by Adler and Sullivan. The primary scale
here is created by four giga nti c columns support
ing massive ceiling beams. The secondary scaling
is achieved through the articulation of the four
walls by a series of windows, doors, and paneled
walls. Finely detailed rhythmically stenciled ceil
ing patterns constitute the terti ary scal e, which
extends the observer's interest in the space while
balancing the larger scalar elements. Thi s three
level scale principle can be found in all successful
three-dimensional spaces.
MUSEUM TOWER APARTMENT, NEW
YORK, NEW YORK
Steven Holl (1947- ), architect , is interes ted in
developing a rich dial ogue of three-dimensional
expression. Not only does he employ the princi
ple of three-level scale in his wor k, bu t he infuses
his designs with a mi xture of ideas often gener
ated by literature, site conditions, and construc
tion technology, as well as craftsmanshi p.
Through observation and study of site conditi ons
and how they affect scale, cer tain opportunities or
situations arise that can lead to unique three-di
mensi onal concepts. In the Museum of Modern
Art Tower Apartment, N ew York, New York,
(1987), Holl observed an optical illusion that was
created by the fa ct that the tower was built on the
lot line. To Holl , the apart ment seemed to be can
tilevered over the grid of the city. T his observa
tion led to the choice of the Cartesian coordinate
system as his theme in his manipulation of urban
scale. When desi gning three dimensionally, Holl
establishes his basic concepts and employs the
nts, such
mbellish
at the in
; of scale
109 three
,m of the
Illi nois
nary scale
, support
Iry scaling
f the four
Id paneled
lciled ceil
de, which
)ace while
his three
successful
w
erested in
mensional
he princi
he infuses
en gener
constr ll c
;manship.
:onditions
[UnltleS or
three-di
f Modern
York,
I that was
lilt on the
[Q be can
. observa
oordinate
1 of urban
ally, Holl
ploys the
_ . :\GRAMMATIC DRAWING OF
. 1CSEUM OF M ODERN ART T OWER
\P.\RTMENT. S TEVEN HOLL, 1987.
J R.,\WING BY STEPHEN CASSELl ,
:\SSOCIATE, STEVEN H OLL
.\RCHITECTS .
:he j l.IXlaposition oI large planes
, presenting urban sca le to sma ll ,
,Iicate fi,rniture responding to In/man
.:.lle re5ult5 in a taut nll/ironlnerlt .
Jra lving by St even Hall.
AXONOMETRIC DRAWING OF
RECONSTRUCTION OF THE TRADING
ROOM, C HI CAGO S TOCK EXCHANGE,
CHI CAGO, I LLINOI S. ADlER AND
SULliVAN, 1894. RECONSTRUCTED BY
JOHN VINCI AT THE ART INSTITUTE
OF CH ICAGO, 1977.
Th e plan oblique view ceiling
illustrat es Sulli Vail' S fin esse ill
manipulating 5ca lil1g elementsji'Ol"ll th e
and robu5t columr15 dOllJlI to the
delicate aIld intimate ceiling pat(el'l1ing.
DrawinJ? by Lawrence C. Kwn)" ink
and pel1ci/ 011 Mylar, 1977. Gift of
John Vin ci and Lawrence C. Kem-IY ,
1982.754 1990 The Art Institut e of
Chicago, All Rights Resf/"Il ed.
L J
" golden section" to lend rigor and substance to
all his visual proportions.
14
The plan of the apartment is organized by a
series of coded planes. The planes ace perpendic
ular to each other with charcoal gray walls repre
senting midtown avenues running north-south
while butter yellow walls imply east-west streets.
These large-scale planes contrast sharply with his
delicately scaled furniture. Shakerlike ladderback
chairs stained black surround an oval table, which
continues the thematic content at a secondary
scale. The light wood top is divided into four
quadrants by a black pinwheel pattern which ex
presses the supporting member's composition
while providing the tertiary scale. The cabinetry
and vertical furniture elements are used as a coun
terpoint to the space-defining elements while al
luding to the skyline of Manhattan. Holl's
articulation of cabinetry further scales the space
while transforming their function into visual plea
sure. The unconventional cabinets look as good
open as they do closed because the shapes are so
three dimensional, creating a sense of excitement
in their lise. Establishing a rigorous design meth
odology, softened by intuitive interpretations,
Holl has created a very powerful but intimately
scaled space.
NOTRE DAME DU HAUT,
. RONCHAMP, FRANCE
Another example of using levels of scale to pro
duce dramatic juxtaposition between monumen
tality and intimacy is the Chapel of Notre Dame
du Haut, Ronchamp, France (1951-1953), by Le
Corbusier (1887-1965). This hilltop chapel ini
tiaJJy demonstrated how massive scale and heavy
materials can be formed to defme visually exciting
three-dimensional space. The south wall is made
of recycled stone from the preexisting church and
encased in concrete. It tapers from 3.7 meters at
the base to 1.4-1. 5 meters at the top of the wall.
Acting as a visual point of terminus to the pil
grimage route, the south wall is concave to con
trol the entrance sequence. The wall becomes a
symbolic barrier-a mass to be penetrated to ac
cess the sacred interior. The scale of the battered
wall metaphori cally recalls castellated walls of the
medieval period, complete with splayed open
ings , symbols of strength and permanence. The
weight of the material expressed by the thickness
of the walls was contrasted by the unorthodox
insertion of vitrages.
15
From the outside, these
small scaled openings provide contrast to the mas
sive tapered wall, distorting the apparent size of
the wall. The walls are huge and somber whereas
the glass is delicate and colorful. Le Corbusier's
chapel successfully contrasts monumental space
balanced by intimately scaled details.
THE OFFICE LANDSCAPE Intimate scale is
driven by the human body and ergonomic or
physiological requirements and can relate directly
to both the work and home environments. A cur
rent example by Knoll International is the ergo
nomically derived office landscape. This system is
designed to increase an individual's productivity
while encouraging communication among em
ployees by providing compact and efficient work
environments scaled to the user's needs. Living
spaces can be scaled to create a strong sense of
intimacy. The most inviting and successful living
spaces are scaled to encourage conversation and
comfort. The best way to learn about scale is
through observation and personal experience. If
elements appear to be at the correct scale, they
also appear to be in proportion, which is the har
monious relationship between the parts to the
whole. Throughout history, humanity has been
interested in achieving pleasing proportional rela
tionships in both interior and exterior architec
ture.
KNOLL INTERNATIONAL OFFICE
FURNITURE GROUP, "REFF SYSTEM 6,"
KNO LL INTERNATIONAL, NEW YORK,
NEW Y ORK, 1991.
Elficient a11d cOl1dllcive !/lork
environments are responsive to
ergollomic needs that are based on the
human body. Phofo,<!raph by John
Kurtich.
Is of the
:I open
Ice. The
hickness
rthodox
e, these
the mas
t size of
whereas
rbusier's
al space
. scale is
:omlc or
: directly
s. A cur
he ergo
system IS
ductivity
ong em
ent work
i. Living
sense of
fulliving
ttion and
t scale is
rience. If
:ale, they
s the har
ts to the
has been
onal rela
architec
F1 CE
S YSTEM 6,"
EW YORK,
to
'ed (In the
, John
: 'T ERIOR SOUTH WALL, CHAPEL OF
. ' OTRE-DAME-DU-HA UT,
O:-l CHAMP, FRANCE. LE CORBUSIER,
.5 4.
~ , CMbusier enhanced the chapel's
. ' :!crea/ quality by ''floating '' the
.,-,-, ille ceiling 011 steel piers above the
.'; lil1/ary. Photo,RYaph by John Kllrf((/1.
ANIMATION THROUGH
FURNISHINGS
The purpose of space is usually defmed by the
furnishings. The animation of such space can be
achieved either through the harmonious or the
contrasting placement of the furnishings in rela
tion to the enclos ure. Creating a dialogue between
the structural shell and the contents is a major goal
of the interior architect. Establishing a direction
for that exchange to occur, whether it be tradi
tionally defined rooms with symmetrical organi
zation or contemporary fluid space with
asymmetrical arrangements, is critical to the
cohesion of the interior.
Furnishings create the personality of the
space by set ting the tone. Such moods as myste
rious, playful, architect ural , eclectic, historical,
minimal, comfortable, or formal are established
by the furniture's expressive guality. The designer
must consider all furnishings at the onset of the
planning stages to ensure a strong three-dimen
sional design. Internal forces generated by the
client's needs must be expressed in harmony with
external forces that are predicated by spatial con
ditions.
W HITE BEDROOM, HILL HOUSE,
HELENSBURGH, SCOTLAND
Charles Rennie M ackintosh (1868-1928) (see
Chapter 1 for a discussion of Mackintosh's ability
to design complete interiors) was interested in de
signing his interiors as a complete environment
with all furniture and minor elements relating ro
this vision. This cohesive, holistic design ap
proach allowed total control over the three-di
mensional development of the space. His wife,
Margaret MacDonald Mackintosh (1865- 1933),
collaborated with him on his best interiors. One
of the most successful designs was the White Bed
room of Hill Hous e, Hel ensburgh, Scotland
(1902-1903). The modestly sized bedroom was
planned to function dually as a bedroom and
morning room. To distinguish the sleeping area's
separate identity from the sitting room, the bed
was placed in one part of the L-shaped plan. The
bed alcove was spatially enhanced by a vaulted
ceiling and a matching curved bay window with
curved shutters. Mackintosh's original idea for a
curtained glass and wooden screen between the
sleeping and sitting area never materialized. The
slttmg room portion had additional windows
with curtains designed and embroidered by his
wife.
Mr. Blackie, the client, placed his designers
on a very res tricted furnishings budget . Respond
ing creatively to both this constraint and to the
archit ect's own design aesthetic, built-in furniture
was used as often as possible. Mackintosh de
signed all the furniture, mcluding such pi eces as
the wardrobes and full length freestanding mir
ror, bed, and chairs. Most of the room's free
standing and all of its fmed furniture was painted
white to match the walls, giving the bedroom a
bright and spacious guality. The delineation of
much of the room's furniture, whether massive or
delicate, has a strong verticality, making the inte
rior appear much grander , three dimensionall y.
Even the appli ed decorative motifs found in paint
stenciling, fabric design, lighting fIxtures, and
furniture detailing reinforce the design direction.
By introducing two high-backed "ladder" chairs,
painted black, Mackinros h mtroduced visual geo
metric punctuation to the interior, completing the
powerful three-dimensional composition.
WHITE BEDROOM, HILL HOUSE,
HELENSBU RGH, SCOTLAND. CHARLES
RENNIE MACKINTOSH AND
MARGAR ET MACDONALD
MACK[KTOSH, 1902-1903.
Placelllelit of'bot/J built-in and mOLlcable
,fimlilllre at the perimeter walls giues the
day rooll1 a spacious atmosphere.
Photograpll by May Hawfield.
[06 INTER[OR ARCHITECTURE
va ulted
)w with
ea for a
'een the
ed. The
:indows
I by his
eSlgners
espond
:J. to the
urniture
:osh de
JleCeS as
ng mlr-
1'S free
; painted
:lroom a
ation of
aSSlve or
the inte
sionally.
! in paint
res, and
irection.
" chairs,
;ual geo
cting the
OUSE,
. CHARLES
,d moveable
,1/5gives the
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Id.
11111111111111111 11 11
D
II I
PLAN, WHITE BEDROOM, HILL
HOUSE, HELENSBURGH, SCOTLAND.
CHARLES RENNIE MACKINTOSH AND
MARGARET MACDONALD
MACKINTOSH, 1902-1903.
The "L" shaped master bedroom plan
comprises two distinct spaces: a large
silling and dressing area opening onto an
intimate sleep ing alcove. Drawing by
May Hawfi eld .
THE THI RD DIMENSION: NAVIGATION OF SPACE 107
COHEN APARTMENT,
_-EW YORK, NEW YORK
he design approach of Steven Holl (1947- ) for
::.e Cohen Apartment, New York, New York,
,984), was based on the exploitation of skeletal,
and volumetric elements to def1l1e the
: ree primary li vi ng areas. He relied hea vily on
to create the three-dimensional energy
of the space. The furnitur e expands the elemental
language by exerci sing the contents of color , tex
ture, light , and shadow. By incorporating only
custom design furni shings, Holl was able to reit
erate the conceptual ideas at an intimate scal e. The
apartment is a collage of parts, to be viewed ei ther
as a whole entity or as smaller vignettes created
by the furniture and carpet design. Though sepa
rate and unique, these pa rts have a cohesiveness
DI:\I:\G ROO M, COHEN APARTMENT,
. 'E\,' YORK. NEW Y ORK. STEVEN
H OLl. 198-1.
Th e-,inllishings in fhe dining space
rein or(1' the linear [alwuage Holiwil s
explorillg ill fhe archilee/lae.
Ph" ,'erllph by John
lemental
)Ior, tex
ing only
e to reit
cale. The
ed either
s created
rgh sepa
esi veness
, PARTMENT,
STEVEN
rig space
e H oll was
e.
iI.
of the uniformity of color and fmish em
?loyed on all surfaces. Walls are grey-blue over
,.\,hite plaster, and the furnishings are a contrast
mg foil, utilizing such colors as red, black, and
':ellow. In the dining area, the red ladderback
::-hairs are in concert with the skeletal table base
_nd energetic design of the yellow, black, and
.:;ray custom carpet.
To arrive at the designer's very personalized
:hree-dimensional composition, traditional furni
, Ll re detailing was rejected. Such items as cabinet
pulls became abstracted to the point of being sim
?h' a series of rectilinear cutouts that expose black
:m eriors beyond. Varying in size from tiny
squares to long thin openings, the highly inven
:J \"e pulls are placed in unorthodox locations. The
lpartment and its furnishings capitalize on the un
Delivering a powerful message, the in
:erior celebrates the unconventional, demanding
::!"I e viewer to participate in the three-dimensional
::j uality of the design.
R EACTION TO CONTEXT
The architectural enclosure is the most immediate
.:ontextual influence. Whether the building is his
:oric or contemporary, low- or high-rise, brick or
ilass, or any distinctive architectural style, re
to the structure's unique characteristics
':.1 n be a major theme in any design scheme. The
:orm, language, materials, or details can be used
a point of departure for generating ideas
reaction to context.
In some instances, the architectural character,
.:-j story, or activities of the district can be a rich
to draw upon, lending validity to design
.deas. Light and views, or the lack of, can be ex
?I oited to form relationships to these ever-chang
external elements. Furthermore, the client's
?ersonality, taste, or idiosyncratic ideas can pro
':de another rich source for creativity.
Strong three-dimensional concepts can
:>\'olve by analyzing the context of a specific inte
:oor project. Taking a broader view can stimulate
. eas beyond the immediate enclosure as well as
:he obvious design solution. Careful considera
tion of the architectural enclosure, district, char
acter, adjacent views, quality of light, or the
client's personality as a whole or singularly should
be incorporated in the final design direction. Con
textual exploration can elevate a design aestheti
cally, freeing the designer from the mundane
solutions often generated by a client's functional
requirements .
VILLA MAIREA, NOORMARKKU, FINLAND
In the Villa Mairea, Noormarkku, Finland,
(1937), by Alvar Aalto (1898-1976), reaction to
context was a strong design influence. The build
ing was sited within a spectacular natural forest.
The L-shaped residence with adjacent swimming
pool and sauna was carefully nestled into a clear
ing. Instead of ignoring the surrounding land
scape, Aalto used the forest as the metaphorical
theme for his architectural forms and interiors.
A progression starting from the forest clear
ing through the porte cochere and into the house
reveals Aalto's interest in contextualism. The
porte cochere contrasts boldly with the planar ge
ometry of the exterior facade, revealing a clue to
the dynamic interior beyond. The organic form
of the structure extends the entrance, creating an
inviting portal, one side screened by curvaceous
saplings contrasted by an open side supported by
two columns of clustered tree trunks. This origi
nal design, employing natural trees, establishes an
exciting transition from the natural forest to the
human-designed interior. The ceiling is rendered
in natural rough wooden decking.
Upon entering the house's warm interior, the
forest metaphor is refined. Wood continues on the
ceiling, but becomes smooth. A forest rhythm is
created by Aalto's sensitive placement of struc
tural columns and decorative elements. Adding
further to the forest illusion, interior plantings in
strategic locations continue to soften the hard
edges of the metaphoric interior "trees" while
reinforcing the organic theme. By incorporating
one of his most impressive three-dimensional de
sign elements, the screen, Aalto transformed the
stair balustrade from the merely functional to an
T HE THlRD DlMENSION: NAVIGATION OF SPACE 109
FOREST SURROUNDING VILLA MAIREA,
NOORMARKKU, FINLAND. ALVAR
AALTO, 1938.
Aallo oflen translated contextual
con.ditions into a metaphorical language
that enriched his architecture lallguage.
A Jorest become wall screens
filterirlg light, Of a tree become a
column a roof Photograph
by Kevin Harrington.
PORTE-COCHERE, VILLA MAIREA,
AALTO, 1938.
By using natural trees as an integral part
oJthe porte-cochere Aalto has
made the transition ji-OI11 natllre into
human made space less abrupt .
by Kellin H arril1 l?ton.
L
STAIRWAY SCREEN, VILLA M AIREA,
NOORMARKKU, F INLAND. ALVAR
AALTO, 1938.
Aalto's stai rcase is trar/sJorl11ed il1to an
int eriol-fores t, with the balustrade
"trees" shifting al1d filtering ligh t.
Photograph by Kevin Harrillgtoli.
spired interior forest. The wooden vertical ele
::"Ients are irregul arl y placed, filtering the li ght in
." e same way one experiences the contrasts of
. ?ht and shadow while walking through the
oods. By cladding the living room ceiling in
: rips of pine, which conceal the air-conditioning
ents, the edges between the indoors and ou t
ioors are further blurred.
To provide privacy without totally compro
"'!ising the visual connectedness of the living
- a m and study, Aalto used another ingeni ous
.::eening device. Much smaller in scale and 10
.:_ t d at the ceiling above solid straight wall s, a
.:-r pentine screen provides an exciting three-di
nsionaljuncture between the spaces. The curv
.g screen is composed of clerestory windows and
ooden slats in an alternating composition, al
\\' ing ve rtical slices of light to illuminate the ad
_cent rooms. Depending on the time of day , a
- 3h contrast quality of light occurs, resulting in
: . dms of li ght radiating across the wooden ceil
a lighting effect highly reminiscent of the
_.: rl y morning or late afternoon sun in the for est.
The Villa Mairea is one of Aalto 's finest
orks. Much of its success is due to Aalto's imag
;'dtive use of contextualism. A rich design lan
_.ldge freed Aalto from ri gid formalistic
- -hitect ural vocabulary, resulting in a highly
." e-dimensional interior.
RIEHAUS RESEARCH ASSOCIATES,
: HICAGO, ILLINOIS
-he design for Driehaus Research Associates by
-.e Landahl Group, Chicago, Illi nois, (1982),
- its cue from the saw-toothed high rise in
,", ich it resides. Three First N ational Plaza by
'idmore, Owings & Merrill is shaped by an or
a gonal series of bay windows that exploit the
.-:, ws to Lake Michigan. The architectural char
.: :er of the building is mimicked in various ways
- the eighteen-hundred-square-foot brokerage
--m. Custom wood desks, corner top detailing
:: esks and conference table, brass st rips in ter
..ZlO flooring, stepped detail of portals , and the
- _ses of bronze co mputer covers demonstrate the
_. ; zag motif at va rying scales . U sing the building
AXONOMETRIC DRAWING, DRIEHAUS
RESEARCH ASSOCIATES OFFICE
COMPLEX, THREE FIRST NATIONAL
PLAZA BUlLDING, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS.
THE LANDAHL GROUP, IN C., 1982.
The corztfxwal detailil1fi at
difJen rlfi scales througllOlII the office
complex ceilJfs the ililerior a cohesilJe
language. Drawil1S by Jal1li e
Sl1aIJley.
modul e of 5'0" as another point of departure,
Greg Landahl (1947- ) divided that number in
half (60/1, 30", 15/1, 71f2", 3W' ... ) arriving at dif
fer ent scaling multiples that generated both the
verti cal and horizontal interior dimensions. An
example of thi s are the highly three-dimensional
office en trances, using stepped portals derived
from the 3W' scaling multiple.
Luxurious materials were incorporated to
achieve an el egant and inviting interior while soft
ening the strong geometric desi gn language. By
THE THIRD DIMENSION: NAVIGATI ON OF SPACE I I I
E AST FACADE OF THE THREE FIRST
NATIONAL PLAZA BUILDING,
CHICAGO, ILLIN OIS. SKIDMORE,
OWINGS, AND MERRILL, 1981.
Photograph by J ohl1 Kllrtich.
using a rich mixture of redwood burl veneers,
dark green leather, lush wool carpet, velvets, and
silks, the designer was able to further convey the
client's successful image to the business commu
nity. The predominant color palette of green, the
client's favorite, ranging from light to dark
shades, was inspired by the coloration of a dollar
bill. Even the bronze and brass metals recall pre
cious gold bullion. Other neutral colors serve as
D ETAIL OF DOOR FRAME AND
TERRAZZO FLOOR, DRI EHA US
R ESEARCH ASSOCIATES, THREE FIRST
ATI O:-iAL PLAZA BUILDING,
ILLINOIS. THE LANDAHL
GROUP. INC., 1982.
Pholograpll by Jim N orris.
III a direer response to the building shape
ofTllree First National Plaza, the
Lalldahl Group incorporat ed a saw-tooth
or zig-z ag /l1 otl! as a prominent
conteX/i,/ al design detail .
an appropriate backdrop for the client' s art collec
tion.
The Landahl Group drew upon contextual
ism as a rich source, giving both direction and
validity to the design work. Carefully avoiding
the sense of being heavy handed in relating to
context, they were able to create a dynamic design
with the enduring quality found in all great inte
[Jors.
I 12 INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
US
-IREE FIRST

_AN DA HL
lilding shape
'z a, the
d a saw-loath

art collec
:ontextual
ection and
v avoiding
relating to
mic design
great inte
_ L\LLET HOUSE, NEW YORK, NEW YORK
ITE's proj ect, the Mall et House, New York,
_ -ew York, (1986), is acornpelling stud y of a
- action to context. 16 By employing images that
,d\"e been fabricated as historic artifacts, the de
:igners have been able to create a mystical experi
.:once. The 160-year-old Greenwich Village row
"1ouse was originally owned by a French immi
;rant. The designers imagined the long hidden
.jstory that the house must have contained pre
to the current owner. Laurie Mall et was
_rawn to the house beca use of its age and appar
.m charm. Instead of gutt ing the decaying inte
:1or, the thought was to accentuate the inherent
?dti na and sense of the past. The preservation of
:he pas t was achieved by ca reful manipulation of
:. e fun ctional elements while retaining ori ginal
""1 ateri als and detai ls . The designers were very
:uccessful in combining new elements with the
.xis ting, blurring the distinction between the past
.. nd the present. SITE's Alison Sky (1946- ) felt
: :rongly that the current accepted practi ce of gut
. ng and rebuilding was not appropriate for this
A more selective and sensitive approach
"ns needed to successfully insert the new owner's
:-equirements without losing the intimacy of the
All too often the charm of histor y is de
_.royed by the desire to be efficient and modern.
Elements of a fab ri cated history that may or
"11 a y not have occurred were inserted into a pre
_7rved shell. These elements were derived from
designers' imagination based on the knowl
_dge of the past occupants, combined with the
interests of the client. Architectural ele
::1ents and furniture symbolizing the past emerge
three dimensions skewed from the plane of the
::-l ds ter walls. These elements are rendered as a
?ldstic projection of the past, caught midstream in
time warp. It is as though the objects are frozen
.n the middle of a cinematic dissolve. In the foyer
:1 eighteenth century rococo tabl e projects askew
the wall with a riding hat , gloves, and whip
..s a sculptural composition. This is part of a larger
--:gnette that includes an ornately framed mirror,
_ heavy coat, and a pair of high-top riding boots ,
.::omplete with spurs, all integral to and projected
the wall in monochrome. This scene depicts
FRONT FACADE, LAURIE MALLET
HOUSE, NEW YORK, NEW YORK.
SITE, 1985.
The "ow house facade do es not give any
clue to the rich colltextualism SI T E
explores within the interior.
by John Kurtich.
the new owner's interest in the hunt , addi ng an
other layer of history.
The owner's history merges wi th a fabricated
past based on the original occupant. In the li ving
room, a Louis XV chair edges out of the wall,
E. HALL, LAURIE MALLET
H OUSE. NEW YORK, NEW YORK.
SITE. 1985.
The elllr}, hall introduces the lIis itor to
eI'ocat iI'e ililages .Fom the past in
array. Photograph by John Kurti ch.
FIREPLACE MANTEl , DINING ROOM,
LAURIE MAllET H O USE, N EW Y ORK,
NEW YORK. SITE, 1985.
SI TE's "ilo/'/l1ting offile hOI.lse" places
all "real" objects in jeopardy ofbei f/g
absorbed by the ghosfly LVorld at an)'
moment. Photograph b)' J ohn Kurficil .
I 14 INTERI OR ARCHITECTURE
ALLET
( ORK.
I' isitor to
! il'l ghosted
II rtich.
....r: usable in its partially buried state but asserting
:-el f with confldent authority. In the dining
-oom, the same design technigue is employed.
a fireplace mantel holding a candelabra and
-<vudin bust of a child, all partially buried in the
:: 'a ter wall, evoke the lost past of French aristoc
-- - \ -.
The final layer of history has been supplied
_ ,- Laurie Mallet's furniture and possessions. A
undesigned approach, a collection of
- !1 temporary avant garde furniture and art
with fifties period "antigues " completes
interiors. The colorful and robust furnishings
_"1 fortunately draw too much attention to them
overpowering the elegantly projected ar
: -tectural elements. SITE has discovered in this
0ect an imaginative source of exploiting the
--:.i rd dimension, rendering meaning and mystery.
-=.X CAVATED INTERIOR
_\ RCHITECTURE
E: .cavated Interior Architecture results when space is
=-(her carved from solid mass or built with such
-nassive components that it seems carved, creat
a distinct positive-negative relationship . A
: culptor uses this traditional method when work
_'1g blocks of solid material. The sculptor concen
on the limited palette of the homogeneous
material and its resulting forms, producing light
and shadow. The power of this primary relation
ship is an essential ingredient to the three-dimen
sional interior.
THE CAVE One of humanity's earliest dwell
ings, the cave, provided such a primal interior,
which thus began the fascination with carved
space. Once the essential needs for survival were
satisfied, new technologies, which freed human
ity to live in more desirable locations , were devel
oped. New forms of enclosure were created that
tried to retain the essential ingredients of the ear
lier excavations: permanence, strength, security,
and protection.
CA VE COMPLEXES: KARL!
AND ELEPHANTA, INDIA
Religious architecture following the Maurya pe
riod in India (after the end of the first century B. C.
to the third century A_D.) included a considerable
number of interior spaces literally carved out of
living rock. A spatial form known as the chaitya
became prescribed. In plan, the chaitya was char
acterized by a na velike hall with a semicircular
apse and false side aisles too narrow for actual use.
Architectural features such as columns seemingly
supporting arched vaulting above were all carved
as a continuum from living rock. The complex at
ENTRANCE TO ElEPHANTA CAVE,
INDIA, A.D. EIGHTH CENTURY .
The exterior temple front annolmces the
carved temple cOl1lplex lIIaiting within
the living rock. Photograph by
Pradumna Tal1a.
Karli (from A.D. 120) is a particularly rich exam
ple of a carved interior made very three-dimen
sional with elaborately carved colonnades topped
with flgurative groupings as "capitals," all to lead
the eye to the climax of the space, the holy stupa
at the apsidal end of the nave.
A more complicated cave complex is the Ele
phanta cave-temple, dating from after the Gupta
period of India (A.D. 320 to 600). Located on Ele
phanta Island, near Bombay, this temple was
carved from living rock to embody two symbols:
the sea and the island. To ancient worshippers,
the sea represented unlimited life energy, which
was both nourisher and destroyer. The island was
relief from the raw chaos of the sea, a peaceful
haven and spiritual center. The temple was dedi
cated to the god, Shiva, the lord of the universal
energies of change, transformation, alteration,
and re-creation. The temple interior is a more
complicated spatial composition than the nave at
Karli; Elephanta had three entrances, creating a
cruciform in plan. The main shrine within is on
axis with the east entrance and is detached (such a
sanctuary was normally attached to the back wall
of the temple, opposite the east entrance) to allow
worshippers to circumambulate, characterizing
the symbolism of the shrine radiating its spiritual
power in all directions. The columns appear to be
architectural supports but serve no purpose struc
turally. No two columns are alike, and this lack
of symmetry is probably caused by the very dif
flcult task of carving each column out of solid
rock.
INTERIORS OF MASSIVE
COMPONENTS: SIMULATED
CARVED SPACE
HYPOSTYLE HALL, KARNAK, EGYPT
Ancient civilizations, such as the Egyptians, uti
lized column and beam construction out of stone,
creating strong three-dimensional spaces of long
lasting quality. The limited spanning properties
of stone required closely spaced columns, effect
ing dark, secure, permanent interiors. The close-
HYPOSTYLE HALL, TEMPLE OF
AMMON, KARNAK , EGYPT, 1530-330
B.C.
The impressive Hyposly/e Hall appears
to be chis/ed out ofa solid block of stolle.
ness of the massive columns to each other created
the impression that (his forestlike space could
have been carved from one huge mass of solid
stone. The Hypostyle Hall of the Temple of
her created
pace could
5S of solid
Temple of
v TU NDA, THE PANTHEON, ROME,
A.D. 120-124.
_ :.:)ring along the dome aaenluates the
that th e central space is
'ed and not coll structed. Photograph
-", lin Kurtich.
- mmon at Karnak, Egypt (ca . 1312-1301 B.C.),
:"'d this construction system to create awe-in
:-:ring interiors of seemingly unlimited extent.
__ <e the cave, the perimeter was dark, contrasting
the clerestory-lit central passageway. This
iing of light toward the exterior gave the space
-: ll usion of limitless boundaries.
PANTHEON, ROME
The ancient Romans revolutionized interior space
with their ability to span great distances through
the use of the arch and vault, made out of brick
and concrete. The mass required to support these
great vaults and subsequent domes continued the
feeling of great permanence and strength. Their
greatest surviving interior space is the Pantheon,
Rome (A.D. 120-124), a sphere ofa space defmed
by the hea vy massing of masonry needed to sup
port the extraordinary dome (diameter: 142 feet,
6 inches).
POST-ROMAN CARVED SPACE The Roman
mastery of space was refined during the Italian
Renaissance. During this period, architectural
drawings became common. Wall sections of the
building pl ans were rendered by means of poche,
which was the technigue of blacking those areas
which were meant to be solid. Due to the thick
ness of masonry walls, the rendered appearance of
buildings resembled a series of spaces carved out
of solid material. Architectural design was
worked out through drawing compositions
which contrasted mass and void. The technigue
of poche reinforced this mode of design. The ap
pearance of carved or excavated space was further
enhanced by richly embelli shed interiors of intri
cate moldings, attached columns and pilasters,
deep frames and pediments, and multi-layered
panels.
Until the advent of the Industrial Revolution,
at the end of the eighteenth century, the tradition
of contrasting mass and void persisted. The In
dustrial Revol ution dramatically changed both
building technology and materials available.
When glass and iron became abundantly available,
buildings became planar and skeletal in character.
The first "glass boxes" altered the public's sense
of traditional security. Containing interior space
without solidity, these" modern" buildings took
the human race further away from its original
cave than ever before.
GOVERNMENT BUILDINGS,
CHANDIGARH, INDIA
During the Brutalist Movement of the mid-twen
ti eth century, a return to the primordial character
istics of ra w and massive building materials
occurred. Le Corbusier (1887-1965), reacting to
the apparent deterioration of his prized Villa Sa
-layered
olution,
radition
The In
e'd both
vailable.
vailable,
haracter.
c's sense
lor space
ngs took
original
lid-twen
:haracter
materials
to
Villa Sa
'o\'e after World War II , turned his attention to
'ard building with permanence. Le Corbusier's
of the new technology led to his fas
:nation with sculpted spaces executed in rough,
reinforced concrete, as exemplified by
"l.: designs for the government buildings at Chan
.:.:garh, India (1951-1961).
The High Court (1951-1955) was the first
='Jilding to be completed. It is essentially a mon
.... mental shaded concrete box frame filled with
piers and complex brises-soleil, Le Cor
:' :.Is ier's inventive sunbreakers. It recalls ancient
oman architecture, particularly the Basilica of
-=onstant ine, Ro me, which the architect had
fifty years earlier. The Hi gh Court was
new building which looked like it had exis ted
--or hundreds of years, a building built to las t. The
quality and composition recall the pre
:!dustrial Revoluti on concerns of contrasting
:TIass and void, using super-scaled spaces and vol
_:TI es.
RESTAURANT AND CABARET,
ILLINOIS
- ?atial approaches are often a product of the
2'.1il ding materials being used. Thin materials like
_r ywall, metal sheets, or glass will generate a
: :anar or constructed interior, while poured con
, ete or masonry will usually deal with "exca
.1 ted" or solid-and- void maSSIng. Neither
OF JUSTICE (HIGH COURT),
':= H.\ NDlGARH, INDIA. LE CORBUSIER,
51 -1 955.
plyi flg permallel1ce arid the
-!IIZ" Court has an added architec(I-IYal
', sellce as a result of the //lassilJe
ilding material used in its
'!; Iwclion. DroilS de l'epl'ociuctiol1
r ( IIS par la SPADEM. Copyrighl
991 ARS N. Y I SPADEM.
method is more correct or appropnate than the
other. In an age in which current technology af
fords the designer so many options, it is impor
tant to realize that such an ancient and basic desi gn
idea of scu lpting space through mass and void is
still a valid and viable approach in creating strong
three-dimensional space.
George's Rest aurant and Cabaret, Chicago
(1979) by Banks/Eakin Architects is an exercise in
the manipulat ion of mass and void. The ori ginal
4,000 square foot space was divided by a row of
timber columns cutting the space virtuall y in half.
Various exis ting stairs, elevator , and shafts posed
further planning obs tacles. As a result of the
building'S irregularities, and the restaurant and
cabaret each having different requirements, a bi
nary plan became an obvious direction to explore.
The program called for a 160-seat restaurant
with all seats having a clear vi ew to a small stage.
In addi tion a bar accommodating forty seats, a
coat room, bus sta ti ons, and an open kitchen were
also to be included.
The solution emphasized the divided space
by placing the bar and kitchen on one side of the
column line opposed by the dining room and ca b
aret . The volumetric treatment of the adjacent
spaces was in direct opposition. The bar, bus sta
tions, and elevator were contained in a single cur
vilinear mass, fl oating in space. The serpentine
glass block bar created a dynamic horizontal ele
ment. The bar 's rhythmic undulation with the
columns was intended to encourage movement
while metaphorically alluding to the musical char
acter of the nightclu b.
When one passes through the colonnade into
the dining area, a complete spatial reversal from
charged negative space to stati c positive space
happens. Although long and narrow, the room is
open and spacious , with ti ered seating levels over
looking a round marble stage. The room appears
to be carved out of the solid mass int o a simple
lozenge shape. The shape is emphasized by a con
tinllOUS cove light and semicircular backlit glass
block walls that act as a terminus to the room
while impI ying space beyond. The detailing of the
room accentuates the plastic quality of drywall
and plaster cons tructi on. Thickness and weight
THE THIRD DIMENSION: NAVIGATION OF SPACE 11 9
B.-\R AND DINING ROOM, GEORGE'S
RESTAURANT, CHICAGO, [LLINOIS.
B .-\ NKS/EAKIN, 1979.
Th e carl/ed solid atld 1J0id eIfect oJlhe
' d taL/ranl belies th e materials used to
:.' 11 511'",0 it. Photograph by Jaime
.-1.rdilesArce.
MODEL, GEORGE'S RESTAURANT,
CHICAGO, [LLINOIS. BANKS/ EAK1N,
1979.
The massing model oJthe restaurallt
clearly shows the "carwd" concept oj
the scheme. Photog/'aph by Garret
Eakil1.
:.:'inforces the massive three-dimensional charac
:;:- r of the dining room. Nowhere does one see
:.:1 inness or planar elements usually associated
" ith drywall construction.
By studying the nature of the space, what
[-, peared as three-dimensional limitations actually
.- r med the basis for the final design concept. The
. ' llful balancing of solid and void created an ex
:r: ing sense of place.
. :)l"GLE FAMILY HOUSE, MASSAGNO,
- K ITZERLAND
-:-ne architecture of Mario Botta (1943- ) has
- ~ f l described as pure geometric masses that have
.-:""::' fl excavated to form habitable interior space.
The three-dimensional expression of his architec
ture has been influenced by site specific condi
tions, vernacular archi tecture, and Louis I. Kahn
(1901-1974). Hi s bold forms of brick and con
crete are intended to create a place between earth
and sky. Many of his residences, built on the
southern slopes of the Alps, possess a strong
graphic identity when viewed from afar.
Botta's single family house at Massagno,
Switzerland (1979- 1981), establishes such a strik
ing presence on the landscape. The structure, built
parallel to the slope, is a simple rectangular form
with one main facade facing south. Alternating
bands of red and gray concrete brick animate the
facade. At a distance, the main elevation appears
symmetrical wi th a large circular opening at the

_a

--

SI :-': GL E- F.-\ :-lI LY HOUSE, MASSAGNO,
S WITZERl.... :-.: D. MARIO BOTTA, 1979
19 1.
Through rhe cOll trast of mass and void,
rhe (al'e-like ellt ry reveals deep shadows,
ellhalJ,ill il5 rh ree dim el'lSional reality.
P/J orogrdph by .'1.10 Zanella.

M ASS AGNO.
BOTTA, 1979
and void,
" deep shadows,
;ional reality .
ua .
_J' lding's center. Upon closer inspection, various
-:hitectural details start to relate the formal idea
[he site conditions and int ernal spatial organi
.: :ion, One corner is carved OLlt, announcing the
_ int of entry. The detail is balanced by two ver
:.11 rows of square voids that articulate the inter
:rion of diagonal walls of glass with the
.ronry enclosure. The massive elevation is re
d by the incision o f a large circular opening
-.n exposes the carved interior be yond , This sub
-_crion of mass creates a deep void, producing a
_ -,-' like opening, establishing a dialogue with its
Iside location, By contrasting mass and void,
p shadows are produ ced on a grand scale, giv
t he facade a strong three-dimensional quality.
massive opening reveals the more delicate
l'\' ed interior. The solidity of the exterior con
-_' ts dramati call y with the airy spaces. The plan
organized axially around the wide portal. Di
: onal glass walls overlook an open air interior
:-race space connecting all the rooms. Large
_ lZed sliding doors concealed in a brick cavity
. n be closed during incl ement weather to form a
ent er garden. The carved portal shades the
:J thern exposu re, allowing a comfort able
::nount of li ght to fl ood the interior space. From
:" interior, one feels very protected by the cave
:e manipulati on of space, whi ch is reinforced by
_ ply recessing all window glazing from the
i ,?:e of the masonry shell.
Not only did Botta carve space horizontally,
: took full ad vantage of creating three-dimen
onal verti cal space. By using strategicall y placed
'yli ghts over the staircase and above a li ght well,
opened his "box" to the sky. The li ght spills
\\' n the voids , accentuating the climb up
-:rough space to the primar y living areas on the
and third floor s. By "carving out " his in
.:-ior, Bott a was able to transform a modest size
.:erior int o spacious and expansi ve spaces.
,,-,ONSTRUCTED INTERI OR
.-1. RCHITECTURE
-.:.other approach in creating strong three-dimen
onal space is the constructed interior. The opposite
. :' ca rved or excavated interior space, con
structed interiors occur with the addition of archi
tectural format s to es tabli sh the volume. Thi s ad
ditive process is aimed at creating interlocking
spaces. Exploiting such ideas as revealing con
struction method , using raw or natural materials,
using transparency, and creating rhythm can in
fuse these spaces with high levels of energy. Thi s
manipulation of interiors can cover a broad spec
trum from ve ry formali stic architectural concepts
to a free form of coll aged parts.
The constructed int erior expresses and cel e
brates the pieces that create the whol e co mposi
tion. Histori cal! y, architects have been fascinated
by the bare frame or bones of the building being
exposed. Even today, when fmished sol id walls
encase the structural framework, a sense of disap
pointment occurs. The feeling of exci tement gen
erated by the skeleton is lost. It is often hard, if
not impossibl e, to recapture that energy. That
power is generated by the use of transparency,
seeing through screened space, revealing the spa
tial dynamics ofli ght and shadow, solid and void,
and movement.
By showing the structure, a red uced palette
of building materials can evolve. No longer are
such traditi onal architectural embellishments as
crown molding or classical capitals necessary or
releva nt. The expos ed structure becomes the in
teri or detailing. By using this hones t, nonapplied
approach, a spirited interior can be achi eved.
FLORIAN APARTMENT,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
Paul Flori an (1950- attributes hi s inspiration
for hi s Chicago residence to the Russian Con
structivists. A movement dating back to the
1920s, the Constructi vists were concerned with
creating an art form based on the scientific inves
tigation of the abstract ideas of picture surface,
color, line, and construction. The 600-square-foot
second floor residential renovation of a two-flat
building presented the chall enge of getting the
most out of a small space, both functionally and
archi tectural ly. The simplisti c rectangular plan IS
knit together with exciting neo-Constructivist
elements. The space focuses on the sculptural
THE THIRD DIMENSION: NAVIGATION O F SPACE 123
APARTMENT, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS.
PAUL FLORIAN, 1986.
The orchestration oflinear parts,
through their particular forms and colors
prodll ces a strong three dimensional
continuity . Photograph by John
Kurticll.
iLLINOIS.
pa rts,
'ms and colors,
ler1sionai
J ohn
of space through the expression of the ar
::-::tectural components. A suspended horizontal
-::-d plane slices through spaces, a green rhythmic
'all defines an edge, yellow volumes protrude
-: d punctuate. These additive elements directly
:.::- ntrast the white rectilinear shell. The functional
-::-.:j uirements such as stairs, toil ets, shower, and
:_osets were buried along the perimeter of one
all. The mass does not engage the ceiling and is
:-",i nted green to separate it from the enclosing
! II. The long, thin, straight stair hall is trans
in to an engaging composition by a few
.' Iful mo ves. By freeing the wood stair on one
__e.. the designer creates a trough, loosening it
:-om the wall, making the stair a more three-di
__ nsional component. A strong focal point
:.:awing the eye upward is created at the top of
stair by the juxtaposition of a yellow column
with a fragment of the red plane abutting it. The
components are expressed as a fractional com
position. This simple move exposes a part of
the dynamic three-dimensional story beyond.
Though open and seemingly obvious, the interior
space cannot be read as a whole entity. By not
knowing exactly where the architectural compo
nents end and begin, the observer is visually
trying to find the points of origin. Florian's enig
matic compositional treatment, plus his skillful
use of color, creates an intense three-dimensional
experIence .
SPILLER HOUSE, VENICE, CALIFORNIA
In the Spiller House, Venice, California (1980),
Frank Gehry (1929- ) was confronted with the
complexity oflocating two houses on a tiny urban
LIVING ROOM, SPILLER HOUSE,
VENICE, CALIFORNIA. FRANK GEHRY,
1980.
Interlocking volumes of partially
fini shed walls emphasize a constructivist
appmach to three dimensional space.
Photogmph by Tim Street-PorterIEsto.
THE THIRD DIMENSIO N: NAVIGATION OF SPACE 125
- :e. The limitations of that lot led the designer to
.::eYe lop a strong vertical scheme. The building is
:omposed of a t wo- story guest house with the
mam domicile rising four stori es at the rear of the
0 [, In Gehr y's typi cal playful desi gn approa ch,
-' is project has incorporat ed the collagelike ap
:>eara nce of the immedia te urban setting. Both the
_x terior and interior o f the complex are consist ent
ill the use of exposed wood studs , unfmi shed ply
\' ood , corrugated sheet metal , all inexpensive and
_ ones t materials. The simpli city of the materi als
' s contrasted by the complexity of the interi o r
,hrec-dimensi onal composition.
Having four floor s allowed Gehry to assem
Ie a series of dynamic int erlocking spaces.
paces, often fl ooded wi th llaturallight were ren
de red co mpl ex by the delibera te expression of
wood construction. The combination of stud
\\'all s and glass create a hi gh contrast when laced
'\'i th li ght and shadow. By exposi ng the transpar
ent and skeletal charact eristics of the building ma
terials, Gehry has revealed an ener gized three
dimensional construct ed environment.
S UMMARY
Space is not perceived in plan, eleva ti on, or sec
tion but as a total three-dimensional experience.
These drawing conventions, reinforced by the
complexi ty of contemporary project programs,
tend to limit concentration on the full develop
ment of three-dimensional Int erior Archit ecture.
Yet the power and exci tement produced from a
dynamic relationship between mass and void is
undeniable. The contrast formed by compressive
masses and expansive volumes can create memo
rable interior space. It is to this end the chapter' s
projects exe mplify how strong three-dimensional
exploitation can el evate one's experience, opening
the door to the fourt h dimension.
NOTES
1. J. J. Gibson, in hi s st udi es of visual percepti on, " has
made the interesti ng suggestion that motion parallax is
part of a more general source of moti on-produced dis
tance information whi ch he terms Ill otion pe rspec ti ve.
Gi bson points out that w hen an observe r is in Ill otion, the
retinal proj ections of obj ects undergo continuous tr ansfor
mations that are regular and la wful in character. Wherever
the o bser ver looks, the scene flo ws past in a continuous
stream. The fl ow decreases at the top of the visual field
and vanishes at the ho rizon. If we consider the terr ai n of
the environment to be prOjected as a plane in front of the
eye, the rate at w hi ch any element flo ws is inversely re
lated to its phys ical di stance from the observer. There is,
in Gibson' s ter ms, a g rad ient of velocity from a ma ximum
at the bottom of the visua l fi eld-the ground over wbi ch
we tra vel -to the ho ri zon." From Willi am N . Dember
and Joel S. War m , Psych%RY oJ Pempli ol1 (New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979), p. 291.
2. This is actually a special case of size perspective,
" whi ch refers to the fact that obj ects of equal size at va ry
ing distances project images whose visual angles are in
versely proport ional to their di stance." From Irvin Rock,
Percept ion (N ew Yark: Scientifi C American Books, 1984),
p 76.
3. A palaeslra was a public pla ce for exer cise in wres tling
and athletics in ancient Greece and Rome.
4. In order to use thi s method, a mirio r must be in a
stati onary posi tiOn with the arti st looking through a fi xed
vi ewfmder while painting the outlines of tbe subj ec t on
the mi rror. Thi s procedure was diffi cul t, since the artist's
own reflection tended to ge t in the w ay.
5. Such a contrivance would require a large pane of clear
glass in a fi xed vertical position on a flat surface and a
devi ce for holding the art ist' s head in a ri gid positi on
whil e covering o ne eye. The arti st would then paint the
cont ours of hi s subject on the pane of glass.
6. The artist would pl ace a piece of gridd ed paper on the
ho rizontal surface 111 front of the vertical gr idded glass.
Looking th rough thi s window, the artist would record
the subject's contours o n the paper. This method assisted
the artis t in proportionally enla rging or red ucing a draw
mg.
7. The ca mera obscur a was an enclos ure that produced
proj ected images throug h the positi oning of a mirror and
a doubl e convex lens. If prOjected on a piece of paper , the
contours o f the image could be traced by the artis t.
S. John Summerson, H eavell /)' Man sions (New York: W .
W. N orton & Co , 1963), p . 3.
9. Moore named the to\ver after a dog he once knew in
126 INTERIOR AR CHITECTURE
I
ceptiol1, "has
m parallax is
)rod uced dis
perspecti ve.
n motion, the
.IOUS transfor
rer . Wherever
a continuous
1(' visual field
t he terrain of
in front of the
; inversely re
ver. There is,
n1 a maximum
~ d over which
n N . Dember
'r (New York:
e perspective,
al size at vary
angles are in
,m Ir vin Rock,
Books, 1984),
se in wrestli ng
. must be in a
:hrough a fi xed
the subj ect on
,ince the artist's
~ e pane of clear
r surface and a
rigid position
I then paint the
; .
ed pa per on the
g ridded glass .
( would record
method assisted
:ducing a draw
~ that produced
o f a mirr or and
:ce of paper, the
,he artist.
N ew York: W.
1e once knew in
-e\v Orleans . From Da vid Littl ejohn, Architect: Th e Life
:: Work of Charles W. Moore (New York: Holt, Rinehart
_, Winston, 1984), p. 78.
The seco nd tower was named after the wife of King
_:chard the Lionhearted. Ibid , p. 78.
: . The source of the name is unknown. Ibid , p. 79.
: . Allee is a French word for a walk or passage, usuall y
-:l a garden or park, bordered by rows of tr ees or bushes.
:-lere it is used to denote a bordered way within the int e
-or, which forms a strong axi s in the French sense .
.3. " The Guggenheim Museum," Architectural Foru m,
_ :1<.": 1959, p. 127.
14. The golden section is an elaborate proportional system
dating back to ancient Greece and the Pythagorean con
cept of "all is number." A recta ngle becomes "golden')
when its width is to the length as the length is to the sum
of the width and length (a: b = b:a + b).
15. Vitrage is a French word for glass windows or glazing
but does not mea n stained glass w indows .
16. SITE is a design organization , the name of whi ch
originall y meant "Sculpture ll1 the Environment." The
spelled out version of the name was eventually abbr evi
ated to SITE when the g roup felt that their projects were
more architectural than sc ulptural.
THE THIRD DIMENSION: NAVIGATION O F SPACE 127
DETAIL OF "SAILBOAT" LI GHTING
CONTROLS, PANNELL KERR FORSTER.
CHI CAGO, ILLINOIS . THE LA NDAHL
GROUP, IN C., 1985.
Ph%s rap h by Karam and Associates
LI GHTING
ER R FORSTER,
~ E L ANDAHL
d Ass(1ciates
CHAPTER 4
T HE FOURTH DIMENSION: SPACE-TIME
-=- HE CONCEPT OF SPACE-TIME
emarkable architectural space possesses the abil
:--. to engage human participants and open their
_nses fully to new experience. The sensation of
-. li ng and comprehending the space through a
-:--nporal heightening of one's perceptions-vi
':.11, aural, olfactory, tactile, thermal, kinesthetic
- ddds another dimension by which such archi
space can be measured. This additional
.:: mension is temporal and is made manifest by
J man interaction with the architecture-a differ
.::[iated and special experience through the pas
__e of time. When the dimension of time is
-ombined with the three dimensions of spatial
"'!'. asurement, a new, collective concept of space
-:me must be recogni zed.
Conventional, Newtonian three-dimensional
?dCe, measured by width, height, and depth, is
"';l ade up of locations or places. Space-time is
of occurrences or events , which are
:'.ose things happening to someone at a given
and a given time. Each sense imprint of
ne's perception is such an event. These events
" .:: cur continuously as the process of living cannot
,"oid the interaction between person and envi
- nment. When a series of events provides a rich
unique environmental experience for the par
_::i pant, the resultant space-time becomes an im
. rtant criterion for measuring the quality of the
_:-chitecture. Space-time is an essential component
Interior Archi tecture. This space-time concept
- also central to relativistic physics, stream-of
:.msciousness literature, and cubist painting.
. ace-time is a new idea for the West, and only
:.'1ce the ea rly twentieth century has it affected
nd transformed Western science, humanities,
the arts. The East, however, has always
...nderstood the interrelation of space and time and
the unity of all things. Eastern philosophy is
guided by the quest for the experience of the ulti
mate reality.
THE UNITY OF ALL T HINGS:
H INDUISM, BUDDHISM,
THE TAO, MA
Hinduism communicates its philosophy through
myths, great epics that involve a vast number of
gods and goddesses in countless events. These
mythical images, however, are the many faces of
reality. "Myth embodies the nearest approach to
absolute truth that can be stated in words." I The
ultimate reality is where time and space merge as
a continuum, and the individual is part of the
whol e.
Eas tern mystics of Buddhism, particularl y
the Avatamsaka school of Mahayana Buddhism,
attain states of consciousness that actually tran
scend the ordinary three-dimensional world.
Their enlightened awareness is experienced as a
kind of space-time of the ultimate reality.
The significance ojthe A vatamsaka and its philos
ophy is unintelligible unless we once experience . .. a
state oj complete dissolution where there is no more
distinction between mind and body, subject and object
... We look around and perceive that . .. every ob
ject is related to every other object . .. not only spa
tially, but temporally . . . As aJact oJpure experience,
there is no space without time, no time without space;
they are interpenetrating.
2
The Chinese belief in the ultimate reality is
the Tao. All of the seemingly separate things that
humans observe are unifi ed through this philoso
phy. "There are the three terms-'complete,' 'all
embracing,' 'the whole.' These names are differ-
THE FOURTH DIMENSION: SPACE-TIME 131
HINDU SCULPTURE. INDIAN, SHIVA
NATARAJA, LORD OF THE DANCE,
BRONZE, CHOLA DYNASTY, 10TH
11TH CENTURY A.D. , HT.: 71.1 CM ,
KATE S. BUCKINGHAM FUND,
1967.1130
Th e dualiry of creation al1d desrrl/ction is
the ulrimate continllum ofrhe god)
Shi lJa, a metaphorfor tlte COl/rint-IIlm of
space and tillle. 1990 Tlte A,.r
Institute of Chicago, Ali Rights
Reserved.
BUDDHA SCULPTURE. SOUTH INDIAN,
NAGAPATTlNAM, SEATED BUDDHA,
STONE, 11TH CENTURY, 134.6 CM,
MR. AND MRS. ROBERT ANDREW
BROWN RESTRI CTED GIFT, 1964.556.
Enlightenment is the means fo r
underslan ding the o.fspace and
time in Buddhism. This ultimate II"IIIIt is
found through .locI/sed l1I editation as
personified by the sea led Bl/ddha.
1990 Th e Arrinstitllte (:fChicago, Ali
Rights Reserved.
- _ v t the fed)jt)' 500ght jJJ them js the Sdme:
-:ng to the One thing. " 3 Tao is the essence of
\"e rse. Its actuality is the undefmable real
C" rocess characterized by endless, constant,
cha nge. The duality of opposites, the yin
:..-:.e yang , represent the limits of this cyclical
_nd form a unity of opposites, which are
as pects of the same whole. "The 'this' is
:hat.' The 'that' is also 'this.'. . That the
nd the 'this' cease to be opposites is the
:"ssence of Tao. Only this essence, an axis as
is the center of the circle responding to
_.. less changes. "4
The Japanese have a concept of the unity of
::" and time, known as MA. To them, space
never perceived independently from time.
-=_'1 rmore, time was not abstracted as a flow
- \' as an element relative to movements or
:-:: Their space-time, MA, is defined by
_,:a mi's Dictionary of Ancient Terms as "the nat
.L.. istance between two or more things existing
_ continuity" or "the space delineated by posts
screens (rooms)" or "the natural pause or in
_ between two or more phenomena occur
_=continuously.'"
P.\ . ESE, ILL USTRATED LEGENDS OF
-';E Yuzu NEMBUTS U SECT (Yuzu
D I BUTSU ENGI) , HANDSCROLL, INK,
LO R AND GOLD ON PAPER,
\.\ \.,\KU RA PERIOD, 14TH CENTURY,
.3 x 1018 CM, KATE S.
,,'CKINGHAM COLLECTION ,
-6. 1256. VIEW 6 LEFT TO RIGHT.
!.-\ is the foundation of most aspects of
';: ,mese life. The equating oI time and
... underlie Japanese artistic
partimlarly architecture, .fin e
-:: . !nus ie, and drama. 1990 The
-:' Institule of Chicago, All Righls
t.'erlJed.
CHINESE SCROLL PAINTING. H SU-PEN,
CHINESE, ACTIVE 1370-1380,
LANDSCAPE, HANGING SCROLL, INK ON
PAPER, ADA TURNBULL HERTLE
FUND, 1%7.377.
Tao represents the cosmic geometry of
the wOI'ld aud the dynamics which
sfimulate if. The order of
natw'e is central fo fhe cyclical dllaliry of
yin and yang. 1990 The Art
of Chicago, All RiJZhts
Reserved.
THE FOURTH DIMENSI ON : SPACE-TIME 133
T HE BIRTH OF WESTERN
SPACE-TIME
The discovery or realization of space-time in the
West in science, humanities, and the arts resulted,
in part, from the growing pains of the Industrial
Revolution. Challenging the basic foundations of
the old order, the Industrial Revolution fostered
political and social unrest in Europe. Russia was
on the verge of a major revolution. Germany was
a newly crea ted nation filled with nationali stic
pride. The Austro-Hungarian Empire, weakened
by the diversit y of ethnic and reli gious differences
of its subjects, was about to split into a number of
smaller, independent nations. England's hold
over a worldwide empire was weakening as
Q ueen Victoria (1819-1901) , the longest rei gning
Engli sh monarch , died. France was struggling
with a third attempt at democracy and would ex
perience fifty governments by the beginning of
the First World War. Barbara Tuchman (1912
1989) su ms up the West's conflicts and restlessness
of this age in Th e Proud Tower.
Industrialization, imperialism, the Sl'OlIlth oj
cities, the decline ojthe countryside, the power ojmoney
and the power oj machines, the clenched ,fist of the
working class, the redflas oJSocialism, the wane o.fthe
aristocracy, all these Jorces and Jactors were churning
like the bowels oja volcano about to enlpt."
During this period scientists developed a the
ory of space-time as they were struggling with
conflicts and inconsistenci es in Newtonian ph ys
ics. N ewtonian physics maintained that time was
absolut e and space was absolute
7
This meant that
two observers would agree on a time assigned to
any given event, no matter how far apart the ob
servers were or in what condi tion their relative
motion was to each other. Albert Einst ein (1879
1955) revolu tionized classical physics in 1905 with
his special theory of relativity in which he calcu
lated how time in one reference system moving
away at a constant veiocity appears to slow down
when viewed from another system at rest relative
to it. He concluded that "every reference body has
its own particular time. "K In his general theory of
relativity of 1916, he explained: "We entirel y shun
the vague wor d space, of which , we must hones tly
acknowledge, we cannot form the slightest con
ception and we must replace it by motion relative to
a practically r(gid body oJreference." 9 In other words,
"space has no objective reality except as an order
or arrangement of the objects we perceive in it,
and time has no independent existence apart from
the order of even ts by which we measure it." 10
In 1908, Hermann Minkowski (1864-1909),
a former Zlirich professo r of Einstein, drew upon
Einstein's special theory of relativity to speculate
on the fat e of space and time as separate dimen
sions of experience. H e presented to an assembly
of German natural scientists and physicians an ad
dress tha t began
The views of space and time which I wish to lay
beJore you have spnlllg from the soil oj experimentai
physics, and therein their strength. They are radi
cal. Henceforth sp ace by and time by itse(f, are
doomed to Jade all'll}' illto mere shadows, and only a
kind oj union of the t!l'O will preserlJe an independent
reality. II
T HE X-RAY: S PACE- TIME
OF I NSIDE/ Q U1 SIDE
Another contributi on to the new consciousness of
space-time was the di scovery of the X-ray. In
1895, Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen (1845-1923) ac
cidentally obsen'ed tha t a screen coated with a
fluor escent salt. such as potassium platinocya nide,
became lumi nous eyery time he switched on a
nearby cathode-ra\' t ube . What caused this?
Roent gen kne\\' that cathode rays themselves
could not escape from the glass tube, but some
kind of invisible radiati on was contacting the
screen. He placed a thick piece of metal between
the tll be and a surface co\'ered with the phospho
rescent salt and found that a distinct shadow of
the metal was cast on this surface. Opaque mate
rials such as w ood or thinne r metal would create
only part ial shado\\' s. He deduced that the greater
the density of the m.Hcrial, the stronger the
shadow or opacity. By passi ng these rays through
human fl esh, he could obtain a precise photo
graphic record of the bones beneath the flesh. He
, t honest! y
;htest con
t i relative to
her words,
IS an order
ceive in it,
apar t from
Ire it." 10
864-1909),
drew upon
o speculat e
ate dimen
n assembly
:ians an ad
. wish to lay
'-"perimentai
ley are radi
by itself, are
and only a
i11 dep er/ dent
ciousness of
: X -ray. In
3-1923) ac
ated with a
i nocyanide,
itched on a
aused this?
themselves
but some
1tacting the
tal between
1e phospho
. shadow of
paque mate
, ould create
( the greater
(ronger the
ays through
photo
he flesh. He
. eled these mysterious radi at ions X-rays, "X"
-:>presenting the algebraic symbol for an un
own. With the invention of the fluoroscope in
96 by Thomas Edi son (1847-1931), the inside
:. a li ving human body could be viewed and in
{'ected. "The opening up of the interior anatom
: al terrain of the human body by X-ray was part
' :- a general reappraisal of w hat is properly inside
" d what is outside the body, the mind, physical
_. jects, and nations." 12 The ability to transcend
-;.e opaque wall with this new vision altered the
e- nse of time. Thomas Mann (1 875-1955) de
:ri bed this profound experience of temporal al
-C" :-ati on in The Magic MOlmtain.
. -RAYOFAHAND,1991.
X-ray a/ fered fhe se/lSe oj" fill1c and
.:' ,7(f , {li e /,iewel" 10 experien ce
.:t' space-lime oj"rhe filling I-nllnQII body.
by )o/III Kurlicit .
H e was so kind as to permit the patient, at his
request, to look at his own hand through the screen.
And Hans Castorp saw, precisely what he had never
thought it would be vouchsafed him to see: he looked
into his own grave. The process ofdecay was forestalled
by the powers of th e light-ray, the flesh il1 which he
walked disil1t egrated, anl1ihilated, dissolved il1 vacant
mist, and there within it was the /inely turned skeleton
of his own hand, the seal ring he had inherited from his
grandfather hanging loose and black on the joint of his
ring-finger-a hard, material object, with which man
adorns the body that is fated to melt away beneath it ,
when it passes on to another .flesh that can wear it for
yet a little while.
13
T HE C INEMA: MANIPULATION
OF SPACE AND TIME
The invention of the cinema altered time directly.
N ot onl y could it portray real time, but it could
speed up time, stop time, or reverse time.
Through the development of in tercutting, simul
tanei ty of time and spa ce was achieved. lntercut
ting began with The Ex- Convict (1905), by Edwin
S. Porter (1869-1941) the same yea r as Einstein's
special theory of relativity. In 1908, D. W. Grif
fIth (1874-1948) started producing films that
revolutionized filmmaking techniques. He
"introduced the fade-in, the fade-out, the long
shot, the full shot, the close-up, the moving cam
era shot , the fl as hback, crosscutting and MON
TAGE," 14 esta bli shing cinematic space-time.
Movement presented in cinema appears to be
continuous, but it is actually discontinuous be
cause it is created by a series of still images pro
jected at a high speed. Thus the dimenslOl1S of
space and time can be altered or di sto rted by ma
nipulation, giving the obs erver new dimensions
of experience. Cinema corresponded to the scien
tific theories of Einstein with the assimilation of
space and time into a space-time continuum. Ein
stein argued that space and time were combined
to form the framework of the universe. The
framework upon which cinema existed likewise
combined space and time. One could move about
in time as much as in space, and space had the
flowing quality of time. Cinema became the syn
thesis of space and time.
THE FO URTH DIMENSION: SPACE-TIME 135
16MM FILM CLIP FROM FA SHION '72, A
FILM BY JOHN KURTICH, 1972, ABOUT
DESIGNING AND FABRICATING HI GH
FASHION CLOTHES.
Th e disconlitnlity ojfilm image is
possible 10 I!iew in an actual slrip oj
moviefilm. Altering lime and space Jor
the viewer occllrs through hiJ(h speed
projection oJthese sl ill images, creating
the space-lime continuum. Photograph
by Johl1 Kurlich.
STREAM-Of-CONSCIOUSNESS
LITERA TURE: N ARRA TIVE
SPACE-TIME
Space-time in literature became manifest in the
writings of Virginia Woolf (1882-1941) and
James Joyce (1882-1941). Woolf transformed the
English novel with time shifts and stream-of-con
sciousness. She declared that "life is not a series of
gig lamps symmetrically arranged; but a luminous
halo, a semi-transparent envelope surrounding us
from the beginning of consciousness to the end." 15
Stream-of-consciousness techniques share
much with those of the cinema, that is, similar
methods to show composite or diverse views of a
subject, flow of events, and interrelation or asso
ciation of ideas . There is a freedom of shifting
back and forth in time, of mixing or intermin
gling past, present, and future . Two methods pre
dominate:
One is that in which the subject can remain fixed
in space and his consciousness can move in time-the
result is time-montage or the superimposition oj images
or ideas Jrom one time on those oj another; the other
possibility, oj course, is Jor time to remain fixed and Jor
the spatial element to change, which results in space
montage .
16
James Joyce uses this latter technique with
brilliance in his revolutionary Ulysses.
Mr. Bloom, alone, looked at the titles.
Fair Tyrants by James Lovebirch . Know the kind
that is. Had it! Yes.
H e opened it. Thought 50.
A woman 's voice behind the dingy curtain .
Listen: The man.
No: she wouldn 't like that much. C ot her
it once.
He read the other title: Sweets of Sin.
More in her line . Let us see.
H e read where his finger opened.
-All the doll arbills her husband gave her
were spent in the stores on wondrous gowns and
costlies t frillies. For him! For Raoul!
Yes. This. H ere. Try.
-Her mouth glued on his in a luscious
voluptuous kiss while his hands felt for the
opulent curves inside her deshabille.
Yes. Take this. Th e elld.
17
t in the
H) and
med the
-of-con
series of
JmInOUS
fld ing us
end." 15
:s share
, similar
iews of a
or asso
. shifting
ntermin
10ds pre
nain fixed
time-the
oJimages
the other
red andJor
in space-
que with
Ie kind
ain.
her
ave her
owns and
:lOUS
the
=- ESACRE DU PRINTEMPS:
\t1USIC IN SPACE-T IME
Stravinsky (1882-1971), by unders tanding
' .:1 space-time consciousness, revolutionized the
und of music with Le Sacre du Printemps, which
'.IS presented as a Diaghilev ballet at the Theatre
':.1 Champs-Elysees, Pari s, on May 29, 1913. The
produced a riot of protes t as the audi
."' -e was confronted with unfamiliar sounds and
-"! n hms. Musicall y it had revert ed to the primi
-::"e sources of performance art-tribal drums ,
--: e worship of nature, human sacrifice.
.. No one had ever heard music like it beJore; it
. /ll ed to violate all the most hallowed concepts oj
.lil ly, harmony, tone, and expression. Never had an
Jience heard music so brutal, savage, aggressive, alld
_ ?,l rently chaotic; il hit the public like a hurricane,
'f some uncontrolled primeval Jorce. The Rite of
:-ring is the very antithesis oj all those saaharine
-prings JJ one had come to expect Jrom every musician,
'lll ter, and writer under the sun. H ere is spring seen
'/II within, Jrom the very bowels oj the pregnallt
:1 . which writhes in Ihe pangs oj labour and gives
: 0 dark tellurian Jorces. ((What I was tryin,l? to
t')' , JJ says Stravinsky, "was the surge oj spring,
upsurge oj nature reborn. JJ 18
Stravinsky accomplished thi s by altering fa
'.I r time patterns of exis ting music and creating
"':e \ \' space-time continuum where the rhythm
- :he music was released from any regularl y re
.:: ive pulse. Time signatures cons tantly change
_ :" 3/,(" 2/16, 3/1 6, "Is, 2/16, 3/16-meas ure by mea
:c. H e simultaneously combined chords to pro
,-:: new sound so that
the effect oJjuxtaposing Iwo helerogeneous har
It' poles in Ihis way is like th e oj short circuit
- t1l' combustion, melling Ihe mus ical fobric and
iillg it into a solid plaslic mass. The Jorces oj har
ic, melodic and lanai propulsion are canceled out,
- the opaque, inert material thus created serves merely
,zi l'e body to the rhylhm. The incredible dynamic
'_I /)'ity oJthe rhythm swallows up every other element
-"i e musical discolArse.
19
The release of energy presented by this work
.J rked the birth of contemporary music and had
;:- rofound effect upon the sense of time and space

. --- " .
"., . - . . .., - .
A PAGE FROM THE PIANO REDUCTlON
SCORE OF LE SACRE DU PRINTEMPS,
"SACRIFICIAL DANCE (THE CHOSEN
ONE)," 1911-1913.
The col1sta l7l shiftil1g al1d (hanging of
SlralJil'lsky's lI1usicai parrerns al1d lillIe
Ila/lles altered the COl/s(iousnes5 of the
traditional (Ol1cert audience, propellil1<ii
Ih em il1to the aura/ eql.livalcl1I ofspa(e
tilll e. Co urtesy: Dovel' Publicaliol1s,
111(" Nell) York, New York.
In subsequent music. Stravinsky was the fIrst
composer to tackle the "tyranny of the bar line,"
a kind of absolute time against w hich composers
had long prot ested. Here was a composer who
shared a simil ar attitude toward time and space
with Einstein. Stravinsky was actually creating
musi c in space-time. His techni que with The Rite
oj Spring was to use displ aced accent and disso
nance balanced by the device of melodi c fragmen
tation throu gh which he achieved a structural
THE FOURTH DIMENSION: SPACE-TrM E [37
continuity. The complex rhythm did not exist in
dependently for its own sake but was cohesively
combined with melody and harmony. This unity
of new time and space overwhelmed the listener
with its shattering, elemental power. "Stravin
sky's music ... seem(ed) to transform ... the
barbaric cries of modern life; and to transform
these despairing noises into music." 20
"LES DEMOISELLES D'AVIGNON" BY
PABLO PICASSO. PARIS (BEGUN MAY,
REWORKED JULY 1907). OIL ON
CANVAS, 8' x 7'8". COLLECTION, THE
MUSEUM OF MODERN ART, NEW
YORK. ACQUIRED THROUGH THE
LILLIE P. BLISS BEQUEST.
Hailed by some scholars as the first
twentieth century paintillg, "Les
Demoiselles d'Avignon" broke
completely away .from the tradition of
European classical painting, partiwlarly
with the depiction of the human figure
and the presentation o[three-dil11ellsio/1a1
space. Collection. The Museum of
'\'1odern Art , New York.
CUBISM: SPACE-TIME
OF MCLTIPLE PERSPECTIVE
As Stravinsky scandalized the music world with
his new sound, Pablo Picasso (1881-1973)
stunned the art world with his new vision of
painting. His Les Demoiselles d' Avignon (1907) is
widely recognized as the beginning of cubism. It
was a shocking picture for its time, with nudes
and seminudes affronting the Renaissance canons
of female beauty. It expressed the development of
irrational forms equivalent only to psychic re
sponses, multiple viewpoints of the space the
nudes were occupying, and simultaneous visions
of the human body. The two figures in a frontal
pose have their noses in sharp profile. The seated
figure on the lower right has her back to the
viewer, but her head is seen from the front. Cub
ism grew up in Paris between 1907 and 1914, with
Picasso and Georges Braque (1882-1963) the two
principal pioneers. Linear perspective was aban
doned for multiple perspectives with X-ray views
of their interiors. Roger Allard (1885-1961) wrote
of cubist painting in 1910 as "elements of a syn
thesis situated i.n rime." 21 In 1913, Guillaume
Apollinaire (1880-1918) remarked that cubists
have followed scientists beyond the third dimen
sion and "have been led quite naturally ... to
preoccupy themseh' es with new possibilities of
spatial measurement which, in the language of the
modern studies. are designated by the term: the
fourth dimension. ,. 21 In Picasso's Wineglass
(1911), advancing and retreating planes of infor
mation represented sometimes fragments of iden
tifiable objects, sometimes objects presented so
that the interior and exterior could be seen simul
taneously, and irrational forms evoking psychic
responses.
LE CORBUSIER: THE CONTINUUM
OF SPACE AND TIME
Cubism had an important influence on architec
ture, particularly with Le Corbusier (1887-1965).
As Picasso and Braque were exhibiting interiors
and exteriors of objects simultaneously in their
paintings, Le Corbusier developed in both paint
Hid with
81-1973)
vision of
(1907) is
ubism. It
ith nudes
ce canons
' pment of
,ychic re-
pace the
Ll S visIOns
I a frontal
[ he seated
ck to the
onto Cub
1914, with
3) the two
was aban
-ray views
961) wrote
, of a syn
Guillaume
tat cubists
ird dimen
ally ... to
iibilities of
uage of the
term: the
Wineglass
:s of infor
Il ts of iden
:esented so
seen simul
ng psychic
1
:)0 architec
1887-1965) .
ng interiors
!sly in their
both paint
BY PABLO PICASSO,
1881-1973, OIL ON CANVAS,
111 12, 33x1 7.8 CM, GIFT OF
-=".\ IRE ZEISLER IN MEMORY OF
-. J \ MES SPEYER, 1986.1410.
Ti l1 eglass " is a classic example ofan
'fa broken down into its component
,,-[S and reconstitwed illlo a
'leldoscopi c presentation ofdecomposed
II . 1990 The Art Institut e of
:: icaci?o, All Righls Reserved.
ing and architecture the interpenetration of inner
and outer space. He used painting and architecture
as two different disciplines to achieve the same
result. His Nature Morte de l'Esprit Nouv eau (1924)
is a painting that expresses planes of transparency,
boundaries and outlines between the different ob
jects, and interpenetrations of inner and outer
space. His architecture of the same period simi
larly treated inner and outer space. He issued a
manifesto, the "five points of a new architec
ture." 23 This proclamation was based on a struc
tural argument that suggested that the new
architecture was the passive result of a proper and
effective use of the concrete frame. By designing
houses under this manifes to, Le Corbusier pro
duced constructions in space-time. His houses
could not be comprehended from a single point
of view. They had to be viewed from above and
"NATURE MORTE DE L' EsPRIT
NOUVEAU" BY LE CORBUSJER, 1924.
Le Corbusier treated painting as a means
to architecture in terms of the
interpenetrations of inner and ol.ller
space. Droits de reprodlulion perws par
fa SPADEM. Copyright 1991 ARS
N. Y / SPADEM.
THE FOURTH DIMENSION: SPACE-TIME 13 9
below as well as all the way around. The conti
nuity of inside-to-outside space was total from
any viewpoint.
ARCHITECTURE AND SPACE-TIME
Architecture conceived in space-time is four di
mensional. Space-time is a concept that depends
upon the idea of the unity of all things, the whole.
When applied to archi tecture, this notion of
wholeness requires the interdependent and insep
arable nature of the inside from the outside, a
basic element defining Interior Architecture. The
Roman god of doors , Janus, might well be in
voked as the patron god of Interi or Architecture,
because this two-faced deity could see inside and
outside of a building simultaneously.
The fact that space-time is composed of
events continuously occurring to humans inter
acting with their environment , perceptual experi
ences through the passage of time become an
important cri terion for judging the four-dimen
sional quality of a building or SPace . This is part
of the conscious design of Interior Architect ure,
whether the participant is static or in motion.
" man mOlJing about within the building, study
ing it from successive points of views, himself
creates, so to speak, the fourth dimension, giving
space an integrated reality. ""<
For humans to experi ence space-time, a sup
portive architectural attitude had to be developed.
The ancient Greeks thought that geometry was
inherent in nature. Euclid developed the science
of geometry, which controlled the Wes t for the
next two thousand years. Sir Isaac Newton
(1642-1727) based his classical laws of physics on
an absolute three-dimensional world, obeying the
laws of Euclidean geometry, and a separate, in
dependent, absolute dimension of time. N ewto
nian physics dominated Western science until
Einstein's theory of relativity profoundly altered
this viewpoint in the early twentieth century. The
Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century
made an unexpected impact on architectural atti
tudes through structural technology . By midcen
tury, the countries that had achieved major
transformations through the Industrial Revolu
140 lNTERI0R AHCHITECTURE
tion were literall y drunk with the potential and
possibilities of all kinds of technology. England
and France, in particular, competed with each
other for dominance in technical and industrial
achievements, presenting these through universal
expositions, housed in structural engineering
wonders of their time. Throughout the rest of the
century, London and Paris tried to outdo each
other with successive world's fairs, not only pre
senting new inventions and industrial processes
but also showcasing them in innovative struc
tures.
The Industrial Revolution brought about the
means to use iron and glass as building materials.
In England the Crystal Palace of 1851, covering
almost 800,000 square feet, stunned the world.
The French, not to be outdone, in 1889 con
structed two astounding structures for their Ex
position U ni verselle: the Galerie des Machines,
the arches of which had the greatest unsupported
span in the world (115 meters or 377 feet) and the
Eiffel Tower, then the tallest structure in the
world at 300 meters (984 feet).
SIMULTANEITY OF INSIDE
AND OUTSIDE
THE EIFFEL TOWER
The Eiffel Tower (1887-1889) by Gustave Eiffcl
(1832-1923), presented for the first time in a pub
lic structure the unique experience of the simul
taneity of being inside and outside. This can be
readily experienced by anyone who ascends the
tower via the stairs. As one climbs the stairs, one' s
focus of ascent continually changes in three major
ways: a confined, enclosing structure about the
stairs; an expansive, unimpeded view of the city;
a larger internal structural umbrella of the entire
tower. From inside small scale to outside large
scale to inside large scale, back and forth and in
between, with the sensation of being inside and
outside changing so rapidly that one cannot nec
essarily pinpoint what is truly enclosed or what is
actually exterior space. Yet space is defll1ed.
There is a true sense of bei ng inside, which
changes the instant one turns the corner on the
ttial and
England
ith each
l dustrial
miversal
ineering
's t of the
do each
ID ly pre
lrocesses
-e struc
bout the
laterials.
covenng
e world.
389 con
:heir Ex
tl achines,
up ported
:) and the
-e in the
lve Eiffel
m a pub
le simul
is can be
:ends the
tlrS, one's
ree major
tbout the
- the city;
[he entire
,ide large
h and in
rJs ide and
[l not nec
) r what is
defmed.
e. which
er on the
FIGU RE, ATHENS, GREECE,
. iSTI C.
_- partiwlal' Jal1us figure /lot ol1ly
,:'t',-ses the duality of simultallecmsly
_w i/lg inside and outside or past and
.re. but also denotes the
irit)' of male andfe/nale or animus
; ,lIl il11a. Photograph by Johl1
rTl ch.
and literally hangs out over Paris. There is
:hing monotonous about this experience, be
.lse as one ascends, the structure of the tower
:nes together, getting tighter at the same time
cl imbs higher and higher above the city. Rob
ert Delaunay's (1885-1941) painting, The Red
Tower (1911), captures this simultaneity of inside
outside space. Space-time is portrayed by a spin
ning movement of vistas of sky, fragments of
hOLlses, and multiple views ofall parts ofthe tower.
EIFFEL TOWER, PARIS, f RANCE.
G USTAVE EIFFEL, 1887-1889.
The experience of 1110 IJ ill}!, up alld
thl'oURh the Ei[(e/ Towel' paved Ihe way
for the l'eiJO/{.Itiol1ary depioioll of
sim{.lltarleity of ilHide and o{.l lside space
i/1. early twentieth (entury a,., alld
architecture. Ph otogl'aph by Johll
KUl'ti(h.
"CHAMP DE MARS ( T HE RED
T OWER) " BY ROBERT DElAUNAY,
fRENCH, 1885-1941, OfL ON CANVAS,
19 11 , 162.6x130.8cM, THE J OSEPH
WINTERBOTHAM COLLECTI ON,
1959.1.
De/aul/ ay (apt llred I/Ie space-li,lie
experience of the EiJrel T OI J'er alld its
perceptual il11pa(f Oi l the s!lrroli lld
(ity scap e. 1990 The Ail [1I ." illite oj
Chi(a}!,o, All RiShls Reserl' ed.
SOl'THWEST ElEVATI ON, V ILLA
SA\ 'OYE, POISSY- SUH- SEI NE, FRANCE.
LE CORBUSIER, 1929-1930.
T he I 'illa Savoye cannot be
cOlllprehended from a single lJicwpoil1t;
ill5le<1d ils spaces penetrate fa( h othe/' ,
ill.,ide 10 olltside and back again, fro m
all)' I'iell'-iookin,\! up, lookin}!, down,
lookillg Olll ill clJer}' dil'ation.
P/I(Illl,\Zraph by J ohn Kurticll.
The simultaneity of inside and outside is a
_ ~ . strong four-dimensional architectural phe
-:1 non. The Eiffel Tower is an extreme exam
ecause the experience occurs while one is
' sically moving in the three spatial dimensions
-.e sa me time. The res ulting combinati on of
_ ~ ~ actions and perceptions results in a unique
-e-time phenomenon for the participant.
V ILLA
[:-i E, F RANCE.
30.
be
e IJiewpo illt;
each other,
J.l!ai l"l ,Fom
.o!<i ns down ,
ioll .
(Ii .
SPACE- TIME HOUSE
VILLA SAVOYE, POISSY
Le Corbusier (1887-1965) achieved the space
time house with hi s Villa Savoye at Poissy-sur
Seine, France, (1928-1930). This vill a was de
signed to face all directions and represented the
THE FOURTH DI MENSI ON: SPACE-TIME 143
culmination of ideas expressed in Le Corbusier's
five points of a new architecture. The house is a
rectangular box, elevated above the landscape on
round, concrete pillars . It is situated in the middle
of a meadow originally overlooking an orchard.
The box is segmented by elongated, rectilinear
windows, some glazed, some ungl azed, provid
ing a continuity of form between enclosed inside
spaces and enclosed garden spaces . The ground
level of the house is primarily a continuation of
the meadow and space for moving vehicles. The
radius of the entry lobby's semicircular plan re
sults from the minimum space required by a turn
Ing car.
The important feature of the villa is how one
moves through it from the ground level to the
roof. The villa has two principal means of vertical
circulation, a spiral staircase and a ramp system,
existing side by side. The staircase was intended
for servants to quickly ascend or descend as prior
ity demanded. The ramp was to be used by the
villa's owners and their guests.
Le Corbusier achieved with his ramp the dy
namic inside-outside space-time of the Eiffel
Tower. The ramp system effectively defies the
conventional boundaries of inside and outside
space. One flrst approaches the ramp head-on
after entering the main door on the ground floor.
Light from above encourages the visitor to ascend
the ramp. This ramp runs directly south-north
through the heart of the villa, zigzagging its way
past all the principal features of the dwelling, con
necting the most enclosed ground floor to the
open deck on the upper roof.
The openness of the Villa Savoye to light and
air not only from all sides but also the top, with
its terrace garden and solarium penetrating the
very center of the house and its bottom raised up
from the ground plane with both a ramp and a
spiral staircase penetrating vertically through its
core, provides an architectural expression with
multipl e viewpoints. Le Corbusier achieved in the
actual four dimensions of space-time what the
cubist painters were exploring and expressi ng in
their paintings before World War 1. As Picasso
provided us with the possibility of seeing inside
outside simultaneously and multiple perspective
of obj ects, Le Corbusier did the same to architec
ture.
q -J. INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
SPACE-TIM E OF INSIDE OUTSIDE
BEST PRODUCTS COMPANY,
MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN
The Inside-Outside Building of Best Products
Company, Inc., in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, ex
emplifies not only the interpenetration of inside
and outside space in a commercial application, but
presents materials and construction techniques ex
posed in the process of " unbuilding. " Designed
by SITE (1985), this showroom is a 1000-foot
long piece of public sculpture in a typical subur
ban shopping center.
The building features an ambiguous interior
recess between the jagged and broken exterior
brick shell and a second interior shell of thermal
glass (which actually encloses the store proper).
Merchandise on displa y is seen simultaneously in
side and out, the thermal glass screen being the
boundary between actual objects for sale and neu
tral gray-colored reproductions of the same ob
jects in the recess space. The duality of inside!
outside is reinforced by sample wares physically
bisected by the glass screen, existing in full color
on one side and dull gray on the other.
The "unbuilding" presentation of the outer
shell is a remarkable cutaway of how a typical
suburban shopping mall store is constructed.
Gaping holes in the exterior wall reveal the var
ious building components frozen in space and
time. The sculptural result tells a detail ed story of
architectural fabric ation. James Wines (1932- ),
principal of SITE, says:
We've been working with narrative architect ure a
long time, using construction as a sort of biography ofa
building, Other narrative artists take a subject jom life
and abstract it through a graphic process to such ali
extent that the source is lost. Our idea is that the story
is already th ere in the building.
25
S PACE-TI ME I N TERACTION WITH
THE CYCLES OF NATURE
MONTEREY BAY AQUARIUM,
MONTEREY, CALIFORNIA
The interpenetration of inside and outside space
cannot avoid the interaction of the cycles of na
'
ITSIDE
t Products
:onSln, ex
n of inside
ication, but
ex
, Designed
1000-foot-
Jical su bur
)US interior
en exterior
of thermal
Ire proper).
meously in
!1 being the
de and neu
e same ob
i of inside!
s physically
in full color
)f the outer
w a typical
:onstructed.
eal the var
! space and
iled story of
' (1932- ).
,7ychitecture ti
iography oJ ;
bj ect from lijt
5 to such aI ;
that the star)
WITH
SIDE/ OUTSIDE BUILDING,
'.' .\ LOGUE SHOWROOM, BEST
DUCTS Co. , INC. , MILWAUKEE,
i5CONSIN. SITE, 1984.
- .< bll ilding nol ol1ly shows itS insides
.nde, but displays ifs sale merchandise
space-time. Photograph by John
riich.
utside space
'H Ies of na-
THE FOURTH DIMENSION: SPACE-TIME 14 5
ture. When a building consciously interacts with
nature, the results can be dramati c. The Monterey
Bay Aquarium, designed by Esherick, Homsey,
Dodge and Davi s in 1985, is a building complex
on the edge of Monterey Bay, so situated that the
PacifIc Ocean literally penetrates the building
cyclicly with the tides. This creates "natural"
tanks that house the various species of sea life
found in Monterey Bay inside the aquarium, pro
viding human access to and experi ence of thi s
alien world.
The aquarium is built on the site of the for
mer Hovden Cannery, adapting a renovat ed
warehouse in its complex of new construction.
(See C hapter 8 for a discussion of the adapted
reLl se of the cannery into an aquarium.) It is ironi c
that this cannery was once committed to the de
struction of marine life but is now dedicated to its
preservation. The building complex wraps
around a large tidal pool , partially natural and
partially constructed, which is the main focal
point of the aquarium and clearly exemplifIes the
relationship of the architecture to nature.
H uman experience is enriched by the Kelp
Forest T ank (66 feet long by 28 feet high, open to
the sky) , the 90-foot-long Monterey Bay Tank
(housing bat ra ys, large sharks, and numerous
KELP FOREST TANK, MONTEREY Bt\ Y
AQUARIUM, MONTEREY, CALIFORNIA.
ESHERI CK, H OMSEY, DODGE AND
DAVIS, 1985.
The Kelp Forest Tank is directl y linked
to the tides and natural light of the
MOl1t erey Bay, physically demonstrating
011 architectural interaction IFith physical
cycles ofthe ocean. Photograph by Johl1
Kurfich.
ocean fI sh), and the Sea Otter Tank, all of which
can be viewed as a scuba diver would see them.
Other experiences include the Touch Pool in
which vis itors are encouraged to actually handle
various forms of sea life, and the Sandy Shore, a
two-story cage containing an actual sandy beach
interacting with the ocean. This sustains various
forms of coas tal plant life and a typica l sea bird
populati on contained within the aq uarIum
proper. Wavelets periodically wash over the
sandy beach, bringing ocean nutri ents to birds.
The cyclic nature of these waves reminds the
viewer that this human-made environment re
sponds directl y to the ocean's rhythm, which con
stantl y changes the con tours of the beach as it
brings in fres h food.
SPACE-TIME OF THE D AI L Y
SOLAR C YCLE
PANTHEON, ROME, ITALY
Direct architectural response to the cycles of na
ture can crea te unique space-time. The ancient
Pantheon of Rome (ca. A.D. 120-126) is a primary
exa mpl e of a building that responds directly to the
)f which
~ e them.
Pool in
y handle
Shore, a
:ly beach
s various
I seabird
IquartUm
:wer the
to birds.
linds the
ment re
hich con
'ach as it
les of na
Ie ancient
a prtmar y
ctly to the
iaily cyclic changes of the sun. The human expe
,ence that results from this building is created by
combination of strong geometric volumes and
xial 'Jatterns, which are coordinated w ith the
' un's apparent movement across the sky.
PORCH FACADE. PANTHEON, ROME,
ITALY. A.D. 120-124.
This iJiew of Ihe Pal1lheoll emphasizes
Ihe Iradiliollal Ronlan ICl11pl efOl' II1,
hidins Ihe IIl1iqli e rOllllldo alld dom e
whirh, ill realily, dominale,' Ihe huildill;,;
romplex bOlh inside alld aul. Photograph
hy J ohn Kurti ch.
PORCH, PANTHEON, ROME, ITALY.
A.D. 120-124.
The standard R01l1on longitudinal axis
of Ihe parell lenl/inatcs 171 Ihe giant
brol1ze doors , Ihe boul1dary bell.vem Ihe
world of Ihe Ih ird dimension alld thai of
Ih e fourlh. P/JOiograph by Jolm Kurlich.
The geometry of the Pantheon was bold and
original for its time. Basi cally it is a traditional
Roman rectangular temple porch attached to a
larger cylinder tOpped wi th a dome. The temple
porch is octas ty Ie, that is, it has eight Corinthian
columns suppor ting its pedimental roof. The This axis appears to continue through into the
porch is three columns deep, providing enough interior of the entire complex because it is
volume and depth to give the effect of a substan grounded in the stability of the classical temple
tial temple. Although the cylindrical part of the form. The viewer is led through the central pas
building is evident when viewing the front , it is sage of the porch to monumental bronze-plated
the ornate porch that first captures the viewer's double doors. In ancient times the ceiling of the
attention. In ancient times this porch would have porch had bronze barrel vaults running in the di
been even more dominant because the level of the rection of the path of entry, reinforcing this axis.
surrounding city was much lower (the original The porch is relatively dark because of its depth.
porch had five steep steps). Passing through the doubl e doors, one liter
The porch provides a strong longi tudinal ally steps into the fourth dimension. The space is
axial path for the viewer to enter the building. a domed cylinder, so vast and powerful yet simple
MOVEMENT OF SUN (3), ROTUNDA,
PANTHEON, ROME, ITAL Y.
A.D. 120-124.
The "eye orZeus" //l oves abol/[ [h e
interior space, first spotlighting {h e
coffers, reaching ill to the lower regiolls or
M OVEMENT OF SUN (1) , ROTUNDA,
the rotunda, andfinally il/uminating the M OVEMENT OF SU N (2), ROTUND A
PANTHEON, ROME, ITALY.
humans within th e space. PllOlosraphs PANTHEON, ROME, ITALY.
A.D. 120-124. by J ohn Kurtiell. A.D. 120-124.
111 its geometric purity. There is a dramatic change
) the
in the quality of light, from the dark porch to the
it is
focused sunlight, illuminating the rotunda. The
mple
dominant longitudinal axis vanishes; in its place is
pas
a vertical axis running through the center of the
lated
dome, through a 30-foot oculus. One's eyes are
f the
Immediately drawn to this oculus because the cof
.e di
fers of the lacunar26 optically emphasize it.
aXIs.
The human viewer is both dwarfed by the
pth.
space and yet in command of the space by its
li ter
strong centralizing organization. A rich articula
Ice is
tion of columns, niches , and aediculae grace the
mple
lower level of the cylindrical wall , giving a human
scale the viewer can better relate to. The upper
level of the wall has a series of blind windows that
continue this scalar relationship. The first rank of
the optically manipulated coffers marks the begin
ning of the dome, and the resulting optical vortex
created by the coffered design emphasizes the
\iewer's attention on the oculus . There are
Ewenty-eight radiating coffers in each of five
ranks. Each coffer is articulated with a descending
order of three steps so constructed that its steps
nUNDA.
dre shallower on its lower edge and steeper on its
higher, making the rotunda seem wider than it
actually is and leading the eye of the viewer di
rectly to the oculus.
The most dramatic feature of the interior is
the way in which the light of the sun is projected
through the oculus. This projected circle of hot
light moves about the space with the apparent
movement of the sun across the sky. The sense of
(his movement is possible even in a short visit to
,he monument . When the sun is high overhead
during the middle of a summer day, the floor is
-potlighted. As the day progresses, the circle of
:.i ght climbs back up the wall, first illuminating
<he ornate level of columns, niches, and aediculae,
:hen the second level of ornamental windows,
:hen finally ascends into the coffers of the dome
'[self before it is swallowed up by the oculus as
:he sun begins to set. Every day is a new experi
t' nce with the circle of light as the position of the
sun is constantly changing.
The conscious attention of the building to the
.:.-hanging aspects of sunlight is a potent expression
af the fourth dimension. The oculus focuses the
::gh t and forces the viewer to be aware of the
nature of this light and how it can move about in
the space. Although the Pantheon was originally
intended to be a temple to all the gods and god
desses, clearly the "eye of Zeus" dominates the
interior by means of the sun projecting through
the oculus.
SPACE-TIME OF DYNAMIC LIGHT
THE PAINTED APARTMENT,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
When a designer consciously uses the changing
quality of natural light , the space produced can be
a magical experience for the observer. The
Painted Apartment (1983) by Krueck and Olsen
(see Chapter 2 for a complete case study of this
project) represents a sensitivity to not only the
ever-changing natural light but also a juxtaposi
tion to outside natural conditions. The apartment,
located on an upper floor of the 2400 Lakeview
Avenue Building designed by Mies Van der Rohe
(1886-1969), overlooking Chicago's Lincoln Park
and Lake Michigan, responds directly to the spec
tacular view and the natural shapes of the shore
line and landscape. The exterior window wall
establishes the link with nature; all interior parti
tions stop short of this wall, allowing the pano
ramic view to dominate the interior. The use of
overlapping, curved, and perforated metal screens
as a space di vider reflects the natural shapes of the
outside landscape and filters daily and seasonal
light qualities. It is as though the outside atmo
sphere has been brought indoors because these
screens become transparent, translucent, or
opaque as the light in the space dictates.
The floor, walls, and ceiling are painted in
high gloss to reflect light and extend the space in
all directions as a response to the infinite space
beyond the window wall. Painted patterns on the
floor and ceiling, such as dots and curving ribbon
lines , extend the diaphanous metal screens.
Curved, back-lit, glass-block walls terminate the
real space with an illusion of infmite space be
yond. The space dramatizes the natural and con
tinuous change of light from morning to night.
LIVING ROOM AREA, " P AINTED
APARTMENT," 2400 LAKE VIEW
A VENUE BUILDING, CHI CAGO,
ILLINOI S. KRUECK AND OLSEN, 1983.
Interior space is linked direct ly with the
exterior throllgh the contim/ lml (If
chal/gin,!? light. Photograph vy John
Kllrti ch.
SPACE-TIME OF ARCHITECTURAL
DEMATERIALIZATION
THE FARNSWORTH HOUSE,
PLANO, ILLINOIS
Architecturej uxt aposed with nature can either de
materialize itself so that nature is dominant or it
can create a cooperative symbiosis with nature on
an equal basis. An exa mple of the former is the
Farnsworth House (1946-1951) by Ludwi g Mi es
van der Rohe (1886-1969). Thi s house was de
signed to be a country retreat on the banks of the
Fox River near Plano, Illinoi s, about 50 mil es
west of Chicago. It is a single, rectangul ar box
with four transparent walls of glass and a flat floor
and ceiling. The entire mass is rai sed five feet off
the ground on the same columns that form the
basic structure of the box itsel f, a functional
concession to the fact that the ri ver occasionally
floods. Asymmetrical to the house is another
raised platfor m halfway up fro m the ground level,
serving as an outdoor patio and transition surface.
This travertine terrace exists in vivid contrast
to its surrounding soft and colorful landscape. In
order to reach the house, one must walk across a
meadow without the definition of pavi ng or path.
The sense of isolation of this pristine, machinelike
object is ass ur ed by the absence of a defmed con
nection to the approach road. The visitor experi
ences a dra mat ic change underfoot of texture and
sound when crossing the meadow to the traver
tine stair. The sense of arrival is vivid and com
plete.
The combination of the fl oor-to-ceiling glass
walls and the raised condition of the entire house
dematerializes the interior architecture. The ex
perience one has inside is that of being part of the
infinite expansion of na ture. In the spring and
summer, a ri ch green turf extends through the
site, which includes magnificent trees with thick
green foliage. One is living in the middle of a
green forest on the banks of a river. In the au
tumn, the leaves of the trees produce a riot of
color that totall y changes the atmospheric qualit y
of the house. In the winter, a blanket of snow
dominates the landscape, and th e occupant of the
house is aware of the cold expanse in every direc
tion as well as the sensation offfoating above it.
,cape. In
across a
or path.
:hinelike
led con
o expen
ture and
tra ver
rl d com
mg glass
re house
The ex
rt of the
'ing and
ugh the
ith thick
die of a
the au
riot of
[ quality
of snow
nt of the
ry direc
oveit.
_ CTH ELEVATION, FARNSWORTH
-!vCSE, Fox R IVER V ALLEY, SO UTH
" P LANO, ILLINOIS. L UDWIG MIES
DER ROHE, 1945-1951.
-.c' house is a sculpt ural object in the
scape, deJining various levels oj
interior spaces through
:I,estraled planes oJtranspal'ency,
.. ,,-,ll/cenc),, al1d opacity. Photograph
1<,/111 Kurlich.
PACE-TIME OF ARCHITECTURAL
YMBIOSIS WITH NATURE
-=.U UNG WATER, BEAR RUN,
VANIA
. " ouse that forms a cooperative symbiosis wi th
:'Jre is the Kaufmann residence, known as Fall
-= Water, at Bear Run, Penns ylvania (1935
1937). Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959) took ad
vantage of a wooded Pennsylvania stream with a
rocky wa terfall and created a four-dimensionaL
statement about the relationship between a house
and its natural site. The building he designed par
ti cipates fully with its surroundings, from the dra
matic cantilevered projection of the house over
the wa terfall to the blurred edges between the
house boundary and forest. " There in a beautiful
forest was a solid, hi gh rock ledge risi ng beside a
I
WATERFALL VIEW, EDGAR].
KAUFMANN, SR., RESIDENCE
( "FALLINGWATER"), OHIOPYLE,
PENNSYLVANIA. FRANK LLOYD
WRIGHT, 1935.
"Fallingwater" becol'nes one with nature
as it grows out oj the rocky canyon and
embraces the watetjall. by
Joh n Kurtich.
waterfall, and the natural thing seemed to be to
cantilever the house from that rock bank over the
falling water . .. " 27 said Wright, describing the
house he had designed.
When one first approaches Falling Water, the
impression is that of a series of pale yellow-col
ored horizontal planes hovering above ground at
varying heights within a forest, defying gravity,
yet nestled within the protective confines of the
forest. The actual supports for these planes are
massive vertical elements built from the natural
stone of the area. The color of the stone blends
into the landscape so well that the horizontal
planes seem miraculous in their apparent suspen
sion of natural laws.
The climax of the viewer's experience come
when the house is viewed from below the water
fall, which is reached by passing by the entir
south elevation of the house, following the direc
tional flow of the stream. This journey slowl y
reveals the drama of the cantilevered planes unti:
suddenly the stream drops twenty feet , and th
ne blends
lOrizontal
It sus pen
l ce comes
:he water
the entire
the direc
ey slowly
lanes until
t , and the
-.:ouse is suspended, jutting out over the falls. The
:-dationship of the house to its natural site is total.
:-here are no compromises. The integrit y of the
:uman-made structure is maintained by the pure,
: :nooth rectangular forms of the horizontal
The integri ty of nature is represented by
completely nat ural waterfall and rocky
: :: eambed. The fusion of the two occurs with the
rock ver ti cal supports for the house, rising
of the bedrock and locking into the variously
?-oised horizontal planes.
The interi or of the house is a continued state
" nt about the house's relationship with nature.
_-atural stone walls and fla g stone floors create an
_-:-t pression that the interiors were almost carved
ur of the bedrock of the stream banks. As in the
:: rnsworth House, glass walls are used to extend
=- _e interior spaces to the stream below, the forest
__ vond, and the sky above. House boundaries are
:: urred by ca ntilevered trellises , forming a glazed
::- Ilis roofing on the interior and unglazed open
::-ellis on the exterior. A transparent glass wall
:t' parates the actual inside from the outside, but
=__c effect is that the house seems to extend di
: ..ctl y into na ture, with no normal boundari es of

Details of glazing enhance this effect. Glass
'alls are designed to fit directly into the vertical
-:one piers and towers, without bulky frames to
:: tray the boundary. Mulli ons are minimal and
In criti cal places such as corners, the edge
01 the glass is mitered forty-five degrees and ce
en ted together so that no opaque mullion or
:ructural member obstructs the view.
A suspended staircase leads one down from a
:t' rrace off the living room to an outdoor landing
d ow it at the stream level. Thi s is a pure gest ure
0 [- communion with nature. One is at the stream
_'Jst before it plunges into the waterfall. The mov
.ng water, the sound of the out-of-sight wa terfall,
::!1e reflecti on of the water on the natural stone
::J pport wall, and the bott om of the cantilevered
:,Iatform above all contribute to the closeness to
-: ature one experiences.
The maintenance of the integrity of nature is
ill-important with thi s design. Although the
__ouse has imposed its presence on the site, it does
WINDOW DETAIL, EDGAR]'
KAUFMANN, SR., RESIDENCE
("FALLINGWATER"), OHIOPYLE,
WRIGHT, 1935.
The disappearing comer ilt th e window
reinforces the symbiotic relation ship
between the house a/1d its natural
setting . Photograph by J ohn Kurtich.
so with such complete sensiti vit y [0 the natural
surroundings that symbiosis is complete. The
normally dissimilar elements of nature and human
structure Ii ve together in close association and co
operation. Over the driveway on the north side
of the house, Wright designed a trellis covering,
whi ch joined the house to a rock cliff north of it.
In order not to disturb an existing large tree near
the house, one trellis beam was curved around the
trunk of the tree in order to accommodate it with
out interrupting the spacing rhythm of the trellis.
Falling Water is a four-dimensional house, from
its bold siting on the banks of Bea r Run to its
details of mitered glass corner windows. Frank
Ll oyd Wright was totally involved in relat ing
every aspect of the house to its natural setting.
One experiences a meaningful and profound com
munication with nature. Wright achieved a noble
equilibrium between nature outside and li vi ng
quarters inside, between an infinit y of outward
spatial flow and in ward refuge.
INTEGRATION OF SPACE-TIME
TROMPE L'OEIL
VILLA BARBARO, MASER, ITAL Y
Architectural space can be transformed through
illusion with nature by trompe l'oeil painting. An
excellent example of this concept is found in the
SOUTH ELEVATI ON, V Ill A BARBARO
LULING BUSCHETTI , MASER, iTALY.
ANDREA PAllADIa, 1549/1551-1558.
The villa is blliit into a hill in such a
way that the front ( ~ r the building is a
Iulliwo stories, bllilhe rear is only the
upper story which opens Oll t il1l0 a
hillside garden althe same level.
Ph otograph by John Kurtich.
CRUCIFORM HALL, VlLLA BARBARO
LULING BUSCHETTI, MASER, ITALY.
ANDREA PAllADIa, 1549/1551-1558.
FRESCO PAINTING BY PAOLO
VERONESE, 1560-1562.
Trompe l'oeil architectural details and
moldings blur painting with reality in
Ihis highly styliz ed interior. Copyright
1991, C. Paolo Marton.
Villa Barbaro at Maser, Italy, which combines
trompe l'oeil landscape paintings framed by
trompe l'oeil windows adjacent to actual win
dows revealing the genuine Italian landscape. This
villa was designed by Andrea Palladio (1508
1580) about 1560 for Daniele Barbaro, patriarch
of Aquileja, and his brother Marcantonio Bar
baro, ambassador of the Republic of Venice. The
pictorial decoration and (rompe l'oeil painting
mbines
led by
11 win
Je. This
(1508
atriarch
io Bar
ceo The
lainting
' n s by Paolo Veronese (1528-1588) and his as sis
: nts. The villa was built as the principal building
its owners, on the edge of the farm fields it
.:ommands.
The villa is a symmetrical arrangement built
a hillside with arcaded side wings projecting
onto the landscape. This central portion
:- of a modified classical temple form with four
:onic columns engaged in its facade supporting an
:-: aborat e pediment complete with sculpture. The
: 1,1110 nobile or upper level is the principal li ving
arters, and the hill side permits this level to ter
;T1 mate at it s rear with an enclosed cour t featurin g
_11 antiquarian's nymphaeum fill ed vvith the dei
of Olympus.
Eve ry room of the piano nobile was frescoed
- y Paolo Veronese. The principal device em
!-,l oyed by the artist was trompe l'oeil painting
?ortraying mythological scenes, allegorical sta te
:nents, portraits of the family, and contemporary
.andscape scenes. Painted architectural frames en
:lose these scenes, blurring the edges bet ween
:hem and the actual architecture.
The most four-dimensional space in the villa
;s the Cruciform Hall, the central organizing
-pace of the piano nobile. The frescoes of this room
5_1ccessfully achieve their own architectural struc
:ure, almos t independent of Palladio's architec
:ure. The cross-shaped room is li ght, appearing
: 0 be open to the sky. Painted landscapes imitat
:"' ''1g ancient perspect ives allow one to see through
:he actual walls. The views are seen through
lJinted arches with balustrades, framed by
:,_inted Con'ntnian co[umns tnat seem to support
heavy entablature just under the ceiling pl ane.
r enuine doors to adjoining spaces are confused
-1[ h equal-size painted doors that feature life-size
:nembers of the family and staff entering the real
=?ace of the hall. At the front of the longitudinal
;,ortion of the room, a large, authentic window
commands a spectacular view of the villa' s farm
lands and surrounding countryside. At the oppo
site end of this axis is a large set of genuine double
oors opening out to the hill side courtyard that
features the elaborate nymphaeum.
One experiences a space that is greatly ex
panded beyond the actual architecture. There are
glimpses into false rooms, which are in turn con
firmed by real doors leading into genuine rooms
adjoining the hall. The perspecti ve vistas realisti
cally framed by painted architecture are verified
by the central window of the front of the facade
commanding the major view of the landscaped
extension of the vill a and the dis tant countryside.
In spite of the dominance of the wall fresco
employed as a decorative device, there is no feel
ing of tension or instability. The illusionistic ex
pansi veness of the hall is in perfect harmony with
the architecture and surrounding landscape. The
idealism expressed in Palladio's villa des ign is
reinforced with Veronese's ideal views of antique
and contemporary scenes. A mastery of light and
color is evident in both the architecture and the
frescoes. The elusive, effervescent li ght of north
ern It aly is perfectly captured by Veronese's paint
ing technique.
T ROMPE L'OEIL SPACE-TIME
WARP
THE PALAZZO DEL TE, MANTUA, ITALY
The excl usi ve use of trompe l' oeil painting to dis
tort and alter the geometry of space can create a
significant four-dimensional experience, a space
time warp. Such experience is found in the Pal
azzo del Te in Mantua, Italy, the masterpiece of
Guilio Romano (1 499-1 546). The palazzo was
built between 1526 and 1534 as a summer palace
or vt((a su6ur6ana tor tfie Gonzaga 6mIfy, cne
dominating family of Mantua at the time. The
pal azzo is essentially a square building with a large
interior square courtyard attached to a larger ga r
den on the east side with outbuildings and walls
maintaining a strong axial symmetry with the
square building. The eastern end of the garden
enclosure terminates with large-scale, hemicycle
arches.
The palazzo represents an outstanding ex
ample of mannerism, the transitional period be
t ween High Renaissance and Baroque in Italian art
and architecture. Mannerist architecture ex
pressed themes and motifs in opposition to their
COURTYARD, PALAZZO DEL TE,
MANTUA, ITALY. GUILIO ROMANO.
1525-1535.
The central courfyard expresses throllgh
classical architectural IJocabulary a new
language o.(Jtalian Mannerism.
Photograph by John Kllrtich .
original meanings or context. Romano violated
the rules of classical architecture by using classical
motifs in original ways. Keystones of arches were
greatly exaggerated in size and rusticated to con
trast with the surrounding wall treatment. A
rhythm of slipped tri glyphs in the Doric entabla
ture of the courtyard disturbs the viewer who is
used to the serenity and stability of the normal
classical order.
Inside, there is a series of chambers, each or
nately and elaborately decorated with wall and
ceiling frescoes and stucco work. The most nota
ble of the rooms are the Camera dei Cavalli with
life-size portraits of Gonzaga's horses perched on
fireplace mantels and the tops of door frames; the
Camera di Psiche, depicting the story of Psyche
from Apuleius; the Camera di Fetonte, illustrating
the fall of Phaeton; and the Sala dei Giganti, de
picting the battle between the gods and the titans
for supremacy over the world.
It is in the Sala dei Giganti that painting dom
inates the space. The room is a nearly square rec
tangle. All four walls and ceiling are covered with
a continuous fresco depicting a tremendous battle
to the death. The intersections between the walls
and ceilings are blurred and rounded with plaster
so that there is no discernable distinction between
planes as the fresco continues. Windows and
doors, necessary for light and circulation, are sim
ply cut through the fresco with no frame or treat
ment to identify them as such. The geometry of
the room has been distorted beyond perception, a
space-time warp, as one becomes engrossed in the
story. An excerpt from Edgar Allan Poe's The Pit
and the Pendulum aptly describes what a viewer
might experience in this space.
I had observed that, although the outlines oj the
figures Hpon the walls were sufficiently distinct, yet the
colors seemed blurred and indefinite. These colors had
now assHmed, and were momentarily assuming, a star
tling and most intense brilliancy , that gave to the spec
tral and fiendish portraitHres an aspect that might have
thrilled even firmer nerves than my own. Demon eyes,
oj a wild and ghastly vivacity, glared Hpon me in a
thousand directions where none had been visible beJore,
and gleamed with the IHrid hlstre oj a fire that I coHld
not Jorce my imagination to regard as unreal.
Unreal! ... A deeper glow settled each moment in the
eyes that glared at my agonies! A richer tint oj crimson
diffused itself over the pictHred horrors oj blood. I
panted! I gasped Jor breath! ... -Oh
f
Jor a voice to
speakf-oh! horror!-oh! any horror bHt this' With a
shriek, I rHshed jom the margin, and buried my Jace in
my hands-weeping bitterly.
.. The room had been sqHare ... In an instant the
apartment had shifted its Jorm into that oj a lozenge
.. And now, flatter and flatter, grew the lozenge,
with a rapidity that left me no time Jor contemplation
.. I shrank back-bHt the closing walls pressed me
resistlessly onward.
28
The expressions on both the gods and the
titans are sinister. The battle is very intense, with
ption, a
d in the
T he Pit
viewer
es of the
t , yet the
oiors had
g, a star
the spec
ight have
li on ey e5
me in .:
Ie befo re
I t I coul
.m t in cJ
o{ crimsl
1
-- blo od
oJ voice
L-! W ith
lIy fa ce I
!sca ne ;
oJ lo z ell
lo z ell ,
_mpla;L
e::eJ
- anc :
e_ -.\
S.-I.LA DEI GIGANTI, PALAZZO DEL TE,
_"l ANTUA, ITALY. GUiLIO ROMANO,
1525-1535.
The destn/ction oj the paillted
-Tjl itecture and agony oj the defeated
"'I f.; reinJorce the apparent irlstability
--he actual room. Photograph by Johl1
-lI rtich.
CEILING OF SALA DEI GIGANTI,
PALAZZO DEL TE, MANTUA, ITALY.
GUILIO ROMANO, 1525-1535.
Looking up ar rhe (eiling, the Olympian
vortex created by Romano ob/irerafes the
fru e shape of the inferior. Photograph by
J ohn Kuyrich .
Zeus near the center of the ceiling hurling light
ning bolts upon the enemy. The tit ans are losing
the battle. They are collapsing as the architecture
around them is collapsing. The entire fresco is a
whirl of activity, destruction, instabilit y. The
viewer cannot avoid getting totall y involved in
the pictorial story.
The scale of the room and its frescoes is ap
propriate to the effect. The titans are painted
much larger than human scale, and these are the
creatures that the viewer sees at eye level. The
gods are mainly in the ceiling, which includes a
trompe l'oeil dome and thunderclouds supporting
the Olympian entourage. The floor is a circular,
inl aid colored stone design that corresponds to the
dome and circle of gods above, adding to the
frenzy of color and activity. Ori gi nally, the entire
room was a singular painting, with the walls and
.floor blending into the continuum as the walls and
ceiling currentl y do. Before the eighteenth cen
tury severe damage that destroyed the transitional
floor / wall paintings up to about seven feet oc
curred in the room. The wall paintings were sub
sequentl y restored without thi s important
transition, abruptly ending the illusion at the in
tersection of the wall and floor.
is a circular,
sponds to the
dding to the
ll y, the entire
the walls and
. the walls and
ghteenth cen
he transitional
:even feet oc
ner s were su b-
t:>
is important
sion at the in-
The room also had a fireplace located be
i\veen the two windows in its original version.
The painted illusion of the battle would be dra
:natically enhanced by the light of a Aickering fire.
The acoustical quality of the space completed the
:o ur-dimensional experience. Because of the hard
5urfaces of Aoor, walls, and ceiling, the room
echoes and reverberates with any acoustical activ
:ty. The addition of the human observer moving
l bout in the space creates the sound effects, which
:- in force the visual drama.
TROMPE L'OEIL SPACE-TIME
E XPANSION
_\ UDIOKRAFTERS, FAIRFAX, VIRGINIA
.\ contemporary example of the use of trompe
:oeil to enhance and expand space into the fourth
_i mension is a small high fidelity components
- op, AudioKrafters, Fairfax, Virginia (1987),
-rea ted by Chicago designer Jonathan Sherman
1958- ) in collaboration with Chicago artist
Charles Nitti (1952- ). The basic space for the
-hop was carved out of a 1960s movie theater that
had been converted into eight shops for a new
shopping mall. Basically a narrow rectangl e, the
~ suIting plan had an angled cross-wall that could
not be removed near the entry. This wall became
:herationale for a series of other angled cross
-'" alls, all with cutouts, allowing the customer to
see through a series of varying framed spaces,
much like a complicated stage set.
The public area of the shop was divided into
:our trapezoids in plan. The concept was that each
zone would contain audio equipment that became
?rogressively better in quality and higher in price
] 5 one proceeded through the store. The walls of
: one 1 were painted in faux stone, which included
~ mnants of classical architectural entablature,
:nolding, and columns. The wall dividing this
:one from the next had large, irregular cutouts
:hat were determined in part by the architectural
:-Iements painted on them. Zone 2 featured faux
marble walls appearing to be constructed of heavy
marble blocks. The dividing wall of this zone to
the next had an irregular proscenium cutout that
exposed zone 3, a space dominated by heavenly
clouds over all the visible wall surfaces. Its back
wall featured one cutout, an abstracted A outlined
within the frame with a continuous teal blue neon
light coloring the entire frame with a vibrant blue.
This A cutout was the entry into the fmal space,
which spotlighted a state-of-the-art video theater.
Thi s space was relatively dark and without
trompe l'oeil treatment so that total focus would
be on projection video demonstrations with high
fidelity surround sound.
The progression of spaces from stone
through marble to clouds was a four-dimensional
journey where space-time merges with sound.
Participants were literally transported out of their
ordinary environment into one of dreams and fan
tasy by means of trompe l'oeil painting and high
tech audio. These intensifying zones prepare them
for the electronic nirvana through the vibrant blue
A-frame door.
TROMPE L'OEIL SPACE-TIME
DYNAMISM
THE FOUNTAIN OF ROME, VILLA D'ESTE,
TIVOLI, ITALY
When the elements of trompe l'oeil are combined
with any sort of elements of motion, a dynamic
four-dimensional space-time is the result. The
gardens of the Villa d'Este of Tivoli, Italy, have
the remains of such an example. The Villa d'Este
was the sumptuous hillside residence of the gov
ernor of Tivoli, Ippolito II d'Este, the cardinal of
Ferrara. In 1550, he commissioned Pirro Ligorio
(1520-1580) to transform what was originally a
Benedictine convent into a richly decorated and
appointed residence with elaborate gardens cov
ering two steep slopes adjoining the building
structure.
The architecture of the villa is not particu
larly significant, but the experience of the gardens
is a four-dimensional extravaganza. The gardens
cover two adjacent slopes that converge to a flat
terrace at the bottom. A primary axis centers on
PLAN OBLIQUE, AUDIOKRAFTERS,
FAIRFAX, VIRGINIA. J ONATHAN
S HERMAN, 1987.
The designer took adval1lage oja nOI1
removeable angled wall il1 the existing
space to create a seri es ojspatial and
perceptual experiences in this specialt y
showroom. Drawing by Jonathan
Sherman.
SHOWROOM, AUDI OKRAFTERS,
FAIRFAX, VIRGINIA . JONATHAN
SHERMAN, 1987. TROMPE L'OEIL
PA INTING BY CHARLES NITTI.
The showroom is a saies ojspaces
defined by Jal1x architectural Jragments
and trompe l'oeil painting. Photograph
by J onathan Sherman .
-he villa and several cross-axes at right angles.
_-\l though the pri mary axis creates a sense of visual
..mit y, the viewer is constant! y diverted by cross
: :xes, which lead to the most interesting fountains
" i ' the gardens.
One such fountain is the Fountain of Rome,
_ three-dimensional theatri cal set in miniature,
..l sing fore-shortened, exaggerated perspecti ve to
:-ortr ay the buildings of ancient Rome. This
_mounts to a three-dimens ional trompe l'oeil,
?roducing the illusion of greater depth than the
5?aCe actuall y provides. If that were not enough,
ALLEE OF ONE H UNDRED F O UNTAINS,
VILLA D'EsTE, TIVOLI, ITALY. P IRRO
LIGORIO, 1569.
A major cross-ax is ofthe garden is the
Allee of One Hundred FOlAntains,
I/III/ied by a l o r / , ~ chain of water jets
Spllltillg from th e retail1ing wall, and
seasoned with the O([OsiOllal fantasy
creature such as the foil-breasted sphinx
annoul1cing a diverse path from the
allee. Photograph by JOhl1 KUflich .
FOUNTAIN OF ROMA, VILLA D'EsTE,
TIVOLI , ITALY. CURZIO MACCARONE,
1568.
The Foul1tain of Roma was perhaps the
most ambitious foul1 /ail1 il'/ th e garden as
it portrayed a threedim ensional cit y in
forced perspect iue with two "rjuers"
f lowil1g with fOl1l1/aill wal eI' to
symbolicall y link Ti voli with Rome.
Photograph by John K"rt ich.
water cascades out of miniature cl iffs to the left of
the fount ain, representing the river Anio at
Tivoli; thi s wa ter then flows to join a representa
tion of the Tiber Ri ver , whi ch forms a fl at water
fore ground to the miniature cit y. In the center of
this Tiber is a small stone boat with an obelisk as
its mast, depicting the actual island of San Barto
lomeo at Rome.
The Fountain of Rome has the appearance of
a background for theatrical presentations, but the
way water was employed did not parti cularly
suggest a theater. The original seats from which
THE FOURTH DIMENSION: SPACE-TIM E r6r
to admire the fountain were designed with secret
holes so that the visitor would get his rear end
soaking wet. "The stairs to the little flat green
below the cascade were made with a surprise jet
of water which 'bathes from the navel down'
whoever steps there." 29
SPACE-T IME OF MOTION
THE VILLA D 'ESTE GARDENS,
TIVOLI , ITALY
Moving water is a very powerful medium for cre
ating four-dimensional space-time. The gardens
at Villa d'Este are rich with working fountains
and water complexes . However the viewer can
never experience the gardens from a fixed place
but must experience a subjective adventure of ex
ploration, deviation, and surprise. The sound of
moving water, varying from gurgles to splashes,
drips to torrents, is a unifying force.
The many fountains of the gardens provide
rich sight, sound, and tactile sensations . There is
always a background sound of water in its many
manifestations. The fountains provide visual dis
tractions to lead one astray from an intended path.
O VAL FOUNTAIN, VILLA D'EsTE,
T IVOLI , ITALY. CURZIO MACCARONE,
1565-1570.
Th e Oval Fountain is designed to ent er
.md walk through, the IJisilor being
J,erally inside the water.flow, looking
-w af the gardells throu,Rh a shimmering
"l mail'!. Photogl'aph by John Kurtich.
A variety of fountains play with mythological,
geographical, and abstract themes. Finally the
moving water itself defines enclosed space in
diverse and interesting ways.
A significant experience of the gardens dur
ing the sixteenth century was the Water Organ,
an architectural fountain developed by Claude
Venard. "A sudden rush of water also by its flow
activated the mechanical controls which opened
and closed the different pipes, producing a har
mony of music introduced by two trumpet
calls." 30 Water organs were known in antiquity,
as Vitruvius describes in his Book X, Chapter 8,
and Hero of Alexandria also had des criptions. But
in antiquity, such a water organ was played by an
organist upon keys. The Water Organ of the Villa
d'Este was operated by water only.
Another fountain with unusual sounds was
the Fountain of the Owl. In the sixteenth century
the central portion of this fountain was composed
of a large niche in which three stucco youths were
standing above a large vase, holding a wineskin
that poured water into the vase and beyond into a
basin. An artificial rock was the niche background
and support for the vase; upon this were delicate
bronze tree branches supporting bronze birds that
chirped by means of the same principle as the
gical,
, the
:laude
; fl ow
pened
l har
l mpet
quity,
Iter 8,
s, But
by an
r Villa
Is was
r ntury
lposed
s were
neskin
I into a
~ r o u n d
lelicate
ds that
as the
- ater Organ, Their song would stop only when
"1 owl, again powered by a water devi ce, would
l ddenly appear and hoot.
In addition to aural surprises by these special
'ater devices , there were tactile surprises as welL
J signed within the pavement here and there
, re trick water jets that would spurt suddenly
:1d surprise visitors.
SPACE-TIME OF MOTION
_-\ ND SCULPTURE
T ILLIAMS SQUARE, IRVING, TEXAS
- 'ater moving about bronze sculptures of mus
' ,m gs combine to create the space-time of the
;.- Iaza at Williams Square, Irving, Texas (1985),
obert Glen sculpted and cast the mustangs, the
W A Group of Houston, Texas, created the
, lashing effects of the fountain and the surround-
plaza. The plaza itself is like a prairie-300
-quare feet of flat , granite paving. Its boundaries
~ e enclosed on three sides by office buildings, a
FOUNTAI N OF THE WATER ORGAN,
VILLA D' EsTE, TIVOLI , ITALY. LUCHA
CLERICHO, 1568.
Th e water orgall comb illed the
killesthetic sensation ofmovil1g water
with its capacity to produce ml/ si( by
forcing water through vari oll5 pipes.
Photograph by J ohn Kurli(h.
pair of opposing fourteen-story towers flanking a
twenty-six-story central tower. Without the focal
element of the water and sculpture, the space
would be a deadly expanse of flatness, uninviting
to any human participant. The water and sculp
ture transform the space into a dynamic experi
ence, a space-time event that makes the entire
offi ce complex and plaza work as a unit.
The water fountain is a visual representation
of a Texas strea m cutting throu gh the abstraction
of the flat, arid Texas prairie. The stream is lo
cated di agonall y in the square, with its widest
portion approximately in the center. Depressions
and texturing of the granite paving at the water ' s
edge abstract the geological reality of water wear
ing away layers of earth. This geologic simulation
is further enhanced by the use of different textures
and colors of granit e paving, recalling the subtle
variety found in the actual prairie.
The bronze mustangs are running and splash
ing through the stream. They have been sculpted
1.5 times life size, muscles taut, manes flying, the
epitome of raw energy. When first viewing this
sculptural fountain from afar, the horses look
small in the vast pl aza, but the viewer experiences
a dramatic change of scale upon closer inspection.
The realization of their true proportions provides
one of the events of the experience.
S PACE-TIME THROUGH
SCULPTURE
THE PARTHENON, ATHENS, GREECE
The complete infusion of sculpture with architec
ture can produce a powerful four-dimensional ex
perience, especially when the boundaries between
MUSTANG FOUNTAIN, WILLIAMS
SQUARE, IRVING, TEXAS. SCULPTUllE
BY ROB GLEN; FOUNTAIN BY SWA
GROUP OF HOUSTON, TEXAS; 1985.
The interaction of the mustangs and the
water realistically portray the werg)' of
wild horses gal/oping thrMlgh a flowing
river. Photograph by Tenn)'son
Stannard.
the two are indistinct. The building that epito
mizes this combination is the Parthenon of ancient
Athens, Greece, constructed between 447 and 432
B. c. Pericles (495-429 B. c.) had political control
of Athens at the time, and in the wake of defeating
the Persians for the last time, he wanted to honor
Athens's victory at Salamis over the Persians with
the greatest, most lavish temple in the Greek
world. The temple would be dedicated to Athena,
patron goddess of Athens, as well as the multiple
personifications of virginity, wisdom, weaving,
and martial protection. Major sculptures were in
corporated into the architecture to highlight the
pa triotic achievements of the A thenians as well as
Ll AMS
CULPTURE
y SWA
.\ 5; 1985.
"g5and the
r energy of
II a flowing
son
l a t eplto
of ancient
f7 and 432
'al control
t- defeating
1 to honor
'sians with
(he Greek
w Athena,
Ie multiple
weavlOg,
5 were 10
shlight the
5 as well as
ELEVATION , PARTHENON,
- THENS, GREECE. PHlDIAS, /cTiNUS,
-0 CALLlCRATES, 447-432 B.C.
Parthenon was built as a monument
'il er than as a "working" temple; it
_l ;omized the refinement of the Doric
Jer. Photograph by JO/1I1 Kurtich.
- display the triumph of civilization over barba
-om.
Phidias (500-430 B.C.) , the renowned sculp
. was chosen not only to create the temple's
,"W cult statue but to supervise the overall design
_: d construction of the temple and its other sculp
_ral elements. The architects Callicrates (mid
- century B. c. ) and Iktinus (mid-fifth century
c. ) worked under Phidias . The temple that this
-::-a m designed was basically Doric, but it departed
-:-o m the usual formula. Because of the need for a
vcr cella than normal, the templ e dimensions
'ere altered by adding two columns to the usual
in its front facade, thereby maintaining the
proportional ratio of a normal temple but achi ev
ing a larger one at the sa me time.
The principal sculptures included ninety-two
high relief metopes , an Ionic frieze on the exterior
cella walls meas uring 524 linear feet, three-dimen
sional sculptural events in each of the pediments,
and the giant cult statue of Athena in the san ctu
ary. The utilization of sophi sti cated optical adjust
ments in the construction of the building blurred
the distinction between traditional decorative
sculpture and the overall sculptural tendencies of
the temple structure itself.
The Parthenon was the culmination of a
building that departed from traditional geometric
DETAIL OF OPTI C AL CORRECTI O N OF
STYLOBATE, PARTHENON, ATHENS,
GREECE. PHIDIAS, lcTlNUS, AND
CALLICRATES, 447-432 B.C.
The sty lobate a/1d steps curve very
noticeably in this view oj east side oJthe
Parthenon. Photograph by John
Kurtich.
TilE .\IE .\"" "UI-:1I 1I01tlZO ."I' .\ 1. (lj-" '1111': I'" TIIF. "PI' Ell .\;\ 11
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.."
)
I
,
I
I
I
I
I THE MEASURED HORIZONTAL
I
CURVATURE OF THE LINES IN THE
UPPER STEP AND ARCHITRAVE OF THE
i I
PARTHENON, DRAWN BY J OHN
PENNETHORNE, 1878. -:0---_ ' 1.1
This nineteenth cerlll-/ry drawing shows,
n,.. .,., .... ..; I.. ., ........ . ... II.n , . ....
::--,
... .. ....

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lit. Jln- ..
-v"",
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in exaggeratedJormat , the curvatures oj
"" . """ ,r,,"" 'J.t-o' "'f' < I
the stylobate and architrave. Courtesy of
, -" ... '. h...... .. "1,. _....... , .1 ..".' .... 0' 11 Ilu' 1... ,.-\ . ;fnd t UI"' d'u' ,- of llw 1.I(tJ":'1: ...11 \1,,- tum' . l
The Art Institut e o.fChicago.
I 66 INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
shapes. One type of intentional distortion was en
:,1 is, the outward curvature of the column shaft.
=-.I}JS distortlon WdS to correct the optical i))vsion
in a column with perfectly straight sides
- dgaj11st a bdckgrollnd oflight; svch a col
.0 seems to be thinner at its midpoint than at
rop or bottom. The Parthenon's entasis is
ught by some scholars to be a "circular arc,
.:h a maximum increment of about "/'6 inch, so
[ the radius would have been nearly half a
__ e." J!
The columns were tapered as well, originat
; from such natural tapering found in tree
_n ks, which were the first columns. Visually ,
? ring upward increased the apparent height of
;: column, which also reduced the feeling of
-:-ai n that a perpendicular shaft might induce.
:t n the columns themselves were given an in
j , d slant, which gave the end (front and rear)
_ ::' '."d tions of the templ e something of a pyramid's
- ouette, the feeling of power, stability, and re
-e.
The entire temple was constructed so that the
:-izontal Jines of the stylobate and entablature
_,oed upward at the centers . This optically com
_. ated for the visual effect of sagging from a
"':: " row of columns that bear down on the sty
:::ate.
.\:'\ 11
The treads oj the steps and the platform rise fi'Ol'n
I corner to the middle oj the ji-ontage; on the ends
-he temple the gradient oj the curve is 1 in 450, on
,ides 1 in 170-a matter oj 4 inches. But there is
-.' an inward slant, and so the whole floor is very
'July dom ed, with its highest point at the {entre oj
building and lowest points at the corners oj the
. . .J2
Visiting the Parthenon, even today when it is
-",ely in ruins, with most of the figurative sculp
.
.<
ral elements either destroyed or in European
.
//"
,'"
Ii :Jseums, is inspiring and uplifting. The percep
_I senses are brought together with intellectual
- .:l spiritual ones to give the viewer a four-di
ensional presentation of art that is totally insep
-able from architecture. The Greek idea of the
='..Il pt ural human-made temple in the natural
.dscape, standing out in contrast to but ob
.ously derived from nature, is epitomized in the
_rt henon.
METAPHORIC SPACE-TIME
THROUGH
NARRATIVE ART
NOTRE DAME, CHARTRES, FRANCE
The artistic epitome of the Gothic era, the Cathe
dral of Notre Dame at Chartres, France, (1194
1260) infused art in its entire structure as an icon
ographic encyclopedia of the teachings of the
Bible. The exterior skin of the church is literally
covered with sculpture depicting the teachings of
Christ, the lives of the saints, the wages of sin,
and the glories of hea ven. Intense sculptural icon
ography surrounds the main entries at the west
and south facades .
The interior of the cathedral was consciously
built to be a metaphor for the celestial city of
Jerusalem, a medi eval depiction of heaven on
earth. One of the most penetrating ways to expe
rience this four-dimensional metaphor is to be
blindfolded outside the west front and be guided
into the cathedral by a friend. The transformation
from outside to inside is unexpectedly dramatic
without the sense of sight. Humans depend so
much on their eyes for information about the en
vironment that other sensual data become over
whelmed or absorbed into the visual.
Several su btle environmental phenomena can
be experienced more easil y when one is deprived
of sight. First , there is an almost instantaneous
change of air temperature, pressure, and humidity
immediately felt by the body's largest organ, the
skin. Entering the cathedral on a warm summer
day emphasizes this change dramatically. Cool
ness honed with humidity envelopes the skin and
stimulates the pores.
Accompanying the feel of the air is the smell.
Most humans have a very keen sense of smell
although it is not often exploited critically in the
environment. Again, the visual dominates, so that
unless the smell is quite strong, it will be ignored.
At Chartres, the atmosphere of the interior is rich
with smells of incense, beeswax, cool earthy
stone, and oiled wood, the combination of which
dramatizes the difference between the outside sec
ular world and the inside sacred one.
THE FOURTH DlMENSION : SPACE-TIME 167
. . ...... 1,. ...... L.:.-lll'9l b ltl?
CATHEDRAL OF NOTRE DAME, IN THE
CONTEXT OF THE CITY OF C HARTRES,
FRANCE, 1194-1260.
The Cathedral oj Notre Dame still
dominates the city oj Chartres, as all
Gothic cathedrals did throughout France
when they were first built. Photograph
by John Kurtich.
Finally, but not least important, is the change
in acoustics. This is usually always noticed, even
when not blindfolded. But the deprivation of
sight focuses attention on the directionality of
sound as one is moving through space. Humans
with two functioning ears can determine direction
and depth of sound, which becomes a primary
means of navigation if blinded. The human ear
can also focus on particul ar sounds at will, in spite
of general chaotic background noise. JJ In addition
to particular directional sounds, there is the envi
ronmental ambience created by the combination
of all the sounds. Chartres's long reverberation
time is due to the geometry and hard-surfaced
:1ature of the building material of its interior. The
space exaggerates and distorts the sounds by pro
longing, overlapping, and deepening them. The
acous tical environment is not that of the everyday
,\orld, whether it be the thirteenth century or the
: wentieth.
The climax of the four-dimensional experi
()S INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
I,
AMBULATORY, CATHEDRAL OF N OTRE
DAME, C HARTRES, FRANCE, 1194
1260.
The ambulatory oj the cathedral is
particularly rich with light, shadow,
spatial div ersity and intrigue, and
material richness. Photograph by J ohn
Kurtich.
ence occurs when the participant is led down the
central aisle of the nave, just short of the crossing,
and turned around to face the wes t before remov
ing the blindfold. At last, all of the senses work
together with the dazzling beauty of the predom
inantly blue rose window. The visual effect dur
ing the thirteenth century was even more
pronounced, as Chartres was famous throughout
the medieval world for its other-world stained
glass which featured this remarkable blue. These
windows continued the education of the worship
per through multicolored fra gments arranged to
form sophisticated pictures, lessons , and stories
from the Bible. The powerful experience of the
sacred environment, combined with the arts of
sculpture and stained glass, directl y affected the
physical senses of the illiterate medieval worship
pers, assisting them in transcending their physical
limitations to achieve a higher spiritual existence.
This crowning achievement of the Gothic cathe
dral created a new space-time through metaphor.
1.
"1'<'1 ' "
O TRE
94
is
:JW ,
i
Jo hn
wn the
ossmg,
remov
s work
redom
dur
more
IU ghout
stained
'. These
"orship
nged to
I stories
e of the
, arts of
cted the
," orship
physical
o;:i stence.
ic cathe

SPACE-TIME OF SUBSTITUTIVE
METAPHOR
PANNELL KERR FORSTER,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
Metaphor is a powerful device for achieving a
four-dimensional space in the present-day busi
ness world. The accounting firm of Pannell Kerr
OFFICE COMPLEX, PANNELL KERR
FORSTER, CHI CAGO, ILLINOIS. THE
LAN DAHL GROUP, INC., 1985.
A view ofthe entrance lobby shows the
teak "deck," which abuts against a
series of "sailboats" on the left , the
ingel1ious sunshades to control the bright
east light from Lake Michigan.
Photograph by Karant and Associates.
Forster, Chicago, Illinois, designed by the Lan
dahl Group in 1985, achieves a space-time of the
Chicago lakefront the moment one enters the of
fice complex. The substitution of a sailboat ma
rina for an office complex is further dramatized
by its location: the truncated thirty-seventh and
thirty-eighth floors of The Associates Center at
150 North Michigan Avenue.
One's attention is immediately drawn to
Chicago's actual lakefront through the sloping
HE
_ ize
_ .lIl
: e
. 0 '
m

" 0
upon entering the office. In order to control
-r: bright east light from the lake, Landahl de
sned and installed triangular-shaped silk sails to
the conference rooms, complementing the
of Lake Michigan on a summer day with its
_ny sailboats skimming the surface of the water.
- .1 complete the metaphor, Landahl used a
e-ached teak floor for the lobby to suggest a
i s deck or pier and teal blue carpeting
-oughout the offices and work stations to allude
:he lake.
Light entering the sloping glass "roof' of the
complex passes through trellises, deflecting
r: harsh morning light. Projected shadows and
-,mging light patterns add to the dynamism of
r: space throughout the morning, making the
:- taphor of sailing on the lake direct and imme
_ re o
- PACE-TIME OF SEXUAL
_ l ETAPHOR
:-HE ROYALTON HOTEL,
"EW YORK, NEW YORK
-. subtler metaphor is central to the interior archi
-_-rural renovation of the Royalton Hotel, New
.-ork, New York, (1988), by Philippe Starck
949- ). Starck uses every aspect of the interior
2 create unfamiliar surroundings replete with
--mbols of horns, snakes, spermatozoa, caves,
ombs, waterfalls. Sex is heavy in the air. Visi
- f 5 are both disconcerted and excited, encour
ged to alter their behavior to match the
furniture, lighting, railings, carpet
.:Jg, fabric, surface finishes, and plumbing fix
Starck believes, "People are fascinated by
.:.Inger. " 34
Upon entering the hotel, one is confronted
-ith a long, linear lobby, bounded on the west
:::: . a gradually curved colonnade wall featuring a
of large, identical, horizontally protruding
_pturned horn lights, mounted near the ceiling.
-:=-he east side of the lobby is a long seating area on
levels, filled with an array of Starck's furni
:'..I re of various sizes and shapes. Some support
chrome horned backrests. Some are double
couches with a curving chrome snake dividing the
two seating areas. A deep blue carpet runner, de
signed by Brigitte Laurent (Starck's wife), sepa
rates the east from the west and displays a lively,
off-center, linear white band of cavorting snakes
and spermatozoa.
The double-level lobby divides circulation
from seating. The lower seating level is accessed
by a long, continuous band of steps with multiple
polished snake-shaped handrails. The furniture is
arranged in vignettes, each different, yet related
through detailing. By creating choices in seating,
people are encouraged to participate with the the
atrical surroundings. One can sit by the symbolic
hearth or around a large library table covered with
picture books related to the arts or at one of four
gaming tables. This group of tables is anchored to
the east wall with a large tilted mirror directly
opposite the main elevators. This setting empha
sizes the competitive nature oftoday's world. The
four game tables have polished goat legs of a
satyr, while skirted seats, embraced by taunt dou
ble-horned backrests, are supported by stiletto
heels. To complete the vignette, each game is il
luminated with a single candle mounted on a
curved armature attached to the table. No lighting
is more potent for creating mystery, allure, and
seduction than candlelight. The metaphors imply
ing sensual beastiality in the furniture promote the
fascination with danger.
A small round room off the lobby features
f1oor-to-ceiling upholstered walls in pale blue. It
is the womb of the hotel, intimate but a source of
power. A radial checkerboard floor sharply de
fines the geometry of the room and contrasts to
the soft-edged, velvety walls. Small, free-stand
ing tables with double-horned chairs complete the
furnishings. It is a sacred cave of a Minoan snake
goddess. The disorienting and unusual aspects of
the space reinforce the sexual and dream meta
phors that actuate four dimensional adventure.
Starck describes his lobby: " ... It is part of
dreams. It is not the future or the past. When you
arrive, you cannot know what time it is." 35
Starck thought of the bedroom as a haven,
but not without its dark, dangerous side. The bed
is the room's centerpiece, creating a sensuously
soft receptacle. Each bed is covered with a Swed-
THE FOURTH DIMENSION: SPACE-TIME 17 I
LOBBY, THE ROYALTON HOTEL, NEW
Y ORK, NEW YORK. PHILIPPE STARCK,
1988.
Th e "spermatozoa" path of the lobby
nAg and the illuminated horns lead guests
.from the main entrance of Ihe hotel to th e
check-in desk. Photograph by Tom
Vack.
BEDROOM, THE ROYALTON HOTEL,
NEW Y ORK, NEW YORK. PHILIPPE
STARCK, 1988.
A lIoluptuolis bed is the ce/'It erpiece of
the guest room, expressing a tenuous
edge between safe comfort a/7d dangaous
adventure. Photograph by John Kurlich.
":.1 goose down comforter and features four
_ w rstuffed down pillows propped against a
:',aped, padded headboard. Lacquered mahogany
-alls frame the recessed bed, providing a hard
__cred, dark contrast. The bed becomes a soft,
inviting tongue extending from a geomet
: orifice threatening to swallow the occupant
-.-e.
The fantasy of the Royalton is completed
_:h the plumbing. The men's room off the lobby
_ominated by a wide, tall stainless steel urinal,
::Jch is the backdrop for a waterfall. The indi
_2ual bathrooms feature deep, circular cones of
..::ny stainless steel, set in a triangle of thick clear
__ spanning the interior corner of the slate-tiled
ills. Beveled mirrors above the basin create four
.sins radiating around the corner joint and can
-: -.-e a right-reversed image of the user. The larger
"': tes have circular bathtubs with phalliclike flex
.::e shower hoses. Horns are used for coat hooks
- :I cabinet pulls. Down to the smallest detail,
_ :drck has consistently designed his interiors to

-,\RCK .
.:::Ueve the dream metaphor. This particular
?ace-time encourages its participants to act out
=--:. ci r fantasies.
"b y
Il l/esis
, ;0 [he
CRESCENDO PROJECT,
ILLINOIS. DIETER WAGNER,
-II ), des(r;ned as a possible theme
'992 Chicago Columbial1
-UII Il'lzich was subsequently
.,1. C rescendo would halJe been
.lie architectural Jpace-time
- building il1 process, a
__, ,'Imll_,itory Iimitatiol1s and
_ by
.-h .
SPACE-TIME OF PROCESS
THE CRESCENDO PROJECT,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
The most dynamic kind of four-dimensional ar
chitecture is that of a building or space that is not
only usable but is also in the process of comple
tion. Such a project has been proposed for a site
in Lake Michigan just opposite Chicago's down
town Loop area. This proposal was conceptual
ized by a German-born painter/sculptor, Dieter
Wagner (1944- ), who describes it as " 'the
monument in memory of the future,' a living leg
acy for present and future generations," The
monument is called Crescendo and is a freestanding
transparent bridge made up of seven arches, the
middle arch still in the process of construction.
The scale is mammoth; the complex is 600 feet
high, 1200 feet long, and 150 feet wide.
Crescendo is meant to symbolize the culmi
nation of our civilization, particularly in merging
the arts/humanities with scienceltechnology. The
structure itself, predominantly glass with an airy
steel construction supporting the bridge, seems
beyond current building technology, but it is
really at the cutting edge. The fact that it would
be built as a process, in other words not com
pleted until humanity reached a new level of con
sciousness, puts this monument directly into the
realm of the fourth dimension, a dynamic, non
static building that uses the dimension of time as
part of its properties of defi nition. Crescendo
would portray the idea that limitations are transi
tory, that the very idea of incompleteness and lack
of possibl e perfection in the building could never
theless symbolize the fruition of the greatest in
human achievement for our civilization.
Wagner's detracters claim that Crescendo is
an impossible scheme, one that would take great
sums of money to realize, draining the reso urces
of more immediate and useful projects. One then
thinks of the billions of dollars that were being
poured into national defense Star Wars efforts in
the 1980s and wonders if our current civilization
has its priorities confused.
The last great culture that did something
idealistic through a four-dimensional monument
was Periclean Athens when the city-state dedi
cated its resources and talents to rebuilding the
Acropolis complex and the fInal version of the
Parthenon (discussed earlier in this chapter) after
defea ting the Persians in 479 B.C. The Parthenon
was to be the fInes t temple ever constructed,
using the noblest of materials, state-of-the-art op
tical refInements, and infusion of sculpture from
the greatest artists of the day. Pericl es was sharply
criticized for the amount of money being spent on
the project, but he defended his actions by stating
that Athens was entitled to beautify the city and
provide full employment for her citizens. The re
sult of this program was the golden age of classi
cal Greece. The Parthenon became the symbol of
confidence that encouraged the Greeks to develop
and excel in other fi elds. The Parthenon was the
standard of beauty and perfection in western ar
chitecture and the symbol of the highest culture
of western civilization. This symbol is as valid
today, over two thousand years later.
SUMMARY
The realization of space-time in architecture is in
dispensable to the comprehensive human experi
ence. This experiential element when synthesized
with the fusi on of space and time is the fourth
dimension, the most profound component of In
terior Architecture. At this juncture the basic one
ness ofInterior Architecture can become the most
evident. There can be no disunity of " inside"
from "outside," no conceptual division between
enclosure and contents, no philosophical segrega
tion of function and aesthetic, no discord between
space and time. Metaphorically, Interior Archi
tecture parallels itself with the notion of the basic
oneness of the cosmos. This concept is central to
Eastern mystical philosophies and the current
view of unity of all things, which constitutes the
foundation of modern subatomic physics. The
fundamental feature of reality as vindicated by
both the mystic and the physicist is the "oneness
of the totality of all things, the great all-including
whole." 36
The remarkable four-dimensional architec
ture of the past is a rich and vibrant resource for
the awareness and comprehension of space-time.
The cognition of the fourth dimension raises the
consciousness of human participants, making
them interconnected, interrelated, and integrated
with their environment. This potent concept is
generally considered as an intangible element, one
manipulated only by the most creative minds.
The power of emotion is exploited as though it
were a natural part of the design palette. Design
ers who are sensitive to this palette can create in
teractive environments charged with emotional
experience that goes beyond the ordinary to create
the extraordinary.
NOTES
1. A. K. Coomaraswamy, Hinduism and (West
port, CT: Greenwood Press , Inc., 1971), p. 33.
2. D. T. Suzuki, Preface to B. L. Suzuki , Mahayana Bud
dhism (New York: Macmillan, 1969) , p. 33.
IS m

lesized
fourth
of In-
IC one
e most
,nside"

'grega

Archi
e basic
ltral to
:urrent
It es the
s. The
ted by
meness
:lL!ding
'chitec
Irce for
e-tIme,
Ises the
naki ng
egrated
Icept is
n t, one
minds.
Dugh it
) esign
eate in
:otional
J create
<J (West
,1/1<1 Bud
I. Needham, Science arid Cillili za fi oJ'l il1 China , vol. II
'.\\' York: Cambridge University Press, 1962), p. 35.
Fung Yu-Lan, A Short History of Chinese Philosoph y
York: Free Press, 1966), p. 11 2.
- :\rata Isozaki , "Space-time in Japan -MA," in lv1a:
':t'. Time in Japa n (New York: Cooper-Hewitt Mu
_:11 . 1979), p. 12.
Barbara Tuchman, The Proud Tower (N ew York: Ban
-; Books, 1966), p, 209.
- :--:cwton firmly beli eved in the concept of absolute time
.: space. He argued that absolute time would Row vvith
: relation to anything external. Simi larly, absolut e
ce would remain immutable and immovable.
:\ Ibert Einstein , Relafil)ify: Th e Specia l (/n d Genera l The
New York: C rown Publishers, 1961), p. 26.
Ibid., p. 9,
Lincoln Barnett, The UnilJerse and Dr. Eillsteil'l (New
ork: Bantam Books , 1968), p, 19.
A. Einstein, H . A. Lorentz , H. Minkowski, and H,
Th e Principle of RelatilJity: A Col/eclion of
. 111 0 irs (New York: Dover Publicati ons, 1923) , p. 75.
:: Stephen Kern , The Culture of Time and Space, 1880
-1 (Cambridge, MA: Harva rd Uni versit y Press , 1983),
.; , Thomas Mann, T he Magi c Mountain (New York: Vin
; e Books, 1969) , p. 218.
- , "Griffith, D. W." in The New Coillmbia Encyclopedia,
.:: by William H. Harris and Judith S. Levey (New York:
n lu;11bia Uni ve rsit y Press, 1975), p. 1147.
:' . Richard Freedman, Th e NOlJeI (New York: News
Books, 1975 ), p. 118.
David Daiches, Virginia Woo{f (Norfolk, CT: New
JJrections, 1942), p. 66 ff.
- , James Joyce, Ulysses (New York: Random House,
1), p. 235 .
. Roman Vlad , SfralJi nsky (New York: Oxford Uni ver
:'.. Press, 1967), p. 29.
Ibid., p. 30.
T. S. Eliot, "London Letter," (New York: Dial,
:: 1) .
Roger Allard, "At the Paris Salon d'Automne, "
10) in Cub ism, ed. Ed ward Fry, (New York: Oxford
_ -l\'ersi t y Press , 1966), p. 62.
. Guill aume Apollinaire, Cubisf Painters (New Yo rk:
. rge Wittenborn, Inc., 1(62), p. 13.
23. The fi ve points we re
1. The Pil otis. The Pilotis or Pi ll ar released the
house from the ground.
2. The Roo] Carden. The roof garden was made
feasible by the fl at cement roof and drainage oc
curring in the center of the building rather than
down the exteri or walls.
3. Th e Free Plan. The free plan suggested com
plete independence of structural support and ar
chitectural "infi ll ."
4. The Elonga ted Window. The facade-long win
dow was now totally independent of the struc
ture,
5. Th e Free Facade. The free fa cade came about as
a result of skeleton construction.
24. Bruno Zevi, Architecture as Space (New York: Hori
zon Press , 1(57), p. 27.
25. Douglas Brenner, "Good-by to All That," (Archif ec'
tural Record, M ay 1985), p. 142.
26. A lacullar is a cei ling, particularl y one of the ancient
Roman type made up of sunken panels.
27. Donald H offmann , Fra nk Lloyd Wright 's Fallin,gwater
(New York: (D over Publications, 1978) , p. 17.
28. Edgar All an Poe, "The Pit and the Pendulum" in The
Compl ete Poems alld Stories of Edgar AI/an Poe (New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 1970), p. 444.
29. Da vid R. Coffll1, Th e ViI/a d'Este af Tivoli (Princeton:
Princeton Uni versit y Press, 1960), p. 28.
30. Ibid. , p. 19.
31. W. B. Dinsmoor, Th e ArchiteWl re of AncierJt Greece
(New York: W. W. Norton, 1975), p. 168.
32. A . W. Lawrence, Greek ArciJitecfl{re (Harmonds
worth, Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1957), p. 172.
33. Thi s phenomenon is commonly experienced at cock
tai l parti es where one has the abilit y to pick Ollt a partic
ular conversation amidst the din and chaos of man y peopl e
talking at the same time.
34. Sam Seibert with Meggan Dissly, "Starck's View of
Desi gn," N ewsweek, November 28,1988, pp. 88- 90.
35. Phil Patton, "Starck Reality, " New York Magazine,
October 31 ,1988, pp. 44-52,
36. Ashvaghosha, The Awakening of Faith (Chi cago :
Open Court , 1900), p. 55 .
THE FOURTH DI MENSION: SPACE-TIME 175
DETAIL OF LIGHT CANNONS,
DE L A TOURETTE, E VEUX
Sl;R- L'ARBRESLE RHONE, FRANCE. LE
C ORBl;SIER. 1960.
P}'O{(l rap}, by John Kurri ch.
CANNONS,
E, EVEUX
RANCE. LE
I.
5 CHAPTE R
LIGHT: SPACE DEFINITION
_l", ht is the most important single component in
~ ~ definition of space or the manifestation of
- rm. Without li ght , there is no perceived visual
:-Jce. Although humans employ all their senses
_ one way or anot her , visual perception domi
":.l res. The quality oflight in an architectural space
.:1rectl y affects the defmition as well as the quality
:- the space itself. Interior Ar chitecture is devel
?ed with lighting to reinforce the architectural
?Jce. The lighti ng, whether it is produced natu
-.:.11 y, electrically, or chemically, expands the
, ewer 's perception and awareness of physical,
.:notional, psychological, and spi ritual dimen-
DIAGRAM OF THE HUMAN EYE.
Although the eye is }i'equently compared
to a camera, focusing an image is quite
different in each. A camera is focused by
adjusting the distance between lens and
film; the eye isJocused by changing the
shape of its gelatinous lens: more like a
sph ere for closer objecls; becoming flatter
as distance ofthe object increases.
Drawing by Jennifer Ehrenberg.
sions of the space. Creative lighting is the key to
effective visual percepti on. Human beings are
sensitive to brightness, intensity, contras t, and
color.
The human eye is often compared to a cam
era in that each has a light-sensiti ve plane upon
which an inverted image is focused through a
light-controlling lens. In the eye, the li ght-sensi
tive plane is the retina; in the camera it is the film
located at the focal plane. The crystalline lens of
the eye controls the amount of li ght wi th an au
tomati c iris; the camera lens uses an iri s dia
phragm.
Image formation in (A) the pinhole eye, (8)
the compound eye, and (C) the human eye,
for two targets X and Y.
x y
But the eye is not a mechanical camera; it is a
living organ featuring un-cameralike perceptive
characteristics and continuously automatic adap
tive abilities that react to changes in lighting con
ditions and levels. The eye does not produce a
picture in the brain, but it feeds the brain "with
information coded into neural activity-chains of
electrical impulses-which by their code and the
patterns of brain activity, represent objects." I The
brain continuously organizes sensory data into
objects; this presents the intrinsic problem of per
ception. With minimal visual cues, the brain seeks
and organizes discern-ible, if not meaningful, ob
jects. Cartoonists depend upon this perceptual
ability. Many times people see objects that really
are not there, such as animals in cloud formations
or a man's face in a full moon.
The act of seeing involves many sources of
information beyond purely visual.
It generally involves knowledge oj the object de
rived Jrom previous experience, and this experience is
not limited to vision but may include the other senses:
touch, taste, smell, hearing, and perhaps also tempera
ture or pain. Objects are Jar more than patterns ojstim
ulation: objects have pasts and Jutures; when we know
its past or can guess its Juture, an object transcends
experience and becomes an embodiment oj knowledge
and expectation without which liJe oj even the simplest
kind is impossible.
2
Perceiving space is a more complex situation.
Here one has a collection of objects within a shell
or enclosure, all of which have pasts and futures.
How one perceives this collection or any part of
it depends largely on its relative visibility. The
three- and four-dimensional aspects of space re
quire certain lighting conditions to manifest
themselves to the viewer. The effectiveness of vis
ible space or space-time depends directly on ap
propriate and creative lighting. To be properly
illuminated is the art of Interior Architecture.
With the widespread use of electricity at the
beginning of the twentieth century, lighting inte
rior space no longer depended on sunlight or
chemical combustion such as torches, candlelight,
and gaslight. Electric illumination fmally made it
possible to turn night into day with an ease hith
erto unexperienced by architects and designers.
Electric light became so easy to use, in fact, that
light could be put anywhere. Concern for scien
tific illumination levels and their mathematical ta
bles to create ideal task light levels began to
dominate the designer's concern with lighting.
The development of the cost efficient fluorescent
fixture led to a standardization of commercial
lighting, which seemed to fit the image of the
anonymity of the Modern Movement. Creative
lighting, which reinforced, expanded, or trans
formed interior space, became a rare occurrence,
especially for commercial and public space. Les
sons to be learned from historical uses of natural
light were ignored or forgotten in the quest for
scientific calculation of ideal lighting for the
workplace or the perfection of lighting systems,
mass produced for the ubiquitous suspended ceil
109 graclOg the curtain-walled high-rise office
building.
NATURAL LIGHT
The creative use of natural light in interior space
can offer many ideas for electric light applications.
Likewise, artists, theatrical set designers, and
photographers use light to develop and shape
their art; ideas from these sources also apply to
interior lighting. The following series of historical
case studies exemplifies models of lighting and
defining space primarily through natural light
particularly from the importance of the direction
of light, the quality of light, and special aspects of
light.
HYPOSTYLE HALL, KARNAK, EGYPT
In ancient Egypt, natural light was often intro
duced into interior spaces by high, clerestory win
dows near the roof. In the great Hypostyle Hall at
Karnak (ca. 1312-1301 B.C.), the central axial path
featured a ceiling supported by columns higher
than the level of the two adjacent colonnaded side
halls. This difference in height between the two
roofs created vertical space that was covered by
stone grills that admitted beams of light to pene
trate the darkness of the temple and illuminate the
pol ychromed surfaces.
-
that
len
I ta
l to
mg.
cent
rcial
: the
Hive
:ans
:nce,
Les
tural
t for
the
:ems,
ceil
)fflce
space
tions.
I and
shape
?Iy to
:orical
g and
Ight
ectlOn
ects of
intro
'wm
H all at
I path
higher
d side
he two
'red by
) pene
ate the
DETAIL OF CLERESTORY WINDOWS,
HYPOSTYLE HALL, TEMPLE OF
AMMON, KARNAK, EGYPT, 1530-323
B.C
Th e clerest ory windows of the higher
central axis were made oj stone ,(trills
with regularly spaced slits to create a
diffused illumination ofthe axial hall .
TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH A
TYPI CAL HYPOSTYLE HALL, SUCH AS
THAT FOUND AT T HE TEMPLE OF
AMMON, KARNAK, EGYPT, 1530-323
B.C
This diagrammatical section based on the
Egyptian hypos/yl e hall configura/ioYI
clearly shows the location and
subsequent lighting results from the
clerestory window. Drawing by John
Kurtich.
.l<.

P.UACE OF KNOSSOS, CRETE and ventilation into the deepest recesses, and light
reflected off the shaft walls would illuminate the
interior spaces were located deep within an interiors of the adjacent spaces. The Minoans also
_rchitectural complex, such as many of the rooms employed an architectural light filtering system,
i the palace of Knossos, Crete (ca. 1600 B.C.), using layers of screening colonnades particularly
Jl umination from above was necessary. The Mi on south and east exposures. The "Queen's Me
.oans built large vertical shafts that penetrated the garon" (reconstructed by Sir Arthur Evans (1851
:-alace for several floors, bringing natural light 1941) in 1910 had an outer screen consisting of a
LIGHT: SPACE DEFINITION 181
DETAIL OF COLUMNS AND PILLARS AS
LIGHT CONTROL, "QUEEN'S
MEGARON," KNOSSOS, C RETE, CA.
1600-1400 B. C.
The bright I ( ~ h t COli rt is shielded
th rough a series ofar(hiteOliral Jilters
consisting of, .first, a (olO lmade of
i,llJerted rou nd colunms, follO Ii>fd by a
I.vall ofpillars resling all a (o llfilnlOus
pa rapet. Photograph by J ohn Kllrtich.
"QUEEN ' S MEGARON," KNOSSOS,
CRETE, CA. 1600-1400 B.C.
The lillely frescoes , reeo,,struc/ed here,
acwally represent two diOerent periods
ofdecoration which the archaeologists
la/ covered, the roselle pal/em being
lie weI'. Photograph by Jolll1 K/lrtich.
colonnade of round , inverted columns, followed
by an inner screen wall of large rectangular open
ings occurring in repetitive measurement, giving
the effect of a colonnade of square pillars con
nected by a low, continuous parapet of the same
thickness at the floor. The li ghting inside the re
sulting room is soft and even, without the heat of
the harsh Cretan sunlight. The actual bathing
chamber was an adjacent interior room, lit only
by one rectangular opening in the wall separating
it from the outer room. The light here was softer
yet, but adequate for the intended activity.
STOA OF ATTALOS, ATHENS, GREECE
The classical Greek stoa used a principle similar to
the Minoan palace to cont rol li ght from the side
-colonnades screening a deep porch, which shel
tered the open shops within. The reconstructed
Stoa of Attalos, Athens (ori ginally built 159-138
B. C. , reconstructed A. D. 1953- 1956 as the Agora
Museum), gives the modern visitor an accurate
picture of light quality of this building type. The
outer colonnade is the first line of defense agains t
the hot , bright sun, but allows a filtered li ght to
--- --
-- _ penetrate the deep porch. Shadow patterns
ill the columns on the fl oor change throughout
_ day, enriching the visual field. A second row
- :ol umns, half as many as the fir st, support the
:er of the span of the deep porch. The inner
: _, wall is lined with commercial shops that
- generous rectangular openings, all owing a
--:. uniform illumination, totally protected from
_ ",laring Athenian sun and heat.
-:-RIUM HOUSE, POMPEII AND
- RCULANEUM, ITALY
Romans developed the atr ium house for pro
natural light and ventilation in an other
_ closed-off, self-contained building structure.
_ best exampl es of this type of house are at
::1peii and H erculaneum (ca. 200 B.C. to A.D.
The principal rooms of the house surrounded
__ rral space, the atrium, which was open to the
_ at ural light would illuminate the atrium
- a rectangular opening call ed the complu-
LOWER PORCH OF S TOA OF ATTALOS
II , ATHENS, GREECE, CA. 150 B. C.
(R ESTORED A. D. 1953-1 956 AS THE
AGORA MUSEUM).
SOlllflvhat like the system
of the lv1il1oalls, the corltrol o.fthe
Creek stoa achieved a sill/ilar remit
throllp,h a series ofwlorll1ades whicll
.romlcd plallar filters between the
in/1erl1l ost shops alld the opell nml(ght
outside. Photograph by Johl1 Kurt/(h.
vium, through which rain wa ter would fall to be
collected direct! y below it in a catch basin called
the impluvium. The Romans expanded the Minoan
light shaft into a usabl e space that became the cen
tral focus , organizing the plan of the house. More
elaborate atrium houses had peristyle gardens sur
rounded by addi tional rooms. This plan created a
private internal sunlit space for family living and
entertaining.
TEMPLE OF MERCURY, BAIA, ITALY
When the Romans developed the dome, they usu
all y left a round skylight or oculus in the center of
the dome for illumination of the space. The most
spectacular surviving example is the Pantheon of
Rome (see Chapter 4 for a discussion of thi s build
ing), but a more typical example of the oculus is
found in the so-called Temple of Mercury at the
Baia Baths (A.D. 46-138 onward) overlooking the
Bay of Naples south of Rome. The shaft of light
from the oculus is the primary source of illumi-
ATRIUM, HOUSE OF THE VETTII,
POMPEII, ITALY, CA. A.D. 62-79.
The impluvium cleady mirrors the
compluvium above it, expressing the
function ofa catch basin to its open
skylight above. Photograph by JOhl1
Kurtich.
nation. It creates a dynamic hot spot on a light
colored surface, which radiates reflected light
throughout the rest of the space. Such illumina
tion dramatizes the contrast between the static ar
chitectural space with kinetic sunlight.
HADRIAN'S VILLA, TIVOLI, ITALY
Hadrian's Villa, Tivoli, (A.D. 118-138), featured a
cryptoporticus, which was a covered, under
ground means of passage between one building of
the palace complex with another, permitting peo
ple to walk in cool air during the warmest hours
of the day. The cryptoporticus was located under
neath the perimeter of a large rectangular pond
surrounded by a portico of fluted columns. Ex
actly below the portico i ~ the cryptoporticus with
loopholes each corresponding to the intercolum
niation above. The loopholes, open to natural
light, not only illuminate the buried passage with
soft light but emphasize, by means of reflected
light, the structural vaulting that creates the open
mgs.
ROTUNDA, "TEMPLE OF MERCURY,"
THE BAIAE THERMAE, BAJA, ITALY,
CA. A.D. 46-138 ONWARD.
The ow/us ofa dome creates a very
strong focusing device for the sun to be
projected within the domical space,
dramatizing the movement of light
throughout the day. Photograph by John
Kurtich.
- - . - - = ~ ~ . - .
,',
e
CRYPTOPORTlCUS OF THE SWIMMING
POOL, H ADRIAN' S V ILLA, TIVOLI ,
ITALY, A.D. 126-134.
The val/lting is dramati cally 11Ij;hl(f(h ted
by tile Iliht which also produCf
a strong sleppinJl-stone path ofliJlht on
tlze Photograph by Jol1l1
Kllr{ich.
CENTRAL SANCTUARY, S. COSTANZA,
ROME, I TALY, A.D. 330 (CONVERTED
INTO A CHURCH IN 1256).
Th e Christian myslel'i es are reill(orced
wiliz th e relatively intense light of the
cel/tral sanctuary and its altar as opposed
to th e re/al ilJely dark , surrounding
oll1bulotory. Photograph by Joh"
Kllrti ch.
S. COSTANZA, ROME, ITALY
Dramat ic natural light emphasized the unworldl y
or heavenly nature of the interior of early Chris
tian churches in contrast to their modest exteriors.
S. Costanza, Rome (ca. A.D. 350), originally built
as a mausoleum for Constantina, Constantine's
daughter, became a church in 1254. It is a cen
trally planned building with its nucleus higher and
larger than the surrounding vaulted ambulatory.
The heart of the building is flooded with natural
light through windows in the tall drum support
ing the dome while the ambulatory is in semi
darkness . When its interior polychromed mosaic
decoration was totall y intact, it had a shimmering
vision of heavenly divi ne light focused on the cen
tralized space.
LI GHT: SPACE DEFINITION 185
SANTA SABINA, ROME, ITALY
Santa Sabina, Rome (A.D. 422-432), treated nat
ural li ght in a similar manner, although this
church is basilican in plan. Santa Sabina is charac
terized by a central, high-ceiling nave, with single
smaller aisles on each side, and a deep apse. Clere
story windows flood the nave with natural light
while the side aisles remain relatively dark. Orig
inally the wall s of the nave were richly decorated
with colored marble revetment and mosaic
panels, which caused a dematerialization of the
surface, while the side aisles remained plain and
dark, giving more emphasis to the bright upper
half of the nave, the receptacle of divine light.
SAN LORENZO, FLORENCE, ITALY
In contrast to Santa Sabina's dark aisles, San Lor
enzo, Florence (1425 onward) by Filippo Brunel
leschi (1377-1446), developed a more balanced
NAVE AND SIDE AISLE, S. SABINA,
ROME, ITALY, A.D. 425.
Early Ch ristian basilican churches I/J ere
characterized by brightly lit rWl/es and
altars bec@se this rep res ented the path to
salvation. Photograph by J ohn Kurtich.
lighting responding to the Renaissance fo cus on
humani sm. The spatial hi erarchy in church inte
riors dramatically shifted during this time. Basili
can pl ans were expanded by the addition of
chapels along the central nave. The nave retained
the brightest lighting through high clerestory
windows modulated by the columnar rhythm.
The smaller scaled aisles were illuminated by
round windows high in the va ult s, reinforcing the
calculated perspective scheme. Below these win
dows, chapels were framed by arches illuminated
only by reflect ed li ght and candl elight. The light
ing created a hierarchy that reinforced the scale
changes of the great church into a volume ofmul
tiple human experiences.
NAVE, SAN LORENZO, FLORENCE,
ITALY. FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI, 1421
1460.
HHmanisti c CO I1CeI"r/ S of the Renaissance
modified the col1t rast between the
brightly lit central nalle and dim side
aisles. Photograph by John Kurtich.
CEILING AND DOME OF SAN CARLO
.ULE QUATTRO FONTANE, RON1E,
iTALY. FRANCESCO BORROMINI,
1638-1641.
The lantem of the dome is the principal
_OatS of light, dral11atizil1g th e thealrical
orchestration of light manipulation in the
Italian Baroque church. Phorogl'aph by
John Kurtieli.
SAN CARLO ALLE QUATTRO FONTANE,
ROME, ITALY
Tne open and dynamic character of seventeenth
century Italy was the basis of the Italian Baroque;
the making of its form of life visible and manifest
\\'as through persuasion. The architecture of the
Church became J theatrjca} settjng, lIsjng )jght
. 2 color to intensify the experience of the wor
hipper. The most original architect of the Italian
Baroque was Francesco Borromini (1599-1667),
who created a new conception of space. His in
vention of the undulating wall gave a new flexi
bility to interior space, and his treatment of light
aimed at an illusory effect of depth. " .. . it is
above all a 'guided' light, an instrument that can
bring out the characteristics of a structure by aug
menting their perceptibility, a factor of claritas
that, more tha17 a17 ythi17g else, is logially coher
ent and has the capacity to identify the synthetic
connections." J In his San Carlo aIle Quattro Fon
tane, Rome (1638-1641), Borromini used light to
VAULTS , MASJID- I-J AMI , ISFAHAN.
IRAN, CA. 1072-1629.
Th e mulli-do /ned and /Jalill ed areas ( ~ r
Ihis IllOsq,.,e w",ld be il/14millal ed only
FOIn abo lie, 11"'ol",eh Ihe oculi oreach
dome. Pholograpiz by Johl1 Kllrlich.
V AULT DETAIL , MASJID- I-J AMI.
ISFAHAN, IRAN, CA. 1072-1692.
Detail ofan oc/agO/IaI omlil s of Ollf of
the dom es . Ph olograph by John KUl'lich.
emphasize the dipping and swelling of the walls
as though they were pli able. The relatively dark
interior allows light to burst into it through the
lantern, illuminating and softening the contours
of the superimposed moldings. This makes the
domed core inseparable from the chapels; the in
terior is made to run smoothly together.
MAS]ED-I-]OMEH, ISFAHAN, IRAN
Similar lighting occurs in the centers of small
domi cal vaults of the Seljuk quincunxes of
Masjed-I-Jomeh, Isfahan, Iran (ca . eleventh cen
tury A.D.). The domes are in series, creating a
rhythmic pattern of li ght and dark. These domes
-e illuminated by oculi. They might be round or
depending on the geometry of the indi
,dual vault, but the light projects its pattern on
- e interior as well as illuminating the intricate
Oi
:::ri ck masonry patterns of the vault. The inte
li ghting system dynamicall y illuminates
cep..
:ne interior, with high contrast dark and light,
:: a
me
:-reating an intimate human experience.
WINDOW DETAIL, ALI QAPU PALACE,
ISFAHAN, IRAN , EARLY SEVENTEENTH
CENTURY .
The deep jrames a/the Ilarrow wil1dows
se/'ved as an ejTeclive lighljiller/or the
space within the palace. by
John Kurtich.
CEILING SKYLIGHT, ALI QAPU
PALACE, ISFAHAN, IRAN, EARLY
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
The Persians look advantage ojtheir
skills ojgeometric tracery 10 create a
.fa l1lasy ojJorm and light with their
skylights. Photograph by J ohn Kurlich.
ALI QAPU, ISFAHAN, IRAN
Another quality of light is achieved within the
Pavilion of Ali Qapu, Isfahan (1589-1 627), the
royal residence of Shah Abbas 1. The majority of
the rooms are naturally lit from the side, but
through carefully desi gned masonry screens
placed within deep openings, the qualit y of light
LIGHT: SPACE DEFINITI ON 189
INTERIOR STREET, QA YSAR[YA (GRAND
BAZAAR), I SFAHAN, IR AN, EARLY
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
The Grand Bazaar is lilerally acres of
covCI'ed space lVitiJ opportunity Jar
natural ligh t 10 come[rol11 above on ly.
Owli jilrnish linear patterns of I ( ~ h t to
p,uide the shopper through the maze oj
spaces. Photograph by John Kurlici1.
that fmally penetrates is soft and reflected. As the
direct light strikes the crust, an exaggeration of
energy is generated. This light dematerializes the
walls and ceiling, which feature geometric, highly
colored cutouts covering the surfaces with various
spatial levels of design and information.
BAZAAR, ISFAHAN, IRAN
Isfahan's central bazaar (built during the reign of
Shah Abbas I, 1589-1627) uses a series of identical
oculi in a row of domical vaults, which form one
of the main concourses of the covered market. For
the better part of midday, the sun projects a pat
tern of the oculi on the floor, reinforcing the axial
nature of the concourse. The poetic streams of
light lead the visitor through this intriguing series
of spaces fdled with visions, smells, and sounds
of the mysterious Middle East.
JOHN SOANE RESIDENCE,
LONDON, ENGLAND
The Breakfast Parlour by John Soane (1753-1837)
in his London residence (1792-1834), carried the
idea of the central domical skylight to a more
complex development. The room was designed
as a domed canopy space within a larger cubical
volume. The domed canopy was supported on
four columns, independent of and some distance
from the enclosing walls of the overall space. A
circular opening in the middle of the domed can
y allowed li ght, but the light was ftlt ered
a per forated drum that defined thi s cir
:- ular hole as a vertical li ght well. The enclosing
-,' ails of the lar ger volume were washed with li ght
:[om rectangul ar skyli ghts directly above them
ut hidden by the cent ral canopy cover. The com
ined effect further emphasized the space-within
and separated the canopi ed space from the
larger enclosing space,
I:-.r D USTRIAL REVOLUTION
: was not until the latt er part of the eighteenth
:: ntury during the Industrial Revolution that iron
n. d glass building t echnology made it possible to
DETAIL OF THE BREAKFAST P ARLOUR
CANOPY DOME, S IR J OHN SOANE
RESIDENCE , LI NCOLN'S I NN FI ELDS,
L ONDON, E NGLAND. SIR J OHN
S OANE, 1812.
The inner space o.fthe breakfa st parl oll l"
Cl-Il minates in the lantem o/ the dO/fi e
which admits slained Rlass
panels in the vertical well of ,ll e lant ern.
Photocr; raph by J ohn KlI rtich .
crea te larger expanses of skylight than Minoan
li g ht shafts, Roman compluvia, and domical sky
li ghts_ These new glass skyli ghts also protected
the interior space from adverse wea ther. The chal
lenge of new building types in the nineteenth
century, such as museums, stock exchanges ,
department sto res, banks, and libra ri es required
illumination from above due to deeper ground
pl ans and a need for escape from vi sual environ
mental dist ractions.
The glass skylight developed duri ng the nineteenth
century to fant astic dimensions. It became an indispens
able part of almost all building types, eliminated direct
contact betw een the int eri or spaces and the outer world,
and transformed the atmosphere of the space. Sunlight,
th e play of sharp shadows and reflections, gave way to
LI GHT: SPACE DEFINITI ON 191
a softer, more neutral light-studio lighting. Northern
exposures became Jashionable. Nature was replaced by
the artificially created mood oJthe "indoor Ol'ient.)) As
an extension oj this trend, branches oj the applied arts,
interior decoration, and plant cultivation thrived as
never beJore. 4
PADDINGTON STATION,
LONDON, ENGLAND
Top lighting was the most common way to illu
minate the great train sheds that began to appear,
first in England, when train transportation be
came widespread. London's Paddington Station II
(1852-1854), by Isambard Kingdom Brunei
(1806-1859) and Matthew Digby Wyatt (1820
1877), not only reinforces the linear path of the
train shed with a wide, axial skylight, but con-
TRAIN SHED, PADDINGTON STATION,
LONDON , ENGLAND. I. K. BRUNEL
AND M. D. WYATT, 1852-1854.
Nineteenth century glass and iron train
stations were marvels of engineerirlg
which led to competition among the
induslrialnatiol1s to aci1i elJe the great est
unsupported roof spall. Photograph by
John Kurti ch.
nects parallel sheds with skylights at right angles ,
This plan creates luminous transcepts that open
up the interior space to the sides, reli eving the
monotony of the long tunnels.
PASSAGE DU CAIRE, PARIS, FRANCE
Covered pedestrian and shopping arcades were an
outgrowth of the same iron and glass technology.
Again the primary illumination was a continuous
INTERIOR STREET, PASSAGE DU CAIRE,
PARIS, FRANCE, 1798-1799.
Industrial Revohttion technology
coll5um er shopping fac ilities
by developing gallerias and arcades, the
predecessors to the contemporary interior
shopping mall . Photograph by John
Kurtich.
ngles.
open
Ig the
ere an
)logy.
nuous
::: AIRE,
leililies
ps, the
'Ilterior
!I n
-kylight above. This building type was invented
by the French, and one of the earliest surviving
_xamples is the Passage du Caire, Paris (1798
' - 99). The plan of the arcade conforms to the
: [reet patterns beyond it so that the glass-covered
:- assage follows a 45/ 45 righ t triangle pa th incor
__ rated with a longer linear passage.
GALLERIA VITTORIO EMANUELE II,
\ lI LAN, ITALY
The development of the arcade building type cul
minated with the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II ,
\ 1ilan (1865-1867), a new pedestrian, glass-cov
ered street that linked the Piazza del Duomo with
:he Piazza della Scala. At the midpoint of this pas
sage was a shorter cross-street whi ch, at the cross
~ n g , created a rotunda about 105 feet in diameter
-overed by a glass dome. In addition to the natu
ral daylight, the arcade was originall y illuminated
at night with six hundred gas jets, the number of
\'hich could be increased to two thousand for spe
cial occasions. Here was a major interior space of
CROSSIN G. GALLERIA VITTORIO
E.\1ANUELE II. MILAN , ITAL Y.
C. MENGONI, 1865-1 877.
By the mid-to-Iatc nillcteClllh cClltllry,
t'tllirc st reets could be covered with ;;Iass
.illd iron}Feein;; cil y dwell ers ji-Olll
:'lpricious or inclemellt weather.
Photograph by John Kurticlr.
a city, protected from the weather and lighted
from above by means of a continuous glass roof.
The interior was richl y adorned with paintings,
sculpture, and mosaics, making it a favorite cen
tral gathering place for the citizens of Milan then
as it is today .
BIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALE,
PARIS, FRANCE
The librar y had to be rethought as a building t ype
during the nineteenth century, beca use of the in
creas ed production of books. Stack storage for
books began to take up more and more room,
changi ng the earli er tradition of stack and reading
room being one and the same. Henri Labrouste
(1801-1875) solved the problem of separating the
two areas very elega nt! y in his Bibliotheque Na
tional e, Paris (1858-1868), particularly with re
spect to lighting. Labrouste designed the reading
room as a square containing sixteen slim cas t-iron
columns supporti ng spherical vaults, each of
which had round openings at the top in the man
ner of the Pantheon. This design ensured that all
the reading desks were equally well light ed. Im
medi ately behind the reading room was the large
stack room in five levels to accommodate 900,000
books. This entire part of the library was covered
with a glass ceiling. Gridiron floors of cast iron
allowed the natural light to permeate eve ry level
of the stack room.
DULWICH GALLERY, LONDON, ENGLAND
As museums became more popular and wide
spread during the nineteenth centur y, they too
employed the skylight as a principal means of il
lumination. The oblong skylight was used in the
Dul wich Gallery, London (1811-1814), by Soane
(1753-1837) ; its use reinforced the three-dimen
sional quality of the galleries. Nea rly a century
and a half later, a flat-domed, large circular sky
light was the central illumination for the heli x
shaped Guggenheim Museum designed by
Wright, N ew York (1956-1959). This building
culminated the centralized circular space of the
DETAIL OF VAULTING, THE READING
ROOM OF THE BIBLIOTHEQUE
NATIONALE, P AR IS, FRANCE. HENRI
LAB ROUSTE, 1862-1868.
Th e oculi of the spherical "au Its provide
a series ofdow/i-lights for the benefit of
the library patrons. Photograph by John
KIlrtich.
Romans with the skylight technology of the In
dustrial Revolution, combining the perimeter he
lical circulation ramp with the gallery exhibition
space.
ILLUMINATION
For designers, the illumination of interior space is
the most challenging task and the most creative.
When the sun sets, the environment is plunged
PUBLIC GALLERY AREA, DULWICH
COLLEGE, THE PICTURE GALLERY AND
MA USOLEUM, L ON DON, ENGLAND.
SIR JOHN SOANE, 1811-1814.
Th e large rectM/glilar of th e
ga lleries prOilided an elNn illumination
tlnouglwut the space. By permission oj
the covemors oj Dulwich Picture
Callery.
CENTRAL ROT UND A AND HAMPS,
S OLO MON R. GUGGENHEIM MUSEUM,
NEW YORK, NEW YORK, FRANK
LLOYD WRIGHT, 1956-1960.
The skyliRht is the cel1tral[ocus and
lermirratiorl o[the great spiral ramp.
Photograph by John Kllrlich.
into natural darkness unless some other kind of
lighting is supplied. Until the electric light was
developed in the nineteenth century, such illumi
nation was based on the chemical combustion of
organic materials or fossil fuels. A major techno
logical advance was the candle, which introduced
the concept of the wick to control the burning
rate of animal or vegetable waxes. The candle
begot the candelabra and chandelier, enhancing
interior light with crystal prisms and providing
decorative elements for their own sake. Candle
CHANDELIERS, GALERIE DES GLACES,
PALAI S DE VERSAILLES, FRANCE.
FRAN yOIS MANSART, 1678-1684.
The glittering lI1agfl Uicel1ce
of the Galerie des Glaces depended uporl
(hol.lsands ofPOilllS of brilliarlt candle
.flam es multiplied by cryslal
prisms and mirrored walls. Photograph
by J ohn Kurrich.
ELEVATION/SECTION OF BOUGIE
ELECTRIQUE LIGHT FIXTURE, FIRST
FEAT URED FOR OUTDOOR LIGHTING AT
THE EXPOSITI ON UNIVERSELLE DE
PARI S. 1878.
Thi s lamp revolutioniz ed the way cities
would be illuminated. Cou rtesy of The
Art [nstitllte of Chicago.
Gloht' ..i ,' l:: boug ie J.l blll ,;h!;u.o" d dis qllc //l obile,
,1V/' C SOli I.lort e- ch:tlbofl .
illumination was no longer confmed to visibility
concerns but became the primary means of creat
ing exciting visual effects.
OIL AND GAS ILLUMINATION Oil lamps
became common during the eighteenth and ea rly
ninet eenth centuries due to improved co mbustion
design and the development of refl ectors to con
centrate the light. They had the ad vantage of
portability and of producing brighter and longer
lasting light. Gas lighting was a major develop
ment of the nineteenth century due to production
and di stribution of coal gas to urban centers. Such
lighting provided constant and controllable illu
mination. Fixtures evolved into an important art
form, becoming models for some electri c light
devices. Gas li ghting, through street lamps, rev
olutionized the illumination of cities, turning
night into day on the most important streets.
Li ghting by combustion had serious disad
vantages. The most obvious was danger from
fire. A second drawback was the soot and other
dirty residue left from combustion . Burning wax,
oil, and gas all produced characteristic smells that
did not necessarily enhance the environment. Gas
li ghting demanded considerabl e servicing and
trimming and it could only be installed in areas
that could manage its hea t production and need
for ventilation.
ELECTRIC INCANDESCENT ILLUMINA
nON The invention of the incandescent elec
tric lamp, about 1870, dramatically changed the
illumination of the human-desi gned envi ron
ment. Thomas Edison (1847-1931) in the United
States and Sir John William B. Swan (1828-1914)
of England were simultaneously developing and
demonstrating the new light source. The ea rliest
light bulb of each in ventor used a carbon filament
contained in the vacuum of a glass light bulb. A
major improvement following these early dem
onstrations was the development of the tungs ten
filament in the early twenti eth century. Because
tungsten had a very high melting point, lamps
using it could run at a hi gher temperature and
produce greater and whiter light for the same
amount of electricit y required of the carbon fila
ment. Electrical power became a major energy
RENDERING OF PROJECTOR LAMPS
.n THE TOP OF THE EIFFEL TOWER,
P :\RIS, FRANCE. GUSTAVE EIFFEL, 1889.
The Eiffel Tower culminated the
5fr1 ICturai virtuosity oj the nineteenth
:enhtry, and its crowning glory was the
:15e oj the new electric fight as projecting
.'earchlights radiating Jrom its summit.
Courtesy oj The Art In stitute oj Chicago.
source for the industrialized world, allowing safe
dnd clean electric light to replace gaslight. The
bright, naked light bulb produced glare, how
ever. This led to the necessity of new decorative
fixtures and lampshades, permitted now by the
improved safety and cleanliness of the electric
\. -
light bulb.
_e
ELECTRIC LIGHTING AT NINETEENTH CEN
TURY INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS
- )
The French international expositions of the nine
'ld
[eenth century became the first showcase of elec
mc light , starting with the Exposition
Universelle, Paris, 1878. Scholars regard this ex
.\
position as the beginning of "a great upsurge in
11-
lighting systems." Paris featured the carbon based

electric candle, or the Bougie e/ectl'ique, as the mod
:e
ern and celebratory way to illuminate the streets
of the central city to glorify the exposition.
d
The Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1889, was
the first fair to be illuminated by electricity; for
;! -
this reason it was also the fl[st fair to remain open
at night. Thousands of electric bulbs illu minated
DETAIL OF ARC ELECTROLIER IN HALL
OF ARCHES, MANUFACTURES
BUILDING, COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. GEORGE B. POST,
1893.
The Chicago Columbian Exposition
made the electric a priorit)' Jor
interior illumination, as witnessed by the
enormous hanging coronas oj the
ManuJactures Buildins Courtesy of
The Art Institute oj Chicago.
the new Eiffel Tower, and strings of lights out
lined the pavilions or garlanded the landscaping
of the fair grounds. This electric illumination was
furnished by 1,150 arc and 10,000 incandescent
lamps. Increasingly elaborate lighting became a
major feature of the subsequent expositions that
followed the 1889 Paris fair.
The World's Columbian Exposition, Chi
cago, 1893, used over 5,000 arc lamps and about
90,000 incandescent lights to illuminate its build
ings and grounds. Architects were now being
asked to design their pavilions with electric illu
mination as part of the design aesthetic. The most
impressive interior electric lighting was that of the
central nave of the Manufacturers Building.
space, 1,300 feet long by 368 feet wide by 202 feet
high, was lighted by five giant coronas. The cen
tral fixture was the largest at 75 feet in diameter
and carrying 102 arc lights, hung in two concen
tri c circles. The other four coronas were each 60
feet in diameter, each carrying seventy-eight arc
lights , also hung in two concentric circles. These
immense fixtures included attached walkways for
lamp trimmers to maintain the lights.
-
:...nt LlI'I.\ I .... 1I 'III 'ty ,., 10:.
THE MONTAUK BLOCK,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
The Montauk Block, designed by Burnham and
Root in 1881, Chicago, was an earl y commercial
project in which the proprietors, in the scientific
spirit of the times, demanded that electric wiring
for lighting be built into the structure. This re
guest was unique, because it was at least a year
before electric power mains were available for the
building.
1\)8 INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
PERSPECTIVE RENDERING OF THE
MONTAUK BLOCK, C HICA GO,
ILLINOiS. BURNHAM AND ROOT,
1881-1882.
111 the spiril of the progressive desigll of
hi,Rh rise archi lecture, the MOlltauk
Block featured built-in electric wiring ,
anticipating the elJellwai pril11ll cy of
electric lighring Ilnd mechanical devices.
Courtesy oJThe Art Institute oj
Chica,Ro .
DETAIL OF MAIDENS BEARING TORCH
LIGHTS IN THE HEADHOUSE OF UNION
STATION, ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI.
THEODORE C. LINK , WITH LOUIS
MILLET, 1891-1894. RESTORED BY
HELLMUTH, OBATA AND KASSABAUM ,
INC. , 1984-1985.
Ima,Rinativ e design oJlhe period took
advantll,Re oJthe electric light to enhance
a",d transform interiors in Il totlllly
integrated wily . Photograph by J ohn
Kurti ch.
HEADHOUSE, UNION STATION,
ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI
Many interior spaces of the early twentieth cen
tury exploited the naked electric light bulb with
its glowing filament as a major decorative element
as well as the source of light. Louis Millet (1855
1923), who designed the interiors with Louis Sul
livan (1856-1924) for the Trading Room of the
Chicago Stock Exchange and with Theodore C.
Link (1850-1923) for the Headhouse ofSt. Louis'
\r\AIN HALL OF THE RESTAURANT OF
THE EXHIBITION, DARlvISTADT,
G ER MANY. JOSEPH MARIA OLBRICH,
i901.
Olbrich's sparse chal1deliers reitlforce the
.linil1g room's chara([eristic arched
windows al1d hal'll1011ize with th e
J acefuI fi1rll ish il1J;s. CourteS)l of The
.-1.rt Illstitut e of Chicago.
Union Station, employed early electric lights for
illumination and decoration.
The Grand Hall of the Headhouse, with its
65 foot high barrel vaulted ceiling, was illumi
luted by skylights and clerestory leaded-glass
windows by day. A variety of electric lights were
integrated into the architecture to articulate the
bold forms while embellishing the delicate deco
rative motifs. The polychromed color scheme
was developed by Millet (see Chapter 8 for details
of the restoration of the Grand Hall) to exhibit
their correct hues when illuminated by the golden
glow of carbon f!lament bare bulbs.
A band of exposed light bulbs, located be
tween the vaulted windows and the balconies,
provided a glitter of light , circumscribing the hall.
This lighting, interrupted by the colossal vaults,
accentuated the space's rhythmic quality. In the
1984 restoration, freestanding multihead lamps,
inspired by street lights , were installed on the
main floor to provide intimate lighting for the
central lobby
LIGHT: SPACE DEFINITiON 199
Celebrating the newly created electric tech
nology, Millet designed seven maidens in relief,
framing the terminus of the vault. Bearing glow
ing torches in outstretched arms, these figures
were transformed into goddesses of light. Within
the arches were twin golden statues offering the
gift of light represented as suspended illuminated
globes.
HAUPTRESTAURANT, DARMSTADT,
GERMANY
Joseph Maria Olbrich (1867-1908) was commIs
sioned in 1899 to design the Kunstler-Kolonie at
Darmstadt, a group of artists' houses and exhibi
tion halls. The Hauptrestaurant , locat ed in one of
the halls, was built to accommodate four hundred
people on two floors , linked by a central staircase.
The timber-framed gabled structure was com
pleted in 1901, enclosing a long, narrow dining
room that was completely done in white with or
namental stripes on the walls . The simple, open
room was illuminated by a series of medieval
inspired chandeliers, supponing two rings of
hanging electric lamps. The delicate, circular
forms, with minimal decoration, contrasted the
plain white ceiling form and restaurant interior.
Tables along the perimeter walls were illuminated
by bracketed fixtures that extended the language
of the chandeliers. The design of the lighting pro
vided a balanced illumination while relating well
200 INTERI QR ARCHITECTURE
NIGHT VIEW OF EXTERIOR OF THE
HALL OF SCIENCE, CENTURY OF
PROGRESS, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. PAUL
PHILIPPE CRET, 1933.
Neon lighting was a new breakthrough
in architectural illuminat ion,
particularly with it s ability to outline
form and space ill a range of colors.
Courtesy of The Art Institute of
Chicago.
to the delicacy of the furnishings . A powerful se
ri es of colorful Tiffany windows, depicting the
Roman god Bacchus by Hans Christiansen, con
trasted the beautiful white room and became the
focal point.
THE CENTURY OF PROGRESS,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
In keeping with the late nineteenth century tradi
tion of showcasing the latest in lighting technol
ogy at world's fairs, the Century of Progress
Exposition, Chicago, 1933, featured a new kind
of illumination in addition to incandescent and arC
lighting. The Hall of Science Building was lit
with neon and other rare-gas tubes. Neon gas
produced red light when sealed in a clear tube
while being charged with electric current; mer
cury gas furni shed blue light in a clear tube; green
was achieved by mercury gas in a yellow tube;
yellow was produced by helium in a yellow tube.
THE RAINBOW ROOM, ROCKEFELLER
CENTER, NEW YORK, NEW YORK
The Rainbow Room received its name in 1934
from the RCA Victor Color Organ that trans
formed music into colored light. The reflected
light formed rainbows of color onto the spectac
ular domed ceiling of the room. The room
'L
e
e
opened October 3, 1934, on the sixty-fIfth fl oor
of the RCA Building, centerpiece of the newl y
cons tructed Rockefeller Center, New York. Its
swank interior beca me an overnight success for
dining, dancing, and romancing.
The sy mmet ri cal room, with vie ws of the
Manhattan skyline on three sides, is dominated by
a circular dance floor, mir rored by a correspond
ing shallow dome. The radial-patterned wood
floor is the focal point of the room, surrounded
by carpeted terraces with dining tables . The dance
floor is illuminated by two rings of multi colored
cove lights that circumscribe the dome above.
Suspended from the center of the dome. an ele-
DANCE FLOOR AREA, RAINBOW
ROOM, ROCKEFELLER CENTEH, NEW
YORK, N EW YORK. REINHARD AND
HOFMEI STER; CORBETT, HARRI SON
AND MACMURRA Y; HOOD AND
FOUILHOUX, 1931-1940. RESTORED
BY HUGH H AR DY, H ARDY H OLZMAN
PFEIFFER A SSOCIATES, 1987.
Li,Rhting creates a rotllnda-like central
space (omb ined I/Iith the sparkle and
elegance reminiscent of Versaill es.
Photograph by J ohn Kurtich.
DINING AR EA, RAI NBOW R OOM,
ROCKEFELLER CENTER, NEW YORK,
NEW YORK. REINHARD AND
HOFM EI STER; CORBETT, HARRISON
AND M AC M URRAY; HOOD AND
FOUILHOUX, 1931-1940. RESTORED
BY HUGH HARDY, HARDY HOLZMAN
PFEI FFER ASSOCIATES, 1987.
The lise o.f indi vid/lal candles on the
dining tables is essential to create th e
necessa ry intimate scale withill this
;zrand and complex space . Photograph by
J ohn KIArtich.
gant crystal chandelier recalls the prismatic glitter
of preelec tric li ghting. This glittering gualit y is
repeated by small er chandeliers and wall sconces
on the perimet er of the room. The dramati c effect
of the bold cove li ghts is softened by the romantic
sparkl e of the crystal fIxtures. Candles on the ta
bles bring the scale of the chandeli ers down to the
most intimate level of dining and conversation.
The enclosing walls of the room are alternatin g
views of the patterned lights of the M anhattan
skyline with mirrors reflecting the view of the
room. The Rainbow Room is a harmonious bal
ance between grand scale thea tri cal lucency and
intimate glow.
LIGHT: SPA CE DEFINITION 201
FLUORESCENT LIGHTING
In 1939, New York and San Francisco simulta
neously held world's fairs. Each fair introduced
fluorescent lighting as the new state-of-the-art il
lumination technology. In the U.S. Steel Pavilion
of New York's World of Tomorrow, the ribs of
the pavilion's dome were outlined with fluores
cent tubing. The Petroleum Building used flu
orescent lighting as indirect illumination, which
produced an illusion of the building's horizontal
elements floating in space. San Francisco's Golden
Gat e Exposition featured multicolored effects to
illuminate its architecture, using 2,400 pink, blue,
gold, and green fluorescent tubes mixed with
about 10,000 colored floodlights hidden in
troughs or buried in landscaping. Instead of por
traying the utopian future of N ew York's World
of Tomorrow, San Francisco created a fant as y
world of Asian, Central American, and PacifIc
Basin exhibition palaces and courtyards. Each
court was a separate entity of mood and color.
The Court of the Moon and Stars was illuminated
in blue-greens and purples. The Court of the
Seven Seas was predominantly apricot, combined
with a harmonious yellow on set-back sections of
the walls. Fluorescent paint was applied to sculp
tural niches , which were then bathed with invisi
ble ultraviolet light, creating dramatic luminosity
and deep shadows.
Fluorescent lighting revolutionized the illu
mination of interiors, particularly in commercial
applications. The fluorescent tube could produce
more light more cheaply than an equivalent incan
descent lamp. Other advantages of the fluorescent
lamp included longer life, less heat per unit of
lucency, and lower surface brightness than the
corresponding incandescent lamp. Early fluores
cent lamps, however, were much noisier than
their incandescent counterparts, due to required
ballasts that provided correct starting voltage as
well as current limitation and circuit protection.
The fluorescent lamp did not produce a full color
spectrum, and its initial resulting light quality was
cold and flat. Faulty tubes could produce irritating
flicker. In spite of these disadvantages, fluorescent
lighting became the predominant way to illumi-
AERIAL NIGHT VIEW OF THE GOLDEN
GATE EXPOSITION, SAN FRANCISCO,
CALIFORNIA, 1939.
TheJluorescerlf 1 / ~ ( ( h l was a
revolutionary brea kthrough ill (h e
eIJolution ofeleClric lighting, being
capable ofproducing more I(((hl jar less
cosl Ihan Incandescent. Courtesy or The
Art institute orChlcago.
nate commercial interiors, leading the way to in
tegrated and luminous ceilings.
Fluorescent technology now permitted the
architect and interior designer to create a ceiling
as an interior sky or a continuous plane of light.
A leader in this development was Skidmore, Ow
ings & Merrill (SOM), who designed a highly
integrated ceiling system for the Union Carbide
Building, New York (1960), currently Manufac
turers Hanover Trust. SOM's system transcended
the conventional luminous ceiling because it com
bined lighting with air-conditioning, sound con
trol, and unlimited fl exibility of wall partitions.
Union Carbide had more than 800,000 square feet
of ceilings in its building complex, and this new
system unifIed the interiors throughout , fulfIlling
the client's desire to alter offIce layout overnight
without disturbing lighting levels, air distribu
tion, and acoustical control.
DEN
;co,
g
r less
~ r T h e
to m
ed the
ceiling
,- light.
~ , Ow
highly
:arbide
m ufac
,cended
It com
ld con
[itions .
are feet
hi s new
:.ll ftlling
-ernight
tist ribu-
EERO SAARINEN'S INTERIOR
ARCHITECTURE
Eero Saarinen' s (191 0-1961) early work showed a
developed interest in defming interior space to re
fl ect the experimental struct ure of his architectural
envelope. Saarinen' s design pal ette included nat
ural light and electri c illumination as equal to steel
and concrete in shaping space. His innova ti ve
work led to pushing all the components of archi
tectural des ign to their limits. Past critics have
focused on hi s structure and exterior fo rm giving,
ignoring his perhaps more import ant contribution
to Interior Architecture. Saarinen's buildings
were crea ted for the function of the interior space,
and his use of li ght transcended its practical raison
d'etre to become a sculptural presence.
Saarinen's pair of buildings for Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Cambridge, 1955, the
Kres ge Auditorium and the Chapel, were criti
cized at the time of their completion for their lack
of relationshi p to each other and to the plaza they
occupy. Their exteriors belie their real value,
which is the interior space.
The Kresge Auditorium was an expenment
in thin shell concrete, a pure geometric form one
eighth of a sphere, supported on three points. The
interior is articulated within the structure to create
a broad, triangul ar space, focusing on the stage at
one of the shell 's vertices. This shell's interior is
shaped to accommodate the needs of a concert hall
CEILING SYSTEM OF THE UNION
CARBIDE BUILDING, NEW YORK,
N EW YORK. SK IDMORE, OWINGS
AND MERRILL, 1960.
Thefiuorcscent I(Rht was eas ily
adap table to the col1cept oj /he integrated
ceiling sys/ern, which allowed a IUIII
.fiexibili/y il1 office dcsiJin. Ph%gmph
by Ezra SlOlicy Associa /es .
through terraced radial seating focusing on the
stage, which is surmounted by suspended, reflec
ti ve, acoustical panels. Further shaping of the
auditorium is accomplished with a layer of
acoustical clouds that also provide general illumi
nation. This directionall y focused space is con
trasted by a continuous cove light , broken only at
the stage, which reestablishes the true shape of the
enclosing shell . Thi s contrast clearly and power
fully articulates the juxtaposition of structure and
function. Here, Saarinen achieves light as struc
ture.
The Chapel , on the other hand, explores the
mystical qualit y of natural light , suppl emented by
el ectric illumination. The 125-seat cylindrical
sanctuary is sited within a circular moat of wa ter,
accessed by a bridge. Upon entering the Chapel ,
one is immedi ately drawn to the altar, which is
loca ted on the fa r side of the space, showered
by natural li ght reflecting off Harry Bertoia's
(1915- ) suspended sculptural screen.
A su btler kinetic effect is in troduced through
more sophisticated architectural details. The brick
cylinder walls undulat e on the interior, trans
forming the shape. These undulations are gener
ated as radiati ons from the hi ghli ghted off-center
altar. Corresponding to thi s rhythm, a series of
arches in the exterior shell were formed to admit
perimeter up-li ghting. This detail reveals the true
purpose of the moat, which is to reflect li ght from
the pool to the bottom of the interior walls. This
lNTERIOR, KRESGE AUDITORIUM,
M . I. T., CAMBRIDGE,
M ASSACHUSETTS. E ERO SAARI NEN ,
\ 954-\955.
Saarinen used calle Iigllling 10 lIisually
reinforce Ihe lhin shell structure of lhe
audilOriurI1, which is olherwise ellidenl
011 1)' from the exterior. PhoLOgraph b),
J ohn Kurtich.
PLAN, KRESGE C HAPEL, M . l. T. ,
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS. Emo
SAARINEN, 1955.
Eleclric 1i,f(i11 is used to sl.lhtly enhallce
and reinforce rh e IlIfl.lsl.lallnallipulalion
By pmnissiol1 of Th e
tv!. l . T. MI/ seum.

Z
CHAPE L
"'lI. SSACHUSETt S INSTITUTE OF'
, ' .. 1 ..... ' aU JlTl .
PLAZA LEVEL
mirrored light emphasizes the sensuous quality of
the undulations and the rich texture of the brick.
In addition, quivering light from the agitated
water infuses an ethereal effect.
Saarinen's most sculptural building, the
TWA Terminal at JFK International Airport,
New York (1956-1962), is a study of mass and
void defined by light. This reinforced concrete
shell structure, with its robust curvilinear forms
and intersecting peripheral buildings, utilizes
monumental scale and sweeping forms to create
three-dimensional spaces charged with move
ment. Natural light illuminates the spaces from
the huge perimeter curtain walls and linear sky
lights. The skylights, supplemented by electric
illumination, define the major structural intersec
tions, dramatizing the purpose of the building.
Saarinen was very successful at creating an airport
terminal that embodies the spirit of travel through
emotional architectural forms reinforced by inte
grated lighting.
KRAMER PENTHOUSE,
NEW YORK, NEW YORK
Illumination of spaces by borrowing natural and
electric light from adjacent spaces is a neglected
method of lighting. This concept was employed
by Michael Kalil (1944-1991) as a thematic ap
proach to illuminating the interior of the Kramer
residence, New York (1990). He described his de-
INTERNATIONAL TERMINAL, TRANS
WORLD AIRLINES, J.F. KENNEDY
INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT, NEW
YORK, NEW YORK. EERO SAARINEN,
1956-1962.
Saarinen again combiYles natural light
with electric light /0 explain and
reinforce the unusual shell structure of
the terminal. Photograph by John
K'lrtich.
sign as " ... how to light a space by using the
space next to the space you want to light." 5 To
achieve this, Kalil adapted the principle of the sun
coming through a window by employing hidden
incandescent lighting. A trough of perimeter
lighting terminating with a cubic lighting device,
illuminates the fireplace wall from above, flood
ing the surface with warm, irregular levels of il
lumination, reminiscent of shimmering sunlight.
This essentially makes a wall act as a window.
STANLEY KORSHAK AT THE CRESCENT,
DALLAS, TEXAS
The brilliantly illuminated stair of Stanley Kor
shak at the Crescent, Dallas, Texas (1986), a
three-story contemporary specialty store, estab
lishes an exciting focal point, while uniting the
various departments at the main entrance. Him
mel/Bonner, Chicago architects, with Wheels
Gerstoff-Shanker, New York lighting designers,
collaborated to create this cylindrical stair which
acts as a knuckle to resolve the transition of two
colliding geometries of the existing building com
plex. The dynamic stair was conceived as a float
ing sculptural form, illuminated by back lit walls
of translucent glass.
To achieve this floating effect , a steel struc
ture, supported by eight vertical tubes, were
placed behind the glass wall. On the back side of
the wall, a cavity was formed to support vertical
MAIN FLOOR, STANLEY KORSHAK AT
THE CRESCENT, DALLAS, TEXAS.
DARCY BONNER, HIMMEL/ BoNNER
ARCHITECTS, 1986.
A vertical shaft oj ligh t defmes the
vertical circulation, its brilliance spilling
into th e main space oJthe store.
Photograph by R. Greg Hursely.
fluorescent fixtur es and a catwalk to allow for re
lamping and maintenance. The steel grate cat
walk, structure, and lighting were carefully
modeled to prevent any shadowing or hot spots.
Two sheets of sandblasted glass sandwiched a
layer of milky film to thoroughly diffuse the
light . These faceted panels, joined by silicone,
formed the backdrop for the cantilevered stair.
DETAIL OF STAIRWELL, STANLEY
KORSHAK AT THE CRESCENT, DALLAS,
TEXAS. DARCY BONNER, HIMMEL/
BONNER ARCHITECTS, 1986.
Lighting the container Jor the stairs
dramatizes the kinesth et ic experiel1ce of
vertical circulation. Photograph by
R. Greg Humly.
The stair was cantilevered from the eight
tu bes , utilizing flat steel supports welded to hid
den steel stringers. The steel stringers support
heavy, pre-cast terazzo treads, formed in an L
Shape. This achieves an open riser effect, allowing
reflected light to glow onto the tread. The open
handrail s are a combination of steel, mahogany,
and sandblasted glass, providing an intricate sil
houette against the back lit glass. Further accen
tuation of the lighting is achieved by employing
highly polished black granite in patterns that re
flect light.
VIVERE, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
Robust and whimsical lighting dramatizes the
enigmatic series of spaces in Vivere, Chicago, Il
linois (1990), a renovated dining room of the Ital
ian Village restaurant complex. Designer Jordan
Moser (1 958- ) conceived the restaurant as a
hand-crafted Italian Baroque experience, filled
with provocative textures, forms , and lighting.
The glowing golden skin of the space appears to
be a magnification ofliving tissue. The sensuous,
curvilinear forms accelerate and height en the
diners' senses. Illumination is integral to these
forms, defining space, accenting textures, and en
hancing the symbolic language of the interior.
The strongest thematic symbol is the spiral
For Moser, the spiral form conveyed his sense of
the owner's family heri tage and tradition. Three
generations have owned and operated thi s restau
rant complex, spiralling from the original
founder. Various details are derived from this
form, in two and three dimensions. The spiral is
the basis for four columns, defining the main din
ing room. These whimsical, corkscrew forms are
illuminated from their interior, mocking the col
umn's structural integrity. The columns visually
support an entablature, which is perforated by a
rhythmic pattern of hand-blown glass lights. This
ensemble frames a gigantic, suspended chandelier,
which is cut out of an old boiler head. A radiating
spiral on the chandelier is defined and articulated
by a back lit , leaded glass pattern. Finally, to scale
down the space for intimate dining, suspended
conical luminaires create a series of vignettes in
concert with the dining tables and their adjacent
mirrored faux windows, decorated with elaborate
period drapery.
Without the benefit of any exterior views or
natural lighting, Vivere is alive through the as
sembly of unpredictable shapes and surfaces, illu
minated by custom incandescent lighting fixtures.
The mystic of its inventive imagery is intended to
make each of the 120 seats a unique visual experi
ence by focusing on complex and idiosyncratic
details. Moser has succeeded in fusing incandes
cent light with exotic materials to produce a vivid
dining adventure.
THE MASTERS OF LIGHT
Light was a major creative force in the work of
four twentieth century architects, particularly in
the way light defined and shaped their interior
spaces: Le Corbusier (1887-1965), Louis 1. Kahn
(1901-1974), Alvar Aalto (1898-1976), and Frank
Lloyd Wright (1867-1959).
Sunlight and shadows were primary ingredi
ents with which Le Corbusier worked. He said:
The human animal is strongly affected by sun
light: This response is rooted in the inmost nature ofthe
species . .. Light and forms, specific intensities of
light, success ive spaces-these all act on our sensibility,
producing physiological sensations that schola1'5 have
recorded, described, classified, and specified. This hori
zontal and this vertical, this harshly serrated line 01' this
gentle undulation, the closed and centered f01'm of a
circle or a square-these all work strongly on us, char
acterize our creations, and determine our sensations
6
Kahn stated his belief with a strong poetic
vIsion:
"I said that all material in nature, the mountains
and the streams and the air and we, are made of Light
which has been spent , and this crumpled mass called
material casts a shadow, and the shadow belongs to
Light. "7
Aalto was concerned about the quality of
light .
.. But one item that is most often ignored 01' in
any case neglected is the quality of the light. What do
we mean by the light 's quality? Light exists for man, a
phenomenon he needs without interruption at his dis
posal. Properly adapted quality is in other words much
more important in this case than in the case of objects
whose contact with humans is merely temporary. We
meet here the same phenomenon as everywhere else: an
acceptable perfection from a purely technical viewpoil1t
-fixtures, their movable parts, their methods of man
ufacture, etc., have received their rational treatment but
MAIN DINING AREA, VIVERE,
C HI CAGO, ILLINOIS. JORDAN MOSER,
1990.
A 1V0rid of light and spiral far/lasy
the diner il1 a space untouched
by natural light. Photograph by John

LIGHTING DETAIL, V IVERE, C HICAGO,
I LLINOIS. JORDAN MOSER, 1990.
Hangillg ligh t fixtures form a
cadence for the rhythm ofdining tables
and co rrespo nding draped mirrors.
)iom many lJiewpoints, their main task, l(f?ht
as man's good serlJant, its adaptability for good
[lision, and in general its quality in relationship to man,
has fallen behind. In this field, II anywhere, people
halJe tried to improlJe upon this lack with inappropriate
glued-on forms. 8
The integrated use of light was central to
Wright'S work. He especially valued sunlight.
The more we desire the sun , the more we will
desire the freedom of the good ground and the sooner we
will learn to understand it. The more we lJalue light,
the more securely we will find and keep aUJorthwhile
cilJilization to set against prelJalent abuse and min. Be
cause of light, the calJe for human dwelling and work,
for play and toil, is at last disappearing 9
LE CORBUSIER
To Le Corbusier (1887-1965) natural light was
the basic requirement for architectural space. "To
him even a cavern only exists, architecturally
speaking, as a result of the sun." 10 As he was a
painter as well as an architect, Le Cor busier con
sidered natural light very carefully in his architec
tural projects, developing an artist's philosophy
about light and color. "I use light abundantly, as
you may have suspected; light for me is the fun
damental basis of architecture. I compose with
light." 11
An early commission that exercised Le Cor
busier's concern with natural light was the Mai
son Ozenfant, Paris, France (1923). Amedee
Ozenfant (1886-1966) was a painter who founded
an aesthetic movement in 1916 called Purism.
This Purist philosophy demanded a return to a
DETAIL, VIVERE, CHICAGO, iLLINOIS.
JORDAN MOSER , 1990.
A great IIa riel), of light.fixturcs Ivas
wstom for this restaurant,
the sp iral as the the/lie. Photograph b)'
John Kurti(ll.
balanced, harmonic environment through ele
gant, economic, geometric forms. Ozenfant had
an important influence on Le Corbusier at this
time, and together they published a book in 1918,
Apres Ie Cubisme. Being a painter himself, Le Cor
busier understood the importance of indirect nat
ural light for a studio. Ozenfant's studio was on
the top Boor of his house and was lighted with
large side windows overlooking a reservoir and a
skylight made up of sawtooth factory windows
that subsequently fdtered the toplight through an
interior smoked glass ceiling.
During the 1920s, Le Corbusier designed a
series of artists' studios and private villas, which
allowed him to develop his Five Points of a New
Architecture (see note 23 in Chapter 4 for further
discussion of the ftve points). Briefly, the ftve
points are piloti (support pillars) , plan libre (free
plan), fa(ade libre (free facade), fenetre en longueur
(strip window), and (roof garden).
The fa(ade fibre (free facade) allowed the fe
netre en longueur (strip window) to be placed any
where, its length not dictated by the structure.
Since this would increase the amount of natural
light that could be admitted into a building, such
horizontal strip windows became standard fea
tures in his houses and villas. Two commissions
in particular were designed for art collectors, the
Maison La Roche, Paris, France (1923-1924), and
the Villa Stein/de Monzie, Garches, France (1926
1927).
The Maison La Roche was designed as a box
raised on piloti with one outwardly curved wall.
The spatial sequence began with a triple height
entry hall that offered the participant optional
ATELIER OZENFONT, PARI S, FRANCE.
LE CORBUSIER AND PIEnRE
JEANNERET, 1922.
The saw-toothed factory skyli.l?i1ts were
directly ol/er the stlldio's smoked glass
ceiling, wlu'ch in turn was a l ( ~ l l e d with
the large glass comer openinj( , makillJ(
the opaque walls appear weightless.
Droits de reproduction paws par la
SPADEM. Copyright 1991 ARS
N. Y./SPADEM.
GAllERY, MAISON LA ROCHE. PARI S,
FRANCE. L E CORBUSJER AND PIERRE
J EA NNEnET, 1923-1924.
The clerestory windows prot1ided
relatillely fue/'/ illulI1inatioll while
max imi zing useable wall space{or
hanging paintil'l,f!,s. Photosraph by
John KUl'tich.
routes to terminate either in a ramped gallery or
an outdoor roof garden.
In the entrance hall we find over-lapping blocks of
space which are lit from behind, thus always suggesting
something beyond. Instead of the eye and mind being
abruptly halted by edges and contained sUI:faces, they
are led continuously on in exploration, never quite com
prehending the mystery ~ f layered and veiled space. 11
The glazing of the high strip windows that
achieved this veiled spatial sequence were so de
tailed that they seemed to allow surfaces to flow
in and out, not dissimilar to the enigmatic Purist
paintings Le Corbusier was producing during this
period. The light in the space was designed to
illuminate and dramatize Le Roche's extensive
collection of modern art. "In Maison Le Roche
formal and colouristic contrasts are dramatized by
the ever-changing point of view, a procession
through spaces and volumes that Le Corbusier
called 'promenade architecturale.' "13
The Villa Stein/ de Monzie, Garches, France
(1926-1928), was designed to house a major col
lection of Matisse as well as function as a subur
ban villa outside of Paris. The resulting building
combined Le Corbusier's interest in ocean liners
with abstract spatial arrangements influenced bv
.' .
Purist painting. The villa, located on a narrow,
long parcel of land, was designed with two prin
cipal facades, the entrance and the garden. The
midsection of the entrance facade is characterized
by two narrow bands of ribbon windows that
extend for the entire width of the building. The
arrangement of the garden facade is the reverse;
narrow bands of wall separate much larger,
higher strip windows that allow natural light deep
into the villa. However, one portion of this facade
is a doubl e height open terrace covered only by
the continuation of the roof line, penetrating the
enclosed volume of the villa with natural light and
ventilation.
The Villa Savoye, Poissy-sur-Seine, France
(1929-1931), exemplified Le Corbusier's Five
Points of Architecture (see C hapter 4 for the four
dimensional discussion of the Villa Savoye).
Here, the pi/oti clearly separated the base from the
piano nobile living quarters. Strip windows, both
glazed and unglazed, illuminated equally the en
closed living room and the adjacent open terrace.
The terrace and roof garden so boldly opened up
the villa from the top that natural light and fresh
air penetrated everywhere. Le Corbusier's use of
color in this villa proclaims his Purist back
ground "White paint on pilotis and on the main
LIGHT: SPACE DEFINITION 21 I
FRONT VIEW, VILLA STEIN/
DE M ONZI E, GARCHES, FRANCE.
LE CORHUSIER AND PIERRE
JEA NNERET, 1926-1928.
Ti,e narrow slrip;, o.!'lVilldows o{li7e
ji-ClrIt facade slrelCh Ji'01il ((lrner 10 (ornC!',
nwi.?in,e a laul, machirle-like elevatiotl.
PllOlograph by JollII KI.lrtich.
REAR VIEW, VILLA STEIN/ DE M ONZIE,
GARCHES, FRANCE. LE CORBUSIER
AND PIERRE JEANN ERET, 1926-1928.
The rear facade doubles the he(eht of til e
;'Irip windows,
narrowil1R the infill walls. Th ese
windows allow south 10 permeate
Ihe living quarlers. Droits de
reproducliol1 perws par la SPADEM.
Copyright 1991 ARS N. Y./
SPADEivl.
------
box stands out sha rpl y against the green walls of
the undercroft, the pink and blue of the curves on
top. 14
,
In the 1930s, Le Corbusier invented the brise
solei! for window openings to control the intense
li ght and heat gai n of hot climates.
One day, while I was considering Medit erranean
pl'Obl ems, ... my head Jull oj these buts and ifs, the
solution came to me: install , in Font oJthe glass skin , a
device regulated by th e S ~ I / 1 ' S daily path as it vari es
between the solsti ces and equinoxes. The "byis e-solei!,"
as an architectural event, was born. 15
After World War II , the brise-so le/ l became a
characteristic part of Le Corbusier's architectural
vocabulary.
ROOF GARDEN ADJACENT TO LIVING
AREA, VILLA SA VOYE, P O ISSY- SUR
SEINE, FRANCE. LE CORBUSIER AND
PIERREJEANNERET,1929-1 931.
The rooJterrace garden which services
the main living quarters is open to the
sky but enclosed with the same strip
windoUis (unglazed) as the Iivitlg spaces
(glazed). Photograph by)ohl1 KUYl/ cli.
The Unit e d'Habitation, Marseill es, France
(1947-1952) , represented Le Corbusier's state
ment of individual and communal living in the
same complex. Two- stor y-hi gh apart ment s inter
locked with each other around interior "streets"
on every third fl oor. Each apartment had natural
light from both the eas t and west, which was con
trolled by the now hi ghly developed br/se-solei!
loggia. The M edit erranean sun penetrated the
deepest part of each apartment.
Lc Corbusier used natural light not only to
defi ne space within but also to generate sculptural
entities without. Many of hi s exterior sculptural
forms were created to specifi call y channel na tural
light to defi ne and transform interior space. The
Chapel of N otre Dame du Haut , Ronchamp,
DRAWING OF THE PRINCIPLE OF THE
BRISE-SOLEIL. LE CORBUS IER, LATE
1930s.
The s/lil -shading device was a s(l/Iptural
oppo rtunity luade up o.fframed bal co rlies
.filled with il1legrated sun cOl1trol
elel11el1ls weaving light and shade into
rich pattems. Droits de repro ducti on
perws par la SPADEM. Copyright
1991 ARS N. Y/S PADEM
-
UNITE D'HABITATI ON, MARSEILLE,
fRAN CE. LE CORBVSIER, 1947-1 952.
This apartment complex lIlas
Le Corbusier's first .finished project
realizing his brise-soleil design.
Photograph by Garret Eakin.
PERSPECTIVE DRA WING OF TYPICAL
APARTMENT ARRANGEMENT, UNITE
n' HABITATION, MARSEILLE, FRANCE.
LE CORBVSIER, 1947-1952.
The interlocking split level design
allowed natural light to penetrate deep
into the apartmentfrom both sides oJthe
building, receiving morning and
afternoon sunlight, all controlled by the
brise-sol eil. Dro its de reproduction
perms par la SPADEM. Copyright
1991 ARS N. Y./SPADEM.
U nc: c(:lI u! e : Ie !au , Ie l oyer .
2I4 INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
France (1950-1955), exemplifIes the importance
of light to Le Corbusier' s interior design.
Light is the key and the light lights up the form s.
.1nd these forms have a power of emotion due to the
play of the proportions , the interplay of unexpected,
;tartling relations, but a/so by the intellectllal play of
rize underlying reasoning-the;I' authentic birth, their
,lbility to las t, structure, know-hotu, hardihood, even
remerity, play-of real things that are essential things ,
rhe constituent elements ofafchitecture.
16
At the Ronchamp chapel, li ght was used in
specifIc ways to defme the space and emphasize
(he mysteries of Christianity. First , it clarifIed the
asymmetrical structure of the building from
within. A band of natural light separates the curv
ing, arched roof from the walls, revealing the
facts that the shell form of the roof rests on mas
sive pylons expressed on the exterior and that the
wall s are nonstructural infIll. This use of light also
works to lift the otherwise heaviness of the roof
as it reacts to the pla y of light.
Second, a dramatic focus was created from
the light coming through openings in the south
wall of the chapel. The punched out fenestrations
are smaller at the exterior of the wall and flare out
to larger rectangles as they plunge through the
wall material. Panes of vividly colored glass,
some with symbols and designs, cover the open
ings at the exterior face. This glass actually trans
forms the light by both heightening its value and
softening its intensity with color. The li ght, in
turn, defInes and enhances the materials. The
rough concrete frames vibrate and channel rays of
colored light through the space as the sun passes
its vivid rays through the south wall. The bursts
of color and sparkle contrast dramatically with the
general lower ambient light level of the chapel.
Third, indirect light from three smaller adja
cent chapels extended the space of the main chapel
and intensify the mystical atmosphere of the spa
tial complex. These tiny sanctuaries are each de
fIned by an individual tower that is well expressed
on the exterior of the building. Each tower col
lects its own light in a specifIc way, gently reflect
ing the light down its hollow core. The eas t and
west facing towers produce indirect light, which
varies in intensity as the sun changes its position
relative to the earth; the tower bringi ng in east
light, which is also undernea th the pulpit, is tinted
red and on its inside surface, creating a contrasting
atmosphere when the morning sunlight pours
into the tower opening. The north facing tower
provides constant illumination.
Finally, a rectangular window on the east
wall behind the altar of the main chapel illumi
nates a statue of the Virgin. Early morning wor
shippers face a brilliantl y backlit Image,
silhouetted against the sky. The eastern sunlight
produces a dramatic shaft of light through this
opening, dominated by the presence of Our Lady
of the Height. Le Cor busier sensitively utilized
natural light to provide a powerful sense of mys
ter y and effective modulation of space and form .
Sainte-Marie-de-I a- T ourette, the Dominican
monastery overlooking Eveux sur I'Arbresle,
France (1957-1960), was Le Corbusi er 's interpre
tation of the traditional courtyard plan of a mo
nastic complex. The Dominicans had an ex
tremely restricted budget, which impelled Le
Corbusier to featur e the creative use of natural
light as the major design element. He expanded
his architectural vocabulary by inventing new
light controlling elements in addition to the brise
solei! loggia, which now were used to defIne the
monks ' cells. For the public seminar spaces, li
brary, and enclosed walkways, he designed floor
to-ceiling glazed openings apportioned by un
equally spaced vertical concrete mullions , which
he called ondulatoires.
As he did in the chapel at Ronchamp, Le
Corbusier used natural light to clearly defme all
parts of the monastery's church. Each of the spa
tial components (the public worship area, the
monks' worship area, the sanctuary, and the sac
risty) had specific illumination and color. The rec
tangular volume and height of the ceiling of the
public worship area and the monks' worship area
are defmed by vertical and horizontal light slots
respectively. The amount of admitted light is
minimal enough so that the feeling of Christian
mystery is maintained but is bright enough to
clearly defme the boundaries of the large volume.
Lighting for the sanctuary is as contrasting to
the illumination of the worship areas as the sanc-
MAIN SANCTUARY, C HAPELLE NOTRE
DAME-DU- HAUT, R ONCHAMP,
FRANCE. LE C ORBUSIER, 1950-1955.
The separation of the sll ell roofand
heavy walls is more clearly lIisible fi'om
th e interior with th e band oJnatural
light these elements, /IIakillg
the ceilins seem to hover above the
space . PhoTograph by John KUl'tich.
S OUTH WA LL, CHAPELLE NOTRE
DAME-DU-HAUT, RONCHAMP,
The openings of the sorlth wall pierce
theJortress-like thickness with truncated
shapes, emphasiz ing the rough texture
oj the wall material with the brilliant
colors oJthe painting-like glazing .
Photograph by John Kurti ch.
LIGHT TOWER, CHAPELLE NOTRE
DAME-DU-HAUT, RONCHAMP,
This tower's opening .faces north,
gathering an evel1 light throughout the
day and providing an even-tempered,
calm eIfect Jor the chapel belou/.
Photograph by J ohn Kurtich .
2 I 6 INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
I
EAST WINDOW DETAIL WITH THE
VIRGIN, CHAPELLE NOTRE-DAME-DU
HAUT, RONCHAMP, FRANCE.
LE CORBUSIER, 1950-1955.
The statue of the Virgin can rotate 180
deg rees within the r.!Jindow to face either
the congregation inside the sal/ctllary or
the thoUSQ/lds of pilgrims who gather
twice a year[or an outdoor lI1ass.
Phot0sraph ill John Knrtich.
,c_""._. 1011'<*
:l_"'-',",
l s.a. .... "h.. ...... ... Je-M""':''' ,-
c_....... 0._
. ..... -
s_ ... (1.... .....,...",.. ......._ I .__
1 .. "'..._
..._..................,,,. ... -
.
.

....'oc<>. ..
.t a... 'e........ . "'",...._
IC_ ' .. ,...._ ... 11'_ ...... ' .. 11...._

.0-11..-....

:')l'l<-'
IJ:=
PLAN, COUVENT DE LA TOURETTE,
EVEUX-SUR-L'ARBRESLE RHONE,
FRAN CE. LE CORBUSIER, 1957-1960.
Three levels ojthe plan show the
complex nature o/this monastery, an
-. -. - - - -
ideal commllnity built on st ilts and
,
pillars, hOllering oller an Arcadial1
landscape. Droits de reproduclion percus
par la SPADEM. Copyright 1991
ARS N. Y / SPADEM.
. 5\ __ -. - r _
I I i---:-:
. /' - '. ' ., . .
ONDULATOIRES, COUV ENT DE LA
TOURETTE, EVEUX-SUIH.' ARBRESLE
RHONE, FRANCE. LE C ORBUSIER,
1957-1960.
The ondul atoires were d e s ( ~ l I e d
b)' Yannis X enakis, fOl11poser
aud archit ect, in accordoll (e willi
Le CorbClsin' s Modulor proporliolls,
(a lliu}; il "mll sical glazed rhYllillls."
Pholoj!,raph by)ollil Kllrli(h.
tuary 's spatial free form is to the strict rectilinear
boundaries of the worship areas. Three powerful
"light cannons" perforate the sanctuary's ceiling,
distributing direct light (s ee Chapter 6 concerning
the colors employed within the cannons) over this
space. The light cannons are expressed on the ex
terior as three truncated cones, each angled in a
different direction to capture the continually
moving sunlight and illuminate the holy place
within.
A different lighting scheme illuminates the
sacristy. A set of seven equall y-angled, prismatic
shaped skylights floods a bright red-orange sac
risty with diagonal light. The light, intense south
light, can be seen from the worship areas as bril
liant polygons of hot light, symbolizing the holy
con tents of thi s space, the sacred vessels, and vest
ments.
M AIN CHAPEL, COUVENT DE LA
T OU RETTE, E VEU X-SUR-L' A RBRESLE
RHONE, FRANCE. LE CORBUSIER,
1<) 57-1960.
The main chape! i.< slark alld primilive,
rell1illiscellt or earl)' Christiall ( 11I1/'el I CS ,
I/Owe ver Iii drarnari cail), il1 sl/'Qr cgic
places SII(II as til e side alfars alld
sacrislr), . Phoro,\?l'i1pit b)' J ohn Kurlich.
Le Corbusi er, the painter, defll1itely influ
enced Le Corbusier, the architect, particularly in
the use of light and color. Le Corbusier had an
artist's eye and sensitivity to spatial composition
and sequence that was controlled and amplified
by the use of natural light.
LOUIS 1. KAHN
Of the four master architects discussed here,
Louis I. Kahn (1901-1974) was the most philo
sophical about the use of natural light in his archi
tecture. He could not conceive of architectural
space without natural light.
A space can never reach its place in architecture
without natural light. Artificial light is the light oj
night expressed in positioll ed (handeliers 110t to be COYn
LIGHT CANNONS, COUVENT DE LA
T O URETTE, EVEUX-SUR-L' ARBRESLE
nHONE, fR AN CE. LE CORBUSIER ,
1957-1960.
T he 111n'e Ilgill ((J11I101l5 ca c/I capnlre a
diJfc/'CI1I angle of Ihe .1'1111 , sIJ((cssiuel),
illUlllillatillg Ihe allars wililin Ihe
monastery. by johll
Kllrricll.
pared with the unpredictabl e play ofl1aturallight ...
The stntcture is (/ design in light. The the dome,
the arch , the column are structures related to the charac
ter of light. Natural light gi IJes mood to space by the
nuances of light in the time of the day and the seasons
of the year as it ent ers and modifies the space
l7
Kahn considered natural light to be the Iife
giving force to architecture. Natural light con
stantly changes color as the day proceeds from
sunrise to sunset . Thus, Kahn placed great em
phasis on the significance of the window and how
0 -
it gave the space its vitality. In his design of the
1-
Weiss House, Norristown, Pennsylvania (1948
-al
1949), Kahn turned the entire SOLI th wall of the
house into huge floor-to-ceiling double-hung
windows, with one sash in each window glazed
rt
the other filled with waterproofed plywood. The
plywood panels could effectivel y block sky glare
SACRISTY LIGHT PRI SMS , COUVENT
DE L A TOURETTE, EVEUX-SUR
L' A RBRESl.E nHONE, fRAN CE.
LE C ORB USIER, 1957-1960.
Th e socri5Iy '., skY/lghls (1/'1' 50 a/iXI1i'd a5
10 CopIUI'C direct ."llIfiXi11 01 Ih e eqllinox.
Plt orograph by j 0 11l1 Kllrti cll .
when placed in the "up" position. When the
glazed portion of the windows are raised to the
"up" position, particularly on a clear night, the
patterns of the stars would become part of the
in terior design.
As Kahn continued experimenting with the
window, he developed the "keyhole" window, a
design that would maximize the usable wall space
withoL! t sacrificing openings for natural light. His
Tribune-R eview Building, Greensburg, Pennsyl
vania (1959) , featured, on the upper part of the
wall, large, wide panes of glass that were con
nected to vertical slits of glass at human level. The
proportions of the windows placed at each of the
four facades responded directly to the type of nat
ural light that fell on them. For instance, the north
facade had the largest rectangles and slots, while
the west facade featured T-shaped narrow verti cal
----
I
7l:i1---I
==
KEYHOLE AND "T" WINDOWS ON
THE EXTERIOR, TRIBUNE REVIEW
PUBLISHING COMPANY BUILDING ,
GREENSBURG, PENNSYLVANIA. LOUIS
I. KAHN, 1958-1962.
This exterior northwest corner dearly
.,hows Kahn '5 response 10 th e difference
!Jetween western light (narrow verlical
.1I1 d high horizontal slits) and nOr/hern
light (large upper rectangles upon
",mower vertical slots). Court esy of
J ohn Ebstel.
L IVING ROOM WI NDOW SCHEME,
W EISS HOUSE, NORRI STOWN,
P ENNSYLVANIA. LOUIS L KAHN,
1948-1949.
The giant doub le-hung window design
(rea ted a flexibl e system ofalterins the
perceptible space of the intenor, not o,.,ly
through light control but view control.
The Louis 1. Kahn Collection,
University of Pennsylvania and
Pennsy lvania Historical and MUSWII1
Collection.
KEYHOLE AND " T" WINDOWS ON
THE INTERIOR, TRIBUNE REVIEW
PUBLISHING COMPANY BUILDING ,
GREENSBURG, PEN NSYLVANIA. LOUIS
L KAHN, 1958-1962.
An interior view 0.[ the norliJwesr comer
shows hall) ji.lYlliture can be easily
arranged against walls wilhollt blocking
the openings for natural light. Courtesy
ofCengiz Yetken.
and horizontal slots to better control the late-day
western light. The slotted window design, or
"keyhole" as it would be known in future proj
ects, maximized placement of furniture against
exterior walls while limiting the visual clutter
from the exterior. Furthermore, the high bay
glazing ensured appropriate illumination deep
into the office interior and provided adequate vi
sual relief from within.
Kahn used indirect light with great mastery
in his First Unitarian Church, Rochester , New
York (1959-1961). The building complex consists
of schoolrooms and offices that enclose a great
central space, the sanctuary itself. The surround
ing auxiliary spaces are illuminated indirectly
through bays in the exterior walls. The walls
EXTERIOR, FI RST UNITARIAN CHURCH
AND SCHOOL, ROCHESTER , NEW
YORK. L OUIS l. KAHN. 1959-1 969.
The light wells o.f the san CIliary are a
Inajor compositional element o.f tiJ e
exterior massing o.f the [mildins
Pllotoi<l'Gph by Don Kala.
SANCTCARY, FIRST UNITARIAN
CHURCH AND SCHOOL, ROCHESTER,
NEW YORK. L OUI S I. KAH N,
1959-1969.
The quality of light fi'o 111 the CC/ling
well s washes the brick I./Ja lls lVitll a
peYIJasiue Illminosity. Photograph by
DOll Kalec.
themselves become act ive with li ght. The central
sanct uary is illuminated by four large li ght well s
located in each of the four corners, the remaining
ceiling slab taki ng the shape of a giant cross. The
sunlight that enters the li ght wells is diffused
throughout the space by the way it strikes the
wall s. Direct li ght openings would have caused
di sturbing glare from the contrast between the
bright outside and relative dim inside.
The Erdman Hall Dormitories, Bryn Mawr,
Pennsylvania (1960- 1965), use a similar scheme.
Large central spaces with light wells or scoops are
surrounded by bedroom clusters that receive their
li ght through bay windows in the sides of the
complex. The central space, used as a dining hall,
has an overall glow from the diffused light enter
ing through four corner light well s. This glow
subtl y changes the color of the interior space as
the natural light goes through its dai ly and sea
sonal cycles.
Kahn became interested in the idea of filt er
ing light through external screens when he was
explori ng designs for the U .S. consulate in
Luanda, Portuguese Angola (1959) . He adapted
PUBLIC SPACES (A. DINING HALL, B. The three cmtral public spaces are
ENTRANCE HALL, AND C. LOUNGE), animated by an elJerchanging diffused
ERDMAN HALL D ORMITORY, BRYN natural light porn ceiling light wells,
MAWR COLLEGE, BRYN MAWR , similar 10 lhe Firsl Urlitarian Church in
PENNSYLVANIA. LOUIS I. KAHN, Rochester. Photographs by J oh n
1960-1965. Kurtich.
ISOMETRI C DETAIL, UNITED STATES
CONSULATE BUILDINGS PROJECT,
L UANDA , ANGOLA. LOUIS I. KAHN,
1959-1962.
Kahn's delJe lopment ofliJ?hl cOl1lrol
thl'ough externa l screens begal1 with this
project. Repro duc ed with permissiofl
from Perspecta 7: The Yale
Architectural Journal, 1961,
"Kahn,"p.22 .
... .. ; :
,
5
n
d
his keyhole window idea as a fr eestanding filt er to
screen the sun' s intense glare. He thought that
each window should face a wall that would take
sunlight and reflect it into the interior spaces. As
these screens seemed to be like ruins,18 Kahn de
veloped the concept of containing a building
within a ruin, or wrapping ruins around build
iags, all for the sake of controlling natural light.
Although the consulate was never built, Kahn
kept exploring the concept.
Kahn had close feelings about Greek col
umns, parti cularly in terms of light:
Once in class-and he attended class-in exp lain
ing that structure is the maker of light I introduced the
idea of the beauty of the greek columns in relation to
each other and I sa id the column was no light-the
space was light.
But the column fe els strong not inside-the col
umn-but outside the column. And more and more th e
column wants to feel its strength outside and it leaves a
hollow inside, more and more, and it beco mes conscious
ofthe hollow.
And if you magnify this thought the column gets
bigger and bigger and bigger, and the periphery gets
thinner and thinner and inside is a court. 19
Kahn explored the Idea of enlarging a hollow
column with a thin periphery, which then became
the filter for the light entering it. Early schemes
of the Salk Institute lecture halls were buildings
surrounded by three-dimensional ruins. These
freestanding walls were square in plan when sur
rounding a circular building and circular in plan
when surrounding a square building. The Mikveh
Israel Synagogue Project for Philadelphia, Penn
sylvani a (1961) used large hollow columns in
serted into the exterior walls at intervals. Such a
nonstructural cylinder would admit light into it
from the outside, diffuse the light within the cyl
inder walls, and filter the resultant light into the
synagogue interior.
The National Assembly Building, Dacca,
Bangladesh (1964), realized a structural center
piece for controlling light . The building itself be
came a hollow column with perforated walls. The
top of the building was designed as a cylinder
with circular openings divided inside by radial
M ODEL, MIKVEH [SRAEL S YNAGOGUE
PROJECT, PHILADElPHIA ,
PENNSYLVANIA. L OUIS!. KAHN,
1961-1972.
Lighl control screens evol ved il1l0 rl1l'ee
dimensionall(ght Ji/t ers, here as
hollow columns with discrete to
control alld diffuse exterior natural light.
The Louis J. Kahn Collection,
Ul7iversity of Perlnsyl"ania and
Penns), ll'ania Historical al1d Museum
Commissiol1.
sections, also with circular openings, all serving
to bring in natural light and fIlter it through all
the adjacent sections.
The ruin became fused into the structure in
Kahn's Suhrawardy Central Hospital, Dacca
(1962-1974) . Here, three-dimensional arches
form an arcaded screen that both catches the sun
light and fIlters out the glare for the inner hall
way.
Kahn achieved metaphysical light for the in
teriors of the Kimbell Museum, Fort Worth,
Texas (1966).
No space, architecturally, is a space unless it has
natural light . .. I am designing an art museum in
Texas. Here I Jelt that the light in the rooms structured
in concrete will have the luminosity oj silver. I know
that rooms Jor the paintings and objects that Jade should
only most modestly be given natural light. The scheme
oj enclosure oj the museum is a succession oj cycloid
vaults each oj a single space, 100 Jeet long and 23 Jeet
- -
C EI LING DETAIL, KIMBELL ART
. X SEUM, FORT WORTH, TEXAS.
LO UIS I. KAHN, 1966-1972.
Kahn refined the light .filter so that
light could illuminate I/wselim
galleries without damagil1j! the works of
Int which were semitiue to
Photograph by Pamela M. Oleck),.
MODEL, NATIONAL ASSEMBLY
BUILDING, DACCA, BANGLADESH.
L OU IS I. KAHN, 1962- 1982.
The entire bllilding became a Iightj1!ler,
slarlillg witl, its top, which was
with geometric radial partition CUI-OU/S,
servirlg as internal filters . Photograph by
William Christ el15e1!.
I '
wide, each forming the rooms with a narrow slit to the
sky, with a mirrored shape to spread natural light on
the side of the vault. This light will give a glow of
silver fo the room without touching the objects directly,
yef give fhe comforting feeling of knowing the fime of
day. 20
The ability of light to change mood was of
key importance to this museum. Kahn felt that it
was important for the qualit y of light to reveal
special characteristics of the displayed art, and that
thi s would be ever-changing with the mutability
of sunlight.
One of Kahn's last proj ects, the H urva Syn
agogue Project, Jerusalem (1968), uses li ght as if
it were a building material. The floor plan reveals
a square within a square-an outer stone structure
surrounding an inner concrete one. The outer
structure is made up of 16 pylons, four on each
side, that fIlter the sunlight. The interior faces of
the pylons have niches that function in the candle
service, a tribute to the celebration of the divine
symbolism of light. A concrete structure is within
SECTION AND SKETC HES, HURVA
SYNAGOGUE PROJECT, JERUSALE.lVl ,
ISRAEL. LOUIS I. KAHN, 1968.
Thi; project, if/mill, would have
culmillaled Kahn's quest for the eleme11t
of Ii,i;ht a(hieIJill,R a buildillj; mal erial
slatus. was the very essence o.f l/ie
desigl1, both 11atural a11d candle. T he
L Ollis !. Kahn Collection, Un ivel'sit)' of
Pennsy/1JGrIia and Pel'lI1sy/lJal'lia
Hi storical and J'v!J,lSCJ,lr/1 Commi;s ioll.
the pylons; this supports the roof and defines the
inner sanctuary. Here, the ruin becomes the
building itself, because the glare filtering pylons
are part of the very fabric of the whole complex.
Kahn's architectural career could be summed
up as an evolutionary process in the use of natural
light , starting with the physical characteristics of
li ght as determining architectural space to the
mystical properties of light creating both struc
tllre and space. Kahn never compromised his
ideals about li ght; he was truly a poet who
worked with li ght as his creative medium.
So this is a kind o.finvention that comes ouf o.ffhe
desire to have natural Because it is fhe I(<.;ht the
painter used to paint his And artificial lighf
is a stati c light-you seel-where natural is a
light of mood. And somefimes the room gets dark
why notl-and sometimes you must close to look at
if, and come another day, you see, to see if in another
mood-a different time, you 5ec, to see the mood natu
ral light or the 5ea50ns of the year, which ha ve
other moods. 21
ALVAR AALTO
Alvar Aalto (1898-1976) was preoccupied with
ruins as they related to his building designs. He
believed that his buildings could not be judged
until they were at leas t fifty years old. There is a
certain quality about Aalto's buildings, as if they
had been aged in advance, a kind of metaphor for
ruins, which is reinfo rced by his use of materials .
Aalto preferred brick, stone, wood, and tile to the
more commonly us ed concrete, stu cco, steel, and
glass that dominated contemporary European ar
chitecture of the 1920s and 1930s. Aalto's choice
of materials would show their age less dramati
cally and more predi ctably than the technologi cal
materials of the early twenti eth century. The tex
tural surface quality and color of brick, stone,
wood, and til e were enhanced and dramatized by
the pl ay of natural li ght , which was essential to all
of Aalto's archi tecture.
Aalto was strongly influenced by the quality
of li ght of Finland. The Finnish landscape is char
acteri zed by the undulating curves of the sea
coas t, the contours of the hill s, and the play of
li ght and shade throu gh the many forests. The
winter is at least six months with very short days,
only four hours of da yli g ht at the winter solstice.
This lengthy darkness influenced the desire to
achieve maximum refl ection of light in interiors,
crea ting a characteristic whiteness that prevails in
Aalto's furniture and architectural details. Aalto
introduced natural li ght into his interior spaces as
a major criterion for interior environmental qual
ity.
Lisht and 5un . Under extreme condition5 one can
no lonser leave the dwellins '5 acce55 to the 5un 10
chance. Light and air are 5uch important precondition5
for livi ng that the haphazard condilions that prevail
today must be chansed. The norms would not onl y
require that each dwelling set 5un; the ansle oJincidence
5hould al50 be decided, la, let U5 5ay, one degree'5 lee
way. The sun i5 a source of energy; but onl y ifwe U5e
it in a scientific way and in exact quantities will it
become, under all circumstances, a posiliveJactorfor the
biodynamic concept that in volves the Jamily's and the
sinsle indi!lidual's life within the dwel/ins's walls. In a
AURORA BOREALIS.
Aalto was injhlenced by Fi l1 land's
Ji'equent phenomenon ofthe mystical
aurora borea lis (l1orth em lights) ,
evidenced by his curvilinear shapes in
pavilio/1s, alld Fases.
Courtesy Martin G IItli.
BALCONY, T UBERCULOSI S
SANATORIUM, PAIMIO, FINLAND.
ALVAR AALTO, 1929-1933.
The sanatorium was huilt to maximize
its exposure to natural mnl(Rhl. Its
general shape Finland's natural
landscap e and natural slopin;; hills.
Photo;;raph by Kevin Harrington.
- -
fifiy-square-meter dwelling we don't have, in this re
oard, the slightest margin to be to chance, nor can
we afford to allow the sun's and the light's energy to
main unused. And at the same time we have to elim
"/ate the inconveniences that these same {actors, under
IIf avorable circumstances, can lead to n'
A natural phenomenon that occurs in Finland
.s the aurora borealis, the nothern lights. The
asic shape of the visible northern lights is a gentle
.a rc. This aurora occurs in the earth' s magneto
: , here when electrons from sunspot activities are
.::arried by gusts of solar wind to interact with the
field. Some displays of northern lights
:mlsate or flare up in the latter half of the night,
supplemented by glowing, multicolored cloud
.. e formations. Thus, not only is the Finnish
:.m dscape replete with influential forms and fea
:ures that are illuminated and seasoned by almost
-ontinuous sun during the midsummer and al
most continuous darkness during midwinter, but
:ne night sky itself periodically glows with sheets,
Jrcs , curtains, and clouds of light and color of the
Jurora borealis . The influence of these lights is
-: \'ident in Aalto's interiors , furniture, and acces
sories design.
In 1929, Aalto won first place in a design
competition for the Tuberculosis Sanatorium,
Paimio, Finland . The prevailing theory for treat
tuberculosis was to remove the patient from
[he polluted urban environment and isolate him
in a space designed to maximize absorbing solar
ra ys and fresh air. The building Aalto designed
was essentially in three parts: the ward or patient
block facing south, which was linked by a central
to the communal block, which was con
nected to the service block by a circulation pas
' age. Aalto wanted to make the separation of the
n rious activities highly visible. He was also par
ticularly sensitive to the plight of the patient.
When I receilled the assignment I was myse([ ill
.lIl d thereJore had the opportunity to make a Jew exper
iments and find out what it really jelt like to be sick. I
became irritated at halling to lie horiz ontal all the time,
.1/1d my first obserllation was that the rooms were de
signed Jor people who were upright and not Jor those
who lie in bed day in and day out. Like moths to a
lamp my eyes were constantly drawn to the electric light
in the room, which was absolutely not designed Jor
bedridden patients . Th e room conveyed neither balance
nor calm. I thereJore decided to plan the patients' rooms
in such a manner as to provide a rest/ul atmosphere Jor
the bedridden patient . . .. 23
Aalto concentrated the sunning activity of
patients by locating suntraps at the end of each
corridor floor. The suntrap complex was seven
stories high with the top level of the deck continu
ing across the entire length of the patients' wing.
In another competition, Aalto won the com
mission for the Municipal Library at Viipuri, Fin
land (now called Vyborg in the former USSR)
(1927-1935). He employed a carefully designed
roof-light system consisting of a series of evenly
spaced lens roof-lights, which brought natural
light into the library's reading room. Each sky
light consisted of a conical concrete tube 6 feet in
diameter with a thick jointless round piece of glass
sealing off the top. The cones were so constructed
that sunlight always entered indirectly. The light
reflected off the interior surfaces of the cones,
bringing reflection and diffusion of light over a
wide area. The skylights contained a system of
wall-washer fixtur es that would duplicate the
same light quality day or night. Aalto saw it as
making "a contract between the book and the
reader. "24
The main problem connected with a library is that
oJthe human eye. A library can be well constructed and
can be JunctiOHal in a technical way ellen without the
sollling oj this problem, but it is not humanly and ar
chitecturally complete unless it deals satisJactorily with
the main human jimction in the building, that oJreading
a book. Th e eye is only a tiny part oJthe human body,
but it is the most sensitive and perhaps the most impor
tant part. T o provide a natural or an that
destroys the human eye or that is unsuitable Jor its use,
means reactionary architecture ellen ([ the building
should otherwise be oj high constructille llalue.
25
The Viipuri Library featured in its lecture
room a wooden acoustic ceiling in the form of a
planar sine curve with every other trough raised
to only half amplitude. The ceiling is constructed
of clear pine strips that form the contours and
create a horizontal curtain of wood that relates
directly to the windows, the lowest drape or
curve lining up with each mullion. The draped
LIGHT: SPACE DEFINITION
--- - -- - -- - -.-
READING ROOM, VUPURI LIBRARY,
VIlPURI, FINLAND. ALVAR AALTO,
1927,1933-1935.
The CO /1cept of fhe skylight lms system
became a common Aalto lighting device.
He desired the same light quality
whether the source was the SU llOI'
electric light. Permission by the Museum
o.f Finnish Archives of Archilecture,
Hel sinki , Fill land.
AUDITORIUM , VIIPURI LIBRARY ,
VUPURI, FINLAND. ALVAR AALTO,
1927,1933-1935.
The wooden acoustic ce ilil1g was directly
influenced by the aurora borealis,
partimlarly the "curtaill aurora"
variation. Permissiol1 by the Museum of
Finnish Archives of ArchitecH/re,
Helsinki, Finland.
ceiling seems to represent a sculptural interpreta
tion of the drapes of light that frequently occur
with the aurora borealis, known as the " curtain
aurora." Although the ceiling was designed pri
marily to control the acoustics of a long, narrow
space, it gave Aalto the opportunity to experi
ment with acoustical treatment through curvilin
ear wooden forms, dramatically transforming the
otherwise rectangular volume of the space.
The "curtain aurora" became the main de
sign feature of his Finnish Pavilion for the New
York World' s Fair (1939). Aalto entered the com
petition held for the design of this pavilion; he
presented three separate schemes. He won not
MAIN FLOOR, FINNISH PAVILI ON,
NEW YORK WORLD ' S FAIR OF 1939,
NEW YORK, NEW YORK. ALVAR
AALTO, 1939.
Th e " wrtain aurora" was again
empl oyed as the main design (o /1 cept.
Installed llertically as it would /wrmally
be experienced ill the Finnish 1a/1dscape,
th e wooden drapery dominat ed the space.
Ezra St oll er Esto. All rights
reserv ed.
only the first prize, but the second and third prizes
cos "l.Vell. The hn,,1 vers;on incorpor:Jted the undu
lating vertical curtain plywood screen-wall form
ing an exhibition space arranged diagonally in a
rectilinear shell. The battened, curvilinear wall
rose to the full height of the interior, leaning out
over the viewers as the northern lights dominate
the Finnish landscape.
The Villa Mairea, Noormarkku, Finland
(1938-1939), was a commission that gave Aalto
the opportunity to combine all his current ideas
about design into a single structure. The villa was
a courtyard solution, the open court idea being a
direct functional response to the Finnish climate,
where, particularly in the winter, much time had
to be spent indoors with very few hours of day
light. This villa was designed not just as an open
plan within itself, but the interior of the living
area opened into the adjacent "room" of the gar
den. By the same token, the garden was made to
intrude into the living area, serving as a daylight
filter between the merging interior and exterior
spaces.

I ..
7""" '"
PLAN, VILLA MAIREA,
AALTO, 1937-1939.
The pla/1 shows an integration of the
house with the courtyard garden to
maximize natural sunli;;;hl, achievin,R a
blurring of inside al1d outside space.
AlvaI' Aallo Foundation.
This deliberate blurring of the boundaries of
interior spaces with the surrounding landscape
brought about a special light quality that, during
the long sunlit day of summer, established an
ideal li vin g em' ironment for the otherwise short
summer season. T he relationship between the ex
ternal and internal spaces represented the Finns'
romantic connection between themselves and
their land of forests.
Aalto designed the village center of Saynat
salo, Finland (1950-1952) as a larger scale version
of the Villa Mairea. A series of interconnected
buildings consisting of offices, library, council
chamber, and staff flats and some shops surround
a raised courtyard. The courtyard is approached
from the forest village by both a paved stairway
adjacent to the dominating council chamber and
by boarded earth steps opposite the council cham
ber. Aalto did not intend that the courtyard be a
piazza or town square as much as it was the open
air extension of the surrounding buildings' inte
riors. The sensitivity to precious natural light
guided this design decision.

.+i
",

VILLAGE CENTER COURTYARD,
SAYNATSALO, FINLAND. ALVAR
AALTO, 1950-1952.
The scheme for the village courtyard is
similar in collcept to the Villa Mairea,
again for the consideration of
maximizing natura! sunlight.
Photograph by Kevin Harrington.
LOWER PORCH, STOA OF ATTALOS II,
ATHENS, GREECE, CA. 150 B.C.
(RESTORED A.D. 1953-1956 AS THE
AGORA MUSEUM).
The ancient Creek stoa is an analogmis
treatment ofnahlra! light to the Ililiage
center bui!dinS cluster. Photograph by
)ohll Kurtich.
BRICK STAIRWAY TO COUNCIL
CHAMBER, SAYNATSALO, FINLAND.
ALVAR AALTO, 1950-1Y52.
The way light enters the lI1ain stair to
the council chamber artintlates a series of
patterns and defines wall andfloor
texttlres as a continuation of the otllside
passa;;eways. Photograph by Kevin
Harrill;;ton.
Windows flanking connecting corridors open
up the surrounding buildings to the central court.
The courtyard itself is alive with natural vegeta
tion, and plants are introduced into the interior
corridors to blur the distinction between inside
and outside. The windows are articulated with
wooden posts that form a continuous pergola,
which, when illuminated with sunlight, flood the
interior space in a similar manner to the Greek
stoa, such as the Stoa of Attalos, Athens. In fact,
the ensemble is a modern interpretation of the
Greek agora, particularly m the way the sur
rounding buildings relate to natural li ght with
rhythmic shadows of the posts art iculating the
floors and interior walls. The main stair to the
council chamber continues this feeling of light and
articulation, but the posts become shadow-casting
beams in the ceiling directly connected to a band
of clerestory windows.
The National Pensions Institute, Helsinki ,
Finland (1952-1956), was another commission
Aalto obtained by winning a competition. It con
sisted of a bank complex with offrces organized
about two connecting courts, one square and one
rectangular. The heart of the mstitute is the inter
viewi ng hall rather than the courtyards.
The interviewing hall is li ghted with large,
multifaceted skylight lenses in the ceiling. These
skylights are tripl e glazed with the top layer
sharply inclined like jagged mountain peaks to
prevent snow accumulation. Aalto wanted to cre
ate an interior space in a cold climate that would,
lightwise and colorwise, be similar to the open
skies of more southern latitudes .
Aalto designed the Academic Bookshop (ex
tension to the Stockmann Department Store),
Helsinki (1966-1969), as top-lit interior courts .
Again, he was searching for ideal interior envi
ronments. The store is an interior street with var
ious galleries; the predominant lighting comes
from lantern lights above, in order to bring ever y
lumen of sunlight into the deep interiors, which
are far from the window walls .
Aalto's use oflight to shape and define space
was based on sensiti ve pragmatism. The quality
of light was everything to Aalto.
INTERVIEWING HALL, NATI ONAL
PENSI ONS INSTITUTE, HELSI NKI,
FINLAND. ALVAR AALTO, 1952-1956.
The distinct skylights create an
expansive cei ling li1 the Interviewing
Hail, opening I4p the space and belying
the harsh climate il1 which the building
exists . Photograph by Kwin
Harrington .
Not only ever-increasing mechanization but also
our own actions estrange us from nature. We see how
road construction destroys nature to a certain extent.
And on closer inspection we find similar phenomena il1
all branches oj the architectural projession. We have
created, jor example, better and betterjorms oj
lighting. Our electric light is much more practical than
our grandjathers' oil lamps or wax candles. But is the
quality ojthis light really better than what we obtained
from the old sources? In jact it is no better at all. Now
adays we use a sixty- to eighty-watt light bulb when
we wish to read at a certain distan ce from the light
source. Our grandparents managed with two candles.
234 INTERIOR ARCHlTECTURE
EXTERIOR DETAIL OF SKYLIGHTS,
INTERVIEWING HALL, N ATI ONAL
PENSIONS INSTITUTE, HELSINKI,
FINLAND. ALVAR AALTO, 1952-1956.
The steepness oj the skylight discourages
snow acw/11ulation and maximizes
intake oFnaturall(ght. Photojil'aph by
Kellin Harrington.
It also
Even incandescent hght is no (on/tel' good enough; high
e how
intensity fluorescent lights have been introduced which
\'teftt.
( ( ( ~ e ellt t;ICOftJ"tClftt !tgfft Wffl1 e x c e J J / ~ e ClfttO(ffl(j' o.ftfltre.
,tW in
We are using more light Jar the same task as beJore,
have
because the physical and psychic qualities of light are no
'i r
ci al
longer satisJying . .. 26
-tha II
i5 the
FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
'.l illed
_ alI'
whe1l
Light was a central objective to the designs of
light Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959). The use of ma
'/Idles. (erials was integral in the organic approach of
ACADEMIC BOOKSHOP, HELSINKI ,
FINLAND . ALVAR AALTO, 1966-1969.
This space is a considerable distance
frO/11 exterior IlIails wilh Wil1dol/!s; it
depends 011 the skylighls .lor the natural
light it receill es. Photograph by Kellin
Harrinjit ol1.
Wright. Ho w light affected these materials was
therefore of prime importance. N ot only did
Wn'gnt promote natura( fr'gf:tc r'n nls projects, 6ut
he understood the need for balance between nat
ural light and artifIcial light.
Proper orientation oj the house, t/zen, is the .first
condition oj the lightin,,? oj that house; and artificial
lighting is nearly as important as dayl ight. Daylighting
can be beautiful! y managed by the architect if he has a
feeling Jar the course of the S/.//1 as it goes from east to
west and at the inevitable angle to the south. The sun
LIGHT: SPACE DEfINITION 235
is the great luminary of all life. It should serve as such
in the building of any house.
As for all lighting, it too should be inte
gral part of the house-be as near daylighting as pos
sible . In 1893, I began to get rid of the bare light bulb
and have ever since been concealing it on interior decks
or placing it in recesses in such a way that it comes from
the building itself; the effect shou ld be that it comes from
the same source as natural light 27
DINING ROOM, FRANK LLOYD
WRIGHT HOME AND STUDIO, OAK
PARK, ILLI NOIS. FRANK LLOYD
WRIGHT, 1889.
Wright believed in rhe proper balall ce
between natural light and electric light;
his dininJi rOOll1 ach ieves this with the
combination ofribboll windows and the
overhead liJiht fixture which disgl.lises
th e electric light source. Photograph by
Johl1 Kurtich.
MEZZANINE OF DRAFTING ROOM,
FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT HOME AND
STUDIO, OAK PARK, ILlINOIS. FRANK
LLOYD WRIGHT, 1898.
Wright I/sed his own house to
experi1l1ent with spatial ideas,
partimlarly with the treatment o{!iJiht,
both rratllral and eleClric. by
John Kurticll .
In 1889, Wright designed and built his first
house, the Home and Studio, for himself and his
wife in Oak Park, Illinois. For the next twenty
years he experimented with his home through re
modeling and additions , which eventually devel
oped into what is known as the Prairie style. The
handling of light was a basic consideration in his
designs. His 1895 dining room addition was hi s
first total environment in which he used ribbon
--
;t
windows for both vista and light. This natural
IS
light was balanced by a large rectangular light fIx
y
ture covered with a decorative ceiling grill, lo
1-
cated above the dining room table defming the
central eating area. The studio, studio entrance
hall, and library were added between 1898 and

1905, admitting light through high windows
IS
around the walls in the studio and library and
n
skylights in the entrance hall and library. The de
sign for the two-level, octagonal studio work
room was the genesis for the schemes of the
Larkin Building, Unity Church, Johnson Wax
Administration Building, and the Guggenheim
Museum. An electric light hung over each draft
ing table on the lower level to balance the natural
light that came through the higher windows
under the octagonal roof.
Wright's use of the cruciform or "windmill"
plan was characteristic of his Prairie houses. He
placed the hearth as the center of the house and
extended the rooms as arms of the windmill or
crosses from thi.s chimney core. By grouping
rooms together, Wright eliminated needless hall
ways and achi eved a flexibl e system of open plan
ning hitherto unknown. With this layout, he
could get natural light into the rooms from three
sides .
The ribbon window was utilized in many of
Wright's Prairie houses because it provided natu
ral light befitting the horizontal thrust of the
spaces created by the organic massing of the
building. In the Boynton House, Rochester, New
York (1908), the ribbon windows of the dining
room are reflected on the opposite wall as glass
doored cupboards, increasing the feeling of spa
ciousness and light through mirror image and re
flection. The Robie House, Chicago (1909), used
the ribbon window idea as the principal light
source to unify the living and dining rooms ,
which were separated by a see-through central
fireplace. The rhythm of the windows is further
emphasized by the globular light fixtures that
occur on dropped soffits above the windows, cen
tered on wooden ribs aligned with the window
mullions. The cantilevered overhang of the roof
on the south facade, while much less than the west
and east facades , shades the glass during the sum
mer. "In fact it is exactly sufficient-the sun
stands tall in summer in Chicago's latitude, and at
mid-day on Midsummer day, the shadow of the
eaves just kisses the woodwork at the bottom of
the glass in the doors to the terrace. " 28
A further enhancement oflighting in the din
ing rooms of both Boynton House and Robi e
House was achieved with Wright ' s design of the
dining room furniture. In both rooms, a central
tabl e with hi gh-backed chairs created a room
within a room for the diners. On each of the four
PLAN, ISABEL ROBERTS HOUSE, RIVER
FOREST, ILLINOIS. FRANK LLOYD
WRIGHT, 1908.
Thi s is a classi( Prairie cruciform plan
which maximized the opportunit y for
to reach all interior sp aces
jrom sel/e ral directions simultaneously.
Courtesy o{The Art Institute of
Chicago.
LIGHT: SPACE DEFINI TI ON 2 37

DINJNG ROOM, E. E. BOYNTON
RESIDENCE, ROCHESTER, NEW YORK.
FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT, 1908.
The ribbon window is used in this
dining room nol only to emphasize the
horizonlalnature of the space but to
provide an opportunit), to mirror it on
the non-window side with similarly
proportioned glass wpboards, increasing
the sense of space. Photograph by
Don Kalec.
SEE-THROUGH FIREPLACE FROM THE
LIVING ROOM , ROBIE HOUSE,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. FRANK LLOYD
WRIGHT,1906-1909.
Th e ribbon window as a unifyin,R design
feature is ji.lI'lher reinjo yced witll the
" window" of the see-throughfireplacc.
DETAIL OF DINING ROOM TABLE, E. E.
BOYNTON RESIDENCE, ROCHESTER,
NEW YORK. FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT,
1908.
The int egmted Iight .fixture at the four
corners ofthe dining room table was an
ingenious method ofmaking the dining
experience iI10re intimate through light.
Photograph by Don Kalec.
LI GHT COURT, LARKIN COMPANY
ADMINISTRATJON BUILDING ,
BUFFALO, NEW YORK. FRANK LLO YD
WRIGHT, 1903.
Tlte Lalkin Compa lly's
cO/HI was a refille/llenl of
draji ill'; 1'0011/ ill his Oak Park
Ho/n e alld Si lidio. He lIJas cOllcemed
lI'ith the balal1ce of lIal/lIal alld eleclric
li,Rh,. COlatesy of The Art il1slillile oj
C/licl1go.
corners of the table, Wri ght designed a light fix
ture to extend and crown the vertical supports of
the table, further reinforcing the intimacy of the
dining experience.
During Wright's Prairie house phase, he de
signed several nondomes tic commissions, the
most outstanding being the Larkin Building and
Unity Church. The Larkin Company A.. dminis-
UNITY TEMPLE, UNITY CHURCH,
OAK PARK, ILLINOIS. hANK L LOYD
WRIGHT, 1904.
The diffused, warm IiJ;/lI {he
sancillary is ofprimary il11pol'll1l1ce 10
define the spalial genius oj 'he
Photograph by J ohn Kllrtich.
tration Building, Buffal o, N ew York (1904), was
designed as a complex of offices surrounding a
four-story central atrium and topped by a huge
skylight. All the offices were open to this central
shaft of light and air. A double row of custom
electric light fixtures further illuminated the desks
placed at the bottom of this central well.
Unity Church, Oak Park, Illinois (1906), was
-
DETAIL OF GLAZED TRELLISES,
EDGAR J. KAUFMANN, SR., RESIDENCE
" F ALLINGWATER, " O HI OPYLE,
WRIGHT, 1935.
The blurril1g o.f i/lSide allli ollIs ide Ivas
5uccessjitlly acil ielJcd Ihroucf<h Ihe
mal1iplll al,iMI o.r,.,atural lighl COIIII'ol.
Ph otograph by ) olll1 Kurticil.
the fIrSt building in which Wright developed mul
tidirecti onal movements of space. Lighting was
achieved in the Temple portion by high clerestory
windows on all four sides and a coffered skylight
that covered the entire roof.
Flood these side-alcoves with from above. get
a sense of a happy cloudless day into the room. And
with this feeling for light the center ceiling between the
four great posts became skylight, daylight sifting
through betw een the intersections of concrete beams fil
tering through amber glass ceiling lights, thus the light
would, rain or shine, have the warmth of sunlight.
ArtifiCial lighting took place there at night as well. Thi s
scheme of lighting was integral, gave diffusion and kept
the room space clear.29
Wright had a cl ear vision about how impor
tant li ght was to his interior spaces. Two remark
abl e commissions in the mid-1930s all owed him
to demonstrate hi s mastery of natural li ght, par
ticularly by its enhancement of the textures of the
building materials. The Kaufmann residence at
Bea r Run, Pennsylvania (1935-1937), otherwise
known as Falling Water, was designed to blur the
boundar y between inside and out (see Chapter 4
for the four-dimensional description of this
house). By extending the house into the landscape
both visually and structurally, Wright maximized
daylight within the house without sacrificing con
trol. Overhead trellises of porches became glazed
trellis-skyli ghts as they continued as the roof con
struction for interior spaces.
The other grea t commission of the 1930s was
the Johnson Wax Administration Building, Ra
cine, Wisconsin (1936). Wright designed the
building compl ex so that a person could "feel as
though he were among pine trees breathing fresh
air and sunlight." 30 The artificial fores t Wright
created out of concrete columns with flat, broad
capitals is bathed in light, whi ch pours through
the space between the columns inflll ed with Pyrex
glass tubing. The same tubing is used to create a
continuous clerestory around the perimeter wall.
fl e
he
r -t
his
Fe
!zed
pn
ed
bn

l' rL
_.r

r _,
. OFFICE FLOOR, S. C. J OHNSON
\ :\ D SON ADMINISTRATI ON
L:I LDING, RACINE, WISCONSIN.
LLOYD WRIGHT, 1936.
Th e co/umn, nol the perimeter wall, is
. /C stmctural syst em which thi s
lI i/ding. Wright made this IJery clear by
"ze way he used natura/light 10
'il /l ninate the separation ofperimeter
JII and ceiling. Photograph by John
.:"::lI rtich.
SUMMARY
The creati ve control of light is cntical to the Inte
ri or Architect. Not only must it be depl oyed to
maxi mize functional needs and human comfort,
but its contribution to the perception and aestheti c
experience of interior space is predominant and
profound . Light is vi tal to architect ural space in
two ways. It is the medium by which space and
form are defined and perceived. It is also a me
dium that has the ability to command its own
aesthetic experi ence. Light can suggest place.
Li ght can accentuate or hei ghten the character of
a space. Light can guide human movement
through space, its beckoning power can lead one
from dimness to brightness or sugges t continuity
of space beyond a corner or visual obstruction.
So-called white li ght is really a mi xture of
radiant energies of certain varying wave lengths,
any wave of which when isolated is referred to as
a "color. " Therefore li ght and color are really in
separable. Not onl y does Interior Architecture en
compass all aspects of illumination, it also
embodies the application and manipulation of
color through control of the wavelength of any
light energy illuminating an interior, the materials
employed in structuring the interior, the surface
treatment through applied pigment of any part of
the interior, and the furnishing of the interior.
NOTES
1. R. L. Gregory, Eye and Brain: The Psycholo};), of Seeing
(New York: McGra w Hill, 1966), p. 7.
2. lbid., p. 8.
3. Paolo Porcoghesi, The Rome of Borromini (New York:
George BrazilJer, 1967), p. 381.
4. Johann Fri edrich Geist, Arcades: The H istory ora Build
ing Typ e (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1983), p. 22.
5. Jim Murphy, "A Moss Garden, " ProgressilJe Archi tec
ture, Septrmber, 1990, pp. 104-109.
6. Lc Corbusier. Precisio ns sur 1111 Etat Preseut de l'AI'chitcc
lu re et de l'Ur-banisme (Pa ris: Vincent , Freal & C ie, 1960),
p. 74.
7. John Lobell, Belween Silence and Light (Bou lder, CO:
Sha mbhala Publications, Inc., 1979), p.- 22.
8. Goran Schildt. Sketches: AlfJar Aalto (Cambridge,
Mass.: MIT Press, 1985), p. 49.
9. Don DeNevi , "Masters of Light: Frank Lloyd
Wright," AIAJO/lJ'lwl, (September, 1979) . p. 65.
10. Stanislaus von Moos . Le Corbusia: Elell1elllS ofa Syl1
thesis (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press , 1980). p. 99.
11. Le Corbusier, Precisions sur UI1 Etat Present de L 'Archi
tecHI/'e et de l' Urbanisl11e (Paris: Vincent, Freal & Cie. 1960),
p. 132.
12. Charles Jencks, Le CorbllSier GIld the Tra,Qic View of
Architecture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Universi ty
Press, 1973) , p. 68.
13. Willi am J. R. Curtis, Le Corbllsier: Ideas and Forms
(N ew York: Rizzoli , 1986), p. 72.
14. Ibid ., p. 95.
15. Jacques Guiton, ed ., The Ideas of Le Corbusier orl Ar
chil ecture and Urban Planning (New York: George Braziller,
1981), p. 55.
16. Le Corbusier, Texts O/ld Sketches Jor Roncharllp Uean
Petit, 1965), no page numbers.
17. Richard Saul Wurman and Eugene Feldman , eds.,
The N otebooks and Drawings of L O ~ l i s 1. Kalm (Phi ladelphi a:
Falcon Press, 1962).
18. In Kahn 's exploratory designs of screen wal ls wi th
punched out keyhol e-shaped openi ngs separated from the
actual wall s that defined the interior space, he recalled
ruins in whi ch remnants of wall s wi th yawni ng holes dis
closed a vacuity beyond. This thought evolved into the
concept of wrapping an entire building with an out er shell
of "ruins," whi ch would serve as a light an d heat fllt er,
controlling the int ens ity of direct sunlight in an architec
tural manner.
19. "Louis Kahn: Statements on Architectule," Zodiac 17

1967), p. 57.
20. Neil E. Johnson, Lighl is the Theme: Louis I. Kahn and
rlie Kimbell Art Mll seum (Fort Worth: Kimbell Art Foun
dation, 1975) , p. 15.
21. Alexandra Tyng, LOI.lis 1. Kal1ll's Philoso
phy of Architecture (New York: John Wiley, 1984) , p. 176.
) :
22. Goran Schildt, ed., Sketches: AlvaI' Aalto (Cambridge,
\1ass.: MIT Press, 1985), p. 32.
e, 23. Ibid, p. 131.
2-+. Paul David Pearson, Alvar Aalto (lnd the Int ernational
cI
ly le (N ew York: Whitney Library of Design, 1978),
p. 122.
1/
I
) .
of
Ity
liS
'\r
r,
'an
Il a:
ith
:he
led
.15
rhe
tell
cr,
ec
25. Goran Schildt, ed., Sketches: AlvaI' Aalto (Cambridge,
Mass.: MIT Press , 1985), p. 78.
26. Ibid, p. 131.
27. Frank Lloyd Wright, An American Architecture (New
York: Hori zon Press, 1955), p. 102.
28. Reyner Banham, Th e Architecwre of the Well-tempered
Environment (Chicago: Universit y of Chicago Press,
1984), p. 121.
29. Edgar Kaufmann and Ben Raeburn, Frank Lloyd
Wnght: Writings and Bllildings (New York: Meridian
Books, 1960), p. 78.
30. Jonathan Lipman, Frank Lloyd Wright and the Johnson
Wax Buildil1gs (New York: RizzoJi, 1986), p. 51.
DETAIL OF LIVING AREA, FLORIAN
APARTMENT, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS.
FLORIAN/WIERZBOWSKI
ARCHITECTURE, 1987.
Photograph by Johl1 Kurlich.
COLOR: EMOTI ONAL CHARACTER 247
6 C H A P TE R
C OLOR: EMOTIONAL CHARACTER
Interior Architecture incorporates color to estab
lish and defme the human character of its spaces.
The simple application of color has the power to
reinforce or destroy architectural volumes, em
phasize or balance objects in space and create ten
sion or calm immediately in a room. A well
alanced color scheme can be one of the designer's
:-nost challenging tasks, involving knowledge in
rheory, physiology, and lighting. The use of color
. - always subjective, affected by personality, taste,
and history. Most human beings have some sort
or color vision, even those who are described as
" color blind." Color blindness is the inability to
ifferentiate certain color hues that the majority
of people can distinguish clearly. People with nor
color vision probably do not see color exactly
:!1e same, bu t there is a general consensus as to
' \-hat color is being perceived. Any particular
.::olor associated with an object is a result of what
:lappens when light strikes the object. The human
--isual process interprets the stimulation of light
:-efl ected from the object, producing the sensation
of color.
T HE PHYSIOLOGY OF COLOR
Color is a very complicated subject in that it has
":>oth a scientifIc basis and a perceptual reality,
:-a ch of which is independent of the other. Visible
j ght is the source of color. This light is a very
'> mall constituent of the electromagnetic spec
:rum, which includes at its high end X rays and
rays and at its low end microwaves and
:-adio waves. All of this energy travels at the same
-_ eed (186,000 miles per second), but the length
_nd frequency of the waves distinguishes one en
from another. The longest visible wave
- ngth (red light) is 0.00007 cm, and the shortest
' -iolet) is about 0.000035 cm. The human eye
-arely, if ever, sees any color of a single wave
but rather it sees a mixture of many wave
lengths, which produce a sensation that the brain
interprets as a color.
Wavelengths of visible light carry informa
tion to the human visual system, which then as
signs colors to objects viewed in conjunction with
other kinds of clues. There is a reconstruction in
the brain that might not exactly replicate the ac
tual color of the object. For instance, if the brain
knows it is perceiving a "white" handkerchief,
this object will look white in sunlight, white in
yellowish incandescent light, or white under red
illumination. This is called color constancy. Color
photography is not nearly as generous in its inter
pretation of color as the human eye/brain combi
nation. Color fIlm is manufactured specifIcally for
a particular light source, such as daylight
(54000K), tungsten (32000K) and photoflood
(34000K). If the fIlm is not used with its proper
light source (without correction fIlters), color dis
tortion results in the finished photograph.
The nature of the material of the object also
makes a difference in terms of perceived color.
A given color, such as red, may have a large
number ofdifferent appearances.
-It may befilmy and atmospheric like a patch of
crimson sky at sunset.
-It may have volume to it like a glass of red
wine.
-It may be transparent like a piece ofcellophane.
-It may be luminous like a stop light or a lan
tern.
-It may be dull like a piece ofsuede.
-It may be lustrous like a piece ofsilk.
-It may be metallic like a Christmas tree orna
ment.
-It may be iridescent like the gleam of an opal.
It is wholly conceivable that all such red colors
could be made to match each other and thus be identical
as far as instrumental measurements and physics were
concerned. Yet in personal experience, each of the reds
would be each would have a beauty of its
own, an effect that would be unique. I
The perception of color, which is thus gov
erned to a large degree by the material character
istics of a given object, is an important design tool
for the designer. Sensitivity to the effect of one
kind of material versus another of the same color
demands skill, familiarity, and experience with a
range of materials as well as the lighting condi
tions that would illuminate them. Combining
materials and objects of different colors compli
cates the design issue. The understanding of color
and its most effective use is paramount to achiev
ing successful and distinguished interior spaces.
THE OPTICS OF COLOR
Mastery of the optics of color is important in
order to use color most creatively. Humans have
the propensity to visually balance a given color
impression through their eye/brain perception
system. If they are subjected to a prolonged view
of a single intense color illuminating an object, a
strain develops which, when the color is elimi
nated, results in an afterimage of this object col
ored in its opposite hue or complementary color. 2
This pure optical illusion has been used very effec
tively in theatrical productions. A related effect
can be achieved with shadows cast from colored
light sources. For instance, if an object is illumi
nated with a strong greenish-blue light, casting its
shadow on an adjacent wall, the shadow will be a
faded reddish-orange. The color of the shadow
exists only in the eye/brain of the observer as an
optical illusion.
When juxtaposing colors side by side or as
signing one color to be the background for an
other, interaction of color occurs. Color hues as
background can influence neutrally colored fIg
ures by appearing to tint them with the comple
mentary color of the background. Color hues as
fIgures can be made to appear more brilliant as
their background darkens. Identical figures of a
certain color value can be altered lighter or darker
by reaction to their backgrounds as they vary.
Entire books have been written on the interaction
of color, such as M. E. Chevreul's The Principles
oJHarmol1Y al1d COl1trast oJColors (New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1981), Josef Al
bers 's 111teraction oI Color (New Haven: Yale Uni
versity Press, 1963), Johannes Itten's The Art oj
Color (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Com
pany, 1961), and Ellen Marx's Optical Color &
Simultal1eity (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company, 1983). The designer needs to be con
versant with such studies in order to fully exploit
the potential of color in architectural space.
An area of color manipulation that has not
been fully explored or exploited in architectural
interiors is the use of colored light on a colored
surface. This type of color modifIcation has been
standard fare for theater since the beginning of
controlled stage lighting. Designers for the stage
have always had to consider not only the surface
colors of their sets and costumes but also the col
ors of the lighting. The visual result of colored
light on a colored surface is a consequence of sub
tractive mixing.
3
Because of the variables in
volved (countless pigments available to be applied
to a given surface lit by infmite variations of col
ored light in terms of hue and intensity), experi
mentation and testing of various pigments with
colored light compared to the same pigments
with white light is necessary for the designer to
develop invaluable color notes .
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF COLOR
It is known through experience that color affects
mood. Psychologists have tried to test this idea in
a scientifIc way, but no real conclusive results
substantiate a scientifIc theory. Comparing sub
jective responses to color produce contradictory
conclusions. But human responses to color cannot
be ignored. Various designers and architects
throughout history have established certain rules
of color that seem to work well for them but do
not necessarily provide universal truths about the
appropriate use of color. Culture and society con
tribute their bias to color. It is illuminating to see
how color has been used in past cultures and what
rules are followed at any given time.
In the subsequent historical survey, examples
are chosen for their emphasis of color as a primary
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feature of the interior space. This emphasis is
achieved by one of four ways: appl ying paint or
~ l e s coloring agent to a neutral surface; employing
lary naturally colored materials as the fini shed surface:
COLOR SPECTRUM OF LIGHT.
Visible light in lIaryil1,{? WGlIC len,\!ths
creates set1satiol1s which arc int erprcted
throtl}zh the eye to the brain as color.
Photograph by John Kl-lrti ch.
using colored light either by passing natural li ght
through colored transparent or translucent mate
rials; artifICial illumination with some means of
coloration; or a combination of any of these.
LASCAUX CAVE, FRANCE
Throughout the history of humanity's quest for
shelter and ceremonial spaces, color has been an
important el ement. The availability of any given
or desired color was always determined by acces
sible materials, existing technology, and the per
vading culture. Paleolithic cave paintings
represent the earliest surviving example of trans
forming interior space through color. The cave at
Lascaux, France (ca. 20,000 B.C.), consists of two
main "halls" and a connecting passage between
them, the walls and roofs of all chambers covered
with paintings of horses, deer, bison, bulls, cows,
and other figures. The artists of these paintings
had limited pigments available to them: red and
yellow ochre, iron and manganese oxides, mud,
soot, and calcite.
CA TAL HUYUK, TURKEY
The neolithic town of Catal Huyuk, Turkey (ca.
6000 B. c.) featured an architecture of rectangular
houses and shrines following a standard plan in
layout, size of bricks, heights of panels and door
ways. The houses were grouped around terraces
rather than a street system. Entry to a typical
house was provided by a hole in the roof, which
also served as a ventilation shaft for the hearth.
Because each house had its own walls and roof
level different from those of the surrounding
buildings, natural light could be brought in
through a series of small windows placed just
below the eaves. The interior walls of these build
ings were covered with elaborate wall paintings
and plaster reliefs, using a full range of pigments.
Red, brown, and yellow ochre were derived from
iron oxides; blue and green came from copper
ores, mercury oxide provided deep red; man
ganese produced mauve or purple; lead grey came
from galena; black was obtained from soot. Not
only were the walls painted but also the plaster
reliefs, clay statuettes, panels, posts, doorways,
benches, platforms, and architectural or decora
tive details of the houses and shrines.
ANCIENT EGYPT
The ancient Egyptians produced a highly colored
architecture as a result of climate and geography.
The intense, bright sunlight and the hot, dry at
mosphere contributed to the development of sur-
PREHISTORIC CAVE PAINTING OF TWO
BISON, CUEVAS DE ALTAMIRA, SPAIN,
CA. 12,000 B.C.
Cave dwellers painted their interiors
with natllral pigment images il1 early
all elllpts to ciuilize and persol1alize their
homes. Courtesy oJ The Art Il1stitut e of
Chicago.
THE R O O ~ 1 OF PILLARS, NORTH WALL,
MASTABA OF MERERUKA, SAQQARA,
EGYPT, CA. 2500-2350 B.C.
The lilll e.ilolleJiglires oj MereYLIka,
carved ill bas-relie. f, are ul1ified to his
statue ill (he lIiche through the me of
bold co lor5. Photog raph by John
Kurtiell.
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face decoration of bright colors. The availability
of natural materials such as clay, limestone, sand
stone, syenite, and red granite helped to deter
mine the basic color palette. The Egyptians
favored earth colors in the reddish, yellow, and
brown hues. The development and use of copper
and its oxidation produced intense blue hues.
Malachite produced a sharp green and carbon
provided black. These pigment sources were
mixed with a binder that produced a kind of tem
pera paint that has a remarkable permanence and
radiance to this da y.
The architecture of the Egyptians is thoroughly
polychromatic,-they painted everything; therefore we
have much to learn from them on this head. They dealt
in fiat tints, and used neither shade nor shadow , yet
found no difficulty in poetically conveying to the mind
the identity of the object they desired to represent.
4
The Egyptians used mainly primary colors
separated by black, white, or tan outlines, inside
and outside of their buildings. The capitals of
their columns took vegetable forms such as flower
buds, open flowers, or groups of flowers, all
richly colored. One can still see such remains in
the surviving columns of the Hypostyle Hall,
Temple of Amon, Karnak (ca. 1312-1301 B.C.).
ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA
Another type of polychromed interior was devel
oped in the fourth millennium B. c. civilization of
Mesopotamia, centered around the city of Uruk,
Iraq. The geography of this region dictated the
use of clay bricks as the primary building mate
rial; thus the inhabitants developed kiln baking
and colored glazes to protect the clay from sea
sonal rains. Certain available minerals provided
colors, such as tin for white, antimoniate of lead
for yellow, and copper for red-brown. Early tem
ple architecture featured a patterned system of
polychromed wall treatment by employing
hundreds of thousands of colored clay cones, sim
ilar to clay nails , embedded in the wall plaster,
their heads painted black, red, and white. The
designs seem to have been derived from woven
reed matting. The Eye Temple at Brak, Iraq (ca.
COLOR PALETTE, EGYPTIAN No.3, BY
OWEN JONES, 1856.
The Egyptians employed intense color
in(erior architecwre contrasting (h eir
monochromatic desert enIJironment . Th e
.fiat, bright patterned colors gaIJe delicacy
and meaning (0 the simple forms.
Courtes y of The Art !ns(illtte of
Chicas o.
3200 B.C.) "exhibited the brilliant polychromy of
[he Jemdet Nasr period, for the outer face of the
north wall was decorated with a colored cone mo
-aic and the inner with rosettes of white marble,
::,l ack shale and red limestone." 5
-"l ESOPOTAMIAN ZIGGURATS
he ziggurat was the principal religious structure
of Mesopotamian society; it was a broad tower
:nade up of stepped terraces, crowned with a tem
?Ie. Each of the terraces was a different color,
believed to be linked to each of the planets of the
CONES, THE WHITE TEMPLE,
_ L" K ( WARKA). IRAQ, CA. 3500
J B.C.
- , fO lored ceramic cones set in the
-ier walls not only polychromed the
or bllt prodllced a harmonious
PhotoJiraph by John Kurtich.
solar system. The ziggurat at Ur, Iraq (ca. 2125
B. c.) had four concentric walls, respectivel y from
bottom to top, black , red , gold, and blue. The
Temple of the Seven Spheres at Bers Nimroud
had seven terraces colored black, orange, red, yel
low, green, blue, and white.
THE GATE OF ISHTAR, BABYLON, IRAQ
The great Gate of Ishtar, Babylon, Iraq, was a
spectacular pol ychromed monu ment of seven
huge towers, built by Nebuchadnezzar (601-560
B.C.). It was covered with blue-glazed bricks that
DETAIL, i SHTAR GATE, BABYLON ,
IRAQ, 601-560 B.C.
The go lden lions formed
bricks created a permanent inteJirilt ed
image in Ihefamous landmark.
Photograph by John Kurtic/z.
COLOR: EMOTIONAL CHARACTER
formed the background for va rious animals in
contrasting glazed colors. There wer e yellow
bulls , silver dragons, and golden lions, all shim
mering against the blue setting. Similar bri cks
were used for the exterior and interior walls of his
nea rby palace.
THE PALACE OF DARIUS I, SUSA, IRAN
The Persians, united under Cyrus the Great in 555
B. C. , became the predominant cul ture in the N ear
East. Thei r use of color in architecture combined
some Egyptian ideas with those of Mesopotamia.
They applied color by using glazed bricks,
painted stucco, and naturally colored materials. A
fri eze of archers from the Pal ace of Darius I, Susa,
Iran (522-486 B. c.), illustrates Persian color very
well. Blue-green background supported life-size
archers who wore robes of yellow with blue ro
settes or white with blue and yellow adornments.
Their headgear and shoes were yellow. They had
green and brown quivers, white bows, and white
tipped yellow arrows. Archaeologi sts, recon
structing the palace, believe that this frieze may
have flanked the stairway, as the archers were
bodyguards to the king.
THE PALACE AT KNOSSOS, CRETE
The pal ace at Knossos, Crete (ca. 1600 B.C.), was
a building complex alive with color. The charac
teristic in versel y tapered col u mn was painted red
with black trim at the base and capital. These col
umns supported ochre-painted beams that framed
walls fill ed with lively frescoes. The frescoes were
painted on wet stucco and were either rendered
on a fl at surface or in li ght reli ef. Femal e figures
were white; males were reddish-brown. The Mi
noans' extensive color palette was made of the fol
lowing material s: red from ferric oxide or red lead;
yellow from ochre; pale greeni sh blue from crys
talline sili cate ofcopper; white from gypsu m; green
from malachite; black from carbon. Red seemed to
dominate most of their interior spaces as it was
used as background or on blank walls. The so
called throne room at Knossos , as reconstructed
by Sir Arthur Evans (1851-1941), foremost ar
chaeologist of Knossos exemplifies the use of red.
DETAIL OF FRIEZE DEPICTING
A PERSIAN WARRJOR, PALACE OF
DARIUS I , SUSA, IRAN,
522-486 B.C..
Color is the con/air/ ed energy of these
relief figures which were the life-sized
guardians of the King of Kings .
Photograph by J ohl1 Kurti ch.
DETAIL OF NORTH "LUSTRAL BATH, "
PALACE AT KNOSSOS, CRETE, CA.
1600 B.C.
The lop lit colol1l1aded stairw ell was
brightly pail1led to artiwlate theforms
a/ld celebrate rhe l1atural illumil1alio/1.
Ph otograph by Johl1 Kurtich.
lS
- ---
ANCIENT GREECE
The classical Greeks (from the Archaic Period,
seventh century B.C., onward) painted their tem
pl es and statues. The purists of the eighteenth cen
tur y were shocked when traces of color were
discovered on the remains of ancient buildings
and statue fragments .
. . . an unknown author describ es the sculpture oj
a jreshly unearthed Greek pediment: " Fl esh, reddish in
tone; globe oj eyes yellow, iris green, with a hole in the
centre .filled with black; black outlines to eyebroll)s and
eyelids; hair and beard bright blue at time oj excava
tion, which disintegrated lat er into a greenish tone; cir
cle oJbrown arou11d the nipples. 6
Greek temples and tombs were painted to
emphasize architectural details and refmements.
Typically, decorative patterns and moldings, such
as egg-and-dart, maeander, palmettes, or leaf pat
terns, would be painted to reinforce the carved
marbl e. Red and blue were common colors. The
Acropolis Museum in Athens, Greece, has pre
served a nLllnber of archaic Greek (seventh to fifth
centuries B. c.) architectural fragments which pre
serve some of these painted surfaces. The tradi
tion of Greek pol ychrome wall painting has been
lost except for so me examples found in a handful
of Macedonian tombs, discovered in the mid-to
late twentieth century. The Lafkadia Tomb (sec
ond halfofthe fourth century B.C.), uncovered in
1966, has a well-preserved facade upon which
deep blue was used for the background of a low
relief frieze; on panels flanking the central door to
the tomb were found polychromed full human
figures .
DOMESTIC GREEK HOUSES, OLYNTHUS
The classical Greeks appear to have preferred
broad areas of their interiors in saturated colors.
Archaeological excavations at Olynthus, a city in
northern Greece (last third of the fifth century
B. c.), ha ve uncovered man y houses whose inte
rior walls were painted in bright shades of yellow
and red, sometimes contrasted with textured
zones or black areas.
EXTANT IONI C CA PITAL, SHOWING
TRACES OF PAINT, FROM AN UNKNOWN
BUILDING, CA. FIFTH CENTUR Y B.C.,
STOA OF ATTALOS II, ATH ENS,
GREECE.
RENDERING OF SAME EXTANT IONI C
CAPITAL , RESTORED, SHOWING THE
POL YCHROMED AREA S.
few ,(! ood eXalnples exist , tile
Creek., lI.<ed uiuid color to polychrollle
their telllpies. Bright paillls lIIere applied
10 eillpha"ize Ihe.ft""lIs alld prodllce.!lal
pallem;. PllOloxrapll oy Johll Kllrlicll.

In the "House of Many Colors," the alldr(lll
(banqueting room) was found to have on its floor
a raised border of lime cement. painted yellow.
This surrounded a central square area pa\'ed \\'ith
a mosaic. The baseboard of the \yall \\' as molded
DETAIL OF THE "OLIVE TREE
PEDIMENT" OR " TROIlUS PEDIMENT,"
FROM A SMAll ARCHAIC BUILDING,
ACROPOLIS, ATHENS , GREECE, CA.
570-560 B.C.
The altematil1ft reds and blues of the
incised reliefdesign above the meander
pal/em haue been well preserved, ftilling
a ri(h and animated dignity to the
archite(wre. Photosraph by ) ohll
Kllrtich.
DETAIL OF PORCH, THE ACADEMY,
ATHENS, GREECE. THEODOR HANSEN,
1859-1 885.
Ninefeel1th Lentllry neo-(Iassic
architecture idealized the poly(hrome
techniques ofal1ciel1l Creek ar(hite(/ure.
Photograp h by)0/1I1 Kurti(h.
plaster painted blue. The wall above was red. The
and,-on was considered the most important room
in the house and had to be entered via an ante
room which had similar wall treatment of blue
baseboard, but the wall was a rich burnt orange.
PLAN OBLlQUE, PARTIALLY RESTORED,
OF THE "HOUSE OF MANY COLORS,"
OLYNTHOS, GREECE, LAST THIRD OF
THE FIFTH CENTURY B.C.
The Greek's love of polychrome nOl
only applied (0 (he sunlit exleriors but to
interior rooms washed with ji,l/ rich
color. LegendJor (he plall: a.& b.
sleeping or loom rooms c. unknown
use from evidence d. andron
(banqueting room) e. room wi(h altars
f anteroom to andron g. bathroom
with tub h. kitchen with cooking
trench i. court j. corridor k. oecus
(center oj domestic activities, with
(entral hea rth I. covered COUI'( , open (0
court "i" m. pitheon (storage below
.floor level). Drawing by)ohl1 Kur(ich.
ETRUSCAN TOMBS, ETRURIA, ITALY
The ancient Etruscans used color extensively In
their built environment, as evidenced by terra
cotta architectural remains and painted tomb in
teriors. They applied color to thei r architecture by
means of pigment, terra cotta, and tile. Some of
their tombs were built to represent interiors of
Etruscan houses , such as the Tomb of the Reliefs,
Cerveteri, Italy (fourth century B.C. ), complete
with sloping ceiling, which appears to be sup
ported by a central beam and pillars. Reali stic re
productions of household artifacts rendered in
f ' . ~ Y ',' '
FRAGMENT OF ETRUSCAN TEMPLE
PEDIMENT WITH RAKING SIMA
CROWNED WITH PIERCED CRESTING,
CA. FOURTH-THIRD CENTURY B.C.
Similar to the Etruscan tomb interiors,
the temples were brilliantly colored with
elaborate terra (otta 1'0oJdecorations oj
lotus al1d palmette motifs and painted
meander patterns on th e revetment
planks below th e sima. Photograph by
John Kurtich .
color stucco covered the beams and pillars.
Painted tombs, such as the Tomb of the Leopards,
Tarquinia, Italy (second quarter, fifth century
B.C.), featured walls covered with a continuous
frieze of colorful banqueting and dancing human
figures. The geometrically patterned ceiling was
sloped, forming a truncated pediment on the end
walls .hat highlighted two painted leopards in
confrontation. Etruscan artists used both mineral
and vegetable pigments. Chalk furnished white,
reds came from iron oxides, lapis lazuli provided
blue, charcoal made black . They achieved a so
phisticated degree of half tones and blended color,
.1.RCHITECTURAL WALL FRESCOES,
HOUSE Of VETTlI, POMPEII, A.D.
FI RST CENTURY.
. \llIra/s in full c%r within archite{/Ilra/
.7,lI lles .Rave a three-dill1ensiolla/ enelSY
;" til e Roman howe. Photojiraph by
"'hll Kl-lrtich.
as well as gradations of color from one surface to
another. They established a technique and a tra
,:lition for wall painting that were later refined by
artists of Rome and Pompeii.
_1.NCIENT ROMAN DOMESTIC HOUSES
The interiors of the ancient Roman atrium house
(prior to 79 A. D.), so well preserved at Pompeii
and Herculaneum, were dominated by vivid wall
FRESCO OF FOOD ON TABLE IN
PERSPECTIVE, POMPEII , ITALY. A.D.
FIRST CENTURY.
Flllly rendered image ofa table selling
with a draped background. Photograph
by John Kllr/ ich .
paintings, mosaics, and painted stucco reliefs. Ro
mans used pigments consisting of earth colors,
mineral colors, and vegetable and animal dyes.
These included yellow ochre (earthy clay contain
ing iron ore); red ea rths; lemon-yell ow orpiment
(native arsenic trisulfide); Melian white from
Melos; green chalk; vermilion made from cinna
bar; black soot mixed with size; bl ack charcoal;
blue (combining sand, flowers of narron, and cop
per filings); burnt ochre; green verdigris (treating
copper with vinegar); white lead; purpl e (obtained
from the porphyra shellfIsh or from dyeing chalk
with madder root and with hysginum); malachite
green; and indigo blue.
7
According to recent research, the technique of the
Pompeian wall paintings must have been as follows:
First two or three careJully prepared layers oJlimestone,
mixed with sand and calcite, were applied to the walls.
The background of the picture was painted first and left
to dry, whereupon the figures and ornaments were
added. The colours were mixed with soapy limestone
and some kind of glue to act as a medium, and were
rendered shiny by waxing. By these means the paint
ings acquired great durability and brilliance. H
Pictorial content consisted of architectural
features, architectural scenes, trompe l'oeil views,
mythologi cal themes, landscape scenes, gardens,
birds, animals, fI sh, vegetables, fruits, and large
compositions of human fi gures.
EXTERIOR, MAUSOLEUM OF GALLA
PLACIDIA, RAVENNA, ITALY,
A.D. 420.
THE MA USOLEUM OF GALLA PLACIDIA,
RAVENNA, ITALY
Earl y Christian church interiors were alive with
colored marbles and mosaics, thanks to the avail
ability of such material from ruined pagan tem
ples and palaces that served as a convenient
guarry. The exteriors were generally plain and
unadorned, a complete contrast to the profuse
colors of rich marbl es and mosaics applied to the
interior. An example of this duality of inside/ out
side is the Mausoleum of Gall a Placidia, Ravenna,
Italy (ca. A.D. 425). The exterior was built of plain
red brick, with a series of blind arcades as the only
ornament. The interior is like entering another
world, so different is the wall and ceiling treat
ment. The lower part of the interior walls was
covered with translucent yellow Sienese marble.
The upper walls, vaults, and central dome were
completely covered with mosaics, still largel y in
tact today. Small windows covered with alabaster
slabs filter colored li ght into the space, amplifying
the mys ter y and magic of this interior. Architec
ture and mosaics are integrated so well that not
only do the architec tural elements provide the op
portunity for ornamental development but the or
nament accentuates the architecture.
HAGIA SOPHIA, ISTANBUL, TURKEY
The premier church of this era to use mosaic tech
r. ique to create interior religious spaces that could
:ranscend normal ea rthly concerns and visions
-as the Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey (A.D.
Colored stones, gold, and painting
: _ -hniques produced a shimmering skin, whi ch,
-hen combined with natural lighting effects,
would demateri alize the interior space and assist
the worshipper in experiencing heaven. Although
its surface trea tment was largely destroyed or
covered over when it was converted into a
mosque in 1453, the few surviving mosai cs give
an idea of what the interior mi ght have been like.
THE CATHEDRAL OF NOTRE DAME,
CHARTRES, FRANCE
The great Gothic cathedrals of France used color
and light together to proclaim a vision that sym
bolized the spiritualized space of western Chris
tianit y. Rather than natural light illuminating the
shimmering surfaces of colored mosaics and gold
as in Byzantine churches, the French Gothic ca
thedral s were illuminated with colored light
through large stained glass windows that dema-
INTERIOR DETAIL OF ALABASTER
WINDOW, MAUSOLEUM OF GALLA
PLAClDJA, RAVENNA, ITALY,
A.D. 420.
The interior architecture contrasted the
austere exteriors with colored decoration
in mosaics and alabaster. Photographs
by John Kurtich.
COLO R: EMOTIONAL CHARACTER 263
MOSAIC DETAILS, HAGIA SOPHIA,
ISTANBUL, TURKEY, A.D. 532-537.
Elaborate and symbolic decoration
illuminated by natural light produced a
mystical , supernatural transformation in
the interior. Photograph by John
Kurtich.
terialized the very walls themselves. The Cathe
dral of Notre Dame, Chartres, France (1194
1260), became the epitome of a space transformed
by stained glass windows. The colors were ac
tually few-blue, red, some yellow and green,
white, and a brown, which might also appear
deep purple. The unearthly light achieved by
these windows constantly changed with the sun,
time of day, and weather conditions (see Chapter
4 for a discussion of the four-dimensional aspects
of Chartres Cathedral).
Light entering the interior is not clear daylight ,
which would produce shadow, highlight, and plastic
effects, but light washed with many hues and diffused
throughout the interior. Drawing space into a continu
ity, this light emphasizes distances, intensifies the ver
tical, increases the apparent length oj the church from
the entrance to altar. Consequently, the outer skin oj
the church is transJol'med into zones ojspace and light. 9
MEDlEVAL STAlNED GLASS Medieval gla
ziers were able to produce a certain range of colors
in glass, such as blue, green, yellow, brown, and
purple, by varying the amounts of manganese and
iron added to the melted glass. Beechwood ash
AMBULATORY, CATHEDRAL OF
NOTRE DA}v!E, CHARTRES, FRANCE,
1194-1260.
ColOi'ed light from high stained glass
windows washing neutral colored
surfaces the space into
unearthly experiences. Photograph by
John Klirtich.
COLOR: EMOTI O NAL CHARACTER 265
STAINED GLASS DETAIL, ABBEY OF
SAINT DENIS, FRANCE, 1137-1144.
Medieval stained glass was partiwlarly
vivid, partly due to the handmade
impe1ections. Photograph by John
Kurtich.
seems to have been the source of this manganese/
iron mixture, as the ash was the flux to promote
the fusion of all ingredients. Red and other types
of blue were produced by adding copper. Al
though these glaziers had crude kilns and rela
tively unsophisticated materials, they were able to
produce stained glass, the luminosity of which has
never been equaled in modern times, using so
phisticated and scientiEc methoas. the raaiance
of medieval windows is partially due to imperfec
tions and bubbles in the glass, which seems to be
able to capture sunlight, reprocessing it to pro
duce the shimmering polychromed effervescence
that made the interior space transcendent.
THE CATHEDRAL, SIENA, ITALY
The development of church architecture in Italy
during the Medieval period relied almost exclu
sivel y on colored marbles and inlaid stone for
both exterior and interior decorative treatment.
The interior of the cathedral at Siena, Italy (ca.
A.D. 1226-1380) is a fantasy of horizontal black
and white marble stripes on the walls and col
umns set off by an incredible polychromed mar
ble mosaic floor. The mosaics are divided into
fifty-six pictorial representations, covering the
entire floor area of the cathedral. These panels de
pict stories from the Bible, the Virtues, the Sibyls,
and Allegories. An example of the paintinglike
quality of the mosaic work is the panel of the
History of Fortune or Hili of Virtue, designed by
NAVE, CATHEDRAL, SIENA, ITALY,
1226-1380.
The integral color banding was produ ced
by alternating layers ofblack and white
marble. This technique emphasized the
column shapes while imparting an
electrifying energy to the space.
Photograph by Jolm Kurtich.
Bernardino Pintoricchio (1454-1513) in 1504 and
executed by Paolo Mannucci in 1506. The scene
features a black sky, red mountains, and greenish
gray sea. Human figures are delineated in grays
and whites, with touches of reddish-brown,
green, black, and yellow for costume highlights.
PERSIA
Coinciding with medieval Europe, in Persia, the
use of tile and mosaic faience became a refined
architectural feature. Because of climatic condi
tions of the region, painted surfaces and designs
might not remain in prime condition for more
than several generations. Tile and mosaic faience,
on the other hand, seem to keep their original
color and brilliance eternally. The tradition of
fired, glazed bricks continued from the cultures of
RENDERED PLAN OF FLOOR PAVEMENT
DESIGNS, CATHEDRAL, SIENA, ITALY ,
1266-1380.
The ri ch 1110saicj100r patterlls articulate
the stmClI,,-al bays alld represfIlt lIariolis
religious teachings and ellents important
to the Chllrch. /\I[lIseo del/'Opera Metro
Polfrana, Siena.
the ancient Middle East , but with improved tech
niques the Persians achieved a thin, tough tile that
gave greater architectural flexibility. They learned
that different colors reach their optimal luster at
different firing temperatures. '" The color palette
included blue from cobalt, purple from man
ganese, greenish turquoise from copper, dark
brown from oxides of iron and manganese, yel
lows , and rose pinks. A thousand years of Persian
mosque building with these colored tiles culmi
nated in the Masjid-i-Shah, Isfahan , Iran (1612
1638) . The outer portal and the four ivans of the
mosque courtyard are encased in shimmering
glazed dark blue and golden yellow tiles. The
dome of the sanctuary is enveloped with intricate
blue and yellow arabesques. Much of the design
found in these tiles, which tended to cover entire
curvilinear surfaces of vaults and domes, inside
and out, were inscriptions from the Koran.
EXTERIOR SAN CTUARY DOME,
MASJID-I-SHAH, ISFAHAN , IRAN ,
1612-1638.
The Persian lise 0.[glazed tiles to clad
architecture resulted ill Itighly colorf,iI
and permanent s.IIJace treatments.
TROMPE L'OEIL PAINTING IN RENAIS
SANCE ITALY With the discovery of linear
perspective in Renaissance Italy, painting took on
a new relationship with architecture. Painting be
came a device to visually extend space (see the
discussion of perspective in Chapter 3), particu
larly when it achieved trompe l'oeil status
through linear perspective. Walls of rooms and
sometimes entire rooms were painted in full color
to visually extend or distort the actual space (see
the discussion of trompe l'oeil as a means of
achieving the fourth dimension in architectural
space in Chapter 4). There are many examples of
this type of interior treatment, particularly in Ital
ian late Renaissance, Mannerist, and Baroque
buildings. Many of the interiors of Andrea Palla
dio's villas have their walls and ceilings com
pletely covered with architectural trompe l'oeil
and decorative paintings that interact with the ac
tual architecture. Color is the main organizing
force, reinforcing illusionistic architectural ele
ments that frame various mythological scenes.
The Villa Almerico-Valmarana (La Rotonda), Vi
cenza, Italy (1565/1566-1569), with its symmet
rical plan of a central circular domed hall and four
corridors leading to ' the four entrances, is filled
with such painting, begun from the time the villa
was completed and continued into the seven
teenth and eighteenth centuries by various artists.
The use of color is a vivid contrast to the rela
tively plain plastered exterior.
THE CHURCH OF SANT' IGNAZIO,
ROME, ITALY
The entire ceiling of the nave of the Church of
Sant' Ignazio, Rome, Italy (1688), painted by An
drea Pozzo (1642-1709), celebrates the Glory of
St. Ignatius and the Society ofJesus. The painting
dominates the space and expands the architecture
of the space upward into an infinite heaven. The
use of color amplifies the trompe l'oeil effect and
clearly defmes the architectural elements, both
painted illusions and actual.
THE ROYAL CHATEAU,
FONTAINEBLEAU, FRANCE
The Italians influenced the use of color in French
Renaissance interiors. Francis I (1515-1547)
brought to his court Italian artists who richly ren
dered interiors of the royal chateau at Fontaine
bleau. II Rosso (1494-1540), known as Maitre
Rous or Fiorentino, was responsible for the Fran
cis I Gallery (1530) where he blended painting and
sculpture to achieve a radiant interior. The pre-
CENTRAL ROTUNDA, VIUA
ALMERICO-VALMARANA (LA
ROTONDA), VICENZA, ITALY.
ANDREA PALLADlO, 1565/1566-1569.
STUCCOES IN THE CUPOLA AND
CEILINGS BY RUBINI, RUGGERO
BASCAPE, AND D OMENICO FONTANA,
1581. LOWER FRESCOES BY DORIGNY,
1680-1687.
Trompe l'oeil paintings cover the
interior of the central rotunda,
expanding th e space into mythical
worlds and times. Copyright 1991,
C. Paolo !VIarton.
1
d
ill
- - - - - - - - - ~
CEILING OF THE NAVE, SANT'IGNAZIO,
ROME, ITALY. CARLO MADERNA,
1626-1650.
This illusionisti( painting dramatizes
the verlicalily of the (athedral, drawillg
one il1lo 11 provocative drealll world.
Photograpll by John KUrli(h.
domin;mt coJor was thE rjch brow)} of )}aturaJ
:1 I-r om coffering of the ceiling, pa neli ng
nrghli ght ed with gilt on the lower walls, and un
adorned herringbone flooring. At eye level, a
lar ge continuous frieze of separate polychromed
paintings framed by elaborate sculptural casings
animated the entire space with elega nce and radi
ance. This gall ery marked the beginning of the
French Renaissance in architecture.
THE CHATEAU AT VAUX-LE-VI COMTE,
FRANCE
The spl endor of Versailles ViaS made possible by
a trio of artists , architect Lo ui s Le Vau (1612
ZID,
1670), painterli nterior decorator Charles Le Brun
(1619-1690), and landscape architect Andre Le
N otre (1613-1700), who were originally engaged
by Nicol as Fouquet (1615-1680) to create his cha
teau, Vaux-le-Vicomte (1656-1661). The surviv
ing interiors of Ie Salon des Muses and la
DETAIL OF THE GALERIE DE FRANC;:OIS
I , PALAI S DE F ONTAINEBLEA U,
FONTAINEBLEAU, FRANCE. GILLES
LE BRETON, 1528-1540. INTERIOR
DECORATION OF THE GALERIE BY
Rosso.
The French, il1j11w1(ed by the Italiam,
comb in ed sculpwre with pail1tin}; ill
elaborate derail ro decorate their il1terior
sUljaees. Photograph by J ohl1 Kurtieh.
Ch3mbre du Roj e3ch feature remarkabl e painted
ceilings in which Le Brun masterfully blended
painting and scul pture to a high art. Color is all
important in Ie Salon des Muses , as Le Brun ca p
tured a freshness and sensuality that he never
again achieved aft er he moved to Versailles. Le
Brun established a st yle of interiors in la Chambre
du Roi that virtuall y became the model for Ver
sailles. Each separate piece of the interior,
whether it was movable furniture and hangings
or fixed paneling and molding, became part of a
holistic statement of the space. The ceiling was
made alive with sculptural stuccowork, balanced
with painting. Gilded crown molding, gold bro
cade paneled wall s, gil t balustrades and furniture,
and a fl orid Savonnerie carpet completed the space
as a golden room des ig ned for the Sun King. It is
small wonder that Louis XIV (1638-1715), an
gered by a palatial setting more splendid than hi s
own, imprisoned Ni colas Fouquet and engaged
the artists to build Versailles in Vaux-Ie-Vi
comte's image.
COLOR: EMOTlONAL CHARACTER 273
CEIUNG DETAIL, ROOM OF THE
MUSES, CHATEAU DE VAUX-LE
VI COMTE, FRANCE. L OUIS L E V AU,
1657-1 661. INTERIORS BY CHARLES
LE BRUN.
Thi s vilJid origi,.,al paint ed relief
represents Le Bnll1's mature work prior
10 his contributions fo Versailles.
Photograph by Johl1 Kurl ich.
ROYAL SUITE, CHATEAU DE VAUX-LE
VICOMTE, FRANCE. LOUI S LE VAU,
1657-1661 . INTERI ORS BY CHARLES
LE BRUN.
Rich,jlamboyal1l color, with excessive
use ojgold, created a poweJjili political
statement in rooms intended to intimidate
visitors. Photograph by J ohn Kurti ch.
CHAMBRE DU ROI, LE PALAIS DE
VERSAILLES, VERSAILLES, FRANCE,
1701.
Louis XI V employed opulent colors and
decoration 10 enhance his image oj
supreme power and wealth. Photograph
by John Kurtich.
THE ROYAL CHATEAU,
VERSAILLES, FRANCE
Versailles became the model for royalty through
out Europe for the next century. Interiors fea
tured much gilt, mirrors, tapestries, colored
marbles, stucco work, paintings, and various tex
tiles. Predominant colors, in addition to gold,
were green, powder green, crimson red, and rose
beige. During the reign of Louis XV (1715-1774),
a number of pastel shades became fashionable.
Madame de Pompadour (1721-1764), mistress to
the king for almost twenty years, virtually con
trolled French art and taste. The desire for smaller
BIBLIOTHEQUE DE LOUIS XVI, LE
PALAIS DE VERSAILLES, VERSAILLES,
FRANCE. DESIGNED BY JACQUES
GABRIEL AND EXECUTED BY ANTOINE
ROUSSEAU, 1774.
Louis X VI preJerred a more restrained
and subtle ~ I s e of color and Jorm which
led to the eventuall'leo-classical
movement in Fran ce. Photograph by
John Kurtich.
r o o m ~ and apartments, furnished with elegantly
detailed furniture and objets d'art, required so
phisticated and muted colors never before used.
"New to the art of decoration ... are the pastels
and lush tones of Powder Pink, Apple Green,
French Lilac, Oriental Gold, Sevres Blue, Rose
Pompadour, Pompadour Blue, and French Tur
quoise." II Under the short reign of Louis XVI
(1754-1793), interest in the classical past, brought
about by Greek and Roman excavations, simpli
fied French royal interiors. The color palette es
sentially stayed the same as that of Louis XV, but
furnishings and decorative moldings became more
delicately straightforward and spiritually classical.
OSTERLEY PARK HOUSE,
MIDDLESEX, ENGLAND
The interiors of Robert Adam (1728-1792) dom
inated English interior architecture during his life
time. He used color deliberately and creatively to
define certain decorative ideas. He used it to imi
tate other kinds of materials, such as antique
Greek vases or Wedgwood ceramics. 12 Color was
also the unifying element for his interiors;
through color Adam could relate his furniture to
the shell of the room by repeating similar colors
and motifs on the walls and ceilings as on the
furnishings. His very original Etruscan Dressing
Room at Osterley Park House, Middlesex, En
gland (1761-1780) , is a visit through eighteenth
century eyes to the antique world of Greece,
Rome, and Etruria. Attic red vase painting was
the influence for the terra cotta and black figures
and trellis work on the pale sky-blue walls and
ceiling. Paintings in the medallions referred to
Trojan War themes, since it was believed that the
Etruscans were descendants of the Trojans. The
chairs were designed by Adam, the frames of
which were painted to correspond to the border
designs on the walls and around the windows.
THE RESIDENCE OF SIR JOHN SOANE,
LONDON, ENGLAND
The period between the death of Robert Adam
(1792) and the beginning of the reign of Queen
Victoria (1837) was known as the Regency in En
gland. As in France during the same time, things
Greek and Roman became dominant in design.
John Soane (1753-1837), in his own house (see
Chapters 1, 3, and 5), featured Pompeiian red as
the dominant color for his dining room and li
brary complex. By trimming the moldings of the
walls with a complementary green, the red walls
became particularly vibrant.
THE PAVILION, BRIGHTON, ENGLAND
England in the Regency had a worldwide empire
that included possessions in the Far East. John
Nash (1752-1835), a contemporary of John
Soane, designed for the Prince Regent a pre-Vic
torian Oriental fantasy at Brighton known as the
Pavilion (1815-1821). Stylistically appearing as a
hybrid Chinese-Indian concoction, the Pavilion
was a stage-set complex built of brick, timber,
and iron. The interiors were done by John Crace
(1754-1819) and Sons, with Robert Jones collab
orating with Frederick Crace (1779-1859) in the
final phase. Chinese red and gold wallpaper scenes
dominated the fantastic domed Music Room,
with giant green dragons and snakes appearing in
the corners as though they were peeling away the
wall. The room was lit by nine exotic flowerlike
chandeliers hanging from glittering, bangle-en
crusted chains. The space was designed for night
use, to be artificially lit, which would enhance the
Arabian Nights palace effect to the fullest and per
mit the strongest enrichment of the prevailing
colors of the space through tinted lighting.
DETAIL OF LIBRARY, SIR JOHN SOANE
RESIDENCE, LINCOLN'S INN FIELDS,
LONDON, ENGLAND. SIR JOHN
SOANE, 1812.
The Pompellon red reinforces the
ric/lll e;s of ril e nalUral wood details and
Is complelllentary to the brass hardware.
Photograph by John Kurtlch.
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MUSIC ROOM, ROYAL PAVILION ,
BRIGHTON, ENGLAND. JOHN NASH,
1815-1821.
Th e Chinese red and gold color scheme
emphasizes the oriental aura prevailing
in this great domed room. Photograph by
John Kurti ch.
CROSSING, CRYSTAL PALACE,
LONDON, ENGLAND. INTERIOR COLOR
BY OWEN JONES, 1851.
The structural parts were painted
multiple colors, forcing the observer to
mix the strips and details when viewing
the whole. Courtesy of The Art
Inst itute of Chicago.
OWEN JONES
Owen Jones (1809-1874) published his classic The
Grammar of Ornament in London in 1856; it
quickly became the most important Victorian ref
erence book on the use of color and ornament .
Jones was the Super intendent of Works for the
London Exhibition of 1851, and he decorated the
interior of the Cry tal Palace, the edifice that hel d
the exhibition. He chose for the iron columns,
\\T1
stripes of blue, red. and yellow, which, when seen
from a distance appeared as a dynami c blui sh
gray field. J ones 's method of creating color mix
J ODn
ing in the eye or mi n of [he observer was precur
ec:"
sory to the de\-e!opment of pointillism U in

painting, championed by Georges Seurat (1859
pro
1891) in France.
or .
l
BLOCK PRINTED DESIGN,
"CORNCOCKEL," BY WILLIAM
MORRIS, LONDON, ENGLAND, 1883.
Morris's coloIjUI patterns were both
complex and balanced, such that all
elements read distinctively, yet in
harmony with the whole. Courtesy of
The Art Institute of Chicago.
held
nl1s,
WILLIAM MORRIS
seen
li sh
William Morris (1834-1896) was influenced by
TI 1X
Jones's The Grammar of Omament, particularly the
cur
section on medieval color. He particularly de
in
plored the machine technology of hi s time that
~ S 9 -
produced crude, synthetic, artiftcial dyes and col
ors. This technology adversely affected contem
porary art and architecture, in his opinion. Morris
believed that art should return to that of handi
craftsmen, such as during the Middle Ages. He
preached against the Cll rrent dyeing practice of his
day, arguing that the best and most beautiful col
ors could be produced only by the time-tested,
handicrafted methods prior to the Industrial Rev
olution. In 1858, Morris wrote:
Then came . . . one oj the most wondeiful and
most useless oj the inventions ojmodern chemistry, that
oj the dyes made from coal-tar, producing a series oj
hideous colours, crude, livid-and cheap ,-which
every person ojtaste loathes , but which nevertheless we
can by no means get rid oj until we are able to struggle
successJully against the doom oj cheap and nasty which
has overtaken us. 14
JOHN RUSKIN
John Ruskin (1819-1900) was a contemporary of
William Morris and also believed in the use of
"natural" color in architecture. He felt that ap
plied color, such as found in numerous Italian Re
naissance and Baroque exteriors and interiors,
was always inferior to the color of natural mate
rials. He argued that nature provided one system
for the form of any of its creations and a separate
system for the color arrangement. He pointed out
that the spots on a leopard have no relationship to
its anatomical system, nor do the stripes of a
zebra. Thus he presented his theory of architec
tural color: "Let it [color 1be visibly independent
of form. Never paint a column with vertical lines,
but always cross it . . .. and in sculptured orna
ments I do not paint the leaves or figures ... of
one color and their ground of another, but vary
both the ground and the figures with the same
harmony." 15
VIOLLET-LE-DUC
Eugene Viollet-le-Duc (1814-1879) was a French
contemporary of John Ruskin and his adversary
in theories of architectural restoration (see Chap
ter 1 for a more detailed discussion of the differ
ences between Viollet-le-Duc and Ruskin
concerning restoration) . Viollet-le-Duc despised
the fact that architecture and painting had become
very separate disciplines in the nineteenth cen
tury. He said that the architect "neither conceived
nor realized the effect which painting was to pro
duce on the surfaces which he prepared" and the
painter's attitude was that such surfaces were
"pieces of canvas stretched in a studio far less con
venient than his own." 16 When Viollet-le-Duc re
!\ririe'
I' " j I' l\'
ELEVATION OF THE "ARMOIRE DE
NOYON" FROM DICTIONNAlRE
RAlSONNE DU MOBILIER FRANr,;AlS,
BY M. VIOLET-LE-Duc, 1858.
Pure colors were avoided in favor of
more vivid and complex secondary and
tertiary hues. Courtesy of Yil e Arr
Institute of Chicago .
stored Notre Dame, Paris, France (1845-1864),
he added his version of wall murals based on the
latest nineteenth century archaeological evidence
that an unpainted Gothic church interior was ac
tually a rare occurrence. Viollet-Ie-Duc used vivid
colors, based on the prevailing confident nine
teenth century scientific method. He calculated
through the rationale of "colour harmony" 17 a
color scheme that was probably not actually the
way the medieval arti san ori gi nally colored the
interiors. Violl et-le-Duc used secondary IS and
[ertiary 19 colors much more than the primaries. 20
ANILINE DYES The nineteenth century devel
opment of coal-tar dyes , known as aniline dyes,
created bright, strong colors such as malachite
green, fuchsine (brilliant bluish-red), ungreenable
black, spirit blue, and safranine red. The cochineal
insect , dried and crushed, produced crimson. The
combination of a solution of potassium ferro
cyanide with ferric salt made Prussian blue.
THE BELLE EPOQUE
At the turn of the twentieth century, Paris was
the center of fashion and decorative arts. This pe
riod was known as the "Bell e Epogue" and was
proclaimed by the Exposition Universell e of
1900. Art Nouveau was a predominant style, and
electrici ty, the new in ven tion, Ii t the pa vilions.
Iridescent glass shimmered its rainbow hues, imi
tating the colors of peacock feathers, which them
selves became a popular design theme. Interiors
featured pastel colors interacting with asymmet
rical furniture constructed with exotic woods.
However, this delicate world of refined colors and
manners was jolted in 1909 by the Ballets Russes
of Sergei Diaghilev (1872-1929), the sets and cos
tumes of which were dominated by brilliant pri
mary colors in exotic combinations. The sudden
revolution in the use of color in the West was
further jolted by the revolution in music by the
same company when it presented Le Saere du Prin
temps (1913) by Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971). (See
Chapter 4 for further discussion of the impact of
this ballet on the Western world.) The color shift
not only affected architecture and interiors, but it
brought prominence to such artists as Pablo Pi
casso (1881-1973), Georges Brague (1882-1963),
Robert Delaunay (1885-1941), Henri Matisse
(1869-1954), Juan Gris (1887-1927) and Maurice
Utrillo (1883-1955), all of whom at one time or
another designed costumes and sets for the Ballets
Russes.
SET DESIG N FOR "LES ORIENTALES, "
BALLETS RUSSES , PARIS, F RANCE,
1909.
The sets' vila/use ofpri/11aJl' colors
shocked the prevailirlg sensibilities oftire
period. Courtesy oj The Art Institut e oj
Chicago.
COLOR: EMOTION AL CHARACTER 281
ANTONI GAUD}
During this same revolu tionary period, Antoni
Gaud! (1852-1926) developed his own style ofar
chitecture, which was integrated with color, both
inside and out. He used natural bricks of mixed
colors, glazed brick, ceramic tiles, heavily em-
EXTERIOR DETAIL, TEMPLE OF THE
SAGRADA FAMILIA, BARCELONA ,
SPAIN. ANTONI GA UDl, 1884-1926.
The wst-in-place glazed ceramic
decoration gave dynamic texture to his
idiosyncratic forms and symbols.
Photograph by Garret Eakin.
bossed papier mache tiles, pressed stucco, stone
rubble, wrought-, cast-, and meshed-iron, ivory,
marble, gilded metal, inlaid wood, stained glass,
blue-green slate, glass mosaics, and paint. His un
finished masterpiece, the Church of the Sagrada
Familia, Barcelona, Spain (1883-1926), was in
tended to be extensively colored. Gaudi presented
a model of the church at the Paris Exhibition of
1910. Green was the proposed color of the Portal
of Hope facade, to symbolize the Nile Valley.
Burnt sienna was to color the Portal of Faith, re
calling the desert sands of the Holy Land. Radiant
blue was intended for the center Charity door,
depicting a Bethlehem night. Gaud! wanted to use
yellow, red, and orange symbolizing the yellow
light of God bonded to the crucified red ofJesus
through the orange intercession of the Holy
Ghost. He planned to divide the nave into two
color zones: white and gold, symbolizing joy,
would dominate the right aisle; the left aisle
would be purple and black, expressing mourning.
RUDOLPH STEINER
Rudolph Steiner (1861-1925) integrated color in
his architecture for spiritual and idealistic reasons.
He was the founder of the Anthroposophical So
ciety and believed in a transcendental province be
yond physical reality concerning humanity's
relationship to a spiritual world filled with higher
truths. He was convinced that architecture was
the link to access this spiritual world and believed
in "making the whole building as if possessed of
a soul." 21 He designed a twin-domed wooden
meeting hall at Dornach, Switzerland, known as
the first Goetheanum (1913-1920) . The plan con
sisted of two circular rotundas of unequal size,
which overlapped each other. The larger rotunda
was the seating area facing the smaller, which was
the stage. Architecture, sculpture, and painting
were fully integrated in this building. The interior
of the larger dome was painted with colors that
abstractly recounted the architraves. Colored
glass windows let natural light into the space in a
sequence from west to east of green, blue, violet,
and pink. The building exemplified fully devel
oped Expressionism.
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LOBBY, THE GOETHEANUM,
DORNACH, SWITZERLAND. RUDOLPH
STEINER, 1924-1928.
The projection ofcolored light through
bright stained glass windows was
intended to dematerialize the i11lerior
surfaces. Photograph by John Klatich.
CLASSROOM , THE GOETHEANUM,
DORNACH, SWITZERLAND. RUDOLPH
STEINER, 1924-1928.
Goethe's theory of color produced an
expl'eSsionistic application of transparent
colors that freed the pigment ji'Orri
architectural constraints. Photograph by
John Kurti ch.
On New Year's Eve, 1922-1923, the first Goe
theanum burned. A larger second Goetheanum
(1924-1928) was built on the same site out of con
crete. The auditorium was trapezoidal rather than
circular. The color of the interior primarily comes
from light through four colored glass windows of
green, blue, violet, and pink (as in the first Goe
theanum). However, Steiner's intent was,
through the quality of the color, to make the walls
transparent. He wanted "to free colour from
gravity, to experience colour as an independent
element, to make colours eloquent." 22 Steiner de
veloped his theory of color for architecture, using
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Theory of Col
ours,23 as a departure point. This included the in
vestigation and experimentation of transparent
paint and its application and the production and
application of plant colors.
THE 19205
Color in the mid-twenties, particularly in France,
became subdued, partially a reaction to the Ori
ental brilliance of the Ballets Russes and some-
ENTRY DETAIL, FRANK LLOYD
WRIGHT RESIDENCE, TALlES1N,
SPRING GREEN, WISCONSIN, 1925.
Wright believed in using materials in as
natural a state as possible, such that
their integrity and raw beauty would not
be compromised. Photograph by John
Kurtich.
what of a response to the aftermath of World War
1. The Exposition des Arts Decoratifs, Paris
(1925) was dominated by a style now labeled "Art
Deco." Art Deco interiors featured a palette of
blacks and whites, gold, gray , silver, and beige.
As the Modern Movement grew, Art Deco gave
way to more machine-inspired interiors. Design
ers such as Jean-Michel Frank (1895-1941) fa
vored whites and beiges to color his minimalist
interiors, accented with custom furniture made
from rare woods (such as Brazilian rosewood,
black pearwood, and Macassar ebony) and exotic
furniture finishes (such as straw marquetry, gyp
sum mica, and white shagreen).
FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959) believed that ar
chitecture should grow out of the ground as a
plant does, thus his theory of "organic architec
ture. " Interiors should express their mat erial ex
istence in their natural colors and textures , as
much as possible, but be in harmony with one
another. In describing the building of Taliesin,
Spring Green, Wisconsin (1911) , Wright sa ys:
-
d War
Paris
d "Art
of
beige.
o gave
)esign
H) fa
i malist
. made
wood,
exotIc
.-, gyp-
that ar
ld as a
rchitec
rial ex
Ires, as
ith one
-aliesin,
JyS:
Inside floors) like the outside floors) were stone
paved or if not were laid with wide) dark-streaked cy
press boards. The plaster in the walls was mixed with
raw sienna in the box) went on to the walls "natural)))
drying out tawny gold. Outside) the plastered walls
were the same but grayer with cement. But in the con
sti tution oj the whol e) in the way the walls rose from
the plan and the spaces were rooJed over) was the chieJ
il1terest oj the whole house. The whole was all su
premely natural,24
LE CORBUSIER
Le Corbusier (1887-1965) was very influenced by
the natural beauty and simplicity of the indige
nous houses of the Greek islands. White-washed
and gleaming under the hot Aegean sun, these
humble dwellings were ali ve wi th ideas that
would blossom in Le Corbusier's work through
out his career. He noted, particularly, how the
Greeks used color. They often accented their
doors and windows with bright, primary colors,
which act uall y affected the color and quality of
PORCH DETAIL, PHIRA. THERA,
GREECE, EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY.
The Minoan infiuence on the use orpuye
pigment color ill th ese modest dwellings
is evident. Contrasting the hot sun with
rich, colored interiors provided reli ef to
Ihe eye. Photograph by)ohn Kurti(h .
. I
EXTERIOR WINDOW DETAILS,
UNITE D'HABITATlON, MARSEILLE.
L E CORBUSIER, 1952.
The interior walls of LI' Corbl/sier's
briscs-soleil were brightly painted to
softell the hot Mediterranean light.
by Carrel Eakin.
COLOR : EMOTJ ONA L CHARACTER 2tlS
light coming into their houses. Sometimes entire
walls of exterior porches were pai nted a solid
color to contrast with the whiteness of the rest of
the structure. The Greeks have maintained a tra
dition of applied color to their vernacular build
ings going back to their ancient polychromed
temples, which were human-scaled sculptures in
the lands ca pe.
, ,
THE UNITE D HABITATION,
MARSEILLES, FRANCE
Le Corbusier (1887-1965) used his Greek inspira
tion for the window treatment of his Unite
d'Habitation, Marseilles, France (1 952). Employ
ing a variation of his brise-soleil (see Chapter 5 on
a discussion of the brise-soleil) , Le Corbusier de-
ALTAR, MAIN CHAPEL, COUVENT
DE LA TOURETTE, EVEUX-SUH
L'ARBRESLE RHONE, FRANCE.
LE CORBUSIER, 1960.
The light is colored as it
passes through th e "light cannons,"
dramatizing the openings. PllOlograph
by Johrl Kurti ch.
-- _.
--- - - -
iplra
Jnite
ploy-
S on
:r de-
E ~ T
R-
it
Ill S) ))
'ograph
signed a thick sun break, the vertical walls of
which were painted in bright primary colors of
red, yellow, and blue. This sun break would di
rectly affect the guality and color of light entering
the building, just as in the Aegean island houses.
He achieved a similar effect of producing natural
colored light by painting the insides of his " light
cannons" for the Monastery of La Tourette,
Eveux-sur-I'Arbresle, France (1953-1957).
THE DE STIJL MOVEMENT
Le Corbusier (1887-1965) was also influenced by
the N eoplastici st ideas of the De Stijl movement
(1917-1931) in the Netherlands. De Stijl (see
Chapter 3 for a spatial discussion of the Schroder
House and Chapter 7 for Rietveld's red/blue
chair) valued colored planes as a means of spatial
dislocation. In 1924 Theo van Doesburg (1883
1931) published: " ... In this way architecture
gets (insofar as is possible from a constructional
point of view-the task of the engineers!) a more
or less floating aspect that, so to speak, works
against the gravitational forces of nature. " 2S Color
was used in interiors to articulate space. This ar
ticulation included a control of natural light to
create joviality, brightness, and glow. The fol
lowers of De Stijl believed in a symbiosis and
harmony between architects and painters. Gerrit
Rietveld (1888-1964) felt that space was the archi
tect's medium, and if he chose to use color it was
to serve his architectural space. The architect col
ors the planes and surfaces "to limit space in such
a way that they reflect the incident li ght, thus
making the space visible, and making the li ght
visibl e as a result of its reflection by the materials
used." 26
WORKING-CLASS HOUSING,
PESSAC, FRANCE
Le Corbusier (1887-1965) designed an experi
mental working-class community at Pessac, near
Bordeaux, France (1926). Although many politi
cal, bureaucratic, and technical problems pre
vented Pessac from realizing the original vision
l
,I
AXONOMETRlC DRAWING , "MAISON
PARTlCULlERE, " BY THEO VAN
DOESBURG AND CORNELIS VAN
EESTEREN, 1923.
The D e Stijl MOlJemenl applied co lor to
thin planes to energize th eir
compositions. Courtesy of The Art
It/stilul e o(Chicago.
and intent ofLe Corbusier, he achieved initial suc
cess with the use of color for these houses. Eiler
Rasmussen visited the site in 1926 and said
Le Corbusier's architecture has, in my opinion,
never been more clearly expressed than in his last work:
the Pessac housing settlement near Bordeaux. The
black-and-white illustrations give only a Jaint impres
sion oj this elegant world. The foundations oj the
houses are black, the walls alternately sienna brown,
bright blue, bright aquamarine, white, bright yellow or
grey. The various sides oj the houses are not the same
colour; one side Jor example is dark brown, the other
bright green, and these colours meet directly at the cor
ner; this is perhaps the strongest way oj making the
walls appear immaterial. The impression is strange and
fantastic, but not chaotic. All these highly coloured sur
faces with green plantings spaced in an architectonic
order are placed in rows and arranged along axes. All
the windows are standardized and made oj the same
materials. Imagine the whole settlement inhabited, the
1'0oJgardens overgrown with live vegetation, gaily col
oured washingfiapping in the wind o.fthe service yards,
while children run about playing. Is this then the archi
tecture oj tomorrow? 27
THE VILLAS OF LE CORBUSIER
During Le Corbusier ' s (1887-1965) modernist
villa period of the 1920s and early 1930s, he de
veloped a color vocabulary only now being ap
preciated, partly because his villa interiors were
initially published in black and white. With the
restoration of the Maison la Roche, Paris, France
(1923), and the Villa Savoye, Poissy-sur-Seine,
France (1931), one can see how Le Corbusier used
color planes for his interior spaces. The curved
studio of Maison la Roche (now the headquarters
of the Fondation Le Corbusier) has provocative
walls of blue, brown, gray, and white. The living
room of the Villa Savoye (now a historic monu
ment) has the west wall blue, the short south wall
rust orange, the exposed chimney of the fIreplace
burnt sienna, and the floor tawny gold tile, set in
an otherwise white space with ribbon windows
on the west and north walls, and floor-to-ceiling
glass doors on the majority of the south wall.
PLAN OBLIQUE, QUARTlER
MODERNE FRUGES, PESSAC, FRANCE.
LE CORBUSIER, 1926.
Le Corbusier's painterly altitude made
compositional sense Ollt ofll1is repetitive
complex, flsing a language of(0101'.
Droits de reprodu(tiol1 perms par la
SPADEM. Copyright 1991 ARS
N. Y .ISPADEM
z
' ~ r . . i ~ '
--
:RANCE.
Ie made
'epetitive
i/o r.
{l l' la
IRS
THE HEIDI WEBER PAVILION,
ZURICH, SWITZERLAND
The most brilliantly colored building Le Corbu
sier (1887-1965) designed was the Heidi Weber
Pavilion, Zurich, Switzerland (1961-1965). A
GALLERY, MAISON LA ROCHE, PARIS,
FRANCE. LE CORBUSIER AND PIEHRE
]EANNERET,1923.
Bold co ntrasts ill co lor emphasize the
most elega/1t shapes . Photograph by
John Kurtich.
LIVING ROOM, VILLA SAVOYE,
POISSY-SUR-SEINE, FRANCE. L E
CORBUSIER AND PIERRE ]EANNERET,
1929-1930.
Le Corbl.lsi er used colol's to
separate paris o{his architecture; i. e.,
chimney from colu/1/lI s, or I, )est FO'II
sOll th wall. Ph %,eraph by)011ll
KLIIticil.
steel truss umbrella roof covers a seq uence of
spaces that are formed by arranging primary-col
ored porcelainized steel panels with plate glass
panels in modular proportions. The resulting
color permeates the inside as well as the outside,
foreseeing a new interest in color and high tech
nology during the next decades .
COLOR: EMOTIONAL CHAHACTEH 289
THE GERMAN PAVILION,
BARCELONA, SPAIN
Instead of applying color to interior walls, Lud
wig Mies van der Rohe (1886-1969) relied on the
color of the materials he used in his interiors, ac
cented by carefully chosen or designed fabrics and
furnishings. His German Pavilion, Barcelona,
Spain (1929, restored 1986) is a study of ri ch and
EXTERIOR, CENTRE LE CORBUSIER,
LA MAISON DE L'HO,\;\ME, ZURICH,
SWITZERLAND. LE CORBUSIER, 1967.
Porcelainized steel panels in primary
colors dramatize this play'ft." pavilioll.
Photograph by John K/lrtich.
sumptuous colors, finishes, and flowing space.
The focus of the pavilion is provided by a free
standing wall of rare onyx d o n ~ e , whose swirling
veined colors vary from white to deep gold. The
glass walls tha t enclose the pa vilion are greenish,
offset by brilliant red drapery. White kid leather
chairs and ottomans rest on a solid black carpet .
Structural clarity of the space comes from
chrome-plated, cross-shape steel columns. An
- . --- -
---
~ -
ER,
GERMAN PAVILION, BARCELONA,
CH,
SPAIN. LUDWIG MIES VAN DER ROHE,
1967.
1929. RESTORED BY CHRISTIAN
CIRI CIl, FERNANDO RAMOS, AND
i r)'
[GNASI DE SOLA-MoRALES, 1986.
'ion.
Mies van del" Rohe preferred the rich
quality of natllralmaterials to provide
color and lexture 10 his timeless spaces.
Photograph by DOli
'ace. ou tdoor pool lined in black glass fea tures a bronze
ree
woman created by Georg Kolbe (1877-1947).
'li ng The background for the sculpture is a wall of dark
The
green Tinian marble, whose veining merges with
ish,
the vegetation of cypress and conifers, which con
rher
stitute the landscaping. The entire composition,
pet. inside and out, is a symphony of colored opu
"om lence, stunning the beholder with polished reflec
An
tions that multiply and magnify the richness of
Kal ec.
the spaces and reinforces the free flow of move
ment throughout.
ELSIE DE WOLFE
Elsie de Wolfe (1865-1950) loved color, and her
book, The House in Good Taste (1913), devoted a
whole chapter to it. She preached that one must
first learn color from nature, particularly regard-
COLOR: EMOTIONAL CHARACTER 29 I
ing the background color versus the accent. She
used this axiom as her point of departure concern
ing the use of color.
We must decide our wall colors by the aspect ofour
rooms. Rooms facing south may be very light gray,
cream, or even white, but northern rooms should be rich
in color, and should suggest warmth and just a little
mystery . .. For south rooms blues and grays and cool
greens and all the dainty gay colors are charming . ..
For north rooms I am strongly inclined to use the panel
"WRIT1NG CORNER OF CHINTZ
BEDROOM." ELSIE DE WOLFE, THE
HOUSE IN GOOD TASTE, NEW YORK:
THE CENTURY Co. , 1913. COLOR
PLATE FACING P. 83. (RYD13.1 052)
Elsie de Wolfe employed chintz to
enliven her rooms with cheerji41 color
and pattern. 1991 The Art Institute
ojChicago, All Rights Reserved.
ing in our native American woods, that are so rich in
effect, but alas, so little used. I hope our architects will
soon realize what delightful and inexpensive rooms can
be made of pine and chary, chestnut and cypress, and
the beautiful California redwood. 28
From that point she would advise "building"
a room around some special piece, such as a spe
cial rug, an old print, an antique chair, an heir
loom vase. This would give her direction for
color accents. The use of colorful chintz to finish
I rich il1
w s will
ums can
f SS , and
ilding"
s a spe
In heir
ion for
o finish
off the room was a de Wolfe trademark. She ar
gued that it was much better to use a good chintz
than an inferior silk. Rooms full of color, but log
ically organized with background walls and trim
in harmony with special pieces, are all brought
together with bright, patterned chintz.
... you enter a little dressing-room that is also
.fitll of color. Here are the same cream walls, the dull
red carpet, the old blue silk shades on lamps and can
dles , but the chintz is different: the ground is black, and
gray parrots and parquets swing in blue-green festoons
of leaves and branches . .. You can imagine how im
possible it would be to be ill-tempered in such a cheeljul
place
29
RUBY ROSS GOODNOW WOOD
Ruby Ross Goodnow Wood (1880-1950) fol
lowed Elsie de Wolfe's book with her own book,
The Honest House (1914). In it were specific rules
about the use of color for interiors. The wall was
a critical area, and her advice was strict and direct:
"The fundamental principle of mural decoration
is: Walls are backgrounds. Keep that in mind and
you cannot go far wrong." 30 She thought that
blue was the nicest color, but not for walls. She
felt that green and red had been misused so much
that they should not be used at all for walls. She
argued that yellow was the most pleasant color
for walls because it would be hard for the occu
pant to become gloomy in a yellow environment.
She disliked yellow-green, but felt that it would
be used by anyone who could handle color prop
erly. Orange was a magnificent color to her, but
it had to be used carefully and sparsely. She delib
erated that white was the most difficult of all to
use for walls; she contended that white was too
cold, too immediate, too much glare. "White
:::2y be softened and mellowed by mixlng a Httfe
= - ~ o w with it, and it becomes cream or ivory or
__ ~ . suave and aristocratic. But dead white walls
_-:-e never pleasant." 31
L VIS BARRAGAN
Luis Barragan (1902-1988) used large areas of
white in his architecture, both interior and exte
rior, in order to set off the planes of vibrant color
he employed to create truly poetic drama. The
rich tapestry of his Mexican homeland of rugged
terrain, adobe buildings, bold colors, and the in
tense "white" sunlight greatly influenced his
work. Barragan believed in an "emotional archi
tecture," one of beauty and serenity. With his
design for the Chapel for the Capuchinas
Sacramentarias del Purisimo Corazon de Maria,
Tlalplan, Mexico (1952-1955), Barragan was able
to create his special brand of architecture through
his dazzling use of light and color.
The sequestered nuns pray for the forgive
ness of the sins of the world. Instead of providing
a somber setting for the nuns, Barragan created a
bright haven for their religious rites. The chapel
glows. A warm luminous yellow pervades the in
terior, creating a feeling of hope and optimism.
The roughly textured walls are painted a light yel
low with a rich honey-colored wooden plank
floor. The surfaces are lit from two natural light
sources. Light enters from the back of the chapel
through a lattice wall. Using the concrete screen
wall, Barragan intensified natural shadow condi
tions by painting the interior wall deep yellow
while the inside of the squares was painted a light
yellow. This technique created a sunny illusion
even on an overcast day. The other light source
shined through a golden glass window, hidden
from view, onto a large freestanding cross, cast
ing a dramatic shadow on the altar. The designer
deliberately concealed the light source to create
special lighting effects to heighten the mystical
quality of the chapel. All materials are simpatico
with Barragan's sunny theme. Flames from the
candles intensify the interior' s warm ambience
while the golden altar adds to the chapel's radi
ance. Barragan artfully combined both light and
color as his strongest design tools.
THE OFFICES OF GOLDMAN SOKOLOW
COPELAND, NEW YORK, NEW YORK
North light , reinforced by two shades of coollav
ender, established the soothing atmosphere for
the engineering firm of Go\dman Soko\ow Cope
land (New York, 1985) by Peter Gisolfi Archi
tects. The hectic pace created by completion
deadlines in this fifty-person consulting engineer-
OFFICE INTERIOR, G OLDMAN
SOKOLOW COPELAND, NEW YORK,
NEW YORK . PETER GISOLFI
ASSOCIATES.
Cool lavender establishes a calming
atmosphere while the terra cotta tones
provide a warm balance. Photograph by
Jon Naar.
ing fIrm required a concept incorporating a calm
ing environment. The architect envisioned a
highly organized plan reinforced by color.
The walls and ceiling of the main workroom
were painted a pale lavender, accented by a deeper
shade of la vender on the trim moldings and col
umns. Initially, the engineers opposed this color
scheme. The architect, being sensitive to this re
action, reviewed the project after six months and
discovered that the unorthodox pastel color treat
ment proved successful in instilling a serene set
ting. He found that even though the space was
acoustically hard, the color scheme encouraged
lower noise.
To balance the cool palette, a shade of warm
HOUSERMAN SHOWROOM , PACIFI C
DESIGN CENTER, L os ANGELES,
CALIfORNIA. VIGNELLI ASSOCIATES
WITH DAN FLAVIN , 1982.
terra cotta was employed to announce the change
from one space to another. This color scheme was
inspired by the Minoan red columns and blue
walls used at Knossos. The purposeful use of such
color was unconventional, transcending the
boundaries of the physical space and creating a
psychologically comforting atmosphere.
THE HAUSERMAN SHOWROOM,
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA
In the Hauserman Showroom at the PacifIc De
sign Center, Los Angeles, California (1982), Mas
imo (1931- ) and Leila Vignelli collaborated
ES,
cr ATES
hange
Ie was
I blue
[ such
the
nng a
c Oe
\I1as
)rated
- - - - ~ - - -
PLAN OF HOUSERMAN SHOWROOM.
VIGNELLI ASSOCIATES.
This showroom ofmalleable partitions
was dramat ized by the infusion of
colored light offofglossy
sUljaces. Photograph by Toshi Yoshimi .
with artist Dan Flavin (1933- ). The purpose of
the showroom was to display a rather ordinary
product-movable partitions-within a work of
art. The oddly shaped enclosure of this show
room was neutralized by painting the wall light
beige to match the wall panels and bleached oak
flooring. The monochromatic palette created a
continuous envelopic screen, blurring edges. Col
ored fluorescent light was employed to illuminate
the wall system and dematerialize the volume. A
series of parallel walls at a 45 angle provided
"light" corridors illuminated by different ar
rangements and colors of fluorescent fixtures.
One corridor consisted of yellow and pink light;
another was green and yellow; the third corridor
was all blue. The surrounding walls were used as
reflectors to mix the colors and their intensities.
Mirrors on the end wall extend further the illusive
quality of the space.
As one moves through the space, the color
mixing constantly changes from bold color to
T\,;' BEST, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. EVA
. L-\DDOX, 1987.
Bold fo rms in space accentuated by
brilli ant contrasting col ors proll ide a
magnetic focal point to this retail space.
Photograph by Jon Miller, Hedrich
Blessing.
gentle pastels. The designers created a highly fluid
space that is greatly affected by an individual's
viewing position. A bright yellow passageway is
relieved at the end by a cool green slice of light.
An emerald green composition relieved by a
counterpoint of yellow reverses the experience.
The spectacular changes and surprises that occur
throughout the showroom keep one constantly
exploring while being totally intrigued by the
simplicity of the concept. Letting the wall panels
act as the artist's canvas, the designers were able
to create a piece of art through the magical me
dium of colored light.
T. W. BEST NEWSSTAND,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
The traditional image of a newsstand is dark,
cramped, and undistinguished. The challenge that
faced Eva Maddox, Eva Maddox Associates , with
~ e .
Ruid
ual's
ly is
.ght.
Iy a
'nee.
ccur
mdy
the
mels
able
me
da rk,
~ [hat
with
T. W. Best/Eastern Lobby Shops Chicago, Illi
nois (1988), was to take a standard newsstand and
supply it with a new highly charged marketable
image. The 1100 square feet of retail space with
an active corner location was transformed by its
spatial organization, form, and bold strokes of
primary color.
The perimeter of the space was painted black,
providing a high contrast to a series of brightly
painted and overscaled volumetric forms. An in
verted red cone, a bright blue frame, and perfo
rated yellow screens established an engaging
composition, activating the store from floor to
ceiling. A brilliant green tube was threaded
through the black perimeter display cases, provid
ing a piercing accent upon which signage could
be hung. The large, brightly colored elements
draw the shopper into the space, while the prod
ucts displayed hold their attention in the news
stand.
Maddox's choice of color was not pale or
subtle. She preferred the vibrant, intense color of
magazine covers, candy wrappers, and paperback
books that infused the interior with energy and
excitement. This ani mation through color made
T. W. Best memorable, upsetting the traditional
image of the newsstand and giving her client a
marketing edge through design.
PAUL FLORIAN APARTMENT,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
Bright, vibrant color is used to accentuate and
dramatize the architectural forms of the Paul Flo
rian apartment, Chicago, Illinois (1986), by Flo
rian Wierzbowski Architecture. The minimalist
design strategy (see Chapter 3 for the three
dimensional discussion of the scheme) sought to
maintain an open flowing feeling in the small sec
ond story space. Entry is via a gray painted wood
stair leading to a curious yellow column and an
gled red soffit at the top. The red form visually
draws one into the main room-a white gabled
space with blue roof trusses . The red, twisted sof
flt ca ps the kitchen and provides for a loft bed
room above.
To balance the electric red soffit, muted apple
green is applied to the long horizontal wall enclos
ing the stair, bathroom, and closets. The green
surface is proportionally much larger than the red
soffit, thereby creating a soothing contrast. To
further add detailed contrast, delicate bl ack furni
ture, countertops, and accent detai ls boldly sil
houette the space.
The architects have very economically made
a small space seem much larger and brighter
through the use of bold color on architectural
form. The colors not only dramatize but inj ect
compositional interest and surprise into the small
est of the rooms.
SUMMARY
Color has many values in a given culture. It can
symbolize a nation, a college, an athletic team. It
can arouse emotions. The color palette of any
given culture has always been governed by avail
able materials , level of technology, and socio-po
litical perceptions and ideals. Throughout history,
color could be consciously manipulated in a cer
tain manner to achieve desired results.
Designers and architects must be educated to
appreciate the power of color. The choice of a
color or combination can ruin or make an inte
rior, regardless of how wonderful the design. The
visualization of color in a space can be difficult as
compared to seeing a detail or proportion that can
easily be studied on paper. It is often safer to work
in neutral tones or bl ack and white, not unlike the
typical drawings designers make. Unfortunatel y
this can lead to solutions without the full potency
color can add. The illusive ability to see color in
space can best be gained through experiment and
expenence.
Architects tend to be conservative with their
use of color, whereas interior designers and dec
orators are much more experimental, boldly in
tegrating color. This disparity between the
professions is in part due to the designer's ability
to consider an interior in total, including fa brics,
ple
OS
een
red
To
:111
sil
ade
Her
Jral
ject
lall
can
1. It
any
\'ail
-po
ory,
cer
'd to
of a
mte
The
lIt as
[ can
I- ork
n he
ately
ency
) r 10
and
(heir
dec
\" lO
the
)ility
)[lCS,
IJUtllllutlU
INTERIOR VIEW OF PAUL FLORIAN
APARTMENT, CHICAGO. ILLINOIS .
FLORIAN/WIERZBOWS KI
ARCHITECTURE, 1986.
The use of color redefiues al1d enlarges a
small series o.fspaces ;l1to dramatic and
brighlliving quarters. Photograph by
Johl1 Kllrlich .
COLOR: EMOTI ONAL CHARACTER 299
finishes , and furnishings. It is diffIcult to select
color without revi ewing all elements of the space.
Usually fabrics and furnishings are not a part of
the architect's palette.
Color must be integral to the conception of
the space. Its wealth has long been overlooked by
architects . Color communi ca tes. It is sometimes
indispensable in differentiating between form and
content. It is an expedient way to create hier
archy. It is effective in reinforcing a focal point. It
is a dynamic means of introducing energy into a
space. Such energy influences human feelings.
People are most affected by color energy, even
though these elements are the hardes t to quantify.
Color can have a most powerful affect on Interior
Archi tecture.
NOTES
1. Faber Birren, CreatilJe Color (New York: Van Nos
trand Reinhold Company, 1961), p. 60.
2. "One theory maintains that the nerve ends on the
human retina (rods and cones) Jre tuned to receive any of
the 3 primary colors (red, yell ow, or blue), whi ch const i
tute all colors.
" Staring at red will fati gue the red-sensitive pans, so
that with a sudden shift to white (whi ch again consists of
red, yellow, and blue) , onl y the mixture of yellow and
blue occurs. And this is green, the complement of red. "
(from interaction oJ Color by Josef Albers, (New Haven:
Yale University, 1963), p. 23.
3. There are two ways of explaining color mixing: addi
tive and subtract ive. Additi ve mixing refers to the blend
ing of the three primary colored li ghts of red , green, and
blue, which when mixed in eq ual parts produce "white"
li ght. All other col ors of the spectrum can be produced by
varying the intensiti es of these three primaries.
Subtractive mixing refer s to the combination yellow,
magenta , and cya n (colors, each of which are initiall y pro
du ced from the overl a pping of two primary colored
li ghts). When these three colors are mi xed in eq ual parts,
they produce black (or the absence of light). Pigments ar e
compounds that absorb very parti cular wavelengt hs of
visible light and appear to the eye as a part icul ar color. If
pi gments of the entire range of spectral hues are mixed,
the result is again black.
4. Owen Jones, The Grammar oj Ornament (London:
Messrs Day and Son, 1856), p. 24.
5. Stuart Pi ggott, cd., The Dawn oj CilJilization (New
York: McGra\V-HiJJ. 1961). p. 88.
6. Tom Porter, Architectural Color (N ew York: Whitney
Library of Des ign , 1982), p. 10.
7. For a more detailed description of Roman pi gments
and how they were prepared, see Vitruvius, Til e Ten
Books on Architecture (N ew York: Dover Publications,
Inc., 1960) , Book VII, chapters 7-14.
8. Gisela Ri chter, A H andbook o. fGreek AI" (London: Phai
don Press Ltd, 1959) , p. 285.
9. C hri stian F. Otto. Space lli/o L , . ~ h t (Cambridge, Mass .:
The MIT Press. 19 9). p. 21
10. According to ..-\ rchur Lipham Pope (Pers ial1 Architec
ture, New York: George Braziller, 19(5), 800C is needed
for lead glazes: about 1600C fo r tin and cobalt glazes .
Multicolored tiles are generalh' fired at 1050C but do not
give indi vidual colors their maximum brilliance.
11. Faber Birren. Color for lliteriors, Hist orical and ivlodcm
(N ew York: Whi tn y Librar y of Des ign, 1963), p. 45.
12. The cerami cs de\'eloped by Josiah Wedgwood during
thi s time were re volutionary. He success full y formul ated
a ceramic that maintained the sa me color throughout the
material. It was named Jasperware, and it depended on
barium sulphate for its quality. Color was produced by
adding metalli c oxides, such as cobalt for blue. Upon this
base, he would decorate the surface with designs and flg
ures in white ceramic reli ef.
13. Pointillism is a method of painting by whi ch the la ws
of color vision are appli ed to pai nti ng technique. Small,
even- size spots of pure color pigment are empl oyed in a
mosaiclike fashion to create the painting, allowing the
vie wer to mix and bl end, through color juxta position sig
nals to the brain via the eye, all the intended colors of the
artist. A probl em with thi s technique is the proper view
ing distance to have all col ors blend or fu se satisfactorily.
The characteri stics of different hues change with different
viewing distances, so that one vi ewing point cannot
achieve ideal optical color mixing.
14. Aymer Vall ance, Willim-r/ Morris: His Art, His Writ
ings, and Hi s Publi c L(fe (London: Studio Editions, 1986),
p.98.
15. John Ruskin, The SelJerl Lamps of Architecture (New
York: Farrar, Straus and Cudahy, 1961), p. 133.
16. Eugene Viollet-Ie-Duc, Dict iOn/Mire Raisol111 f (Paris:
Bance, 1858) , p. 249.
17. Owen Jones in his Gra mmar oj OYllarnel1t (London:
Mes srs Day and Son, 1856) established "scienti flc " rul es
concerning color harmon y. Proposition 18 details this set
of rul es :
The primaries of equal intensiti es will harmonise or
neutralise each other, in the proporti ons of 3 yellow,S
red, and 8 blue,-integrall y as 16.
The secondaries in the proportions of 8 orange, 13
purple, 11 green, -integrally as 32.
The tert iari es , citrine (compound of orange and
green), 19; russet (orange and purple), 21; olive (green and
purple), 24;-incegrall y as 64.
r hitney
gments
1,e Ten
:ations,
; Phai
:Vlass.:
lrehilee
needed
glazes.
do not
.' [odem
45.
d uring
lU lated
)ut the
:led on
ced by
on this
nd flg-
Ie laws
Small,
:d in a
19 the
)!1 sig
of the
Vl ew
torily.
:Terent
:annot
Writ
1986),
New
Pari s:
ndon:
rules
lis set
:se or
w , 5
e. 13
and
~ and
It follows th at,
Each secondary being a compound of t wo primaries
is neutrali sed by the remaining primary in the same pro
portions: thus, 8 of orange by 8 of blue, 11 of green by
five of red , 13 of purple by 3 of yello w.
Each tertJary being a binary compou nd of two secon
daries, is neutrali sed by the remaining secondary: as, 24 of
o li ve by 8 of orange, 21 of russet by 11 of green, 19 of
citrine by 13 of purple.
18. Webster's New International Di cti o nary defllles a sec
onda ry color as follows: " A secondary color is formed by
mixing any two primary colors in eq ual or equiva lent
amounts. "
19. Webster ' s New Internationa l Di crionary defllles a ter
ti ary color as follows: "A terti ary color is produced by the
mixtu re of t wO secondarv colors. Such a mi xture must
include all the element s I;ecessary to produce w hite (in
practice, gray) , and a tertiary color is hence merely some
primary or secondary colo r dull ed with g ra y, as russet or
olive."
20. Webs ter' s N ew International Di ct ionary defines pri
mar y colors as follows: " Primary colors are the principal
colors of the spectrum (Newton' s seve n were red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, and viol et), esp. certain fun
damental colors by the combination o f whi ch (color mix
ture) any other color can be produced."
21. Rudolph Steiner. De,. Baltgeda/1ke des Goetizeallllll1,
(Stut[ga rt : Verlag Freies Geistesleben, 1958) , p. 52. (See
Expressionist Architecture (New York: Praeger, 1973) by
Wolfgang Pehnt. )
22. Rudol ph Steiner, CololIl' (New York: Anthropo
sophic Press, 1935), p. 86.
23. Goethe beli eved, as did Aristotle of ancient Greece,
that yell o w and blue were the two primary col ors. All
color was produced by the int eraction between light and
darkness, yellow being the first color to materi alize when
w hite began to be darkened and blue the fi rst color to
emerge vihen darkness (black) became lightened.
24. Edgar Kaufmann and Ben Raeburn , ed., Fral1 k Lloyd
Wl'ight: Writings and Buildings (New York: Meridi an
Books, 1960), p. 179.
25. Theo van Doesburg, " Towards a Plasti c Architec
ture," De Stijl , VI, 6/7 (1924). p. 78-83 .
26. Paul Overy , Lenneke Bull er , Frank den Oudsten, and
Bertus Mulder, The Rietveld Schroder House (Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press, 1988), p. 71.
27. Steen Eil er Rausmussen, " Le Cor busier, the Architec
ture of Tomorrow?, " WaS/11/./lhs lVionatsize.fie ,Fir Ball klll1st
10 (1926), p. 382 ff. Translation Seren yi.
28. Elsie de Wolfe, Th e HOHse il1 Good Tam (N ew York:
The Century Co., 1913) , p. 77 ff.
29. Ibid. p. 83.
30. Ruby Ross Goodnow, The HOliest HOllse (New York:
The Century Co., 1914) , p. 179.
31. Ibid , p. 180.
COLOR: EMOTIONAL CHARACTER 30r
FL"R:\ ITURE PLAN OF BEDROOM,
HOeSE E.1027, CAP-MARTIN
ROQUEBRUNE, fRANCE. EILEEN
GRAY, 1926-1929.
COl lYlfSY of The An hlSl illit e of
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7 CHAPTER
FURNISHINGS: INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT
The focus of the foregoing discussion about Inte
rior Architecture has primarily been spatial-the
development of the third dimension, the experi
ence of the fourth dimension, and the necessity of
light and color to define and extend the spatial
spectrum. Another central issue is the furnishing
of the interior and how these contents rela te to
their enclosure.
ATTITUDES ABOUT FURNISHINGS:
ARCHITECTS VERSUS DESIGNERS
Furniture is essential to humanity's daily exis
tence. Because people live with furniture day and
night, its intimate connection with them makes it
an extension of their personaliti es and tast es. The
design of furniture has never been the excl usive
activity of any single profession; architects, de
signers, artists, engineers, craftspeople, carpen
ters, and talented amateurs have all designed
furniture. Interior Architecture focus es on the
concept that furnitur e is a key factor in architec
turall y integrated interiors. Furniture not only
provides a means for the functions of living and
working but should also enhance, extend , and en
rich interior space. In 1895, Mackay Hugh Baillie
Scott (1865-1945), one of William Morris's fol
10'vvers , said
It is difficullfor the arclllt l.'Cf to draw a fixed line
betwel.'ll the architecture of a house and the '{i.,rniture.
The conception of an interior must f1(:'c essarii y inchlde
which is to be !l sed in iI, and this nail/rally
Icads to the conclusioll that the architect should design
clzairs and tables as well as the hOl/se Ellery ar
chitect lvho lOllI'S his work IIn/st halJe had his enthl/si
asm dall/pel/ed b)' a prophetic visioll of the hideol/s
filmitllre with which his c/iellt II/a)' fill his 1'00111-', alld
looks all the 11101'1.' illcongm ous as the roolJls th elll,"elll c,'
arc architectumlly beautift".1
Not everyone agreed that it was ideal for the
sa me person to design a building and all it s con
tents. In 1898, AdolfLoos (1870-1933), Viennese
architect and critic, had such a point of view.
[ am an opponent of the trend thai considers it to
be especially desirable that a bui/dinJ? has been desi,qncd
along with ellerylhinJ? in it-down to the coal scoop
by the hand of one architecl. I am of the opinion that
the building can have a rather monotonous appearance
115 aresult. All individualit}' is 105t in the process
2
These two prominent, contemporaneous
practitioners pointed out the dilemma of the po
tential pitfalls of completing interior space.
Very few architects or designers are able to
design and execute the complete environment,
from the shell of the enclosure to the smallest
detail of furnishing within. The range of design
decisions is extensive, including architecture,
mechanical, lighting, equipment, color and mate
rials, furnishings, window trea tments , art, and
accessori es. Their training has traditionally sepa
rated the enclosure from the contents, making
both professional groups inadequately prepared to
accomplish complete interiors. It is unfortunate,
but unders tandabl e, that this polarization has oc
curred between the two professions, leaving prej
udice and insensitivity to one another. In general,
architectural education has biased its graduates to
believe that they are above interior designers.
They are conditioned to draw a line between the
two disciplines. Developing a mutual respect in
the future will depend on the proper education to
sensitize the divergent groups. The new profes
sion, Interior Architecture, seeks to dissolve the
limiting boundari es and unite architecture and in
teriors. Presently, the completion of interior space
is a major portion of work for architects and de
signers. How they go about their job reveals two
general approaches.
Fl' RN ISHI NGS: INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT 305
THE ARCHITECT'S ApPROACH
TO COMPLETION
OF INTERIOR SPACE
When traditionally trained architects design inte
riors, they strive to develop an overall statement,
concept, or view, usually through careful plan
ning, detailing, and coordinating of furnishings of
the interior. Although this method of approach is
sanctioned, especially for commercial interiors, it
can inhibit spontaneity. The flow of spontaneous
ideas should be allowed to affect the project in any
stage of its development. Unfortunately, the cur
rent professional methodology inhibits on-site
creative alterations.
3
Architects are trained to be
consistent with their design language in the name
of "purity." This attitude can lead to predictable
solutions. Their specialized education makes them
care more for the architectural enclosure than the
contents of the interior. Architects generally do
not understand comfort; in fact they are trained to
place aesthetics over comfort, especial! y regarding
furnishings. They tend to suppress their own de
sign personalities in favor of neutral components
and classic furniture. They are well trained to
work geometrically and have strongly developed
three-dimensional concerns, yet their sources tend
to be limited.
THE DESIGNER'S ApPROACH
TO COMPLETION
OF INTERIOR SPACE
In contrast, most residential designers and deco
rators work piecemeal. Because they have no
rigid , overall plan, they work more intuitively,
discovering possibilities room by room and detail
by detail. Spontaneity is a component of their
work method, making design decisions and alter
ations natural throughout the process. Decora
tors, in particular, care less for " purity" ; they tend
to be eclectic, which enables them to achieve rich
vignettes of interior space. The nature of the vi
gnette approach makes it effective only from cer
tain viewpoints, fragmenting the perception of
the whole. Many designers care little for the ar
chitectural enclosure and tend to isolate their in
teriors from any integration with it. They
strongl y emphasize visual and tactile comfort ,
however. Fabrics, f1l1ishes, and accessories are
major means of expression. Designers often have
a greater sensitivity to the interior and how it will
be used. Their designs also express personalities
either of themselves or their clients. They are not
trained to visualize in three dimensions; the two
dimensional surface has greater importance to
their designs.
THE ApPROACH OF INTERIOR
ARCHITECTURE
Interior Architecture seeks to combine the posi
tive attributes of both the architect and the inte
rior designer to achieve holistically completed
interior space. Interior Architecture ties all the ele
ments of the design problem together. A well
educated designer understands the importance of
three-dimensional enclosure and two-dimensional
surface, functional furniture and decorative ob
jects, natural light and electric lighting, constraint
and color, planar surface and patterned relief,
technology and tradition. The conscious under
standing of all elements that complete a space and
how they relate is central to good design.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN FURNITURE
Furniture preserved from ancient Egypt is from
the wealthy and royal classes. The remarkably dry
climate of Egypt and the burial customs of includ
ing furniture in the tombs of the rich have pre
served many examples of wooden furniture from
the earliest dynasties of the Old Kingdom (ca.
3000-2130 B.C.), the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2130
1580 B.C.) and the New Kingdom (ca. 1580-332
B. c.). 4 Furniture was a status of the rich; the peas
ants sat and slept on reed mats directly on the
floor. In comparing surviving furniture of Queen
,
Hete-pheres (Fourth Dynasty, 2565-2440 B. c.) to
that of Tutankhamun (Eighteenth Dynasty, ca.
1351-1347 B.C.), the difference of a thousand
years did not provide a serious change in design .
Mirroring Egyptian society, furniture was very
conservative. The Egyptian bed represented a de
sign well suited for the climate and environment.
les
The sleeping platform of the bed was elevated by
not
its frame from the ground, the sleeping surface
,\' 0
made of flexible webbing, such as cord or thongs,
, to
to support the body, permitting air circulation
about the occupant . The bed was of light con
struction with a footboard but no headboard. A
wooden headrest served as a " pillow." A type of
folding bed for traveling was discovered in Tut
ankhamun's tomb, a for erunner of the early nine
) OSI
inte
leted
~ ele
x ell-
e of
ional
. ob
[raint
-dief,
nder
e and
from
ly dry
K lud
e pre
~ from
n (ca.
2130
~ - 3 3 2
~ peas
Dn the
ueen
teenth century Napoleonic camp beds. The
Egyptians developed seating in the form of
thrones, chairs, and stools. Two types of seating
have been identifIed with the beginnings of the
Old Kingdom. One was based on wicker con
struction, usually with square legs and some kind
of bracing with bent wood; these were usually in
the form of stools (no backs). The second type
appears to be derived from bed design, made of a
frame and legs carved to resemble a bull 's legs .
Lion's legs became popular later. When seating
had backs, those of ordinary chairs were com
monly of slats. Finer chairs would have solid
wood panels , sometimes curved and decorated
with inlaid strips of precious materials such as
ebony or ivory.
WOODEN CHAIR, ANCIENT EGYPT,
NEW KINGDOM, DYNASTIES XVIlI
XXX, 1580-332 B.C.
The ntdimentary furniture ofancient
Egypt, well preserved within tombs,
was a symbol of wealth and prestige.
Photograph by J ohn Kurtich.
FU RNISHINGS: INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT 307
- ---
ANCIENT GREEK FURNITURE
Examples of ancient Greek furniture have not sur
vived to the modern world as they were usuall y
made ei ther of wood, which eventually disinte
gra ted or burned, or bronze, which was melted
down and reused during times of stress. How
ever, common pi eces of furniture and household
articles ha ve been frequently referred to in ancient
MA1UlLE RELIEF OF KI.lSivI OS. AN CIENT
GREECE. CA. FIFTH CENTURY B.C.
The allciel1t Creeks dcucloped th eir
.Ii.lmiture over ill their
collsistelll scarch J)r per/Ccrioll. Th e
klislIlOS is all elegallt icoll o(the wltllre's
illtereSl ill 11011 pretellfiou.< ((ll/"/(ort.
Ph otograph by Johll Kllrti eh.
literature, and numerous examples have been de
picted in surviving vase paintings, reliefs, sta tu
ettes, and sculptural groups. The study of Greek
furniture reveals the classical world's outlook and
approach to ar t. The Greeks evolved and materi
alized their furniture as they did their architecture,
ceramics , and sculpture. They developed only a
few types , sllch as chairs, stools, cOllches, tables,
and chests, and were interested in perfecting these
REPRODUCTION OF KUSMOS BY
T . H. ROBSJOHN-G1BB1NGS,
MANUFACTURED BY SARlDlS S. A. ,
ATHENS, G REEC E, 1990.
The 1I10dern kfisll10s is .<tllrd)" fisht
and with ou t
decoration. It is a stwcture that
expresses its Jilll et ioll-to support and
trall .:(er Ill eight to the earth. Phorowaph
hy Jolm Kurt/eh.
-
e
li
ck
nd
n
rc,
a
~ s e
in a continual evol ution, rather than perpetually
inventing new desi gns or forms. These furniture
types became standard not only within the Greek
world but were adapted by the Romans through-.
out their empire until at least the fourth century
A. D. The pi ece of furniture most characteristically
Greek was the light chair with back, designed to
be comfortable and to be used informall y. Known
as the klismos, it was usually undecorated. Its main
features were a curved back and pl ain, curved
legs; its beauty depended sol ely on proportion and
line. Thi s chair was usuall y but not exclusively
depicted as part of the furnishings of women's
apartments.
ANCIENT ROMAN FURNISHINGS
Roman furniture is generall y an elaboration of
Greek. From the reign of Augustus (27 B. c.) on
ward, furniture and furnishings became more lux
urious and ostentatious. The custom of dining on
couches was borrowed from the Greeks, but
Roman couches beca me more lavish, eventually
addi ng a back, pr eda ting the modern sofa. Ex
amples of furniture and wall paintings depicting
Roman interiors have been preserved at Pompeii
and Herculaneum, illustrating a luxurious life
Style, which was an echo of how the emperors
:11USt have lived. In rich patrician houses, Romans
developed rooms for specifIc uses. The triclini um
'\'as the room dedicated to dining, and a large
RECONSTRUCTED R OMAN TRI CLlNIUM,
AUGUSTA RAURICA ( AUGST),
S WITZERLAND, 27 B. C.
This recorlst ruaion is )ilmished with
opulent rloth coverings and pillolVs,
II ecessa ry for col1lfort d/lring lengthy
banquetinJ? Photograph hy J oh11
Kllui[h.
ANCIENT ROMAN TRICLINIUM,
PONIPEIl, ITALY, A.D. FlRST
CENTURY.
The tricliniwl1 or dining 1'00111 was
sperially designedfor romfort,
collversatioll, serving, and maiI1tena11[e.
Th e U-shape affords Ili ews while
focusing on til e [ellteredfood and drink.
Photograph by John Kurti[h.
fCRl'i ISHINGS: INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT 309
town house or villa might have more than one,
such as a space used during warm weather which
opened onto peristyle gardens. A typical furniture
arrangement of a triclinium consisted of couches
orthogonally arranged on three adjacent sides of a
central dining tabl e. The U-shaped arrangement
allowed for service to the central table without dis
turbing the diners, and this directional array per
mitted the dinner guests to enjoy an open view of
the rest of the villa . Many such rooms had perma
nently built couches of brick covered with stucco,
with either a similar brick table built in place or an
open space for a portable table to be placed. The
comfort of these brick couches depended upon
pillows and thick cloth coverings. The Romans
valued dining as an important social activity.
WESTERN EUROPEAN MEDlEYAL
FURNISHINGS
Exa mples of western European furniture from
after the fall of the Roman empire to about the
fourteenth century are not very plentiful. Sea ts of
honor or thrones have been depicted in some
manuscripts and sculptural pieces. The early Mid
dle Ages was a time of movement and unrest;
even kings and landowners had nomadic tenden
cies. There was always the proble-m of obtaining
enough food to feed large households, which re
sulted in moving people to the source of food
LATE MEDIEVAL CHEST, DURHAM,
ENGLAND, CA. FOURTEENT H
C ENTUR Y.
The chests served as transportable vaults
fo r possessions and doubled as seatil1g,
tables , or beds, to elevate th e user off th e
coldj/oors. Courtesy of The Art
Institute of Ch icago.
3TO INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
more often than bringing the food to a fI xed
place. The most common portable furnitur e type
of this period was the chest, which could be used
for storage as well as transporting possessions. If
such a chest were fl at, it could also be used for
sea ting, a table top, or even a bed. One of the
earliest chests was made from convenient lengths
of hollowed large tree t runks, sli cing the side des
ignated as the top to serve as the lid. Permanent
furniture of this period tended to be built in . The
thick walls of the defense-minded medieval archi
tecture provided opportunities to construct
shelves and storage within such walls. Seating
was often built into the walls, either directly or as
part of the paneling system.
ISLAMIC FURNISHINGS
The desert and nomadic origins of the early Is
lamic civilizations (ca. A.D. seventh to twelfth
centuries) of the Middle East precluded most
wooden furniture. Small chests were more com
mon and might be richly decorated with inl aid
woods and ivory. Islamic furnishin gs consisted
largely of textiles. Carpets, bol sters, pillows,
mattresses, and hanging fabrics to create privacy
and alter li ghting conditions prevailed. People
lived intimately with textiles, sitting, ea ting, en
tertaining guests, and sleeping on the many vari
eties of brightl y colored fa brics and stuffed cl oth
If
Textiles were easily packed and
-ansported. They were unbreakable. Carpet pro
flourished, and the relationship between
?atterns of rugs and textured ornamentation of
.Hchitecture was extremely close. Patterned brick-
LIVING AREA , BAGHDAD KIOSK,
TOPKAPI SARAYI , ISTAN BUL TURKEY,
1638.
The Middle East led the way in the
obsessive use ofsoft{i-Irniture made}'OIr:
fabrics, textiles, mgs, and pillows.
Thesefurnishings not only providedfor
comfort, privacy, warmth , al1d shelter,
but were readily mobile. Photograph by
John Kurti ch .
work of Iranian mosques had the textile quality of
knitting or weaving. The use of colored tiles as
surface decoration derived from this obsession
with textiles as if this architectural adornment
were the very clothing of the structure.
FURNISHINGS: INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT 3I I

ITAllAN RENAISSANCE FURNISHINGS
Church interiors of fIfteenth century northern
Italy led the way to a major change in domestic
furnishings, which eventually spread throughout
western Europe and England. Architects of these
new churches had influence, if not control over
interior furnishings, favoring a rebirth of classical
motifs from ancient Rome. This design trend
soon spread to domestic furnishings. Marble
Roman sarcophagi became a model for ornate
wooden chests, known as a cassone, the most elab
orate single piece of furniture in a sixteenth cen
tury Italian household. Such chests were the
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CASSONE
SHOWING THE PROCESSION O F
BACCHUS AND ARIADNE, FLORENCE,
ITALY, CA. 1475.
Cassones were typically elaborate,
containing important possessions while
expressing Jamily pride. The
Metropolitan Museum oj Art , Rogers
Fund, 1916. (16.155)
repository of the bride's dowry, symbolizing the
marriage chest and the merging of family for
tunes. The cassone mutated into the cassapanca ,
which was a chest turned into seating by adding a
back and armrests on its top, another predecessor
of the sofa. Opulent textiles from the Islamic
world, such as Turkish carpets, were highl y
prized, not as rugs on the floor but as tablecloths
or wall hangings . Unlike the ancient Romans,
who dedicated a particular space for dining, the
wealthy of the Italian Renaissance dined in what
ever room seemed convenient or appropriate for
the occasion; this was made possible by the port
ability of their furniture.
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CASSAPANCA,
FLORENCE, ITALY , THIRD QUARTER OF
THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
The evolution oj the cassone or chest
into the seating Jorm oJthe cassapanca
was a natural progression oj efficient use
oja major pi ece ojJurniwre. The
Metropolitan Museum oj Art, Jilnds
jom various donors, 1958.
S(58.19a,b).
." -- - .. --- " ~ _
3I 2 INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
ng the
y for
rpanca,
ding a
:cessor
slamic
highly
~ c l o t h s
Imans,
!g, the
what
ate for
: port
:heS!
:-lnca
(7/1 fiSt'
ds
TRADITIONAL JAPANESE FURNISHINGS
The distinguishing feature of the traditional Japa
nese interior is its floor-level orientation. There is
no development of raised furniture for seating and
reclining. Other furniture, such as chests or cabi
nets, have no legs or stands. Everything remains
low, within easy reach of anyone sitting on the
floor. This approach to furniture has traditionally
been integrated with a systemized interior that ex
ists within a standard architectural frame. The de
velopment of the Japanese interior led to an
attitude called shitsurai, which means "from the
floor up." Tatami mats establish the dimensions
of the interior floor plan; these mats are a standard
size (approximately 3 feet by 6 feet) and interlock
-anous arrangements. Matching dimensions in
(he vertical plane through fusuma and shoji
screens determine the walls of the interior. The
functional furniture of such a space is absorbed
into the architecture, allowing the space to serve
many activities, unlike Western architecture
where there are specific rooms for specific uses.
In the West, an interior space is named by its func
cion, such as bedroom, dining room, kitchen. In
Japan, interior spaces are designated by their 10
ation, such as okuzashiki (the inner room), or
,rakanoma (the middle room), rather than by func
cion. Such spaces have the multiple uses of sleep
ing, family get-together, eating, and working.
This directly affects the furnishings. Built-in stor
age for low, simple, movable tables, cushions,
and sleeping mats provide the ultimate in flexibil
ity.
LOUIS XIV FURNISHINGS
The furniture and their interior settings during the
long reign of Louis XIV of France (1638-1715)
were a product of a state-supported organization
that designed and manufactured practically all
branches of the decorative arts, the Manufacture
Royale des Meubles de la Couronne. Jean-Baptiste
Colbert (1619-1683), chief minister to Louis XIV
and Superintendent of Finance and Buildings was
responsibLe for this institution, and its success was
accomplished by its first director, Charles Le
Brun (1619-1690). Le Brun was a discovery of
Nicolas Fouquet (1615-1680), Superintendent of
Finance in 1653, who built himself a lavish cha
teau, Vaux-Ie-Vicomte, setting up workshops to
supply everything for the palace. Upon its com
pletion, Fouquet entertained Louis XIV and so
generated the king's envy that Fouquet was im
prisoned for embezzling state funds. Louis then
appropriated the talents of Le Brun and his entire
staff to create his court at Versailles. Through the
output of furniture, tapestries, and decorative arts
from the royal workshops, Le Brun created a na-
INTERIOR, REPLICA OF MAIN ROOM OF
A JAPANESE HOME WITH AN ADJOINING
ROOM AND A GARDEN, WITH
FURNITURE AND ACCESSORIES,
WORKSHOP OF MRS. JAMES WARD
THORNE, MIXED MEOlA, GIFT OF
MRS. JAMES WARD THORNE,
1962.456. FRONT
The anthropomorphic proportions oflhe
tatami establish a module which
generates the proportions ofrooms and
enclosures. 1990 The Art Institute of
Chicago, All Rights Reserved.
FURNISHINGS: INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT 313
GALERIE DES GLI.CES, LE PALAIS DES
V ERSAILLES, VERSAILLES, FRANCE.
J ULES HARDOUI N-MANS ART AND
CHARLES LE BRUN, 1678-1 687.
LOllis XIV's greal llI1l1s lI' elT lavish
ill scale alld lltalerial, .tilled tIIilil
ililmded 10
illlilllidale visilors. The o:pressiol) of
power al)d II)eallh through archileCfllre
al'ldjilrlli"hil)gs look 011 11(/1' meallillg
dllrillX ilis by J olm
Kurli ch.
DEYAIL OF LAMP BEARER, GALERIE DES
GLACES, PALAIS DES VERSAILLES,
VERSAIllES, FRANCE. JULES
HARDOUI N-MANSART AND CHARLES
LE BRUN, 1678-1 687.
The statuary bea rirlg the heav y lighl
fixcure symboliz ed weillhe Sun King's
command that the people serve hilil.
Photograph by Jah,,1 Kurtiell.
tional style that glorifIed Louis XIV and his court ,
making it the standard of ta ste and elegance for
the rest of Europe. Le Brun conceived the interior
as a unifIed design made up of the pain ted ceiling,
the mouldings, the tapes tries, the furniture, and
the sculptural fIttings . His grea test achi evemen t
was the Galcrie des Glaces, Versailles (1684). This
235-foot-Iong space fea tures seven teen arched
windows facing the gardens that illuminate on the
opposi te wall an eq ual number of shallow reces ses
infdled with Venetian mirrors. The brilli ance of
the space is unifIed by frec-standing gilt candle
sticks and three rows of crystal chandeliers hang
ing from the ceiling. Originally the hall had solid
si lver furniture designed by Le Bnm, which was
later melted down to help pay for the various ex
pensive wars the king engaged in during his long
reIgn.
ANDRE-CHARLES BOULLE
Andre-Charles Boulle (1642-1732) crea ted indi
vidu al pieces of furniture for Louis XIV (1 638
1715) , the prime purpose of which was to glorify
and exalt the Sun King. His furniture made a very
strong political statement-a material representa
tion of the strength of the monarch y embodied in
one person only, the King. Boulle's elaborate ap
pointments exemplifI ed Louis 's roya l philosophy:
"l'Etat c'est M oi ." The furnitur e was a metaphor
for absolute monarchy and expressed the sa me
status and importance as the great palaces that
housed the pieces. Such furniture was not de
signed for comfort but for spl endor and glorifI
cation. Rich and exoti c materials, intricately
combined in co mpli cated desi gns , were tra de
marks of Boulle's cabinets, commodes, desks,
clock- cases, pedest als , and mirrors. Boulle had
training and experience in cabinetmaking, paint
ing, architecture, engra ving, bronze work, and
marquetry. Through his genius, cabinetmaking
became an elaborate art in which France domi
nated Europe. Boulle was mos t famous for his
technique of brass and tortoi se shell marquetry.
Application of different materials such as metal
and animal products to wood su bject ed the result
ing furnitur e to wa rping and misshapi ng fro m
changes in temperature and humidit y. To over
come thi s probl em, he designed gilt-bronze
mounts and reinforcements, which transcended
their original purpose and became an essenti al part
of the aes theti c character of the furnitur e. Boulle
is well known for the development of the com
mode, originating as a vari ati on of the burea u but
with drawers extending the entire width. His
marquetry magnifI ed the curved nature of the fur
niture, amplifying the current fashion of minimal
rectilinearity and severit y.
ROBERT ADAM
Robert Adam (1728-1792) consid ered himself as
the master designer whose work encompassed
every detail of the interior from the plastered ceil
ing decoration to the pattern on the carper. Al
thou gh he desi gned totally new buildings, inside
and out, Adam is primaril y known for his inte
riors. His designs for the ceilings, walls, chimney
pieces, drapery, ca rpets, and furniture were con
ceived as a whole statement ; this practice, coupled
with a prolifIc output of work, made him the
tastemaker of his era. His influence was felt not
only thr oughout England but hi s work became
the model for the Federal Style in America. John
Soane (1753-1835), in a speech to students of the
Royal Academy, appreciated Adam's importance:
"To Mr. Adam's tas te in the O rnaments of hi s
Buildings, and Furniture, we stand indebted in
as-much as M anufacturers of every kind felt, as it
were, the electric power of this Revoluti on in
Art. " 5 The interiors of Osterley Park House,
Middl esex, England (1761-1780) provide an ex
cell ent exa mple of Adam's holistic method as the
house still ret ains most of its ori ginal contents (see
Chapter 1 for additional di scuss ion of Osterley
Park House) . Adam's treatment of ceilings is
often a key to his method of compl eting an inte
rior. N ot only did he introduce a variet y of new
designs with his ceilings, but he generally coordi
na ted the floor design to echo the ceiling, such as
the entrance hall, Osterley Park House. The mi r
roring of the floor to the ceiling in thi s room does
so without duplicating the motif. Although the
compositions are the same, the details of each are
FL' RNISHINGS: INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT 315
COMMODE. ANDRE-CHARLES
BOULLE, CA. 1710-1732.
Th e B o ~ t l l e commode was designed to
glorify the Sun King; it had little
jimctionaivalue. The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, The Jack and Belle
Linsky Collection, 1982. (1982 .60.82)
to
'ti e
Ili tall
Belle

quite different; this technique was typical of
Adam for establishing a strong relationship be
tween the two parts of the interior. Adam's fur
niture designs were conceived two dimensionally
and have that bias upon execution. Wall furniture
(such as tables, commodes, girandoles, and mir
rors) and decorative pieces (such as pedestals, tri
pods, and urns) dominate his interiors . He
designed furniture for a specific room and a par
ticular place in that room. The furnishings would,
in addition, relate to the architectural decorations ,
ornamentation, and paintings of the room. The
pier glass mirror, designed in 1777 for Os terley
Park House, is divided into vertical sections,
which meet the edge of a table in front of it,
matching exactly and continuing the vertical di
visions with the legs of the table. The bottom of
this mirror has ornamental festoons and elabo
rated divisions that seem really to belong to the
table. When seen as an elevation drawing, it is not
always possible to tell where the mirror ends and
the table begins.
THE HALL, SYON HOUSE,
MIDDLESEX, ENGLAND. ROBERT
ADAM, 1761-1762.
Robert Adam colltributed a clarify in
dialogue among all parts oj the enclosure
and components oj the space in many oj
his interiors. Typical is this mirroring oj
design motif without repetition oj the
floor and ceiling patterns. Courtesy oj
The Art Institute oJChicago.
FURNISHlNGS: INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT 317
DESI GN FOR MIRROR AND SIDEBOARD,
SYON HOUSE, ]SLEWORTH, ENGLAND.
ROBERT AND JAMES ADAM, 1762
176<),1773.
The mirror is visually received by {he
tabl e below while being celebral ed by
Jlanklng candelabra. The relarlol1ship
betweell th e parts 15 refined a/1d
deliberate, res uiling il1 a 'lI1!fied
eloquence. Courtesy oJ The Art
il1Slitl./le o(Chicago.
THE SHAKER COMMUNITY
Shaker design is a quiet yet powerful example of
holism in harmony. The American religious sect
was established in 1774, with their most prolifIc
designs being created between 1820 and 1845.
They lived communally in large "families," men
separated from women. Isolated from the outside
world, they worked in a variety of trades to foster
independence. Their independence freed the
craftsmen of current styles to create practical ob
jects relying on simplicity and proportion as the
guiding aesthetic.
Shaker design aesthetic was influenced by
their fanatic lifestyle devoted to God and work,
rejecting material possessions. Learning to live
communally required sharing, cooperation, and
patience, placing the group above individuals.
They believed in cleanliness and order, avoiding
excess and luxury. Their founder, Mother Ann,
considered work to be as important to the spirit
as to the production of goods, saying, "Do all
your work as though you had a thousand years to
live, and as you would if you knew you must die
tomorrow." 6 This ideal established a high level of
craftsmanship regardless of the signifIcance of the
object or task. The raising of a barn was as impor
tant as the turning of a knob. The Shaker desire
to maintain clean and ordered interiors resulted in
creative relationships between their architecture
and furnishings. Built-in storage in the form of
cabinets, dressers, desks, and wardrobes was
common, eliminating clutter and the need for
cleaning below the units. The unadorned cabi
3I8 INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
iividuals.
avoiding
_ er Ann,
the spirit
"Do all
1 vears to
must di e
h level of
lee of the
JS Impor
.-er desire
esulted in
:-hitecture
form of
:>bes was
need for
ned cab i
netry was usuall y desi gned for a specifi c purpose
using the pattern and proportion of drawers and
doors to creat e a composition. The Shakers di s
dained any form of decoration, relying on multi
pl e wood species , stains, and color to develop
interest and detail. Employing oak, walnut,
cherr y, and maple simultaneously in a ca binet cre
ated subtle distinctions and variety in what may
have been an ordinary functioning unit. Staining
was common as well as painting surfaces in pure
colors such as bright blue, cherry, and canary yel
low.
The Shakers' use of built-in ca binetr y was
integral to their concepts of space and how it was
used. They are probably the fir st group in Amer-
LIVING ROOM, c. 1800, S HAKER
COMMUNITY H OUSE, W ORKSHOP OF
MRS, J AMES WARD THORNE, MIXED
MEDIA, C. 1930-1 940, 22.9 X 55. 2 x
62.5 CM, GIFT OF MRS. JAM ES WARD
THORNE, 1942.498. FRONT.
Th e Shake r aesth etic is dritl el! by
.timetioll, eWliomy, and th e obsession for
cleanliness. 1990 Til e Art Illstin/te o(
All Rishts ReSer/Jed.
ica to employ built-ins in their architectural spaces
-not until the Modern Movement did the con
cept gain such wides pread acceptance. The desire
to maintain clean and orderly rooms led the Shak
ers to devise organizing sys tems affecting the In
terior Ar chitecture and furnishings. A hanging
system of wooden rail s and pegs allowed furnish
ings to be attached to the wall, clearing floors.
Ladder-back chairs, clocks, and lanterns were de
signed to be attached to the peg rails. The furnish
ings were lightweight, economical , and minimal.
Unaffected by the outside styles of their time, the
Shaker craft speople produced spare, beautifully
proportioned objects that were an expression of
their reli gious beliefs and lifestyl e.
FL' R:\ISHI NGS: INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT 3I9
KARL FRIEDRICH SCHINKEL
Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841) produced
work that celebrated the unity of the opposites.
His work was
not the harmony of the classical style in contrast to
the spiritualisation of the gothic expression, not the
symmetrical austerity in contrast to relativised order, but
the mutual conditioning of classicism and romanticism,
of order and coincidence, of absolute austerity and com
plete freedom. It is the "coincidence of the opposites "
and not their isolation that results in the complete, the
living Gestalt . .. It is the intellectual unity of the
things in their formal diversity?
TENT ROOM, SCHLOSS
CHARLOTTENHOF, P OTSDAM ,
G ERM ANY. KARL FRIEDRICH
SCHINKEL, 1826.
Th e image ora mobile campaign lent is
reinforced by the lighlwei,Rht jumitu re.
Pholograph by Anders Nereim.
320 I NTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
Schinkel used hi stor y as a way to evolve and
perfect architectural ideas. His architecture, inte
riors, and furniture were not only concerned with
function, but primarily with the generality and
universality of ideas. He felt that because history
was a rich source of ideas , it should be taught as a
living tradition. However, he firmly believed that
" History has never copied previous history ...
Every epoch has left behind its own style of archi
tecture. Why should we not try to find a style for
our own?" 8
Schinkel's furniture designs had an enormous
impact in central Europe during the mid- and late
decades of the nineteenth century. Using both
\.-
ve and Gothic and Classical vocabularies, he produced
:, inte pieces always with a fresh, inventive approach.
d with One of his most ingenious designs was a secreta ire
ty and d abattant (made for King Friedrich Wilhelm III in
listory 1826) in which he melded the two vocabularies in
ht as a the same piece. Closed, the secretaire is a power
~ d that ful architectural statement featuring a pair of im
ry ... posing Ionic columns nearly the height of the 6
archi foot console. Open, the desk reveals a glowing,
yle for delicate set of Gothic arches forming the drawers
and a writing surface of intricate, geometric mar
rmollS quetry. Obviously Schinkel understood the tra
::I d late ditions of both the Gothic and Classical.
~ both In the Tent Room at Schloss Charlottenhof,
Potsdam (1830), Schinkel created a totally original
interior featuring classical-inspired furniture inte
grated into a fantasy environment. The beds,
windows, and doors were draped in blue-and
white-striped linen twill with the walls and ceiling
covered in a matching paper. The seats and stools
were upholstered in similar linen fabric with a
modified Greek key design to accent and distin
guish the furniture from its surroundings. Schin
kel's furniture and interiors represen ted the best
of the Biedermeier style, the name of which was
derived from two comic characters, Biedermann
and Bummelmeier, who epitomized the optimis
tic boorishness and cheerful unrefinement of mid
dle-class Germans from about 1815-1848.
Biedermeier furniture represented a transition be
tween the severe classicism of the Napoleonic
Empire style and the tasteless overindulgence and
factory-produced virtuosity of late nineteenth
century furniture. Schinkel managed to success
fully combine the delicacy of neo-classicism with
the functional and comfort qualities of Bi eder
meIer.
WILLIAM MORRIS
William Morris (1834-1896) was interested in re
creating a national style, which had been lost
through the English obsession of importing for
eign art, furniture, and fabrics.
. . . Jor us to set to work to imitate . .. the de
gra ded and nightmare whims oj th e blase and bankrupt
aristocra cy oj Louis XV's time seems to me merely ri
diculous. So I sa)' ourJurniture should be good citizen'5
}Urniture, solid and well made and workmanlike and in
design should have nothing about it that is not eas ily
defensible, no monstrosities or extravagances, not even
oJbeaut)" lest we weary oJit
9
Morris rejected the Industrial Revolution be
cause the manufacturing process eliminated the
craftsman. H e felt the medieval era was England's
richest period of design and craftsmanship, pro
duced by the guild system. By studying the meth
ods and aesthetic of medieval times, Morri s
thought he could establish the basis of a new En
glish style.
... if we do not study the ancient work directly
and learn fo understand if , we shall.find ourselves influ
enced by the Jeeble work all around liS , and shall be
copying the better work through the copyists and with
out understanding it, which will by no means bring
about intelligent art. Let us thereJore study it wisely, be
taught by it , kindled by it; all the while determining not
to imitate or repeat it; to have either no art at all, or an
art which we have made our own. I ()
Morris studied architecture and painting, but
he was most recognized as a pattern maker. In
collaboration with architect Philip Webb (1831
1915), Morris built his famous Red House, Bex
ley Heath, Kent, England (1859-1860). He found
ready-made furniture unacceptable for his new
home, compelling Webb to design most of the
furnishings. The drawing room on the first floor
was dominated by a settle (a long wooden bench
with a back and arm rests) designed by Webb.
This common piece of furnitur e was made un
common by integrating it into the wall and flank
ing it with pictures depicting a romantic story of
Sir Degravaunt painted by Edward Burne-Jones
(1833-1898). The back of the settle was repl ete
with bookshelves rather than a solid panel. The
modulation of the back was repeated above by
cabinets complete with medieval-inspired iron
hinges. Crowning the composition was a brack
eted cornice, articulated by twelve coats of arms,
again expressing Morris's love of medieval im
agery. The brilliant integrated composition, com
bining art, architecture, and furnishing elements,
epitomized the emerging Arts and Crafts move
ment of the late nineteenth century. This collabo-
FU RN ISHI NGS : INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT 321
RED HousE, BEXLEYHEATH, KENT,
ENGLAND. PHILIP WEBB, 1859-1860.
The Red House llias a (oll/plete
expl'essio/l. of Williall1 l'v1orris's reierrioll
oj illdustrialization in Javor of
handmade craft. Ph aroS "ap I, by
Charlotte WOOd.{i'Ol1i Red HOllse by
Edward }\Iiollal11by, New YOI'k : Vall
Nostralld Reinhold, 1991, plate 9.
rative experience led to the founding of the
deco rating firm, Morris, Marshall, Faulkner and
Co. (1861), an organization of artists, architects,
and craftsmen established to design, produce, and
di stribute M orris's vision of English style. This
vision is summed up in his attitude about architec
ture.
Nobl e as that art is by itself, and though it is
specially the art of civilisation, it neither ever has ex
isted 1101' ever can exist alive and progressive by itself,
but must cherish ami be cherished by all the crafts
whereby men make the which they intend shall
be beautijit! al1d shall last somewhat heyol1d the
day. It is this lAnion of th e arts, mutllally helpful and
harmoniotlsly suhordinated one to another which I have
learnt to think of as Architecture. II
ANTONI GAUD!
Antoni Gaud! (1852-1926) created extraordinary
architecture, interiors, and furniture as a result of
his desire to produce poetic metamorphoses of
natural forms, working according to natural laws.
His interest in nature was in three-dimensi onal
forms, differentiating him from the two-dimen
sional and bas-rel ief attributes of the Art Nouveau
movement at the end of the nineteenth century,
with which he is sometimes connected. Gaudf's
philosophy unified his architecture with his fur
niture; he was holistic in his approach to any proj
ect or commission. He was abl e to work freely
and completely with ceramics, stained glass,
wood, plaster, brick, concrete, stone, and iron
work. He felt that to use a material to its fullest
extent was to honor it. The Casa Badl6 (1904
1906) was a total remodeling project completed
by Gaudi to a rather ordinary house built between
1875 and 1877. He reorganized the interior spaces,
added a fifth floor for servants , and renewed the
entire facade in a smoky blue-gray, wIth the
upper portion rendered in a blue and green ce
ramic, impregnated with di sks. George Collins
refers to the facade as the "bubbly surface of a
Mediterranean wave spreading over a rocky
beach." 12 Gaudl made the exteri or relate to the
interior through color , curvilinear forms, and un
nsional
-dimen-
Ollveau
centur y,
Galldf' s
his fm
ny proj
- freely
i glass,
.d iron
fullest
(1904
mpleted
etween
spaces,
ed the
'i rh the
en ce
C ollins
ce of a
rocky
to the
nd Ull-
CASA BATILLO, BARCELONA, SPAIN.
ANTON! GAUDi, 1904-1906.
Gaudf's interiors were idiosyncratic ,
ch arged with energy that was generated
by his.fl1<id deslj;ns and rich lI1aterials.
Cou rtesy of T he Art irl stitl<te of
C hicago .
FLI RNISHINGS: INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT 323
dulating surfaces. The central lightwelllstaircase
was rendered with pale gray-blue tiles at the
ground level, becoming bright blue at the upper
floors. He created special furniture and light fix
tures as part of the total design. His simple
wooden chair had allusions to the eyes, feet, and
body of an animal; this piece is typical of the
power inherent in his furniture of symbolism and
structure simultaneously. Circular depressions in
the back of the chair resemble the ears of an ani
mal and allow it to be picked up easily by the
user's thumbs. Gaudi's vocabulary of forms, in
his furniture as well as his architecture, had its
roots in nature, evolving from natural forms. In
using this resource, he made the forms his own,
full of variety, energy, animation, and vitality.
CHARLES RENNIE MACKINTOSH
Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1868-1928) did not
consider his interiors and furniture designs less
important than his complete buildings. His out
put of furniture, over four hundred pieces, repre
sents his concern for the human occupant. Like
Eileen Gray, Mackintosh designed very specific
furniture, such as game tables, high back chairs,
abstract clocks, and sculptural lighting fixtures .
Many of Mackintosh's designs suffer from the
"architect's syndrome," that is to say, the aes
thetic of a given piece might outweigh its function
or comfort. A chair might be a marvel to look at,
integrated with all other aspects of an interior, but
comfort-wise it could be a disaster to sit on. An
example of such a chair is the high, spindly back
seating designed for the Willow Tea Rooms; the
chair seen as a group arrangement was meant to
meta phorically represent a forest of young willow
trees as opposed to being designed for comfort. If
his chairs were upholstered, such upholstery was
minimal, never deep or comfortable. Most im
portant to Mackintosh was the conception of an
interior space as a whole; all furniture and minor
elements had to relate to this vision. His wife,
Margaret Macdonald Mackintosh (1865-1933) ,
collaborated with him in his best interiors. The
White Bedroom of Hill HOllse, Helensburgh
(1902-1903), was designed as a total environment
to fulfill more than one function. Although it was
primarily the clients' bedroom, the bed was lo
cated in one part of the L-shaped plan to distin
guish its separate identity from the sitting room
nature of the rest of the space. The bed area was
spatially enhanced by a vaulted ceiling and a
matching curved bay containing a curved win
dow with curved shutters. The sitting room por
tion had additional windows with curtains
designed and embroidered by his wife. The entire
bedroom and all of its fitted furniture was painted
white. Mackintosh introduced two high-backed
"ladder" chairs, painted black, to express visual,
geometric punctuation and indicate by their posi
tion a change of function in the space from sleep
ing to sitting. Fernando Agnoletti described the
bedroom as " . .. the exotic bloom of a strange
plant, not made but grown, not sensuous but
chaste, not floating like a dream, but firm and
decisive like the poetical vision of a fact that IS
expressed in the only possible art form. " 13
THE WIENER WERKSTATTE
The Vienna Secession (beginning in 1897) was
Austria's version of the Arts and Crafts move
ment. It was originally started by nineteen artists,
not to challenge older traditions such as similar
movements were doing in Paris and Munich, but
to achieve a new expression of the rising power
of the middle class during the Industrial Revolu
tion. "In Munich and Paris the intention of the
Secessions has been to replace the' old' art with a
'new' art . .. No, with us it is different. We are
not fighting for and against the traditions, we
simply don't have any." 14
Credit for beginning this movement in archi
tecture and design is given to Josef Maria Olbrich
(1867-1908), Koloman Moser (1868-1918), and
Josef Hoffmann (1870-1956). They persuaded
Otto Wagner (1841-1918), Austria's leading ar
chitect, to join the Secession, giving it national
credibility. Josef Hoffmann was inspired by
Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1868-1928) and his
group in Glasgow to form a workshop in Vienna;
in 1903, along with Koloman Moser and banker
Fritz Waerndorfer, Hoffmann established the
- -- -
!Ugh it was
was lo
t to dis tin
:nng room
d area was
ing and a
lrved win
room por
1 curtains
The entire
,'as painted
.gh-backed
'ess visual,
their posi
rom sleep
Icri bed the
r a strange
[SUOUS but
firm and
act that is
" 13
1897) was
f ts move
artis ts,
as similar
W HITE BEDROOM, HILL HOUSE,
unich, but HELENSBURGH, DUMBARTONSHIRE,
mg power SCOTLAND. CHARLES RENNIE
11 Revolu
M ACKINTOSH AND MARG ARET
ion of the
MACDONALD, 1902-1 903.
art with a .\1ackintosh's signature pallerll ed squares
It . We are create a strong dialogue amollg the
[tions , we ./ilrnishings, doors, cabinets, shull ers,
clIld light .fixtures, resulting il1
haY/1/onious Ul1if)'. Photograph by
It in archi
.Vlay Hawfield.
ia Olbrich
918), and
persuaded
ar
t national
,pired by
) and his
n Vienna;
l d banker
Ished the
FURNIS HINGS : INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT 325
-=-
- - - -
-

- .

DINING R OOM, PALAIS STOCLET,
BRUSSELS, BELGIUM. J OSEF
H OFFMANN, 1905-1914.
TI-,e grar/d symmetrical dinil7g room
unifies Ihe enclosure wilh Ihe ji.lmintrc
Ihrough repelilion o.(tex ture, (0101',
mat erials, and patlel'll . Courtes), oIThe
ArlinslitUle
Wiener Werkstatte. Although its initial inspira

tion came from the Arts and Crafts movement
the workshop did not continue the British
ment's prevailing medieval tradition; instead
Hoffmann and his collaborators became the new
arbiters of European taste. Similar to the ideals of
the Bauhaus, this workshop created a center for
artists and craftsmen to produce functionally ori
ent ed objects as pieces of fme art.
The furnishings of Hoffmann's grea test ar
chitectural achievement, the Palais Stoclet, Brus
sels, Belgium (1905-1911), resulted from his
Wiener Werkstatte. The axially planned building
was comprised of a series of discrete spaces ori
ented to a great hall. From the hall, a splayed
vaultlike entry connects to one end of the long,
thin dining room, suggesting a safe and special
place. The dining room's walls are clad in buff
colored Paonazzo marble with long buffets of
dark Portovenere marble and Macassar wood.
Above the buffets ar e mosaics by Gustave Klimt
(1862-1918), the "Dancer" (expecta tion) and, on
the opposite wall the " Pair of Lovers" (fulfill
ment). The freestanding wood table accommo
dating twenty-two diners is set on a deep
brownish-olive patterned rug surrounded by a
fine checkerboard marble floor. This marble
matches the wall and binds the room too-et her
. 0
wIth subtl e excitement. Simple wood chairs, up
holstered with black lea ther and brass buttons are
) CLET,
tooled wit h gold relief repeating the gold of
the room molding, light fIxtures, and candlestick
holders . The room terminates in a wedgelike bay
roOI11
window, complete with a small black marble
,ji rrnilLire
fountain as a focal point. The fountain has a fish
, (a/or,
w y of The
mouth and is crowned by a sculpture by Michael
Powolny (1871-1954). Four ceramic versions of
the same sculpture are displayed in the vestibule
recalling the entrance. All the elements and mate
rials of the room are composed as a whole respect
mg the overall scheme of the residence, yet having
a distinct clarity of its own. The use of pattern on
pattern, Klimt's mosaic art, and the framing of
materials, express the architect 's Byza ntine influ
ence. The dining room is a brilliant example of
Hoffmann's control of pattern and hi gh contrast
wit h constant dialogue among all components of
this purposeful room.
FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1956) believed in th
concept of an organic architecture; to him thi
meant a
"natural architecture-the architecture of natl/re,
for nature . .. Architecture whi ch is really architecture
proceeds from the ground and somelwU! the terrain, the
native industrial conditions, the nature of materials alld
the purp05e of the building, mU5t inevitably determill e
the form and character of any good building." 15
This philosophy prevailed in Wri ght's inte
riors and furnishings as he required such to ex
press the character of the architectural whole.
Wright designed both built-in and freestandi ng
furni shings that were creatively interwoven into
the fabric of his interiors.
His earl iest known example of a totally inte
grated interior was the dining room of his Oak
Park house, converted in 1895 from the origina:
1889 kit chen. The room featured a horizonta.
band of continuous windows further reinforce
by horizontal paneling. This interior shell wa
then dramatized and balanced by the verticality 0"
ei ght hi gh-backed chairs, which would encl o
the diners within a smaller intimate space aroun .
the dining tabl e. This eating area was clearly de
fmed by the screenlike wall created by the elon
gated backs of the chairs. Criticism of the lack 0:'
comfort in W right's chairs is legend, although no'
everyone agrees that the element of comfort v,; a.
ignored .
In Don Kalec's thoughtful stud y on Prair;,
School furniture, interesting design considera
tions were brought to light.
This i5 riot to 5ay that wa5 not an impr '
tant Item; but they [the Prairie School architect5} kll e
that on e man's may be another man's back acht
The straight backed dining chair5 which appear ,
strange today were designed for a society where WOll1 t
were corseted fiwn knee to shoulder blade, and lil t
sto od as they had a poker strapped to their back,
When they sat down to eat, they sat straight and tal
"correctness," manners arid moral values were /11ore il
porfal1tthan comfort. 16
Wright's furnitur e was consistently ingrai ne
to speciftc interior spaces and represented his Of -
FU RNISHI NGS: INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT
DINING ROOM, FRANK LLOYD
WRIGHT HOME AND STUDIO, OAK
PARK, ILLINOIS. FRANK LLOYD
WRIGHT, 1889.
Wright contrasred horizontal and
vertical elements to develop drama
within the unified spa ce . Phofo.Rraph
by Jol1l1 Kurtich.
ganic idealism through the choice and execution
of a particular materi al-wood. He understood
and respected the nature of wood, avoiding
carved ornamentation, paint, inlay, or compli
cated joinery. His resulting furniture is character
ized by simple, severe, rectilinear forms that
328 INTERIOH ARCHITECTURE
=
emphasize his interest in geometry. The geomet
rical approach became most uncompromising in
his chair designs, the importance of which was
not comfort but the extension and reinforcement
of the interior space they occupied. The spatial
revolution created by Wright cannot be overem
phasized. He developed and perfected an open,
flowing interior where built-in and freestanding
furniture controlled a new discipline of defming,
arranging, and directing the spatial movement
and composition.
GREENE AND GREENE
Like Mackintosh and Wright, Greene and Greene
[Charles Sumner Greene (1868-1957) and Henry
Mather Greene (1870-1954)], architects, were
masters of complete Interior Architecture. They
were most influenced by the simple functionalism
of the craftsman movement and the joinery details
of oriental timber construction. The Greenes
worked in natural fmished woods expressing the
construction in three-dimensional details. They
articulated wall and ceiling surfaces in wood to
scale the enclosure to the furniture. A conscious
relationship of scale, material, and detail between
the furniture and architecture created a pleasing
unity. The architects produced a prolific amount
of custom furnishings to complete their architec
ture. This production would not have been pos
sible without the close association of artists and
craftspeople of the area. Beautifully refmed qual
ity furnishings built of wood, glass, and metal are
typical of the Greenes' work. Unlike Mackintosh
and Wright, the Greenes viewed chairs as a place
for someone to comfortably sit instead of allow
ing the overall effect to determine the design. This
attitude, coupled with the architects' desire to
work in the shops with the craftspeople and per
sonally fmish many of the pieces, produced highly
original and humane furnishings.
Trademark details such as the square wood
pegs were a direct result of understanding the
craft of construction. The pegs allowed the furni
ture makers to construct joints with screws that
had slotted washers to allow for expansion and
contraction. This construction helped eliminate
met warping and splitting of the solid wood by allow
o m ing movement, which the Greenes favored over
was
veneered construction. Also, greater freedom of
nent
expression was achieved in art glass windows by
atial
working with the artists. Making varied weight
'em-
in the lead came was difficult with the traditional
construction techniques. The Greenes devised a
way of overlaying flat sheets of lead that could
vary in width to extend the limitations of leading
glass. This allowed the artists to be more expres
sive with organic forms and proflles. As Henry
Greene said, "The whole construction was care
fully thought out, and there was a reason for
every detail. The idea was to eliminate everything
unnecessary to make the whole as direct and sim
ple as possible, but always with the beautiful in
mind as the final goal. " 17
The Gamble House, built in 1908 in Pasa
dena, California, is considered the best residential
achievement executed by the Greenes. The two
story wood structure with attic was asymmetri
cally planned for the wealthy Gamble family. The
individual common areas of living and dining
rooms are axially symmetrical whereas the private
bedrooms are asymmetrical in composition. This
basic planning approach lends formality to com
mon areas while creating a casual feeling in the
private rooms. The house is unified by the use of
natural wood for floors, trim, beamed ceilings,
and furniture. A language of details is consistently
developed throughout the residence, reinforcing
the unity at a tertiary scale. Within that unified
framework is surprising variety that makes the
house come to life. The beamed ceiling changes
in scale and pattern from room to room. The liv
ing room is executed in teak, while the dining
room is mahogany and a bedroom is white cedar.
Within the individual rooms rigorous consistency
of materials, detail, furniture, and lighting is de
veloped. The San Domingo mahogany dining
room encloses a beautifully shaped Honduras ma
hogany table and chairs designed by the archi
tects. The table's cross-timbered base is joined by
ebony splines and pegs. It is designed to anchor
the table with cantilever supports without sepa
rating even when expanded to double its size. The
wood shapes and ebony peg details are repeated
in the room's moldings, cabinetry, and light fix
tures. The shape of the table top is reproduced in
the leaded glass cabinets above the fireplace. The
overall consistency in this room is remarkable,
especially in the dialogue created between the en
closure and furnishings. This house is full of sur
prises and interest yet maintains a settling unity.
FURNISHINGS: INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT 329
._--- -_ ..- - ~ ~ .
LIVING ROO M, DAVID R. GA MBLE
HOUSE, PASADENA, CALIFOIlNIA,
GREENE AND GREENE, 1908.
The "il1glenook" or chimney corner is
beIWlifi,/ly sca led by th e
joining of elemel1lS or by reducin,,? the
size of elemenls 10 creMe illlillll1CY a/1d
int erest. Ph(lt(lgraph by Don Kalcr.
DETAIL OF STAIRWAY, DAVlD R.
GAMBLE H OUSE, PASADENA,
CALIFORNIA. GREENE AND GI<EENE,
1908,
The highly artiwlated slair, I/Iitl, a
halldmil reflecting the tread alld riser
rhythm, forms a spac!' fo r scatil1g al th,
boll(lm. PllOto,r;raph by Don Kaler,
DE STIJL
In 1917, Theo van Doesburg (1 883-1 931) pub
lished in the Netherlands the ftrst issu e of a mag
azme called De Slifl (The St y Ie), which
propounded a theory called Neoplastici sm. This
idea represented a reality housed in the principle
of an absolute abstraction that eliminated any ref
erence to objects of nature. It was visually ex
pressed with straight lines and ri ght angles,
featuring dissimil ar rectangular planes of primary
colors arranged in patterns of dynamic asymme
try. Led by artists and architects such as Piet
Mondrian (1872-1944) , Gerrit Riet veld (1888
1964) , and J. J. P. Oud (1890-1963), De Stijl be
came an influential movement. These visionaries
sought harmony through abs tract means, which
mi ght appear to be antinature, but they were ex
ploring a new visual style to create a new style of
living.
Van Doesburg and Rietveld were responsible
for translating Neoplasticism into the third di
mension throu gh their furniture and architecture.
Ri etveld's most famous chair, the roodlblaclwe sloel
(red/ blue chair) , was the physical manifestation of
the philosophy of De Stijl; the chair was intrinsi
cally a dissertat ion on the nature of space. To
quot e Rietveld 's intentions, "If, for a particul ar
purpose, we separate, limit, and bring into a
human scale a part of unlimited space, it is (if all
goes well) a piece of space brought to life as real
ity. In this way, a special segment of space has
been absorbed into our human sys tem." 10 H is
chair had similar compositional qualities to
W ri ght' s earlier Prairie School interiors in that it
allowed space to flo w through the object and
thereby eliminate its isol ation in space. Its abstract
qu alit ies make it equall y as strong as a piece of
sculpture as a functional seating apparatus. The
ques tion of comfort has been raised, but Riet veld
was aware of comfort as a relative thing, to be
deftned in terms of a speciftc acti vit y. His red/ blue
chair was designed to give ftrm support to the
hu ma n occupant.
Rietveld' s major architectural piece, the
Schroder House, Utrecht, Net herlands (1923
1925) , was the de velopment and realization of a
spatial complex following the abstract and struc
tural principl es of his furnitur e. The ftnal effect
was creating an architecturall y sized Neoplastic
REDIBLUE CHAm . GERRIT RIETVElD,
1918.
Rietveld's seIJcre abstractioll or
arl thropomorphicJonn res/.lited ill a chair
that symbolized tile De St(jI Il'lOvCIIleI1l.
Photograph by John K"rti ch.
Fl; Rf\: ISHINGS: INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT 331
sculpture. The house featured built-in furniture so
integrated that it became almost indistinguishable
from its architectural surroundings (see Chapter 3
on a further discussion of the Schroder House and
Chapter 6 for color.)
ELSIE DE WOLFE
Elsie de Wolfe (1865-1950) is considered the first
professional decorator in the United States, estab
lishing her practice in 1905. Up to this time, the
upholsterers and manufacturers of furniture had
been the arbiters of taste for interior space. Mass
produced collections of furniture were readily
available, matched in style and coloration, to pro
duce the acceptable taste of the day. Upholsterers
not only provided upholstery services but also
purveyed draperies, rugs , wall coverings, furni
ture fmishes, and even such architectural compo
nents as windows, fIreplaces, and molding details.
These mass merchants, oriented to the middle
class, provided little cultural or creative influence
for those who had more refIned taste. Although
the architect created some of the most elegant in
terior spaces for the upper classes, he was not in-
TRELLIS ROOM, COLONY CLUB, NEW
YORK, NEW YORK. ELSIE DE WOLFE,
1913.
The Trellis Room was influenced b)'
Roman images. The trellises enclose the
room, becoming at once columns,
cornices, and .fUmiture. Courtes}' oj Th e
Art Institute oJ Chicago .
3J2 INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
volved with the selection and placement of
furniture, art, and accessories. He simply relied
on the shape of the room to determine its comple
tion through furnishings. De Wolfe's background
as an actress in the theatre provided her with an
artistic vision of interior space well beyond the
current practice of the earl y twentieth century. In
contrast to the current, dark, opulent, and clut
tered look, she relied on the question of suitability
to guide her design decisions .
The new popularity oj chintz helped build Elsie's
reputation as a tastemaker, but it was really only one
aspect oj her more general move toward a curiously
dainty Jorm ojfimctionalism. It was not the Junctional
ism oj the Bauhaus, the adaptation oj industrial design
Jor the modern home, but rather a quiet insistence on
jimlishing a house with things that were practical as
well as pretty. The bright colors and exotic patterns oj
the chintz stilled the passion Jor ribbons and tassels,
whatnots and knickknacks that the previous generation
had needed to enliven the dark interiors oj their rooms,
and so a good deal oj the clutter could be removed. IJ
you had light curtains instead oj heavy draperies that
cut off the sun, you didn't need gilding to brighten the
gloom. IJ you had upholstery that didn't get greasy and
matted, you didn't need doilies to protect it. IJ tables
and chairs were light enough to move at will, you re
-----=
ment of
?ly relied
- comple
ckground
r with an
yond the
ild Elsie's
only one
curiously
-metional
rial design
_istence on
ra ctical as
patterns of
li d tassels,
eneration
'eir rooms,
, moved. If
veries that
-ighten the
areasyand
-. If tables
II , you re
quired only half as many. And if you followed th ese
ideas, you had an interior that was radically
from the prevailing mode. 19
Elsie de Wolfe rejected overly ornamental in
terior treatment; she preferred the simplicity and
the di gnit y of the architectural space in relation to
the furnishings. "In other words, the architecture
of the room becomes its decoration. "20
Her fIrst major work as a decorator was the
Colony Club, New York (1906), the first Ameri
can clubhouse for women. The innovative treat
ment of the Trellis Room was most influenced by
the knowledge of historic examples employing
trellis in their decorative schemes. She drew upon
such sources as Roman frescoes and Pompeiian
mural paintings depicting ancient gardens and
Moorish expressions of trellises found at the Al
hambra, Granada, and the Great Mosque at Cor
doba. The long narrow room was fIlled with
light , illuminating the bright green and white pat
tern of trellis covering all of the walls. These trel
lises were modulated to form panels integrating
lighting and to support living plants. Trellis-col
umns were treated classically with base, shaft, and
capital decoration. The gardenlike effect was
complete with a fountain, red tile floors, and
light, wooden furniture repeating the trellis effect.
Elsie de Wolfe had the ability to crea te a sense of
place through decoratio[' and historic reference.
RUBY ROSS GOODNOW WOOD
Ru by Ross Goodnow Wood (1880-1950) was a
dis ciple of Elsie de Wolfe and worked as her
ghostwriter for The Hou se in Good Taste (1913).
Wood's contribution to interior design was her
own book, The Honest House (1914). In contrast
to de Wolfe's book, which focused on upper-class
style and fashion, Wood's interest was in educat
ing the growing middle cl ass about good residen
ti al design. Her book, written in simple yet
thoughtful language, surveyed the various prob
lems of sel ecting, designing, building, and fur
nishing smaller homes and residences . Informing
homeowners who could not afford professional
design ass istance about good design was its pur
pose. Wood's practical advice with specifiC ex
amples influenced not only the do-it-yourself
amateur but professional designers and architects
as well. Her book is divided into twenty-four
cha pters discussing practical issues, such as the
value of an architect, building, plan arrange
ments, and materials and roofs. Aest hetic consid
erations are expl ained in chapters on color, good
taste and common sense, proportion and balance,
interior design, decoration of walls, window
trea tments , and furniture. Throughout this book
she gi ves us a sense of the continuity of the house
by discussing historical precedents. Finall y, she
writes about what other authors avoid-what ele
ments make a house into a home. In the furniture
chapter, Wood discusses the reality of furnishing
a home on a budget. She supports the traditional
way of completing a home by collecting pieces
over a period of time.
If you start out with the determination to have
mahogany furniture only) or oak, or wa lnut , or what
ever you may like, your house will be abso lutely unob
jectionable) but you won't have very much fim with it.
If, however, you have a few pieces offurniture that you
love too much to up, and you have to search and
search for every new thil1g YOIl buy so that it will be
Fiendly with the old things, your house will be a much
pl easanter place to live in
21
She goes on to describe the four basic types
of furniture available in 1914. First, wooden fur
niture that is fmished naturally and only uses its
color and grain for decoration. Second, painted or
lacqu ered pi eces such as Colonial or Chinese .
Third, uphol stered furniture in tapest ries, leather,
or chintzes. Fourth, lightweight furniture built of
reeds, rattan, and other materials. Today we can
add signifIcantly to those four types by including
furniture employing plastic, glass, metal, card
board, and so forth. "You can associate furniture
of each of the first four cl asses pleasantly in one
room, if the design and color are in harmony. " :!:'
This simple idea has had a great influence on resi
dential design in America, resulting in what we
call eclectic design. Not only did Wood favor col
lecting different kinds of furni ture over a period
of time but also gave advice on how to relate the
various pieces together as workable interior. " The
Oriental lacquer furniture and the Occidental
painted furniture are not friendly, just as oak and
FURNISHINGS: INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT 33 3
mahoga ny are usuall y unfriendl y, but anyone of
the decorated woods may be combined with any
one of the stained and waxed woods if the selec
tion is made ca refull y. ""3
LUDWIG MIES VAN DER ROHE
Architecture and furniture were the same for Lud
wig Mies van der Rohe (1886-1969). As he devel
oped the skeletal steel structure covered with a
curtain wall skin for his high-rise buildings, he
likewise designed furnitur e with a clean, hi gh
quality elastic steel as the skeleton, the skin then
attached to the frame. The German National Pa
vilion at the Barcelona International Exposition,
Spain (1929) was the physical realization of Mies
van der Rohe' s ideas of interior space. He believed
that "the shaping of space with structure is the
true task of ar chitecture. The building is not the
work of art-the spa ce is." 2< The open plan of the
Pavilion extended to the adjacent exterior space;
the two were inseparable. By usi ng polished ma r
ble as partitions and encl osing walls of green
glass , the res ulting free-flowing space was further
enhanced by reflections of what a visitor had just
GERMAN PAVILION, BARCELONA,
SPAIN . LUDWIG MIES VAN DER R OHE,
1929. RESTORED BY CRISTIAN CIRICI,
FERNANDO RAMOS, AND IGNASI DE
SOl A-MORALES, 1986.
lv/ies van de l' Rohe's II1Qsr er filf extell sion
of inlerior ro exrerior space creared
eloq/.l enl l)' lI1il1imal enclosures .for his
srecl and lea lh er sealil'l,,? Pho/vX"apiz by
Don Kal ec.
seen or spectral images of space yet to be experi-;
enced. Mies designed special furniture in keeping
with this spatial complex, creating unity of build
ing and furniture . The furniture was grouped
about a central onyx screen to be primaril y used
for the opening ceremonies featuring the king and
queen of Spain. A table holding a golden book
was placed against the onyx screen flanked by two
ot tomans; t wo iden ti cal chai rs for the use of the
king and queen were placed at ri ght angles to the
onyx screen. Opposite the chairs against a double
paneled wall containing a light source was place'
a larger tabl e for champagne Additional otto
mans were carefully positioned about the Pavil
ion. The designs of this group of furniture, no\"
named "Barcelona, " survived the Pavilion, which
was dismantled after the close of the expositi of)
In 1986, it was reconstructed as a permanef) :
building.
The Barcelona chair and ottoman became ~
standard furni shing for many of Mies' s later inte
riors. Werner Blaser has summarized the specia'
qualities of this chair. " The Barcelona chair, f o ~
example, seems to grow out of the floor with a .
easy bound and yet it contrasts with it . The cha;:
doesn't actuall y 'stand' anymore; it lends ease an .

:>epmg
-- build
ng and
book
\" two
of the
__ ro the
ioubl e
p:aced
otto
Pa\' il
_ no\\'
- "hich
Ion .
:ment
_-J me a
_ r mte
pecial
;r. for
-i ch an
_ chair
- and
_:egance to the act of sitting and eliminates the
_ense of heaviness and rigidit y." 25 Mies designed
-:':5 furniture as part of the structural relationship
"': ith hi s interiors. He considered the entire spec
:rum fr om the building shell to the furniture all
;-a rt of an artistic statement of technique, form,
2nd material. He repeated many times: " Architec
:'..He is not only linked to it s objectives, but also
:0 the materials and methods of its construc
n 20
P .W fLION DE L' E s PRIT NOUVEA U,
':=' XPOSITION DES ARTS DECORATIFS DE
.925, PARIS, FRANCE. LE C ORBUSIER,
925.
:"'t' Co rbusier saw free standing Jumill4re
-: -' Clt lpture in space , always in
:lIlposilion with the builtil? elements
:d enclosing /Jo/ume. Droits de
,production perws par la SPADEM.
Copy right 1991 ARS N. Y./
- PADEM.
LE CORBUSIER
Le Corbusier (1887-1965) believed that "the
sphere of architecture emb races eve ry det ail of
household furni shing, the street as well as the
house, and a wider world still beyond both." 27
Hi s trea tment of interiors divided furni shings into
two classifications: built-in storage and cupboards
bas ed on a standard unit (easier standard) that could
be loca ted within the wall or act as a part ition
INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT 335
between one space and another and freestanding
pieces such as chairs and tables, which he con
sidered as sculpture in an overall composition.
The built-ins would be containers for any type of
storage, maximizing the free space for arranging
those pieces of furniture that have direct contact
with the human body. This philosophy of furni
ture is summed up as the sense of geometric pre
C!5ion (storage units) juxtaposed with the
plasticity of sculptural forms (freestanding units).
One ofLe Corbusier's earliest complete inte
riors was his Pavilion de L'Esprit Nouvea u for the
International Exposition of Decorative Arts, Paris
(1925) . Here he demonstrated built-in cabinets
with freestanding pieces of furniture. In addition
to his designs for the storage units and tables, he
used Thonet' s circular bentwood chairs for the
first time, exclaiming: "We have introduced the
humble Thonet chair of steamed wood, certainly
the most common as well as the least costly of
chairs. And we believe that this chair, whose mil
lions of repo Americas, possesses a nobility of its
own." 28 The fact that Thonet's chairs worked so
well as sculpture in space inspired Le Corbusier to
design (in collaboration with Charlotte Perriand
[1903- ], who worked in his atelier) tubular
steel chairs, such as the fauteuil grand confort (1928)
and an armchair with pivoting backrest (1928).
The chaise-longue areglage continu, which Le Cor
busier designed in 1928, also paid tribute to Tho
net's renowned bentwood rocking chair of 1860.
The chaise longue had a fixed supporting struc
ture for the human occupant, an anatomically
shaped undulation covered with pony hide, which
was attached to a long curve, allowing for various
positions to be fixed on the substructure of the
molded base. Although the angle of recline would
have to be fixed before the person reposed, the
position chosen would be firm and stable. This
chaise longue epitomized Le Corbusier's theory
of rationalism and functionalism, summed up in
his metaphor, "a chair is a machine for sitting
in. " 19
MARCEL BREUER
Marcel Breuer (1902-1982) was trained at the
Bauhaus in Weimar, Germany, entering the
school in 1920, a yea r after it was founded. He
was with the fIrst group of architecture, desi gn,
and painting students whose artistic spirits and
identities would be shaped and molded by the
Bauhaus. The Bauhaus (1919-1933) initiall y had
the following aims, quoting Walter Gropius
(1883-1969):
The Bauhaus strives to bring together all creative
effort into one whole, to reunify all the di sciplines of
practical art-sculpture, painting, handicrafts, and the
CHAISE-LONGUE. LE CORBUSIER WITH
CHARLOTTE PERRIAND, 1927-1929.
The chaise-longue is a rational
expression oja stable structure
supporting an anatomically co rrect
lounge that is simply adjustable.
to Tho-
of 1860.
ng struc
romically
Ie, which
vanous
re of the
e would
I>sed, the
Ie . This
's theory
d up in
r sitting
d at the
[J ng the
lded. He
. design,
irits and
i by the
ially had
Gropius
II creative
ipUnes of
:, and the
crafts-as inseparable components of a new architec
ture. The ultimate, Ifdistant, aim ofthe Bauhaus is the
Imified work of art-the great structure-in which
there is no distinction between monumental and decOl'a
tive art. Th e Bauhaus wants to educate architects,
painters, and sculptors of all levels, according to their
capabilities, to become competent craftsmen or indepen
dent creative artists and to form a working community
of leading and future artist-craftsmen. These men, of
ki ndred spirit, will know how to design buildings har
moniously in their entirety-structure, finishing, orna
mentation, and furnishing. 30
Breuer remained at the Bauhaus until 1928, start
ing out as a student and ending as the head of the
furniture workshop when the Bauhaus moved to
Dessau.
His initial chair designs were of wood, with
obvious influence from Gerrit Rietveld (1888
1964) and the De Stijl movement. In 1925 Breuer
began to experiment with tubular steel chair de
signs after observing the impressive strength and
lightness of his tubular steel bicycle, particularly
the way in which the material could be bent into
a handlebar and support one or more riders with
ease. He developed a club armchair out of tubular
steel and stretched fabric that became known as
the Wassily chair (after Wassily Kandinsky [1866
1944]). The chair was meant for the home, a dar
ing idea for a time when Arts and Crafts ideals
were being practiced. The Wassily chair is some
what ungainly, similar in spirit to the red/ blue
chair of Rietveld. However, Breuer was inter
es ted in achieving the sense of a sitting apparatus
suspended above the ground, floating the occu
pant in pure space. This notion led him to develop
the modern cantilever chair. He was always very
concerned about comfort and believed that struc
tural resilience was more important in comfort
able seating than upholstery or padding on stiff
frames. The following sums up Breuer's attitude
about furniture: "A piece of fu rniture is no willful
form but, rather, a necessary component of our
surroundings. In itself impersonal, it derives its
meaning only from the manner in which it is
used, which is to say, in the framework of a total
plan. "31
ALVAR AALTO
Alvar Aalto (1898-1976) designed chairs that ex
pressed two primary things : a form that was a
direct response to a human being's anatomy while
sitting and a shape that reflected the appropriate
use of the material. The primary idea behind Aal
to's philosophy of design can be summed up in
his own words: " . . . since architecture covers the
entire field of human life, real functional architec
ture must be functional mainly from the human
WASSILY CHAIR. MARCEL BREUER,
1925.
Conceptual/y, this chair was viewed as
a structure which suspends its occupant
in the air. Photograph by John Kl4rtich.
!'URNISHINGS: INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT 337
point of view." 32 Aalto's designs start with hu
manity's needs , combining function and material
to produce furniture both physically comfortable
and visually beautiful. Aalto's native Finland,
with its characteristic cold and dark winters and
its abundant birch forests, influenced his designs,
which became counter to the developments in
France and Germany. The cold tubular steel used
by Breuer, Le Corbusier, and Mies van der Rohe
was inappropriate for the harsh Finnish climate.
Thonet's use of beech was of interest to Aalto,
particularly in the way the material could be bent
in three dimensions, yet this wood was not plen
tiful in Finland. It was natural for Aalto to de
velop furnishings using native birch, whose
characteristics were very much different than
beech. He found that birch, being much stiffer,
was better bent in two dimensions. The 1929
Scroll Chair, designed for the Paimio Sanitarium,
was completely made of laminated bent birch.
Still being manufactured, this classic Aalto de
sign, with its delicate, lightweight profile, reflects
his inspired humanism.
EILEEN GRAY
Attitudes about furnishings of various individual
architects and designers, as well as design move
ments, are an invaluable source of ideas to illumi-
SCROLL CHAIR. ALVAR AALTO, 1934.
The Scroll (hair is all hOliest expressioll
of rhe ben di ng properli es ofFill 11 Ish
birch plywood. The chair is liJihrweighl ,
yet (Jcry sllIrdy. Plrolosraph by John
Kurt/c/1
nate the ideals of Interior Architecture. Eileen
Gray (1879-1976) was one of those rare people
who could design the entire package of space
from siting and exterior shell to all the furniture
and rugs for the interior (see Chapter 1 for addi
tional discussion of Eileen Gray's work). Her
early background in designing lacquer screens and
furniture and weaving original rugs and carpets
prepared her for creating complete interiors when
she began architectural studies and explorations in
1924.
In her house, the Tempe a Pailla, Castellar,
France (1932-1934), the balance of the inside to
the outside was very important. Since she felt that
the furnishings and details should be part of the
entire organization of the architecture, she was
compelled to design all of the furniture for this
house. Due to the small size of the house (approx
imately 1000 square feet) she was forced to be
inventive with her built-in and freestanding fur
niture. Furniture had to serve many functions: a
metal seat could be transformed into a stepladder,
her dining table could be altered by either revers
ing its top (one side was cork and the other zinc)
or putting the table on its side and lowering it into
a coffee table. In the bathroom she designed a
piece that could be a towel holder, a small steplad
der, or a seat. Her storage chests had hinged
drawers that allowed them all to pivot out and
Iri ons in
asteHar.
slde ro
-eh that
[ of the
ihe was
for this
approx
d to be
mg fur
:tions: a
)ladder,
reveal their contents simultaneously. Her cup
revers
boards, made of metal , served as architectural di
er zinc)
viders and screens. False ceilings were employed
g It mto
ro hide more storage space; access to this space
igned a
was through an opening covered with a folding
steplad
perforated metal grid.
hinged
The main bedroom had a ceiling oculus that
Dut and
could be manipulated from the bed to control en-
TRANSAT CHAIR. 1924- 1930. RUG
FOR HOUSE E.1027, 1929. TUBE
LAMP, 1930. EILEEN GRAY.
Eileen Gray made poetry ouf ( ~ r
.timetion- expressing he!" passioll for
discoveril1g, designing for, al1d so /virlg
/nmlaH Ileeds. Phorograph by John
Kurticll.
N ONCONFORMIST ARMCHAIR. EILEEN
GRAY, 1926-1928.
Th e design illuminares the necessity fo r
filrnishings thar are for illdilJidllalneeds,
110t simpl y for mass prod"eri o'1.
Photograph by John Kllrlich.
teri ng daylight as though an eclipse of the sun
were occurring; the size of the circul ar glass open
ing was controlled by a counterbalanced circular
shield. She not only oversaw all of the upholstery
but al so designed and had the fabrics and rugs
woven . Today there is a va st interior products
industry that offers tremendous choi ce to the de
signer. It is no longer necessary to design every-
Ft.:Rt\;ISHINGS: INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT 339
thing for an interior, but the coordination of these
choices becomes highly complex. Eileen Gray
demonstrated a talent for design of a variety of
products, a goal worthy of study in the contem
porary world of manufactured choice.
PIERRE CHAREAU
Pierre Chareau (1883-1950) was a prolific archi
tect who intimately understood interior space and
its contents. His designs for cabinetry, beds,
sofas, lounge chairs, side chairs, desks, dressing
tables, dining tables, light fixtures, vanity mir
rors, carpets, and accessories were all creatively
conceived as a part of the architectural whole.
Space was viewed as three distinct components:
the volume, the permanent fixtures, and the fur
nishings. To Chareau, the permanent fixture was
the missing link between architecture and furni
ture; it established the unity of the space. Unlike
most architect-designed furniture of the time,
which was unrelated to its context and could be
placed anywhere, Chareau's designs were
uniquely related to their space. Furniture was in
dialogue with the volume.
In the Dalsaces' apartment, Paris, France
(1923), Chareau created a volumetric relationship
between the ceiling and wall with an over-scaled
pyramidal cornice. The cornice scaled the room
and established a data line at which the wall cov
ering, drapes, and bookshelves terminate. This al
lowed Chareau to change the surface treatments
without losing unity. The curving cornice en
gages the permanent bookcase, forming a corner
in the room. Nestled in the corner, an oval chaise
longue complete with throw pillows and flanked
by a built-in end table and a freestanding floor
lamp completed the composition. The lamp with
onyx shades became a vertical counterpoint for
the chaise and balanced the dominant bookcase.
The sensitivity to human use and comfort was
beautifully achieved with his manipulation of ar
chitecture and furniture. Chareau balanced geo
metric and organic forms, smooth and tactile
surfaces, massive and intimate volumes, horizon
tal and vertical elements, and massive and human
scales, to achieve ensembles rich with human ap
peal.
JEAN-MICHEL FRANK
Jean-Michel Frank (1895-1941) used a studied
knowledge of history as the basis of his interiors
and furniture. His designs relied on refinement of
proportion and balance, rationally conceived as a
totality. Practicing in collaboration with Adolph
Chanaux (1887-1965) during the development of
the Modern Movement with its characteristic ma
chine aesthetic, his inspiration was grounded in
the ideas and techniques of the past.
The principles were proportion, space, form and
matter. For both, harmony of the forms came first. The
balance of a piece depended strictly on the association of
the various elements. There was a subtle relationship
between the length ofa sofa and that ofthe mantelpiece,
which in turn related to the dimensions ofthe windows,
the height ofthe ceiling or the spacing ofdoors 33
Frank used history as the foundation of his
ideas. He owes a debt to eighteenth century
France for its heightened awareness of scale and
the use of materials. He revived straw marquetry
and shagreen, historically used to cover small ob
jets d'art. He covered walls and furniture with
straw marquetry, giving his interiors a unique
golden richness. Shagreen, the skin of the small
dogfish shark, became veneer for various pieces
of furniture. Some of his lamps made reference to
vases of ancient Egypt. His X-stools were influ
enced by furniture designs of the archaic Greek
period. His furnishings often included the very
pieces that inspired his work, thereby establishing
a dialogue between the past and present.
LIVING ROOM, THE DALSACES'
APARTMENT, PARIS, FRANCE. PIERRE
CHAREAU, 1923.
Chareau's brilliant integration of
functions and forms in elegant
composition made him one of the great
designers of the early twentieth century.
Courtesy o.fThe Art Institute of
Chicago.
studied
interiors
~ m e n t of
ved as a
l Adolph
pment of
iStlC ma
nded in
fo rm and
1r5t. The
dation oj
fa tionship
II /telpiece,
Il indow5,
L33
In of his
century
.cale and
arquetry
mall ob
Jre with
1 umque
he small
1S pieces
~ r e n c e to
Te influ
ic Greek
[he very
Iblishing
: ES'
E. PIERRE
III oj
/he great
III century.
1' 0J
- - - ' ~ ~
,
. i
--".'J/,f'
LIVING ROOM, THE N OAILLES
APARTMENT, PARIS, FR ANCE. JEAN
MI CHEL FRANK, 1929.
Th e minimal inlerior is made grand
through the use of rich, exotic materials:
vellum wall co/Jering, straw marquetry
tables, leather seatillg, silk CI-Irtains,
bronze doors, and shagreen (over tables .
Courtes y o..fHOUSE BEAUTIFUL,
September 1929.
- - ~ l i I I
'
.ES
E. JEAN-
egra nd
f materials:
marquetry
Irlains,
over tables .
UTIFUL,
The grand salon of the town house of the
Vicomte and Vi comtesse de N oaill es , Paris
(1932), clea rly illust rat es his genius. Shea thed in
walls of tawny vellum, the roo m expresses the
artist' s skillful control of natural materiJls. The
random quality of the vellum's grain is modulated
by the regularity of the grid. Although the room
is modern, its proportions suggest the monumen
tality of an earlier time. The room represented the
epitome of hi s personal style in that it contained
tables and screens of straw marquetry, oversize
sca ting in white lea ther, low tables in shagreen or
bronze, unadorned silk curtains, bronze doo rs, a
mica-covered mantelpiece, and lamps in rock
crystal or ivory sheaves . Such specialized furnish
ings were produced for Frank by an extensi ve and
exclusive work force. In collaboration with other
studios and artists, he realized their contribution
to hi s unique interiors. Although he allowed such
artists as the Giacometti brothers to create sculp
tures and li ghting fi xtures for him, Christian
Berard (1 902-1949) to paint the designs for
upholstery and carpets, and Emili o T erry (1890
1972) to generate ideas for furniture, their indi vid
ual efforts depended on Frank's vi sion to realize
their artistic contribution to the whole.
BILLY BALD WIN
Billy Bal dwin (1 903-1984) was considered by
many as the dean of American decorators. Bald
win avoided a personal styl e in favor of expres s
ing hi s clients ' personaliti es. He said, " The
essence of client and decorat or is w e . " . 1 ~ Baldwin
felt personal ego got in the way of designing for
someone else's use. Ha ving his work not recog
niza ble as a Baldwin int erior was a primary goal.
Like many decorators, he worked in plan only to
establish circulation and arrange the functions of
a room : Yet he knew the best laid plans never
worked in actualit y as \,vell as they do on paper.
Working w ith the ph ysical room, trusting the
logic of hi s eye was Baldwin 's methodology. He
fel t the eye was the best protection agai nst the
possibl e pitfalls of decorating a room from an in
tellectual or puri.st poi.nt of view. No matter how
well a room is st udi ed on paper or mentall \" yisu
alized, there are al ways possibilities for error.
"Only your eye can tell you what you will be
happy with. Today, thank goodness we are more
concerned with the personal than with perfec
tion. "35
Being flexible and expectin g change was
Baldwin's rule when arranging rooms. This phi
losophy predominates the interiors of J ho use in
southern Arizona designed by the architectural
fIrm Ford, Powell, and Carson of San Antonio,
Texas. " The concept of the architecture WJS to
crea te the illusi on that we had found a tiny old
Spanish hilltown and, by connecting all the part s,
crea ted a house. "3" Baldwin's trea tment of the in
teriors was to rel at e to the ro ugh and barren vast
ness of the landscape and at the sa me time to
provide relief and security from it. The roo ms
fea tur ed fl oors paved with Mexican til es, white
pl as tered wall s, and exposed, rough-hewn
wooden beams. The eclectic furnishings in most
of the rooms were colors of the landscape. Bald
win used the landscape and architecture as the
bas is of his decorating concept. The inter iors had
an inwa rd o ri entation to create a ha ven from the
expanSIve, uninhabited vIew. The structure
changed level s and volumes, evoking a medieva l
feeling.
Baldwin saw the master bedroom suit e as a
counterpoint to the res t of the house. " I tri ed to
create a sh eik's t ent in the Sahara : enveloping,
sensuous, removed from the slightly austere sur
roundings." 37 Upon en tering the room, one is
overwhelmed with a lush t exture and pattern of
multi colored paisleylike wall covering and fabric.
The bed is within a canopi ed enclosure, complete
with operabl e drapes, not unlike the bed of a me
dieval castle. Inst ead of keeping out the cold, the
drapes protect the sleeper from the tumultuous
Arizona da wn. The drapes are lined with a volup
tuous golden fabric, illuminated with reading
lights, which create a separate, intimate chamber.
Tactile pleasure predominates the suite through
soft and hard materi al contrasts. A linen-vel vet
sofa and slipper chairs share the room w ith marble
tub and bathroom appoi.ntments. Baldwi.n's ge
nius in creating personal spaces lay in his sensitiv
it y to existing conditions and his willingness to
work with thes e surroundings. Visual and physi-
FCRt\ ISHINGS: INTIMATE HUMAN CO MFORT
cal comfort was always hi s major objective in
completing the interior.
CHARLES AND RAY EAMES
The furniture of Charles (1907-1978) and his wife
Ray (1915-1988) Eames represents a perfect bal
ance between art and technology. He was most
noted for his chairs, as they revolutionized stan
dards of comfort combined with mass production
in furniture in the years following World War II.
Eames collaborated with Eero Saarinen (1910
1961) in 1941 at the Cranbrook Academy of Art
to produce a prize-winning solution for seating,
using plywood shells molded in two directions.
The double curvature of the shell provided im
pressive strength combined with lightness, and
the shape was easily contoured to the human
body for maximizing comfort. Beca use the cur
rent molding process was so expensive, Charles
and Ray spent their spare time during the war
years developing inexpensive plywood molding
processes, which resulted in a new design of ply
wood stretchers and splints for the U. S. Navy.
After the war, Charles further developed and re
fined the molding process to produce a series of
chairs that became as much a part of the post
World War II interior as the European tubular
steel chairs of Mies van der Rohe, Breuer, and Le
Corbusier had been of the post-World War I in
terior.
Charles and Ray designed for themselves a
house in Pacific Palisades, California (1949), that
featured factory-produced materials. The result
was a successful marriage between the artist and
the technocrat. Their furniture reinforced and
completed the interior spaces. The nature of their
furniture was that it did not need to be formally
arranged or aligned but could be dispersed or
clustered, which gave it admirable flexibility for
many types of interiors.
In 1956 Eames designed his famous lounge
chair and ottoman, which was truly a comfortable
chair resulting from a new form. The lounge was
constructed of three laminated rosewood shells
padded with black leather cushions fdled with just
the right mixture of goose down, latex foam, and
duck feathers. The three shells were joined with
LOUNGE CHAlR AND OTTOMAN,
CHARLES EAMES. 1956.
Th e well Imoum Eames IOlmge (hail'
and ottoman are ueall1i[ully I' elated in
form, detail , and material, prodll[ing a
IlIxuriow and com[ortaule sCl/lpted
wmpositioll. Photograph by John
Kurricll.
aluminum connections, the ensemble mounted on
a five-pronged metal swivel base. With the ac
companying ottoman of similar design, the pair
provided a luxuriously comfortable chaise. This
chair and ottoman could either dominate any fur
niture grouping or they could be arranged in
groups of their own kind; the overall sculptural
shape did not demand formal or fixed placement.
CARLO SCARPA
The architectural poet of the twentieth century
was Carlo Scarpa (1906-1978). His body of exe
cuted work contains profound examples of spa
tial, visual, and tactile poetry that transcend the
ordinary and the commonplace. His attitude
about furnishings was direct and consistent with
the rest of his work.
Furnishings are necessary, hence the corollary:
Concern yourselves with furnishings, with their pres
- -
ervati on, and above all their beauty, sorneti1ing that ated two ri ch paths from which the visitor ca n
seems al1 absolute must for our profession. Just as we ent er the cha pel. A sequence of architectural
providefor our necess ities, so it seems logical to provide
pl aces and details unfold as one crosses the moat
for beauty, something which we humans have always
surrounding the structure. The moat itself is a
felt a need fO!'. Originally the cavemen woul d decorate
mi crocosm of the underworld, fIll ed w ith m yste
their caves ji.lrnishing them; it is that
ri ous structures buried in murky water; these
thouJ!, h we have no f uI'll ishings made by cavemen we do
structures echo the building abo ve, providing ex
have wondel:!itl, esthetic,
periential simultaneity of two worlds, the past /
Scarpa' s work is deeply embedded in the tra
future or underworld and the present or over
dition of the craftsman. His inventi ve experimen
world. One entr y is g uarded by concrete double
tation with detail s and materials result ed in fr esh
do ors, elegantly framed in bronze and set into
relationships, which in turn established a new and
perfectly balanced hinges that belie the actual
inspiring architectural language. In the chapel for weight of the portals . The other entry is more
the Brion Tomb at the cemetery of San Vito d'AI
indirect, bringing the visit or into an antechamber
tivole, Italy (1969 onward), Scarpa produced an featuring a receptacle for holy water. An open
archit ectural imerior ri ch with metaphorical and arch consisting of nea rl y a w hole circle all ows ac
rxe chair
allegori cal references. Concrete was the main ma cess to the chapel proper. The altar dommates the
rlated il1
terial, but its combination with marble, granite,
space.
r,)dllcing a
onyx, bronze, gold leaf, and wood make manifes t
wlpted Its stark geometrical figure is not only enriched by
the complexity of the metaphorical experience.
fohn almost imperceptible patterns that complicate its sellcre
To vi si t the chapel is to be introduced into pro
outline, but also ruffl ed by the play of lightfowsed on
found mysteries encompassing life and death. The
it . The metallic form is lil not only from above, as
symbols created in the architecture are strongly
mentioned, but also by two co ntiguous floor-to-ceiling
reinforced by juxtaposition of unlikely materials apertures il1 the walls. These two marble aI/tal' capture
and an obsessive attention to details. Scarpa cre- the natural of the water surrounding the base
nted on
the ac
[he pair
,e. This
lOy fur
1ged in
ll iptural
ement.
century
of exe
B RION CEMETARY CHAPH, SAN VITO
of spa
O'ALTlVOLE, ITALY. CA RLO SCARPA,
,nd the
1969.
attitude
nt with
Sca rpa's illteriol'S collIai/? intense beaut)'
exp ressed in meaning/it! forms. His
obsession lIli th the smallest det ail is (]
)rollary:
movinj( testimony ofthe passion ill his
pres-
work. Photosraph by John Kurtich.
FCRNISHINGS: INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT 345
-

-- --
,I , .,
of th e tempietto as if to elJ oke a Vel/ etian atmosphere.
The interplay between the lJoids and solids, between the
material ful/n ess o{the concrete and th e chromatic effects
ofth e marble or the transparency ofthe onyx, make the
chapel one of the most complete works p1'Odrtced by
Scarpa, and the one most exemp lary o. fthis tendency to
coun terpo int W
Throughout the interior of the chapel, Scarpa
is constantl y interrelating inside wi th outside, re
minding the vis itor of the relationship between
the over world with the underworld, life wit h
death. "To endure life ... this is always the first
duty of every living Illusion loses all its
val ue if it hinders us from doing this. . Si lJis
vitam, para mortem. If you want to be able to en
dure life, be ready to accept
MEMPHIS
In 1981, the design group call ed Memphis ex
hibited its fIrst coll ection of furniture during the
Milan Furniture Fair . Ettore Sottsass (1917- ),
architect and industrial designer, was one of the
leading innovators of the group; he and his asso
ciates were di ssatisfi ed wit h the results of the
Modern Movement. Andrea Branzi (1 928- ),
spokesman for the group, established its aims.
(1 ) PUffing behind the myth o.{ th e 'ullity' o.{ a
project and concen trating on a.Fee discontinuity ofparts
with respect to the whole. (2) The search Jor a new
linguistic 'express ilJe' qualit), as a possible sol ution to
t.h e en(f?ma of design and as a possibl e new meaning.
(3) Recycling all possible idioms now in circulat ion
within th e exp erience of our lilJes. (4) Rewperating
decoration and color as signs ofji-eedom alld nobility 0.(
creatill e invention. (5) beyond ergo /lom ic limits
and concentrating on an aIrecti lJe relationship between
man and his things 41
Like the fu rniture of Boulle during seven
teenth century France, Memphi s's fu rniture made
a political statement. But unlike Boulle, the new
statement was a criticism of social hIerarchies and
their powe r structures, which was manifested in
pieces of furniture that would juxtapose unlikely
material s, such as a costl y, exotic wood with
chea p plast ic lamina te. The idea was to disrupt the
visLlal symbols of power connected to expensive
materials and the perceived tackiness associated
with humble materials and gari sh colors. Mem
phis took thi s a step further by using its designs
to unsettle commonl y held perceptions of status
interiors by establi shing a disparity between fur
nishings and environment. Indi vidual pi eces also
would confront the public with metaphors for the
disturbing, hyperactive, unpredictable contem
porary world . Such strong design statements have
been criticized as impracti cal or uncomfortabl e
furnitur e, but the philosophy of Memphis is to
chall enge humanit y into ques tioning how it lives
in the contemporary unstable world. Sottsass says
"CARLTON Rooi'" D I VID ER ," ETTORE
SOTTSASS , M EMPHI S MOVEMENT,
1981.
Th e jarring fo 1'111 , of Mcmphis jimc olle
to reexall1ine traditional (oll(ept s or
jil/'llitl.lre arid ultimately hOI" th e
(ontelllporaiT pcr,OIl liv cs ill a ,i1a(l{ic
w(lrld. Courtesy of Th e An IlI slilllle of
C hicago.
socia ted
. M em
designs
of status
' een fur
ieces also
rs for the
contem
ents have
fortable
Dhis is to
" It lives
sass says
." ETTO RE
lENT,
s j imc (mc
',p ts oj'
the
J chaot ic
In stitute of
Memphisjitrniture is very intense, and.. it can
onl)' live with very inteuse people, with highly evoill ed
and self-suffic ient people because I am
thinkillg of evo!lled people as people who know how to
nln their lill es properly in socielY withoul hallin,q Ihem
selves protected by any instill/lion, ellen a will/ral one.
It is up to each one of U5 to decide wheth er we are
intense el1ou,qh to IIndertake the reella/uatiollS J'0elllphis
demands. 42
CHARLES PFISTER
Charles Pfister (1949-1990), San Franci sco, dem
onstrated remarkable versatility in his interior
spaces. Always holi sti call y conceived and exe
cuted, hi s designs ranged fr om large corporate of
fi ce landscapes wi th custom designed furniture
systems (the Weyerhaeuser Corporation, Ta
coma, Was hington, 1971), to eclectic, Bea ux Arts
publi c spaces ri ch wi th rotundas and peristyles
linked together by axial all ees (the Gr and Hotel ,
Washington D.C., 1986). H e expressed a sleek,
pristine setting through geo metric motifs and
hi ghly reflective material s such as lacquer and
st ainless steel for the Knoll International Show
roo m, Paris, France (1981). The Knoll Showroom
was a particularly interesting challenge since it is
the producer and repository of many of the mos t
famous and prestigious furniture pi eces of the
t wenti eth century. Pfister chose to use mirro r re
fl ection as a major wall trea tment (s ee Chapter 3
on three-dimensional development of the Knoll
Showroom), making it as legitimate a furnishing
device as the mirrored walls of the Galeri e des
Glaces at Versa illes. The Baroque gardens ofVer
sailles were mirrored in the grand hall , expanding
its interior space to the seventeenth centur y no
tion of infinity. PfI ster used mirrors as an interior
device not only to increase the expos ure and dis
play viewpoints of Knol l' s famous furnit ure but
to fragment the interior into managea ble zones of
concentration, wi thout los ing the sense of the
whole. The furni shings of this showroom are
trul y the arti culated mirrors, creating a stage for
the mos t effective display of the furniture.
THE LANDAHL GROUP
The Landahl Group, headed by Greg Landahl
(1947- ), Chicago, has a unique talent of rel at
ing their interi ors directly to the architectural shell
cont aining them. The Landahl Group 's work is
KNOLL INTERN ATlONAL INC.
SH OWROOM, FAllIS, FRANCE.
C HARLES PFI STER, 1981.
The lIIirrored risers dellillteriali ze the
slair and illlcnsify the ncr ofas(cI'Il .
by Johll Ku rrich.
FUR. ISHINGS : I NTlivlATE HUMAN COMFORT 347
concerned with forming interior space that has a
direct relationship to the structure and language
of the enclosing architecture. In Landahl's com
mission for the offices of Driehaus Research As
sociates (1982) , located in 3 First National Plaza
Building, Chicago (1981), he developed a design
that is a microcosm of the building in which it
resides . The form of the hi gh-rise office building
is characterized by a multiplicity of vertical bay
windows. This stepped shape provided the basis
for the planning and detailing of the furnishings.
OFFICES OF DIlIEHAUS RESSEAIl CH
ASSOCIATES, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. THE
LANDAHL GROUP, [NC. , 1982.
Tile serrated desk ramer is dirertly
related to the portals which ullill/arely
draw from the overall highrise[ootprint.
Thi s system o[minialuriz ation rreat es il
solidly groullded roncept/or the desisl'l.
Photosraph by Jim Norris.
The central reception room is dominated by a
twin zigzag mahogany desk. The sawtooth motif
is continued into the frames of the surrounding
portals that lead to the private offices. A terrazzo
and bronze border echoes the portal frame and
emphasizes the threshold. This intricate detail is
miniaturized and repeated in the rich mahogany
furniture throughout the suite. The tops of the
desks elaborate the rhythmic pattern with a pol
ished bronze marquetry separating the mahogany
from a more luxurious redwood burl working
surface. The final diminution of bay window
form occurs in the cast bronze base of the owner's
custom computer cover.
PHILIPPE STARCK
The concern for completing interior space holist
ically through thoughtful and well-designed fur
nishings is exemplified in the work of a number
of contemporary young designers and architects.
Philippe Starck (1949- ) combines theatrical
drama with straightforward, cost-conscious use
of materials. The key idea of his Cafe Costes
Paris, France (1987), was to "be as handsome,
barn-like and melancholy as the railway station
buffet in Prague." <3 He feels that the consu mer
society must end because of the earth's limited
resources; spaces must be built to endure as well
as be comfortable. He says: "Real modern design
has to be the kind of thing that you can live with
for years, and which your grandmother can put
up with when she comes to stay without feeling
uncomfortable or humiliated." The dominant
feature of the interior of Cafe Costes is a central,
oversized staircase flanked by two large cy lindri
cal colu mns. This feature serves more as a giant
piece of ornamental furniture as its function is to
access a very small mezzanine. The stair widens
as it ascends, creating a reverse perspective effect,
which compresses the space and draws attention
to the stair structure. Starck fills the main floor
and mezzanine with shiny curved chairs and petite
pedestal tables, leaving a wide approach to the
staircase, which echoes the reverse perspective
path on the floor design.
by a
n otif
lding
razzo
SUMMARY
, and
ail is
Furnishings defme the function of interior space.
gany
Good furnishings enhance the pleasure of occu
f the
pying the space. Exceptional furnishings express
pol
conceptual ideas that transcend the utilitarian. Ex
",any
traordinary furnishings merge with the architec
""lOg
ture of the space and are vital to its definition. The
terms "good," "exceptional," and "extraordi
nary" do not necessarily relate to the size of the
budget. Large or unlimited budgets can, in fact,
be detrimental to creativity. One might think of
furnishings as an essential palette for the Interior
Architect to humanize space.
In some cases, furnishings are much stronger
than the architectural space that they occupy. Tra
ditionally, interior decorators have this strength;
they can create exciting vignettes. They are fasci
nated with the people who will occupy the space,
their moods, their personal belongings, thei r need
for comfort , atmosphere, color, light, texture.
These practitioners are not inhibited by the
dogma of current, formal, design education. This
encourages an intuitive freedom, resulting in fr esh
and spontaneous ideas. Not being preoccupied
with a consistent design language and its detail
ing, the decorator breaks rules , often arriving at
energetic solutions. With no architectural train
ing, the decorator relies primarily on color, ma
terials, and furnishings to transform the space.
Their work, at its best and worst, parallels stage
set design. Strong set design is based on a narra
tive, giving it cohesion. Nevertheless, the imper
manent, superficial quality of the stage set impairs
the perception of su bstance.
Most interior designers have been trained in
either home economic departments or design
schools. Their sense of architectural history influ
ences their work, giving them a stronger under
standing of space. Their concept of furnishings
tends to be more sympathetic to the architectural
whole. Rather than working in fragmented vi
gnettes, they create within the interior a cohesive
sense of place. They appreciate and know furni
ture from the classic to the avant garde and the
subtle messages they impart. Their professional
ism has made them aware of the importance of
the furnishings in relation to the architectural f111
ishes and details. Having very limited architec
tural training, designers are often excluded from
the early stages of architectural development of
the enclosure. Missing this opportunity can com
promise the successful completion of a holistic in
terior.
Architects have little formal training in the
history, selection, or design of interior furnish
[-UR:--JISHlNGS: INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT 349
350 INTERI OR ARCHITECT URE
ings. They have studied architects (such as Frank
Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier), who, as a mat
ter of course, designed not only buildings but
their contents as well . Thi s concept is generall y
well-founded in their educati on, yet when it
comes to applying these principles, most archi
tects fall short. The prevailing extremes in atti
tude about furnishing the interior are: the
architect is fully capable of doing it all, or, it is
someone else's job. Few architects are actually tal
ented (or even interested) enough to complet e in
terior spaces. Some architects dream of designing
their own chair that would bear their name. This
limited, egotistical attitude has little to do with
the development and completion of interior
space.
Architects are generally insensiti ve to fabrics,
finishes, color, li ghting, and objects of art. They
relate better to architect ural materi als such as
steel, concrete, and wood, and technical elements
such as plumbing and ventilation. They are well
trained to integrate all of the building systems and
C AFE C OSTES, PARIS, FRANCE.
P HILIPPE STARCK, 1984.
The tlnec-le.i!J!. cd chairs wae des igl1 ed to
ease sen)ing access in the dense Parisiall
cafe. Photograph by John Kurtich.
construction materials. Unfor tunatel y, this ability
to integrate does not continue to the interiors and
thei r furnishings .
On the other hand, many young architects
have found that interiors commissions are more
plentiful and accessible than building projects.
The successful ones have overcome their educa
tional defi ciencies and learned to appreciate the
design of interior space. In recent years, the major
architectural journals have started devoting entire
issues to interiors, illuminating the creative work
of these emerging practit ioners. These architects
represent a new, balanced profession that appre
ciates the intimacy of interior space as well as the
architectural form that encloses it .
This new profession is Interior Ar chitecture.
It seeks to synthesize the parallel development of
architects, interior designers, and artists. These
indi vid ual talents have long been segregated, yet
great interior space throughout hi story has been
the result of integration. Interior Architecture IS
the cross-fertilization of these disciplines.
FCRNISHI NGS: INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT 35 1
NOTES
l. Maria n Page, Furnitu re Designed by Architects (New
York: Whitney Lib ra ry of Desi gn, 1980) , p. 8.
2. Adolf Loos, Spoken into the Vo id: Coll ected Essays 1897
1900 (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1982), p. 27.
3. Frank Llo yd Wri ght , in the process of building Unity
T emple, made hundreds of changes to the construction
contract so that he could perfect the ll1terior. Wright saw
the value of making alterati ons to his design as a res ult of
seeing the actu al spaces take shape. These relationships
could not be seen in drawings .
4. The da tes in the text arc the t ra ditional dates , rounded
off, for the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New
Kingdom, not taking into account the so-called Int er me
di ate periods, w hi ch were times of unrest and change be
t,veen the maj or groups of dynas ties. A more precise
chro nol ogy reads:
Predynas tic Period-5200-3050
Earl y Dynasti c Per iod (dynasti es 1-2)-3050-2686
Old Kin gdom (dynas ties 3- 8) -2686-21 60
First Intermediate Period (dynasti es 9-11)-2160-2040
Middl e Kingdom (dynasties 11-1 3) - 2040-1 633)
Second Intermediate Peri od (dynasti es 14-17)-1786
1558
New Kingdom (dynas ties 18- 20) -1558-1069
Third lntermed iate Period (dynasti es 21-25)- 1069
656
Saite Renaiss ance (D ynast y 26)-664-525
Late Dynasti c (dyna sties 27-31 )- 525- 330
Alexander's Conques t-332
(Note: the above chr onology is fr om Ancient Egypt, edited
by Gilbert M. Grosvenor (Washington D. c.: Nati onal
Geographi c Soci ety, 1978), p. 249.
5. Sir John Soane, Lecrllres 0 1'1 AI'chitecture (London: Pu b
lication of Sir J ohn Soane's Museum, no. 14, 1929), p.
180.
6. Quoted in Edward D. Andre ws, Ti, e People Called
Shakers (N ew York: Dover Publicati ons , 1953), p. 24.
7. Oswald Mathias Ungers, " Five Lessons from Schin
kel , " (Free-Style Classicio"ln, Charl es Je ncks, ed. , London:
Architectural Des ign, 1\)82), p. 24.
8. A quote of Schinkel' s from Martin Fill er, "Karl Fri ed
rich Schinkel, Des igner: The Architect 's Furniture, " (Casa
Vogu e, July / August 1985, no. 165), p. 88.
9. Marian Page, Furnitllre Designed b)' ArchiteCl.< (New
York: Whitney Library of Design, 1980), p. 58.
10. From a lecture by Willi am Morri s, " The Lesser Art s"
(1877) in Joanll.a Barham and J ennifer Harri s, cd., Willi am
Morris and the Middl e Ages (Manchester, U.K.: Manc hester
Uni versit y Press), p. 39.
11. Quote by William Morri s from Nikolaus Pevsner,
" Willi am Mo rri s and Architecture, " Studies il1 Art , A I'chi
rectllre and Design, Volume TI/J o, Vict oria II and After (New
York: Walker and C ompany, 1968) , p. 11 0.
12. George Collins-a ve rbal quote (Columbia Univer
sity, di scussi on, N ew York, 1967).
13. Fernando Agnoletti, " The Hill-House Hclensburgh, "
Deutsche KlIl1st Imd Dekorati oll ) Vol. Vl, no. 1 (Marz 1905),
p.337.
14. Robert Waissenberger, "Ver Sacrum und di e Abnei
gun g gegen den Pro- vinziali sl11us, " Ver Sacru/tl (Wi en:
Wien Kultur, 1983) , p. 9.
15. Edga r Kaufmann and Ben Raeburn (selected by),
Frank Lloyd Wrigh t: Writ ings all d Bui ldiugs (New York:
Meridi an Books, 1960), p. 280.
16. Donald Kalec, " The Prai ri e School Furniture, " (Th e
Prairie School RelJiew, V. 1, no. 4, 1964) , p. 10.
17. Mari an Page, Fu rniture Desif!, l1 ed By Arcllirccts (New
York: Whitney Library of Design, 1980) , p. 123.
18. Gerri[ Riet veld, " Levenshoudin g als achtergrond von
mijn werkD" (View of life as a background for my work),
lecture deli vered at the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam,
27 June 1<,) 57, t ra ns. in Theodore M. Brown, T he Work oj
G. RietlJeld, A rchitect (Utrecht: A. W. Bruna & Z OOI1 ,
1958), p. 162.
19. Jane S. Smith, Elsie de Wolfe' A L ife il1 the High Style
(New York: Atheneum, 1982), p. 109.
20. Elsi e de Wolfe, Tile House il1 Good Taste (New York:
The Century C ompany, 1913) , p. 26.
21. Ruby Ros s Goodnow with Rayne Adams , The Honw
House (N ew York: The Century C ompany, 1914), p. 198.
22. Ibid, p. 198.
23. Ibid, p. 1<,)8.
24. Werner Bl ase r, Mies /J al1 dcr Rohe: Furniture and IlI te
ri ors (N ew York: Bar ron ' s 1982), p. 7.
25. Ibid, p. 12.
26. Ibid , p. 10.
27. Marian Page, Fu m /rure Desigll ed by A rchileCIs (Ne
York: Whitney Librar y of D es ign, 1980), p. 184.
28. Charl es-Edouard J ea nneret Gri s, Alma/lac d'Arch ilt
ture Modem e (Torino: Bottega d'Erasmo, 1975), p. 31.
29. Charl es Jencks, Le Corbusier and ril e T ragic Vi cw
Architecture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Pres
1973) , p. 82.
30. Hans M. Wingler, The Bauhaus (Cambridge, t
The MIT Press, 1\)78) , p. 32.
31. Howard Dearstyne, 1I1side rhe Bauhaus (New Y ~
Rizzoli , 1 <,) 86), p. 99.
32. Gonn Schildt , ed., Sket ches : AIIJa r Aalto (Cambric _
MA: The MIT Press, 1985), p. 76.
33 Leopold Diego Sanchez, Jeal/- M ichel Fran k (P
Editi ons du Regard , 1980) , p. 18.
34. Bill y Bald win, Bill y Baldwil1 D ecora tes (New Y
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1<,) 72), p. 10.
35. Ibid, p. 16.
36. Ibid, p. 30.
37 Ibid, p. 37
- nel

'" by),
York:
( The
New
d von
work) ,
crdam,
T ork of
L Zoon,
'Iz Style
York:
t: H011est
p. 198 .
1Ild Il1te
::s (New
.4 rchitec
. ' 31.
Vieu) of
'ry Press,
:>e. MA:
\\. York:
.mbrid ge,
(Pari s:
. '.\' York:
38. Frances co Dal Co and Giuseppe Mazzariol, Carlo
Scarpa: The Complete Works (New York: Rizzoli , 1985), p.
282.
39. Francesco Dal Co and Giuseppe Mazzariol, Carlo
Scarpa: The Complete Works (New York: Rizzoli, 1985), p.
64.
40. Sigmund Freud , Civilization and its Discontents (New
York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1962), p. 50.
41. Richard Horn, Memphi s: Objects, Furniture, and Pat
tems (Philadelphia: Running Press , 1985), p. 17.
42. Ibid, p. 25.
43. Philippe Starck quotation in C harles Clifford, "Cafe
Costes, " The World of Interiors, July! Aug ust 1985, p. 80.
44. Philippe Starck quotation in Mauri ce Cooper, "The
Designer as Superstar," Blu ep l'int , April 1987, no. 36, p.
21.
FCRNISHINGS: INTIMATE HUMAN COMFORT L 3
GREAT HALl, NATIONAL BUIl.D!NG
MUSEUM, WASHINGTON, D. C.
ORIGINALLY DESIGNED AND BUILT
AS THE PENSION BUILDING BY
MONTGOMERY C. MEIGS, 1881
1887.
PhOlO,r;raph by)011ll KUrlich.
L BUILDING
. D. C.
" D BUILT
,G BY
. 1881
.-11 .
CHAPTER 8
PRESERVING THE PAST: PRESERVATION,
RESTORATION, RENOVATION, AND ADAPTIVE R EUSE
Humans seem to need a sense of being connected
to the past so that they have a conftdence that
there will be a future. Many older buildings offer
qu alities that are diffIcult or impossible to repro
duce today. Prime locations, quality craftsman
ship, elaborately detailed woodwork, gracefully
proportioned rooms , authentic histo ric styles , and
materials rich with the pati na of age all contribute
to what makes these buildings valuable. Older
buildings ha ve acquired a collage of narra tive that
a new building does not contain. This quality im
mediately engages one's imagination concerning
the previous layers of events that took place
within the walls. One is constantly reminded of
the positive aspects of past eras implied by surviv
ing details and spaces . The reassu ring experi ence
of turning a cast brass doorknob attached to a
solid four-panel mahogany door and ente ring an
original Victorian room with its parquet floor,
three-piece baseboard, paneled wa inscoa t, pa
pered walls, crovvn molding, and plaster ceiling
tri ggers images of the pas t. Such exposure con
trasts w ith the general lack of character of current
building mat erials and methods . Experi encing the
past throug h these older buildings inspires an
emotional res ponse that enhances and enriches the
subst ance of contemporary life.
Historic interiors are a pri mary resource for
new Interior Architecture. The educational value
of visiting preserved interiors cannot be underes
timated for the design professions as well as for
the general public. There is no substitute for this
direct personal experience. Historic architectural
space imprints the most vivid personal memory,
allow ing the viewer the closest opportunity of ex
peri en cing an actual moment of history. The im
pact of this kind of understanding can only
fertilize the designer's palette and cultivate the
public' s appreciation. The most sophisticated
photographic, electronic, or hologra phic media
cannot replicate the reality of being there. This
reality is perpetuated by sustai ning signifIcant
spaces through preserva ti on, restoration, renova
tion , and adaptive reuse.
P RESERVATION
Preservation is the act of maintaining all or any
part of a building in order to ensure its hi storic
signiftcance. Several catego ries of older buildings
can be considered. The most refined and abst ract
is the preservation of an architectural landmark
install ed in a museum. Usually this edifice is a
singl e, prominent interior space or an exterior ar
chitectural monument or fra gment. When the
architectural landmark can be preserved and
rest ored in si tu, the building becomes a museum
itsel f, frozen in a particular time or era. This sec
ond ca tegory is the most ideal as the building
maintains its relationship to its o riginal site as well
as between its inside space and outside shell. An
other category is the preservation of a hi storical
building, which, instead of becoming a museum,
functions with contemporary needs and life w ith
out compromising its historical and physical fea
tures. Finall y, there is the adaptive reuse of an
older building; her e, the original shell of the
building might be preserved, but the interior
would be totally new. All of these categories re
quire that designers have a sensi tive historical ap
proach to how the inter iors relate to the building
as a w hol e.
PRESERVATION WITHIN THE MUSEUM
European museu ms of the nineteenth century
were particularly interested in collecting and pre
serving archit ectural monuments and fr agments
found thro ugh extensive archaeological excava
ti ons in Greece, Turkey, and the Middle East .
PRESERVING THE PAST: PRESERVATION, RESTORATI O:--;, RENOV ATION , AND ADAPTIVE REU SE 357
The Staatliche Museen, Berlin (also known as the
Pergamon Museum) featured spectacular recon
structions, in full scale with the actual fragments,
of the central passage of the Great Gate of Ishtar
from N ebuchadnezzar II's Babylon (605-563
B.C.), the Agora of Miletus (150 B. C. ), and the
Great Altar of Zeus of Pergamon (180-160 B.C.).
These exterior monuments require huge gallery
spaces to house and protect them from the climate
of northern Germany. The vi ewer has the experi-
PROCESSIONAL WAY AND ISHTAR
GATE, BABYLON, IRAQ, 605-563
B. C. RECONSTRUCTED AT THE
PERGAMON MUSEU"'l, B ERLIN ,
GEHMANY, 1899-1930.
Th e bold Ishtar C are in its deep blue
glazed brick and ri ch embl emati(
pal/ erll s. echoes the imperial might oj"
Ncbuchadn ezzar's Baby/oil. Photograph
by J ohn KlIrti(it .
ence of leaping through time when passing, for
instance, through the Great Gate of Ishtar and
emerging on the other side into the middle of the
Miletus agora.
Such architectural reconstructions were not
common in most museums because they took up
a great deal of space. It is even ra rer to fmd archi
tectural reconstructions of interior space. "Pe
riod" rooms are common in European and
American museums, but they represent stage sets
in order to display a variety of authentic furniture
of a given period . Even the furniture collection
might not necess arily be from the same place. In
any case, the space itself is usually totally fa bri
cated to form the proper setting for the furniture
and objects.
PRESERVATION IN SITU Museum preserva
tion replaces the original context and vitality of
any architectural reconstruction. The result is an
artifI cial environment attempting to emulate the
original space but isolating it from its former
ALTAR O F ZEUS, PERGAMON,
TURKEY, 197-159 B.C.
RECONSTRUCTED AT TH E PERGAMON
M USEUM, BERLIN , G EH MANY,
1888-1930.
This great allar was rfllo'lmedjor its
dynmui( , high relie(s(!liptllrc, which
told the .( tor y of the Ci.'salltolna(ily or
th e ballie between th e Olympian . ~ o d s
and the gia1'1 t.' . Pho rograph by John
Kurtidl .
for
md
the
Ilot
up
hi
Pe
ll1d
iets
ure
Ion
In
)[]
LIre
va
of
an
the
!l er
,JON
irs
eli
or
ods
human vigor and function. A rare form of contin
uously preserved architecture, outside the con
fmes of a museum mentality, is the S. C. J ohnson
and Son Administrati on Building, Johnson Wax
Compan y, Racine, Wiscons in (Frank Ll oyd
Wright, 1936). Thi s superlative example of a dis
tinguished design has maintained its original ar
chitectural integrity . The complex has functioned
as the corporate headquarters, continuously pre
serving Wright' s innovative concept of a totally
desig ned offIce co mplex.
RESTORAT ION
Restoration is the act of returning the building in
some manner to a condition deemed appropriate
aft er it has been se t as ide to be "preserved." The
Rotunda of the Universit y of Virginia, Char
lottesville 1822-1826 (Thomas Jefferson (1746
1826), suffered a Bea ux Arts " res toration" by
Stanford White (1853-1906) after a devastati ng
fIre in 1895. White eliminated one of Jefferson's
original floor s, drastically changing the Dome
INTERIOR VIEW OF LOBBY AND ""lAIN
OFFICE SPACE, ] OHNSO N WAX
ADMINISTRATrON BU ILDING, RACIN E,
W ISCONSIN. F RA NK L LOYD WRIGHT,
1936.
To prouide a bright and open work area
il1 the admillislrati oll bl lildins, W r i c ~ h l
replaced siruelural walls wilh a foresr of
elec'>Zantly tap ering eO /lIml1S. PhOiograph
by J01111 KUl'rich.
Room. Fr om 1973 to 1976, the Rotunda was re
stored to J efferson's initi al plans with its oval
shaped lower rooms, hourglass-shaped hall s,
unique double-curved staircases, and magnifI cent
Dome Room, replet e w ith accurate materials and
methods of fmish.
RENOVATI ON
Renovation is the ac t of renewing and updating
older buildings' original uses to sa tisfy contem
porar y needs. The renovation of the Ri chard Car
rigan res idence, Chicago, Illinois (1983) , by
Anders Nereim (1947- ) and Stuart Cohen
(1942- ) was inspired by the work of Sir John
Soa ne (1753-1837). The 1890s Victori an town
house had been rem odeled over the years with
littl e remaining evidence of its initial character.
The architects found so me trim of the period in
the front hall that had a robust personality. Draw
ing upon this fInd , the designers developed the
langu age for all the int erior detailing, whi ch re
ca ll ed the original spirit of the house.
PRESERVING THE PAST: PHESERVATION, RE T OR:\TI O'i, RENOVATION, AND ADAPTIVE REUSE 359
INTERI OR VI EW OF FIRST FLOOR, THE
ROTUNDA, UNI VERS ITY OF VIRGINIA,
C HARLOTTESVILLE, VIRGINIA.
THOMAS JEFFERSON, 1 822-1826.
RESTORED BY FREDERI CK D. NICHOLS
AND FRANCIS L. BERKELEY, J R.,
19 53- 1976.
As a res ult ofl7ot maskinJi the allal
shaped wall s of the meelin}? rooms, the
wrlJed hallways crea te highly actilJe and
tm expected space. Photograph by j oltll
Kurtich.
With this detailing es tablished, an intricate
sequence of spaces was created, employing the
ideas of Soane. The oval dining room visuall y
divided the first floor , implying a complete room
when in realit y it was merely a doorless connec
tion between the living room and the den. Col
umns framed this spati al sequence, recalling
INTERIOR VIEW OF D OME ROOM, THE
ROTUNDA, U NIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA,
CHARLOTTESVILLE, VIRGI NIA.
THOI'vIASJEFFERSON, 1822-1826.
R ESTORED BY FREDERICK D. NICHOLS
AND FRANCI S L. BERKELEY, J R.,
1953-1976.
Th e Dome Room, th e
Rotunda, was ari}? inally designed by
jeffe rson as th e Unitle rsily 's library.
PI'lO/o,!? raph by jollll Kurti ch.
INTERIO R VIEW OF LIVING AND DINING
ROOMS, RICHARD CARRIGAN
RESIDENCE, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS.
STUART COHEN AND AN DE RS
N ER EIM , 1983.
j\lIysterioi-ls shaJts of light framillg the
ell trance to the dining room expa,.,d tlt e
space both vertically and horizontally.
PhMograph by Nick Merrick, Hedrich
Bl ess il1,r;.
Soanian interposition . Located at the threshold
between the dining room and the den was a nar
row, two-stor y shaft , partially filled by opposing
second-story bays , recallin g the typical Chicago
gangway between two houses. The renovati on
was not authentic to the original design, yet the
spirit was recreat ed in a sympathetic language.
-'" "- ---"- - --
- ---- --- -- - --=
- ----- -- -
,I, THE
.ClNIA,
6.
l CHOLS
db)'
ar)'.
DI NING
11& the
HI d the
1/1 a1/)' .
1edric/,
reshold
; a nar
posll1g
: hicago
Dvati on
\'et the
age,
-
,
ADAPTIVE REUSE
Adaptive reus e is the interjection of an entirely
new function into the shell of an older building.
The Chicago Children's Museum, Chicago, Illi
nois (Banks/Eakin, 1989) , occupies 23,000 square
feet of space in North Pier Chicago, a former loft
style warehouse. The two-story museum was
carefull y designed to flt into the columnar struc
ture while contrasting the modest contemporary
building materials of dry wall, vinyl tile, and car
pet with the original heavy timber construction.
All the new walls avoided the existing column
grid, defining a series of symmetrical circula tion
spaces. These spaces are energized by a black and
white patterned tile floor, illuminated by si mpl e
strip fluorescent fixtures with colored gel sleeves,
emphasizing movement. This implied movement
leads to a two-story "heart space," connecting the
two levels via a steel stair and bridge. The exhi
bition spaces surround this central space. In con
trast to the active circulation, the exhibitions are
in asymmetrical rooms, carpeted and illuminated
INTERIOR VIEW OF CHICAG O
CHlLDREN'S MUSEUN! , CHICAGO,
ILLINOIS . BANKS/EAKIN, 19<,)U.
Th e careiill/y detailed illteriors oftili:;
mUSelllTi quietly reveal tl'li' liI1i/l ersal
message of adaptiiJc reuse: resp ect .fin th e
past can only enhance tlte presellt and
thefi/lurc. P/7()(ogmph by William
KildollJ.
362 INTERIOI{ ARCHITECTURE
by incandescent track li ghting, creating a quieter
and more contemplative atmosphere.
The ability to combine the new with the old
requires a special creative sensitivity. Of all the
categories of preserving the past, adaptive reuse
demands more design attention. The practitioner
of Interi or Architect, trained to resolve contem
porary problems while maintaining a respect for
histor y, must exercise the vision and responsibil
ity to recognize and protect unique architecture.
THE ARCHITECTURAL VALUE
OF THE PAST
The decline of new construction in recent years
has helped the public to refoclls on the important
resources older buildings contain. Certain con
struction techniques, superior craftsmanship, and
the choi ce of fine materials used in many older
buildings are proving to be economically unfeasi
ble to dupli ca te. Many older buildings are already
located on desirable sites, while others could pro
Il eter vide the opportunity to "seed" the redevelopment
of an urban area if they were properly renova ted .
e old
No longer is it generally cheaper to demolish an
1 the
older, structurall y sound building and erect a new
reuse
one in its place. Ma ny older buildings have im
loner
portant historical or architectural signifi ca nce in
tem
addition to functional or commercial use. Federal ,
:t for
state, and municipal laws favorably affect the pro
sibil
cess of histori c pr eservation and rehabi litation
He.
through tax credits, grant s, and subsidi es.
The older building has a history of its exis
tence in space. In addition, it mi ght also represent
an interesting historical st yle or composite of
styles . Considering the building's rehabilitation,
the designer must have a keen, intelligent under
years
standing of all histori es associated with the build
,rtant
ing. Ca reful and thorough research is necessar y.
con
Primary sources of research begin with a diligen t
, and
investigation of the building it self, amplified by
older
studying records found in courthouses, hi stori cal
feasi
societi es, libraries, and titl e guaranty co mpanies
-eady
as well as lett ers , postcards, di ari es, in ventories ,
pro-
and such. Secondary sources comprise any pub
lished mater ial, such as news stories , magazine
articl es, and ad verti sements rel ated to the build
ing. Peripheral sources would incl ude other build
ings by same archit ect, building codes at the
time, trade ca talo gs , architectural handbooks, and
tax laws.
Existing conditions of the older building
must be thoroughly anal yzed. The anal ysis is nec
essary for a proper evaluation of what needs to be
done or w hat can be done. The evaluation would
include the histori cal or archit ectural signifI ca nce
of the building, the size of the building and its
room disposi tion , the conditi on of the building's
stru cture and mechanical syste ms, the location of
the building, and the building' s economic po ten
tial.
MUSEUM PRESERVATION
F. W. LITTLE LIVING ROOM
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York,
New York, has preserved the living room of the
Fr ancis W. Littl e house, designed by Frank Lloyd
Wright (1867-1959) from 1912 to 1914. The in-
PRESERVING THE PAST: PRESERVATION,
INTERI OR VIEW OF LIVING ROOM,
FRAN CI S W. LITTLE RESIDENCE,
DEEPHAVEN. MINNESOTA.
FRANK L LOYD WRIGHT. 1912.
RECONSTRUCTED IN TH E
METROPOLITAN MUSEUM O F ART,
NEW Y O RK, NEW YORK. 1972.
Wri,qht provided great expanses oj'
wimto ws il1 th e liviNg
1'00111 iN respol1S f to the oriJI inal sire's
drmnaric l! ifIJJs of Robinson Bay alld the
sllrroundill:\ cOllllf ryside. Phor0.5!, aph by
Jo hn
stall ation is located in the museum to si mulate the
ori gina l sitin g of the room within the house with
a view to Central Park. This loca tion allows nat
ural light from the south to illuminate the room
install ation ; the or igi nal room was open to natural
light from both the so uth and the nonh, bal ancing
the light quality. The museum had to imitate the
northern exposure with flu orescent lighting,
whi ch actually deadens that side of the space when
compared to natural light.
When visitors approach thi s exhibit , they can
see the ori ginal materials and details of the exte
rior construction and peer thr ough the art glass
windows to the restored inter ior. Thi s creates a
ri cher sequence from outside to inside through the
original entrance. The Metr opolitan Museum
transcended the " period" r00111 inst alla tion prac
ti ced by most museums up to this ti me; It
RESTOR:\TIO::\. RENOVATION. AND ADAPTI VE REUSE 363
achieved an exciting spatial experience for mu
seum visitors. Unfortunately, once they enter the
living room, they are confined to one area by
roped barriers, not being able to experience other
viewpoints of the space.
This room was never completely furnished
by the original designs of Frank Lloyd Wright
because the owners had leftover furniture from an
earlier house that Wright had designed for them.
For a major room such as this, Wright would
have had complete control as opposed to allowing
his clients to diminish the consis tent quality he
envisioned. Furthermore, this is not considered
one of Wright 's best examples of Interior Archi
tecture. His special floor design was never exe
cuted to echo the geometric pattern of the ceiling.
The print table, though extraordinarily beautiful,
was not designed for this room . Visitors are ac
tually deceived to believe that this is an accurate,
unified design by Frank Lloyd Wright. This fact,
coupled with the problematic, constrained view
ing position, questions the validity of using this
room as the major example of Prairie School ar
chitecture in New York. Is this room so precious
that it could not be fully experi enced by the pub
lic? Would it not be wonderful if the M etropolitan
Museum had reproduced one of Wright's greatest
interior spaces, complete with duplications of all
the furnishings? This would allow the public a
rare opportunity of experiencing an interior by an
American architect ural genius.
SULLIVAN'S TRADING ROOM
The Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois ,
does allow the public to experience a restored,
major inter ior by Adler and Sullivan. When the
Art Institute agreed to house the remains of the
Chicago Stock Exchange Trading Room, de
signed in 1893 (demolished in 1972), it decided to
reconstruct the entire room, using as many genu
ine architectural fragments as could be salvaged
from the original building. J ohn Vinci (1937- )
was commissioned to reconstruct and restore the
room as a major , permanent installation within
the museum's new addition being designed by
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (1976).
The Trading Room originally was on the
second floor of the Stock Exchange Building, a
large space measuring 64 by 81 feet, with a 30
foot hi gh ceiling and a 16-foot deep gallery run
ning the length of the west wall. Large double
hung windows provided natural light on the east
wall, which overlooked LaSalle Street, and the
south wall, which faced an alley separating the
building from its nearest neighbor. The ceiling
was covered with colored art glass, illuminated
from above by special skylights. Because there
were eleven more stories of offices above the
Trading Room, the skylights were so designed
that natural light could filter in through third floor
lunettes in the east and south facades and through
shed roofs of prismati c glass on the north and
south walls.
Vinci's original proposal was to reconstruct
the room on a second floor level in the Art Insti
tute, oriented exactly as it had been in the Stock
Exchange with natural light coming in from the
east and south. Because of the complexity of the
building program for the entire museum addition,
it was decided to locate the Trading Room recon
struction on the first floor. However, the room
was rebuilt in its correct orientation, receiving a
new lease on life through proper use of natural
light.
Vinci had exactly four months to research
and salvage the room prior to the building's de
molition. His research resources consisted of care
ful and thorough exploration of the building itself
through producing measured drawings and pho
tographic document ation. Although a basic floor
plan of the space existed, there were no other ex
tant dra wings. He found a rendering in Harper 's
i'vlagazin e, two photos of the interior , and one
photo of it after it was remodeled into a bank.
Photometric drawings were produced for him by
another flrm; they turned out to be inaccurat e be
cause the photometric firm assumed that the
building was built square. Instead of trusting their
instruments, which were telling them that the
room was not square, they "corrected" their fmd
ings to produce a pl an with true right angles. It
was not until Richard Nickel (1928-1972) pro
duced a careful photographic collage of the Trad
ing Room ceiling before it was dismantled, that it
on the
l ding, a
th a 30
run
doubl e
the east
and the
ting the
. ceiling
minated
se there
Dve the
lesigned
ird floor
through
rt h and
)nstruct
rt 1nsti
e Stock
-om the
F of the
:ldition,
1 recon
e room
a
natural
'esearch
Ig' s de
of care
19 itself
Id pho
ic floor
her ex
'-farpa's
nd one
, bank.
hi m by
-ate be
lat the
Ig their
lat the
lr find
les. It
- pro
T rad
(ha t it
was di scovered the room was not a true rectangl e.
In fac t, the Trading Room was ou t of square by
18 inches and was reconstructed as such.
Vi nci 's philosophy in reconstruction and res
toration is analogous to a mathematical problem:
find the kno wns and solve the unknowns. Ei ghty
percent of the cas t iron was recovered by the orig
inal building and reus ed in the reconstruct ion.
Forty percent of the plas ter castings are original
and one bay of the stencils. Due to subsequent
remodelings, several unknowns needed to be
sol ved, such as the original mater ial of the floor
and the shape and color of the base of the col
umns. A wooden floo r was chosen (rather than
the marble, which was extant at the time of the
building's demolition and representati ve of later
remodeling) because it was more logi cal for ac
coustical reasons and no t out of line with its pe
riod. The column bases (removed due to the
remodeling process) were reconstructed from the
very few photographs avai labl e of the original
space. The richly stenciled walls and ceiling uti
li zed at least fifty-two colors and most had to be
reproduced .
INTERIOR VIEW OF TRADING ROOM,
CHICAGO STOCK EXCHANGE,
CHICAGO, I LLINOIS. ADLER AND
SULLIVAN, 1893-1894.
RECONSTRUCTED IN THE ART
INSTITUTE OF CHlCAGO, CHlCAGO.
I LLlNOIS BY VINCI-KENNY,
AR CHITECTS, 1976-1977.
The level ofdecora/Ivc arllCIIla/IolI
I ound In th e RO DIn was
exceptior/al fOl' coilimacial space dllrilLg
the late 1890's. Adler and Sullivan,
A,nerlulrI , partnership 1883- 1895,
ChlcaRo S/(Jck Exchange
Room , recon sfrmted ill The A rt
InsriUtte oICIticago, 1893-1894
(denw l ish ed 1972), scaRli ola , gilded
plaster, slall1cd terrtlCOla ,
wood, etc. The recol1strtl ctiO/1 a/1d
rei/1stal/afi oll oJ the TradiltS Room was
lI1ade possible through a ii rtl/1t Jom th e
Wa lter E. Heller Fo {lI1dat Ion , alld Its
pres ide /1t, Mrs. Edwil1)' Decosla,
wilit additiorlal Ji,i{i5 Jam lhe City of
C hicago, lv/rs. EUJi,ellc A. Davidsoll ,
The Grahallt Foundation Ior Advanced
Stlldies ill the Fille Arts, and Three
Oaks Wrecking. 1990 Tite Art
Illsfitllte All Rights
Rc' en'ed .
PRESERVl "iG THE P.\ -r: p AT . ESTO R:\ TI ON, RENOVATION, AND ADAPTIVE REUSE 365

, --===
LASALLE STREET ENTRANCE ARCH,
THE CHICAGO STOCK E XCHANGE,
C HICAGO, ILLIN OIS. ADLER AND
SULLIVAN, 1893 -1894.
RECONSTRUCTED AND INSTALLED AT
THE ART INSTiTUTE OF C HICAGO,
C HI CAGO, ILLI NOIS HY SKIDMORE,
OWINGS AND MERRILL, 1977.
The wrren( /oca(iOIl of the entrance arch
as a garden fixtllre arlllihiiaies th e
originai stren5t th oi'Suilivall '.i arch as all
entry portai. Photograph by Jolm
Kurtich.
The entrance arch of the Chicago Stock Ex
change Building was also sal vaged by the Art In
stitute. Vinci's proposal was to reconstr uct it as
an entry into the new wing of the museum and
subsequently the Trading Room, maintaining the
physical and spiritual connection between the en
trance of the Stock Exchange Building and its
primary interior space, the Trading Room.
Unfort una tel y, the architects for the build ing ad
diti on did not agree, and thei r will prevailed. The
entry ar ch was reconstru cted as a fr ees tanding
monumenc in a sunken area of the landscaping in
front of the new wing of the museum, oriented
90 from its original position, standing depressed
in the ground, lonely and detached .
The Trading Room is a li ving installati on,
not treated as a precious obj ect to be peered into
from a distance. Its current use as a reception
room, performance space, and banquet hall re
sembles its original use as a trading room, full of
people, noi se, and energy.
IN SITU RESTORATION
WRIGHT HOME AND STUDIO
Many problems exist when an older building is to
be preserved and restored on its original site. In
the case of the Home and Studio of Frank Lloyd
Wri ght, Oak Park, Illinois, originally designed in
1889, the building had gone through extensive
remodelings and additions, continuing until as
late as 1925. Basic decisions had to be made as to
how the Home and Studio would be restored.
particularly what period it would portray. The
year 1909 was finally chosen as this represented
the conditi on of the building complex at the peak
of Wright's first t we nt y yea rs of professional
practice. The Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Stu
dio Foundation acquired the proper t y in 1974 to
preserve and restore this unique archi tectural
monument. Ar chitect Donald Kalec (1935- )
was chosen as the director of research and resto
366 I NTEIUOR ARCHITECT URE
I NTER IOR VIEW Of DINING ROOM,
FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT H OM E AND
STUDIO, OAK PARK, ILLINOIS. FRANK
LLOYD WRIGHT, 1889. RESTO RED BY
DON KALEC AND THE FRANK LLOYD
WRIG HT HOME AND STUDIO
F OUNDATION, 1977-1 980.
A. BEFORE RESTORATION.
B. A FTER RESTORATI ON.
The imerior restorarion orrile dilli ng
1'00/ 11 , recollstruaed /1'0/11 historiral
photo};raphs, required the re-crearion or
ng is to
the recessed cci/in,R ligluing j1xl/.lrc, rhc
site. In
ICl)cling Cl/ld oj'rhe f/oor,
, Lloyd
Ihe art windows, and tllf
ned in
applyillS o/lillen to th(' lPalls and
:tensive
ceiling. Photograph by johll Kurti ch.
lI1til as
:k as to
'stored,
y. The
e ented
le peak
sional
:1d Stu ration. A long and careful evaluation of the bui ld nlZlng approximately t wo hundred existin:;,
_974 t o ing had to be made to determine the scope of the historical photographs of the interior and ext
:ect u ra I proJ ect. rior, analyzing the su rviving original workin""
35- Primary resea rch materials ll1 cl uding stud\ drawings (a complete set did not exist), inter
. resto- ing the "footprint s" of the buil ding itself. scrutl- \'ie\\,ing sur viving family members who li ved in
PRESERVI:--; G THE P. 1. .... ........n ..'. RENOVATION, AND ADAPTI VE REUSE 367
the house, researching property records, and
reading surviving correspondence, which in
cluded descriptions of the Home and Studio,
either as fact or as future planning.
Secondary research included studying other
Wright buildings of the same vintage (for surviv
ing details unique to Wright as well as decorative
features), other non-Wright buildings of the same
period (for general construction techniques and
stock items) , and published articles in magazines
contemporary with the period, such as House
Beautiful and Architectural Record.
Peripheral research comprised studying trade
catalogs of the period (for plumbing fi xtures,
lighting fixtures), carpenter 's journals (for fram
ing and construction techniques), and surveying
salvage yards (for surviving standard hardware of
the period) . An interest ing fact that turned up
from this sort of resea rch: The barrel vault used
in the playroom was a standard wood construc
tion technique for the period, a wood frame sys
tem with plaster infill . Wri ght took advantage of
available standar d details whenever it suited his
aesthetic requirements.
Since the decision was made to restore the
house faithfully to its 1909 condition, everything
done to the building after that time had to be
eliminated, even if the alterations had been done
by Wright himself. A basi c rul e was established
that all removed material had to be recorded with
measured drawings and photographs . This careful
documentation was necessary to be responsible to
scholarship and justification of design decisions
made. '
Hard data for restoration accounted for about
85 percent of the Home and Studio. When some
thing had to be restored for which no information
existed, the rule was to keep the solution as simple
as possible. The temptation to "play" Frank
Lloyd Wright had to be avoided; sLl ch newly de
signed items should not attract attention. The
challenge of furnishing the Home and Studio ac
curately was met with the help of the historic
photos. About six hundred objects were identified
from these photos by a special committee whose
on-going job was then to collect them to com
plete the furnishings.
WRIGHT's DANA HOUSE
Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959) designed the
lavish Dana House, Springfield, Illinoi s (1902
1904), for Susan La wrence Dana (1862-1946),
who wanted an appropriate and impressive pl ace
to entertain politicians, socialites, and distin
guished visitors from abroad. She was also very
active in women's rights during the early twen
tieth cent ury and pursued studies and resea rch in
metaphysics and religious cults, all of which re
quired her hosting meetings and gatherings at her
house. Wright was given carte blanche in terms of
design and budget and described hi s approach to
the house as " A home designed to accommodate
the art collection of its owner and for entertai ning
extensively, somewhat elaborately worked out in
detail. " 2
The desi gn of the house had to incorporate
an earli er Victorian struct ure, starting out as an
expansion of the original house but finally swal
lowing it totally as well as consuming much of
the proper ty the house stood on. Wright was re
quired by Mrs. Dana to preserve part of the orig
inal house-her father's Victorian study,
complete with marble fireplace and old family
photos. The new design featured a cruciform
plan, and Wright created for the first time several
two-story-hi gh interior spaces, including a dra
matic barrel-vault ed dining room. Wright de
signed the details of every aspect of the house,
incl uding art glass, lighting fixtures, furniture,
carpets , draper ies , mural decorations, wood
work, friezes, and tilework. ". . it is possible to
argue that Mrs. Dana's open purse had proved a
danger to Wright as well as an opportunity; the
note of excess is struck again and again in what
amounts, after all, to a gargantuan folly-a sort
of Springfield San Simeon. " 3
Mrs . Dana closed her house in 1928 due to
the depletion of her inherited wealth and su bse
quent inability to maintain the es tate. The house
was saved from demolition in 1944 when it was
purchased by the Charles C. Thomas Publishing
Company for their executive offi ces. The house
and its contents were then purchased in 1981 by
the state of Illinoi s to be preserved and restored as
--
.
:led the
(1902
-1946),
,-e place
di stin
o very
- twen
in
Il ich re
at her
erms of
oach to
modat e
m ining
d out in
,rporate
It as an
y swal
l uch of
was re
l e ong
study,
family
Jciform
several
: a dra
de
house,
rniture,
wood
,sible to
roved a
ity; the
,n what
-a sort
due to
subse
e house
it was
)lishing
house
981 by
:ored as
.::-:! .

:.., -, i
I
:-:-;;.=-:-" - -;._ .. ; ;
.'; __ .l
--- ,

.
,
........... --- - .... - ....
-.
......... -.. - - .., 1 -1, PERSPECTIVE RENDERING Of DINING
- . _., .. ,,
:... ...ll: ... : ROOM, DANA HOUSE, SPRINGFIELD,
iLLf NOIS. FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT,
1902-1904.
This speClacular barrel-vaulted 1'00111
resprcscllts Wr(Qht's i/ltel/se i/lt erest III
desiJ?11irl,R all ele111erlts oJtfie !rlterior
Architec/ure. Courtesy o( The Art
Ins/itute oj Chicago.
a landmark monument of the Illinois Historic mentation. However , the photographs could not
Preservation Agency. Hasbrouck Peterson Asso det er mine the original colors of painted surfaces
ciates of Chicago, Illinois, was hired to do a de and wood fmi shes. ScientifI c inspection and anal
tail ed restoration study, and Wilbert Hasbrouck ys is was necessa ry with more than 250 samples of
(1931- ) subsequently served as restoration ar pamt .
chit ect. The eighty-six years between the house's
Similar to the restorat ion of the Frank Lloyd construction and its defmitive restoration had wit
Wright Home and Studio, a defInite year had to nessed alterations or removal of some of Wright's
be decided upon to restore the house. Hasbrouck designs on the facade. Missing pieces or frag
chose 1910 because "the house was at the peak of ments had to be carefully researched and repli
its viability (then). The little things that made the cated. Even the mortar joints of the exterior brick
house a home were in place, and it had at tai ned walls had to be taken back to Wright 's original
the patina of use by 1910." 4 Luckily many pho deeply raked joints.
tographs had been taken of the house during that The restored Dana House represents an im
year, so there was a rich source of research docu- portant, multilayered histori c monument for Illi-
PRESERVING THE P.\ T: P - ESElt !.TIO '. E TOR.U ION, RENOVATION, AND ADAPTIVE REUSE 369
VI EW OF INTERIOR DETAILS OF DINING
ROOM AND BALCONY ABOVE, DANA
HO US E, SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS.
FRANK LLOY D WRIGHT , 19()2-19U4.
RESTORED BY WILBERT HASBH OU CK,
1987-199().
Tile res/ora/ioll <:f a interior i-'
IJay complex because il invol tl CS
re,('ar(11alld allalysis ora IJariery of
inlerdcpendelll elemenl5 , ilic/udiliX
plaslerJi'iezc;, 11111rals, au /'l'lelal
work, W;/O/Il jim/illfre, 1I/llq/le lighl
.fixtures, rII}(S , and specia l jillislles.
Phol ogl'apll by DOll Kala.
nois social and archit ectural hist or y. Mrs, Dana
was a prominent Illinois socialite as well as a pi
oneering suffragette. The house preserves t wo pe
riods of history: the Vi ctorian study of Mrs,
Dana's father, Rheuna Lawrence, who was mayor
of Springfi eld; and a major commission for Frank
Lloyd Wright during his early Prairie School
years while he was perfecting hi s style, phil os o
phy, and spatial dynamics.
JEFFERSON' S MONTICELLO
Wright's Home and Studio was an important ex
periment in developing a uniquel y Ameri can res
idential vernacular. He was not the first person,
however, to take on this challenge. About one
hundred fifty years earlier, Thomas Jeffers on
(1743-1826) was experimenting wi th the same
idea in hi s own home "l abora to ry," Monticell o.
He designed this home using modifled classical
language to express the new American democ
racy. Rejecting Georgian elitism, he fa vored clas
sical reference for the young republic, which
embodied the ideal political stru ctures of ancient
Greece and Rome,
J efferson grew up in an environment that en
couraged a Renai ssance approach to all things.
Anything was a possibilit y. Although he was for
mally trained as a la wyer, architecture was a life
long passion. Jefferson's architectural ideas were
lOut one
influenced by hi s European tra vels when he was
Jefferson
the U.S. Minister to France (1785-1789). Build
he same
ings such as the Hotel de Salm (1783-1786) in
mticello.
Paris , the Column House at the Desert de Retz
classical
(1774-1789) olltside of Paris, and the Maison Car
democ
ree (A. D. 4) in N imes inspired his su bsequent de
red clas
signs for the Virginia State Capitol (1789-1798),
which
the University of Virginia (1822-1826) at Char
-
. ancIent
lottesville, and Monticello (1769-onward). While
in Europe, he purchased a complete set of Andrea
t hat en-
Palladia's I Quattri Llb1'l del! Architettura (1570),
things.
which became a reference textbook for his build
\'as for
mgs.
a life
Monticello is uniquely sited on a hilltop
as were
overlooking Charlottesville. T he house was
EXTER10R VIEW OF WEST PORTICO,
MONTICElLO, CHARLOTTESVILLE,
VIRGINIA. THOMAS JEFFERSON,
1793-1809.
MOl11icello isfilll of spalial sll/prises.
FOI' eXa/up/c, Ihc west facadc giues the
impressioll that the Dome Room is Oil
thc sccoudf/oor IllhclI it is actually
localed 011 the liJirdf/oor. Photo/;;raph hy
May Haw/ic/d.
begun in 1769 and was developed and construct ed
over the next fift y-four years. J efferson thought
of his house as an architectural laboratory where
he could experiment with new ideas at all scales ,
from the building shell itself to the furni shings
within the interior. J efferson was truly a holisti.c
designer. His house was a refl ection of his genius,
summed up in his statement: " Architecture is m y
delight, and putting up and pulling down, one of
my favorite amusements."s
Jefferson's first version of Monticello, heav
ily influenced by Pallad io, broke with the pre
dominant colonial arc hitecture. The house had a
two-story temple front, similar to Palladio' s Villa
PIsano (1552/1553-1555), Montagnana, Italy.
PRESER ( C THE Tlo.. RE TO RATI0 N, RENOVATION, AND ADAPTIVE REUSE 371
. - - ~ --. -< ~ - ~ = - - = -
I
When he returned from hi s French mi ssion in
1789, he decided to remodel his house based on
the Hotel de Salm. He tore down the eXIsting
two-story temple front in order to make Monti
cello appear as though it were a one-story house
without sacrifIcing the second and third floor s.
Doubling the size of the house, he rel ega ted all
service areas, such as the kit chen , to below the
fIrst floor. The major living spaces and Jefferson's
living quarters were on the fIrst floor , with the
dome room, bedrooms, and storerooms on the
second and third floor s.
jefferson's fIrst floor suite was designed as a
group of private rooms containing a library, cab
inet (s tudy) , solarium, and bedroom. He was in
flu enced by the French alcove bed that he
observed at the Column House, Ie Desert de Retz.
When he appli ed this idea to Monti cello, he posi
tioned his bed within a thickened wall separa ting
the bedr oom and the ca binet . This wall also con
tained a stair leading to a cl oset above the bed.
The unique position of the bed allowed him access
to ei ther roo m and to maintain the axial ali gnment
of the fIreplace and the windows. Intimacy was
created in this otherwise high-ceilinged house by
carving a room through the wall for the bed.
INTERIOR VIEW OF T HOMAS
JEFFERSO N'S ALCOVE BED FRO],I,! THE
DRESSING ROOM, MONTI CELLO,
CHARLOTTESVI LLE, VI RGINIA.
THOMAS JEFFERSO N, 1793-180<).
Leav;ng no detail to chance, j e[ferso ll
created all ofh;s own wrta;n designs as
seen in the elegant drapillg of his
in crimson damask, lined in
green, and trimm ed IlJilli golden
Photograph by May
After jefferson 's death, debts caused his heirs
to sell Monticello. A history of absentee owners
with poor caretakers led to the decline of the es
tate. It was sold to t he Thomas j effe rson M emo
rial Foundation in 1923, a nonprofIt organization
dedicated to saving this extraordinary architec
turall andmark.
The rest oration of Monticello is typical of
most national treasures, freezing a moment in
time, attempting to es tablish authenticit y. Unfor
tunately, people are misl ed into believing that
such restorations represent a pas t realit y. j effer son
was bui ld ing Monti cello for over fIfty years , put
ting it in a constant state of flux . The influence of
his travels and his desire for architectural experi
mentati on caused jefferson to constantl y reeval
uate and modify the structure. Furthermore,
j efferson was not a trained archi tect, but he
learned by doi ng. The enlightened era in whi ch
he lived encouraged the educated man to pursue a
multitude of interests and careers. j effer son was
the third president of the United States, author of
the Declaration of Independence, ambassador to
France, a lawyer , a musician, an architect , an in
terior decorator , an inventor, a landscape de
signer, and a revolutionary politician, to name a
372 INTERI O R ARCHITECTURE
is heirs few. The original Monticello refl ected its owner' s
owners complex personality with its visionary plan,
the es unique interior spaces, and numerous mechanical
Memo- inventions. Knowledge of this history raises the
11zaoon question of how one captures the vitality of the
rchitec- period through restoration. The usual res torative
approach exploits the frozen moment, idealizing
Jical of
the architectural past. This idealization limits the
nent in
depth of understanding, producing a fals e sense of
U nfor
reality.
ng that

RICHARDSON'S GLESSNER HOUSE
rs, put
lence of
TheJ J Glessner House, Chicago, Illinois (1885
expen
1886) by Henry Hobson Richardson (1838-1886)
reeval-
is another example of a house museum. It was
ermore,
res tored mainly from primary research and evi
but he
dence. The architect 's working dra wings of floor
1 which
plans and el evations as well as his specifi ca tions
Jursue a
existed intact. Although the house was not built
;on was
exactly as specified by the drawings, the Chicago
ll thor of
architectural firm of Perkins & Will provided as
;ador to
built drawings. In addition to the drawings , the
[. an m
Glessners kept bill s from the construction firm,
ape de-
bills for fixtures , and a compl ete set of weekly
name a
journals in a di ary format. The original textiles
PRESERVING T HE P:\ST: P It. no'.
were preserved (now kept at the Art Institute of
Chicago). The house itself provided the archaeo
logical evidence for original colors , wallpaper,
and materials that still exi sted in fragments hidden
behind moldings or forgott en corners.
The restoration policy of the Glessner house
was to res tore it to the first five years of the use
of the house. The administration of the restora
ti on is done through a House and Collections
Committee. The curator, El aine Harrington,
worked with this committee and its advisory ar
chitect. Although her training is in art history and
museum cur atorship, Elaine Harrington has a re
markable, sensitive approach to the probl ems of
Interior Architecture with respect to restoration.
Through her careful research, it seems that
Mrs. Glessner was very much influenced by a
book called The Hou se by Clarence Cook
(1881). This book, subtitled "Essays on Beds and
Tabl es, Stools and Candlesti cks, " fea tured de
signs and attitudes of Colonial Revival , Japanese,
Gothic Revival, and William Morris. What det ails
could not be found from primary research could
be filled in with information from this book.
However, not all original architectural details and
fittings were missing from the house. Much of
INTERIOR VIEW OF FIRST FLOOR
BEDROOM, J J G LESSNER H O US E,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. H . H.
RI CHARDSON, 1885-1886.
Built in 1886, the massil/e
room Romanesque style hOl/se of rough
hewl'l granite, effectillely shields the
qui et serwity of the interior Ji'Oln the
urban sile, Photograph by J ohn Kurtieil ,
ESTOR.\ TION, RENOVATlON, AND ADAPTIVE REUSE 373
Richardson's decorative moldings, panels , doors,
frames, and other details of wood were intact.
Many of these wood pieces had suffered badly
during the nearly one hundred years between
constr ucti on and restoration; they needed serious
rehabilitation to bring them back to their original
beauty and fil1lsh('
The Glessner House was one of Richardson's
last commissions. Cons tru cti on had hardly begun
before he died. Since the house represents one of
his most mature residences, its preservation is
very important. He was known for his rusticated
granit e exteriors, rounded arches, an d Roman
esque details. H e strived for a combination ot
massiveness and repose. He believed that:
in Romanesque art only, and il1 tho se early Re
naissance modes which were direetly based upon iI, thllt
we find that balance between lJertical and horizontal
acce'ntual ions which means pe/feet repose. The semicir
cle demands neither thaI ascending lines nor thaI retreat
ing lines shall preponderate; and in itself it is neither
passive like the lint el nor soaring like the pointed arch.
It seems to have grown to its due bearing power and
thus to remain, vital yet restful, making /10 either
to resist downward pressure or to press upward ilselI '
MEIER'S DOUGLAS HOUSE
For any society that preserves its cultu re, venera
ble landmarks are no t the onl y structures worthy
of concern. Noted contemporary buildings ' lon
gevity can be jeopardized if not properly main
tained. This issue is more keenly experienced in
res idential interiors due to the greater degree of
var iables in owners hip . The Douglas House
(1973), Harbor Springs, Mi chigan, by Richard
Meier (1934- ), falls into this category. The
weekend retrea t, suffering from years of absentee
ownership and attempts at making the pristine
structure warm and cozy, was purchased by the J.
Paul Beitlers and restored by the Landahl Group
(1985). The owners considered the hOllse the most
important work of residential architecture by
Richard Meier, a modern classic, deserving a me
ti culous restoration.
Entering the house at the top level from the
street side, the visitor does not perceive the gran
deur of the site of the building. Magnificent! y sit
EXTERIOR VIEW Of EAST fA CADE,
j. J. GLESSNER HOUSE, CHICAGO,
ILUNOIS. H. H. R I CHARDSON, 1885
1886.
The rt.l.'licaled exlerior, reslored
10 its or(i!il/al color through special
cleallillg techlliques, has reilllJigol'arcd
th e rich ROI//allcsquc details. PllOtograph
by Johl1 KlI l'l ich.
VIEW OF DOUGLAS HOUSE, HARBOR
SPRINGS, MI CHIGAN. RICHARD
MEIER, 1973. RESTORED BY T HE
LANDAHL GRO UP, 1985.
The ca refuil'cslol'atiol1 established
lVlcier's origillal.(Ill'11iIIlI'C arral1gcl11Cl11
for the livil1g roOIl/. A /'lew c/./stO/11
rug based 011 a sketch by
Lc Corbusicl' completed tili.' schcme.
PhOiograph by John KlIl'tic/1.
. .
CA GO,
" . 1885
, resl orcd
t,ial
h!Oraled
1)/10 lo,e rap h

D
HE
I'd
uated along a steep and isolated piece of property,
Meier's fi ve- stor y, 4,500 square foot promontory
cascades down the east ern bluff of Lake Mi chigan.
The house, structured in steel and clad in glass
and white painted wood, crea tes a striking con
tras t against the densel y wooded site. The build
ing's interior organization is separated into public
and pri vate zones . The publi c space, to the west,
has views of the lake on all levels through large
expanses of glass , whil e the private space, con
taining bedrooms, baths, and service areas on
three levels , faces east toward the bluff. Balancing
the strong verticality of the structure, the multi
storied horizontal levels als o provi de a series of
platforms for vi ewin g t he lake. Vi ewing becomes
the es sence of the house. Meier intended the orig
inal interi or to be mi nimal, acting as a frame for
the spectacul ar view of the la ke. To ensure that
his interior would not compete with the vista,
Meier used neutral finishes , solid walls of whit e
paint , transparent wa ll s of glass, and fl oors of nat
ural wood, creating a serene at m osphere. The in
teriors provided quiet galleries, wi th the lake
becoming the art work.
Faced with a badly deteriora ted building and
an inappropriatel y altered interior, the current
owners embarked upon the mission of returning
the residence to its ori ginal condition . The struc
ture required extensive repairs and repainting, to
return it to its ori ginal Meieres que white. As a
result of the house bei ng left unhea ted, approxi
mat ely one quarter of the glass facing the lake was
da maged and had to be repl aced. Additi onal res
torati on to the interior included: replacing bath-
PRESERVI G THE P:". T: P ESE' .. \ 0.-. RE TORATlON, RENOVATION, AND ADAPTI VE REUSE 375
room tile, refitting hardware, and removing the
flocked wallpaper and hanging plants to diffuse
the misdirected attempt to make the stark struc
ture " homey." The terrarium adjacent to the liv
ing room and the storage area created from a
guest room were returned to the original confi g
uration. Since the house was only twelve years
old when its restoration began, many of the orig
inal trades were still a vaila ble to work on the res
idence. Their knowledge made returning the
building to the original an easier tas k.
In the case of the original furniture, it was
either replaced, restored, or recreated. The archi
tect's plans, drawings, and original photographs
were critical to this process. The furniture was a
mixture of modern classic pieces such as: Le Cor
busier's Grand Confort and Basculant chairs,
Mies van der Rohe's MR chairs, and Meier's cus
tom tables and built-in furniture. Meier's original
living room carpet was a neutral gray rectangle.
The Landahl Group replaced the rug with one
based on a 1956 sketch of a stage curtain by Le
Corbusier, Meier' s inspiration.
This sensitive and meticulous restoration of a
modern landmark exemplifies how even recent
work can be vulnerable to inappropriate altera
tions and neglect by previous owners. The integ
rity of architectural interiors can easily be
compromised by the whims and egos of owners,
becoming inconsistent with the spirit of the build
mg.
RENOVATION
ADLER AND SULLIVAN'S GUARANTY
BUILDING
When an architecturally significant building is to
be faithfully restored and renovated, not for mu
seum purposes, but for continued commercial
use, different problems arise that must be solved
without compromising the historical or architec
tural integrity of the original building. The reno
vation of Adler and Sullivan's Guaranty Building
(1895), Buffalo, New York, was successfully
achieved by the Cannon Architects and Engineers
of Buffalo, 1984.
The Guaranty Building, also known as the
Prudential Building, was Adler and Sullivan' s last
tall office building (their fifth together). Many
critics and scholars consider it their best. Sullivan,
in his 1896 essay, "The Tall Office Building Ar
tistically Considered," rhetorically itemized vari
ations of his own philosophy of the skyscraper:
Certain critics, and very thoughtful ones, halle ad
vanced the theory that the true prototype oj the tall
office building is the classical column, consisting ojbase,
shaft and capital-the moulded base oj the column typ
ical oj the lower stories oj our building, the plain 01'
fluted shaft suggesting the monotonous, uninterrupted
series oj office-tiers, and the capital the completing
power and luxuriance oj the attic.
. .. Others, seeking their examples and justifica
tion in the vegetable kingdom, urge that such a des ign
shall above all things be organic. They quote the suit
ableJiower with its bunch ojleaves at the earth, its long
gracejul stem, carrying the gorgeous single flower. They
point to the pine-tree, its massy roots, its lithe, uninter
rupted trunk, its tuft oj green high in the air. Thus,
they say, should be the design oj the tall office building:
again in three parts vertically.
... All oj these critics and theorists agree, how
ever, positively, unequivocally, in this, that the tall
office building should not, must not, be made a field jor
the display oj architectural knowledge in the encyclo
paedic sense; that too much learning in this instance is
jully as dangerous, as obnoxious, as too littl e learning;
that miscellany is abhorrent to th eir sense; that the six
teen-story building must not consist oj sixteen separate,
distinct and unrelated buildings piled one upon the other
until the top oj the pile is reached, 8
The Guaranty Building idealized Sullivan's
tripartite philosophy very clearly: the street level
two-story "base, " designed for commercial func
tions, emphasizing column and corner pi er struc
ture to maximize display areas and natural li ght ;
the intermediate shaft of identi cal office windows,
framed with slender vertical piers, terminating
this section in arches; the attic, topped with a
magnifIcent, crowning entabl ature, punctuat ed
with ornate oval windows. The thirteen-story
building was a classic archetype for the twentieth
century skyscraper.
In 1977 there was a threat of demolishing this
building, in spite of its National Hi stori c Land
IT1 as the
-an's last
. Many
Sullivan,
ding Ar
vari
traper:
have ad
f' the tall
o of base,
li mn typ
. plain or
,lI errupted
(l mp/eling
i justifica
'I a design
e the suit
II , its long
l'er. They
" "minter
!ir . Thus,
building:
how
l( the tall
a field for
e encyclo
ill stance is
, learning;
1t the six
: separate,
, the other
;ullivan' s
reet level
cial fune
ler strue
ral light;
.- indows,
minating
:i with a
metuated

wentieth
hing this
'ic Land-
EXTERIOR VIEW OF THE GUARANTY
BUILDING, BUFFALO, NEW Y ORK .
ADLER AND SULLIVA N, 1895.
RESTORED BY Ci\NNON, 1984.
Sullivan fou nd the ideal tall br<il , .
analogous 10 organic struclHre ofp/a _
the root, the trunk or stem, the flow l'r
The well-designed huilding was also
divided into three parts. the base, Ihe
ve rtical cenler portion, and the crown/ II_11
entablature. Photograph by John
Krrrtich.
DETAIL OF ENTRANCE DOOR, THE
GUARANTY BUILDING, BUFFALO,
NEW YORK. ADLER AND SULLIVAN,
1895. RESTORED BY CANNON, 1984.
Usually Sullivan decorated only non
structural elements of his buildings, bUI
in the Guaranty Building he covered
every surface which was nol glazed wit/r
geometric and OYJ?an ic ornamentat/oll III -'
picked up momentum and energy as it
climbed to the cornice. Photograph by
John Kurtich.
"
mark status. The city of Buffalo, having lost the
Larkin Building (Frank Lloyd Wright , 1903)
about thirty years earlier to similar demands of
commercial greed, came to the Guaranty Build
ing's rescue through the auspices of the Greater
Buffalo Development Foundation, who estab
lished a task force to preserve the building. Their
feasibility study determined that Buffalo needed
such an office building in its very location, and
that filling in the original li ght court of the U
shaped plan would increase the flexibility and en
hancement of rental space. The renovation would
include replacing the mechanical systems as well
as restoring the rich and copiously ornamented
exterior terra cotta skin.
Although much of the original terra cotta
was still in excellent condition, there were pieces
missing or badly damaged due to lllsensitive
"modernizations," cl eaning attempts through in
competent sandblasting techniques, and a dam
aging fne in the 1970's. Boston Valley Pottery,
owned by artist Andrew Krause, was commis
sioned to fabricate all of the terra cotta replace
ment pieces from molds made of existing parts as
well as photographic documentation. The elabo
rat e capitals were the most challenging. Each re
placement piece of the capital was hand-pressed
by mold pressers , and hand-carving was required
by sculptures to reproduce the three-dimensional
undercuts and deep ornamentation of the original.
The Guaranty Building is the epitomy of Sul
!ivan's theory of the tall office building, his con
cern with the glorification of height grounded in
his tripartite philosophy of high rise design. Stu
dents and scholars of architectural history need to
be able to experience this landmark building in its
three dimensional reality. "And thus the design of
the tall office building takes its place with all other
architectural types made when architecture, as has
happened once in many years, was a living art.
Witness the Greek temple, the Gothic cathedral,
the medi eval fortress." 9
THE BLAIR HOUSE
The renovation of the historic Blair House, Wash
ington, D.C., (1988), was more than a design and
decorating project for designers Mark Hampton
(1940- ) and Mario Buatta (1935- ). They
were faced with the demanding job of creating
elegant and inviting presidential guest quarters
while establishing a positive cultural image that
reflect ed the very best qualities of the United
States. The image of America as a melting pot of
equality was expressed in the interiors by achiev
ing formality without becoming pretentious,
comfort without losing elegance, and variety
without des troying unity.
The house was originally built by Dr. Joseph
Lovell in 1824. It was sold in 1836 to Francis Pres
ton Blair (1791-1876) and remained in the Blair
family until 1942 when it was purchased by the
U.S. government under the Franklin D. Roose
velt administration. Its close proximity to the
White House across Pennsylvania Avenue made it
an ideal location for the presidential guest house.
Under President Nixon, two Victorian era houses
were added to the complex. By the ea rly 1980s it
became evident that major architectural design
and security changes were required. The func
tional plan between the four structures was awk
ward. In respons e to this, a wing was built as a
connecting link for the complex. Complicating
the desi gn task was the requirement that security
elements, such as a sprinkl er system, bull et proof
glass, and surveillance equipment , be di screetly
integrated.
The intent of the design was to maintain a
personal and idiosyncratic image of a gentleman's
home, avoiding the impersonal qualities found in
most hotels. By taking this more personal ap
proach, the desi gners were able to focus on the
warm and inviting charm found in America's best
interiors, qualities that act as subtle messages iL
our forei gn policy.
The Dillon Room is a beautiful
of color and styles, related directly to the adjacem
garden court. The influence of the garden is ap
parent in the color scheme of gold, rose, and
green silk fabric, dramatically framing the French
doors leading to the court. The walls of the room
continue the garden motif with eighteenth-cen
tury Chinese hand painted wallpaper depicting ar.
exotic landscape of flowering shrubs, trees, bird ' .
and butterfli es.
The oriental theme is expanded by employ
). They
If crea ting
( quarters
mage that
1e United
'i ng pot of
yachi ev
etcntlous,
varI ety
) r. Joseph
mcis Pres
the Blair
, d by the
) . Roose
ty to the
LIe made it
st house.
~ r a houses
Iv 1980s it
al des ign
[he func
was awk
buil t as a
n plica ting
It securit y
Illet proof
discreetl y
'1aintain a
ntl eman's
i found in
50nal ap
us on the
rica's bes t
~ s s a g e s 111
n position
adj acent
fen is ap
rose, and
he French
(he room
m th-cen
icting an
es , bi rds,
cm ploy-
INTERIOR VIEW OF DILLON R OOM, The ecl ectic mix oj this sal on
B LAIR H OUSE, W ASHI NGTON, D .C. exemplifies a gentle conversat ion oj
BENJAMIN LATROBE, 1824. design and artifaas amongst various
RENOVATED BY MARIO BUATTA, w /lUres which constiwte A merica .
1988. Photograph by Ogden Robertson,
H ickey-Roberrsoll .
PRESERVI NG THE P.\ T: P
: .... T; _. . RESTORATION, RENOVATION, AND ADAPTI VE REUSE 379
" I.!
ing Chinese tables, porcelains, and a strategically
placed Bonsai plant, near the French doors. These
doors are completed by a gilded camelback va
lance, encrusted with Louis XIV gold tassels. This
robust element visually interrupts the serene clas
sical crown molding, symbolic of ancient Greek
democracy. Below the valance, a camelback
Chippendale sofa in gold brocade, repeats the
form, creating a dialogue between the French
window treatment and the English seating. This
interior is not only beautifully coordinated, but it
contains discreet messages about America' s cul
tural diversity and equality. The eclectic quality
of the room creates a sense of America' s history
as a melting pot of many cultures.
BURNHAM'S UNION STATION
The symbolic gateway to America was created by
D. H. Burnham (1846-1912): Union Station,
Washington, D.C. (1903-1907). The realized de
sign was a product of the City Beautiful move
ment, which sought to bring visual order to
American cities. Classical architecture of ancient
Greece and Rome was the model, epitomized by
the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition, Chi
cago. Burnham was the director of construction
for this fair; through his influence, the layout and
building facades featured the classical style of
l'Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris.
Burnham's design for Union Station epito
mized the Beaux Arts dictum by employing clas
sical Roman motifs recalling the triumphal arch of
Constantine the Great wedded to the barrel
vaulted hall of the Baths of Diocletian. The sta
tion was sited on axis with the Capitol within a
radiating plaza. This succession of relationships
reinforced the concept of "gateway." Urban plan
ning was as important to Burnham as the design
of the station itself; his building deliberately re
lated not only to the Capitol but to the larger plan
of Washington, D. C.
Union Station was built when railroads were
at their zenith. Because of its location as a funnel
for visitors to the capital, the terminal became the
"crossroad of the world." In 1948, eighty percent
of the U.S. population traveled by train. By 1968
air travel accommodated more than eighty per
cent of the travelers. As a result , train schedules
were reduced, decreasing passengers and revenue.
Union Station went into a decline. Ideas to revi
talize the building included a transportation mu
seum, an ice rink, and a bowling alley. However,
the structure was converted to a visitor's center
INTERIOR DETAIL OF HEADHOUSE,
UNION STATION, WASHINGTON,
D.C. DANIEL BURNHAM, 1901-1907.
RESTORED BY HARRY WEESE AND
ASSOCIATES, UNION STATION
REDEVELOPMENT CORPORATION, AND
UNION STATION VENTURE LTD.,
1981-1988.
The powerful barrel vault of the
headllOuse recalls th e past glory of
ancient Roman basilicae and thermae,
establishing a rlOble and grand space that
eams its title of "gateway to America."
Photograph by John Kurti clt.
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for the Bicentennial, opening on July 4, 1976.
After the Bicentennial, the station was used by
fewer and fewer visitors . By 1980, the structure
had fallen into such disrepair that it was closed to
the public.
In 1981, Congress approved the Union Sta
tion Redevelopment Act, initiating the renovation
and restoration of the building. Work on this
project began in 1984 under the auspices of the
Union Station Redevelopment Corporation,
comprised of a team of developers, architects,
railroad company executives, and government of
ficials. A team of architects was selected for the
project with Harry Weese & Associates in charge
of restoration of the exterior and all historically
significant interiors and Ben Thompson & Asso
ciates Inc. providing expertise on new commer
cial development, which would capture
Burnham's original idea for the multiuse build
mg.
Harry Weese & Associates was primarily re
sponsible for restoring the Roman splendor of the
headhouse, one of the grand interior spaces of
Washington, D.C. This main hall originally had a
marble floor, which was worn down over many
years of use. The management event ually re
placed thi s floor with a terrazzo covering. Much
of the terrazzo was ripped up in 1976 to create a
sunken court known as "The Pi t" for the Na
tional Visitor Center. In restoring the space, "The
Pit" was filled in, and the floor was returned to
marble, duplicating the original key pattern of 24
inch white marble tiles with 6 inch red Vermont
marble square corner dots.
The barrel vault of the head house suffered
severe water damage due to leaking over the
years. Burnham had used plaster extensively to
minimize the cost of creating his classical detail
ing. Much pl aster had to be replaced, and the new
coffers were cast on site. Twenty-two-carat gold
leaf was then applied by hand to the coffers. The
walls below had twenty-two layers of paint. Paint
scrapings were studied under a microscope to de
termine the original 1907 color scheme. Thirty
two statues of Roman mercenaries by Augustus
Saint-Gaudens (1848-1907), which stood guard
over the headhouse, were cleaned and renewed.
A major departure from a precise restoration
was the cons truction of a double-level central
kiosk in the center of the hall, flanked by two
fountains. Thi s structure obstructs the visual flow
of the space, diminishing the experience of the
visitor. It is an oversized blemish in the interior
landscape that violates the grandness of Burn
ham's original concept.
Union Station continues to serve as the train
terminus for the nation's capital. It is also a tes
tament to the changing attitudes of the public
toward restoration. The restoration of the build
ing has brought it back into cultural and social
importance. Burnham's original idea of a large,
multiuse complex has been recreated with com
mercial multiuse relevant to the present era. In
stead of Turkish baths and gymnasiums, the
restored station has nine movie theatres and many
shops. The revival of Union Station has
heightened the activit y and vitality of the sur
roundin g neighborhood, once again es tablishin g
it as the gateway to America.
BANKSIEAKIN'S CLARIDGE HOTEL
The renovation of the Claridge Hotel, Chicago,
by Banks/Eakin (1988-1990), was intended to
transform a declining trans ient rooming house
into a first-class hotel. It was originally built in
the early 1930s as a men's boardinghouse in one
of the most exclusive neighborhoods in Chicago.
The fourteen- story edifice was I-shaped, with a
concrete frame and brick infdl. The original
building facade was Mediterranean Revival, com
bining brick and glazed terra cotta. Years of ne
glect had left the terra cotta in disrepair and in
danger of fall ing. In the 1960s, an attempt to re
spond to this problem res ult ed in replacing the
first two floors by an expedient, unadorned,
glazed brick, incompatible with the twelve stories
above.
The architects were unable to restore the
building to its former state due to poor mainte
nance, awkward alterations, and a modest bud
get. Further compli cating the process, portions of
the facade fell while under renovation, necessitat
ing a complete removal of all the terra cotta
pieces. The unexpected loss of key elements
forced a revised renovation scheme creating a
PRESERVING THE PAST: PRESERVATION, RESTORATION, RENOVATION, AND ADAPTIVE REUSE 381
01 I 10 I
I
EXTERI OR VIEW OF CLARIDGE H OTEL,
CHICAGO, I LLINOIS. RENOVATED BY
B ANKS/ EAKIN, 1990.
The cal10py over the main mtrance
the visitor il1t o the reception lobby Wi th
the promise offluther eieJ(al1ce and
ul1paralieled service. Photograph by
Carrel Eakil1.
fr esh image that echoed the moderne sophistication
of the 1930s. The model for this theme was the
limestone and black granite United States post of
fices of that era.
To transform the austere bureaucratic model
into an appropriate image of hospitality, Banks!
Eakin des igned the entrance to be an alluring and
memorable experience. When approaching the
building, guests are welcomed by a curvilinear
canvas canopy stretched over a tubular metal
frame, that softens the rectilinear limestone and
granite facade. To accentuate the entrance, four
pairs of illuminated columns establish a visual
pathway from the exterior canopy to the interior
lobby. The colonnade subtly converges on the
central space, a square room with mahogany
paneling containing the registration desk and ele
vators. The centrality of this space is marked by a
star-patt erned terrazzo floor and a round cove
light above.
INTERIOR VIEW OF TYPICAL BEDROOM,
CLARIDGE HOTEL, CHICAGO,
ILLINOIS. RENOVATED BY BANKS/
EAKIN ,1990.
The cal10pied bed domillates the room,
and th e headboard recalls th e il1IJitil1g
canopy of the main CI1 lrance to the hote/.
Photograph by J ohn Kllrti ch.
The guest rooms continue the 1930s motif
and the new architectural vocabulary of the en
trance. King-size beds are used and emphasized as
the focal point and the primary purpose of the
room. A three-dimensional development of the
headboard recalls the sha pe of the entrance canopy
while providing upholstered comfort. Concealed
lighting, integrated with overdrapes and sheers,
introduces an unexpected sense of space beyond.
A multicolored, deep-toned, chintz fabric is used
for the headboard drapes, bedsp read, window and
wall draping throughout the room. The abun
dance of this fabri c produces a luxurious and sen
suous atmosphere. Its rich color harmoni zes with
the dark mahogany furniture, echoing the lobby
paneling and detail s. Swizzle-stick chandeliers and
geometric chrome-and-plastic bedside lights
complete the illusion and fantasy of the 1930s.
The fabrication of this illusion formed the
desi gn concept that was sympathetic to the origi
ul11que

also it ?
The r
neigh
an era
PLAl' _.
REN O\
KlTCHE
MAST
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nal era of the hotel. Renovation brought new life
to this decaying property, ultimately producing a
unique hotel of unifi ed quality.
The danger of renovating is insensitivity to
or misinterpretation of the historic sig nificance or
architectural qualit y of an older building The re
juvenation of the past offers an element of con
trast that new construction can never duplicate.
This contrast can be very powerful in creating
unique and exciting architectural experiences. A
well-executed renovation not only updates and
improves the original use of an older building but
OOM,
also it preserves a valuable past.
;/
MASTRO AND SKYLAR'S RESIDENCE
The renovation of vintage homes in older urban
10m }
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PLANS, BEFORE AND AFTER
.:: hts RENOVATION,
KITCHEN , CHICAGO, ILLINOI S.
MASTRO / SKYlAIl ARCHITECTS, 1990.
:he
': 1
A. BEFORE RENOVATION.
health, and environmental issues. It is vital to the
health of citi es to preserve the buildings that
frame their streets and defme the unique quality
of urban life. Pedestrian streets, lined with har
monious homes of various styles, softened by ma
ture trees, creat es an engaging atmospher e. Those
drawn to the turn of the century Victorian street
often fall in love with the houses that represent a
lifestyIe pas t.
Claudia Skylar (1951- ) and] ames Mastro
(1946- ) had dreamed of living in a grand old
Vi ctorian on a quiet tree-lined street. Their dilap
idated three-story wood frame structure required
complete renova ti on. The basic form remained
with a sensiti ve attachment of a wrap-around
porch leading to an addition in the form of a huge
bay window. The original floor plan was gutted
in order to open up all the small Vi ctorian rooms
into mor e generous light-fill ed spaces.
B. AFTER RENOVATION .
The li e" , pia/! I S a ref/ eelioll of/al e
Il.II el1li('111 ctl/wry farnily /le eds wilhill
lhe original ViC/oriall .,hell . Drmvil1Xs
by Jlllle Fisher.
PRESERVING THE PAST: PRESERVATION, RESTOR.-\ Tl ON. REN O VATI ON, AND ADAPTIVE REUSE 383
- .- .....-..
Although the existing house had an original,
but damaged, staircase adjacent to the entrance, as
is common in Victorian homes , the architects
built a new central stair. Not only did the skylit
stair bring light into what was previously the
darkest part of the plan, but it gave the large cen
tral space a focus and counterpoint to the new bay
addition. Also, this plan eliminated any long cor
ridors throughout the house.
The ori ginal three room kitchen was united
by removing walls to create a simple rectangular
space. The new kitchen is generous in scale, de-
VIEW OF MASTRO/ SKYLAR KITCHEN
AFTER RENOVATION, C HI CAGO,
i LLl NOI S. MASTRO/ SKYLA R
ARCHlTECTS, 1990.
The well executed kilchel1 lakes .fiIi I
adlJantage oj the Victorian proportions
while integratil1g the lalest domestic
techl1ologies. Ph olo,g rap h by Bill
A rsenau II.
11
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ted
lar
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signed to accommodate their monthly buffet din
ners for fift y. A large granite-topped island,
complete with sink and suspended lights, is per
fect for the food display. The island design gra
ciously allows uninterrupted circulation for the
large parties. Two dishwashers and sinks make
cleanup duty for more than two people efficient.
The kitchen is focused on the idea of the hearth,
where, in a large, tiled alcove, a unique English
cast-iron stove, manufactured by Aga, radiates
heat during the cooler seasons.
Opposite thi s metaphoric hearth, a built-in
banquette serves as a breakfast area for the family.
The granite-topped dining table is set on casters
such that it may be wheeled up to the island for
se rving during parties.
The classic black and white checkerboard tile
floors and backs plashes are given additional en
ergy through the introduction of small strips of
brightly colored tiles. The joyful tile patterns con
trast the elegant two-tone maple cabinets that
match the turquoise granite countertops. The
color and material selection is successful function
ally as well as aesthetically, producing a character
that is at once quietly elegant and artfully asser
tive.
The sensitive renovation of older houses is an
important ingredient to the refmement of urban
lifestyles. The work affects families directly and
offers unique possibilities of contrasting contem
porary lifestyles within older structures in urban
neighborhoods.
DREMMER'S KITCHEN COMPLEX
FOR THE BLOCK RESIDENCE
The kitchen of a typical Victorian house in the
nineteenth century was located at the rear of the
dwelling; it consisted of a preparing and cooking
area, with adjacent spaces for the maid's sl eeping
and bathing quarters , pantry, and eating area. In
the kitchen renovation of the Block residence, Ev
anston, Illinois (1990), by Michele Dremmer
(1949- ), it was necessary to develop a spatial
complex within the context of such a Victorian
house that would allow a large, diverse family to
be able to center their lives collectively and share
their daily experiences through the ritual of din
ing. It was important to the family that the reno
vation recall and revitalize the concept of
Victorian extravagance. Rich textures, opulent
materials, and grand spaces were developed to ex
press this ideal metaphorically, using late twen
tieth century technology to achieve this end
result .
Functionally, the original separate spaces of
food preparation, food storage, eating, and maid's
quarters were opened up by removing some of
the walls that defined these spaces. The idea was
to have an openness and flow of space from the
new kitchen to the adjacent dining area as well as
a new family room, featuring a large, newly con
structed extended bay window. The fmal spatial
complex generates a feeling of grandness due to
the original, high Victorian ceilings (eleven feet),
the generous amount of natural light from the
new bay, and the rich materials and textures em
ployed in the renovation.
The Blocks did not want an authentically re
stored Victorian kitchen, but a contemporary one
that contained state-of-the-art appliances, gad
gets, conveni ences, and storage innovations. ."1
Dremmer chose a black and white color scheme
to reinforce the high tech drama of the room: high
gloss white lacquer cabinets , countertops of
speckled black and gray granite, back splashes of
slate gray high gloss ceramic tile, matte textural
flecked gray vinyl floor, and white walls and ceil
ing. The setting is accented with contemporary,
stainless steel hanging light fixtures above the is
land and the counter top eating bar. Stainless steel
trim and hardware accessories achieve a sparkling
opulence to the ensemble, metaphorically con
necting this kitchen to Victorian ideals of rich ma
terials and textures for contemporary domestic
interiors. The Blocks' kitchen successfully ex
presses their attitude about the importance of thi s
part of the house. "What food is to the body the
kitchen should be to the home. Indeed, as Brillat
Savarin has said, 'Tell me what you eat and I will
t ell you what you are; so one may say, 'Show me
the kitchen and I can form a good idea of the
home' 10
PRESERVING THE PAST: PRESERVATION, RESTORATI ON, RENOVATION , AND ADAPTIVE REUSE
n..r1
o I 2 4
PLANS, BEFORE AND AFTER
RENOVATION, BLOCK KITCHEN,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. MI CHELE
DREMMER, 1990.
A. BEFORE RENOVATI ON.
VIEW OF BLOCK KITCHEN AFTEH
RENOVATI ON, CHICAGO, I LLINOIS.
MICHELE DREMMER, 1990.
The open inte/l,ratiOI1 o. f kit(herl , dillin,\! ,
ami/alllily rool/1 creates an alld
coizes ille atmosphere /or the f(//Ilily .
Photo,r:raph by J oli n Kllrticli .
386 JNTERIOR ARCHITECTURE

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B. AFTER RENOVATI ON.
The origi/1QI seYIJGIlI-orient ed Victorian
kitchen I.vas Yfl/olJated to acco mmodate
cfritralizedfallilly acti vities . D ralfJi ng
by lVIichael Sligar.
- -=-= - - -----------=
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ADAPTIVE REUSE
BOOTH/HANSEN'S HELENE CURTIS
HEADQUARTERS
Successful adaptive reuse depends on the sensitiv
ity of the designer, coupled with the willingness
of the client to integrate original elements of a
building with spatial and other physical require
ments of changed usage. The Helene Curtis In
dustri es Corporate Headquarters, Chicago,
Illinois (1985), exemplifies the successful adapta
tion of an architecturally neutral 1914 brick ware
house transformed into a high quality corporate
administrative center with image-enhancing
urban visibility.
The project was designed by Booth/Hansen
& Ass ociates with William Ketcham (1951- ) as
the project architect. The client chose the building
it wished to transform first, then found the de
signer who could carry out the transformation.
The client wanted to create a new image and had
defmite feelings about the city and urban fabric
that needed to be expressed in the building. This
particular building was well located in terms of
proximity to the Chicago Loop and to major pub
lic transportation. It was also highly visible, situ
ated on the north bank of the Chicago River,
facing the Loop. The building was structurally
sound, having originally been a warehouse, and
111
quite neutral in appea rance, ripe for transforma
tion.
The interior design concept for a typical of
fi ce floor was to create a mi crocosm of Chicago
itsel f. Due to the existi ng 18-by-20-foot column
spacing, a grid was established as an analogue of
the city's grid. Boundaries of the center city
downtown area of the office floor were defmed
by private offices and their adjacent secretarial
areas, which were located at the north and south
II
ends of the floo r. Manager workstations were de
signed around the central columns and created the
"Loop". A conference room was placed in the
center of the workstations area and became the
"public plaza."
The development of the works tation pro
vided the designer with a three-dimensional visual
motif that was then used throughout other parts
EXTERI OR VIEW OF HELENE CURTI S
IND USTRIES CORPORATE
HEADQUARTERS, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS.
FORMERLY A BRI CK WAREHOUSE.
1914. RENOVATED BY B OOTH/
HANSEN I\: ASSOCIATES, 1985.
Thi s is OIl exallJple o.ffakil1g a/1 old,
architecturally ill sigrl irea/1 loli
warehou se structure and sivinx it a nelfJ ,
Cii1derella-like tral1SlormatiOIl as
headquarters fOi a InajaI' corpora tioll of
,Riam(lII r products. Photograph by
Joh n K llrt/eli.
PRESERVING THE PAST: PRESERVATI ON, RESTORATION' . RENO VATION, AND AD APTI VE REUS E 387
of the building. The existing columns were
sheathed in oversized capitals in the shape of in
verted pyramids, springing from the column shaft
seven feet from the floor. These capitals provided
large reflective surfaces from which special light
ing fixtures on the column shaft could indirectly
light the entire space. The hollow interior of the
capital allowed the electrical conduit to be bent
from the ceiling to the floor , avoiding the neces
sity ofjunction boxes. Thus, the columns became
the principal sources of light and power. Around
each column, built-in furniture was then designed
for the workstations themselves.
The lowered ceilings were discontinuous, al
lowing easy access without the necessity of re
movable panels. These reflective horizontal planes
of acoustical tiles could be considered analogous
to "clouds" over the urban landscape.
The building was crowned with a new pent
house, which focused on a central double-height
boardroom surrounded by smaller conference
rooms, the president's office, and executive of
fICes. The penthouse became a green glass box,
corresponding to the same tinted glass used
throughout the rest of the building. The effect of
this was as though a glass-skinned building within
the brick shell of the original building had popped
its roof and was coexisting as an interwoven pres
ence of a new building with the old. The oval
shape of the boardroom made a strong geometric
statement above the existing traditional architrave
of the building.
The relationship between client and architect
was unusually close and trusting. The client
wanted quality as well as visual expression and
worked very closely with the designer. Such in
volvement and interest on the part of the client
was not unlike that of the great patrons of art and
architecture during the Renaissance in Italy. This
allowed the development and refinement of the
architectural solution to satisfy both the creative
demands of the designer and the practical needs of
the client. Because the client had bought the build
ing prior to its occupation, the designer could
present full-scale mock-ups of columnar worksta
tions in their correct context for thorough testing
and approval of the client. Various colors of tinted
glass were respectively installed in test windows
of the front facade which then could be viewed
from across the river in a full-scale, actual environ
mental condition. The result of this close relation
ship between designer and client is a successful
transformation of an ordinary older building into
an elegant, urbane corporate headquarters.
INTERI OR VIEW OF TYPICAL OFFICE
FLOOR, HELENE CURTI S INDUSTRIES
CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS,
CHI CAGO, ILLINOI S. FORMERLY A
BRICK WAREHOUSE, 1914. RENOVATED
BY B OOTH/HANSEN & ASS OCIATES,
1985.
A view of th e office fl oo r rev eals the
w hmms as central gen erators ofbuil t-irl
workstatiol1s as well as the source of
I(ght and power. Photograph by ;\lick
Men'i ck, Hedri ch-BlessiriS.
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HELLMUTH, OBATA & KASSABAUM'S
UNION STATION AT ST. LOUIS
The Union Station of St. Louis, Missouri, is one
of the biggest rehabilitation and adaptive reuse
projects to be completed in the country (1985).
Not only has the main station building or head
house been restored to its former Romanesque
glory of 1894, but the transitional area known as
the "midway" (between the headhouse and train
shed) and the train shed itself have been trans
formed into an urban environment of nearly 150
retail stores and a new hotel.
The headhouse was designed by Theodore
C. Link (1850-1923) in 1891. Louis Millet (1855
1923) who had previously worked for Louis Sul-
INTERIOR VIEW OF HEADHOUSE,
UNION STATION, ST. L OUIS,
MISSOURI. THEODORE C. LINK, WITH
INTERI OR DECOR A Tl ON BY LouI S
MILLET, 1891-1894. RESTORED AND
RENOVATED BY HELLMUTH, OBATA &
KASSA BA UM, 1985.
The richly decorated barrel vault Iises
light and color to increase the perception
ofheight ofth e vault as well as the
depth of the shallow balcony spaces on
the perimeter. Photograph by Johl1
Kl4rtich .
50
as
.m
IS-
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)
11
TH
o
I I
livan on the interior of the Chicago Auditorium
Building and the interior of the Chicago Stock
Exchange Trading Room, was then working for
Link. Millet was responsible for the interior of the
Grand Hall , the original central waiting room of
the station building. This space measured 76 feet
by 120 feet with a 65-foot-hi gh barrel vault ceil
ing. It was richly colored, dramati zi ng the electri
cal illumination, which was new for the period.
Timothy Samuelson (1951- ), a Mill et
scholar from the Commission on Chicago Land
marks, was the principal consultant for historic
restoration. Through ca reful research, he learned
that the original color of the Grand Hall was con
sidered by Mill et as an integra ted scheme to en
hance the architectural space and to co mplement
the lighting desi gn. Millet developed his color so
that it progressed through the space in a rotational
manner of changing lightness and hue. He used
color to increase the appearance of hei ght of the
barrel vault by lightening the color as it ap
proached the apex. A contrasting color (blue to
contrast with the yellow and green of the main
hall ) was empl oyed to visually increase the depth
of very shallow balcony spaces occurring on the
perimet er of the hall. The color used in the hall
itself was very complicated. First, the walls had a
base coat of yellow. Then a transparent glazing
liquid of green was applied and wiped down at
strategi c places in the desi gn to create a gr adual
rot ation of color change through varying li ght
ness and hue. Research for this complicated pro
cedure was difficult because the hall had been
painted over in a solid color about a decade after
the building had been fIni shed. Black and white
photographs of the hall immediatel y after it had
been completed did not accurately document the
lights and darks of the color due to limitations of
the [lim and photographic technology of the pe
ri od.
In restoring the Grand Hall , not onl y was
attention paid to the original concept of color but
also how it was illuminated. It was ve ry impor
tant to reinstall all electrical fixtures with bulbs of
correct filaments of the period because of the
color li ght they produced. Millet had chosen col
ors that compensated for the warm glow of early
twentieth century electrical li ghts. The Grand
Hall beca me the primary lobby-lounge of the
headhouse hotel, located above in the renovated
original terminal hotel.
There are bas ically three parts to this com
plex: the headhouse, which fronts Market Street
as a monumental Romanesque building; the mid
way, which connects the headhouse to the train
shed; and the train shed covered with its original
butterfly trusses. The midway was adapt ed to an
intense pedestrian area of kiosks for fast food ,
novelties, and sundries. The train shed is the
dominant space in the complex, covering eleven
and one half acres . The late Victorian truss roof
was res pected by avoiding any new constructi on
that would detract fr om the flo ating appearance
of the roof. The trusses were painted terra cotta
to relate to the red roof of the Romanesque head
house and visually couple the two together. The
adaptive reuse of the area successfully mixes the
new cont emporary needs with existing historical
fixtures, accommodating over one hundred retail
shops and food services under one roof, sharing
the space with a second 480-room garden hotel
and a small lake.
ESHERICK, HOMSEY, DODGE & DAVIS'S
MONTEREY BAY AQUARIUM
The Monterey Bay Aquar ium (1985) was de
si gned t o replace mos t of an exi sting, but dil api
dated, cannery on the seafront of MonterfY Bay,
Californi a. The new building preserves the open,
factor ylike style of the original building complex,
the old Hovden Cannery, the largest of any in
Canner y Row.
The ori gi nal concept was to convert the
Hovden Cannery int o a modest aquarium, but the
exis ting building condition would not allow such
simple recycling. With a $40 million gift from
David and Lucile Packard, a new aquarium was
possibl e. The architectural firm of Esherick,
Homsey, Dodge & Davi s of San Francisco was
commissioned to design the new fa cility, and the y
preserved and restored the parts of the original
canner y that were feasible, adding new construc
tion tha t preserves the feeling of the cannery bu t
PRESERVING THE PAST: PRESERVATI ON, RESTOR.\TJON, RENOVATION, AND AD APTIVE nEUSE 39I
EXTERIOR VIEW OF TIDAL POOL,
MONTEREY BAY AQUARIUM,
MONTEREY , CALIFORNIA. HOVDEN
CANNERY, 1916. RENOVATED BY
E SHERICK , HOMSEY , DODCE &
DAVIS, 1985.
The tida l pool, SHrrofmded by the
cannery-transJormed-to-aqHarium , is the
ph ysical transition between rhe hUl11an
made display ojsea l({e and rhe acrual
Pac(frc Ocean with its relentless tidal
cycles. Photograph by John Kurtich.
allows state-of-the-art technology to produce the
largest and most innovative exhibit aquarium in
the country. Ironically, the original fish process
ing f.Kility was transformed into a complex that
displays, protects , and preserves the unique ma
rine life of Monterey Bay.
The 1916 pumphouse and warehouse were
restored and integrat ed into the new design.
Original boilers were refi tted, preserving the fla
vor of the cannery opera tion. Industrial fittings
were used throughout the new construction, and
all air ducts and water pipes were exposed.
The most innovative idea about the building
was that it responds directl y to the cycles of na
ture, the Pacific Ocean. It is a four-dimensional
design that celebrates the complex marine life of
the central California coast (see Chapter 4) . Sen
sitivity to preserving the original character was
paramount; yet interjection of a more positive
view of marine life shaped the thrust of this adap
tive reuse. The giant kelp forest exhibit has a ca
thedral aura, with a dynamic created by a specially
invented surge machine. The building complex
brings the exhibition of Monterey Bay sea life to
a dramatic state of art, emulating what a diver
would see below water.
SCHROEDER'S COBBLER SQUARE
Cobbler Square, Chicago, is an example of crea
tive adaptive reuse of an older, historic building
complex. Kenneth A. Schroeder (1943- )
adapted an interconnected group of thirt y-two
buildings, whose history spanned the years be
tween 1880 and 1965, into 297 rental apartments .
The original buildings were fmt a factory for
Western Wheel Works, a bicycle manufacturer ,
then they became the factory complex for Dr. ...
William Scholl , famous for shoes and foot care
products. Scholl, Inc., moved out of the complex
in 1981, leaving a mixed collection of buildings,
which did not seem promi si ng in their existing
form.
Richard Perlman decided that there might be
an interesting opportunity to develop this com
plex for an urban residential facility. He commis
sioned Schroeder to adapt the buildings into rental
apartments. Because the building complex occu
pied such a deep site, Schroeder developed a de
sign concept based on the "deep plan." Thi s
resulted in long, narrow units cleverly arranged
abou t several "courtyard cases," another design
concept that permitted natural light and air to
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penetrate into the middle of the complex. The
original building complex had no cou rtyards but
did have an alley system. Schroeder created court
ya rds by demolishing noncontributing buildings
Cobbler Square has a primary entrance on
Wells Street, which gives it a single identity. A
three-story commercial fa cade is split in the mid
dle with a symmetrical atrium surrounded by a
bold, steel-framed skylight . This purposefully
overstated entrance is the strongest exa mple of
Schroeder's architectural "weaving" technique
where he combines some original building ele
ments with new ones. The observer ca n still pick
out each di stinctive piece, but the total effect is
integra ted .
As one moves through the entrance and into
the atrium spine, there begins in the appearance
of the building a gradual surrender to the context
of existing reality. Instead of weaving the old and
the new, Sch roeder creat es a collage effect, where
elements of the existing factory are in more star
tling juxtaposition with new elements . The first
maj o r piece of "archaeology" is expressed just off
thi s atrium walkway, where one fmds the pre-
COURTY ARD VIEW, COBBLER SQUARE,
C HICAGO, ILLINOIS. FORMERLY THE
DR. SCHOLL FACTORY COMPLEX,
1880- 1965, RENOVATED BY KENNETH
A. S CHROEDER, 1981.
Th e larger southwest courtyard is
articulated to nOI only SeYllf as usual
open space for the occupants but also to
remirld them oflhe buildirlg complex's
architecturaL and commercial past.
Photograp h by J ohn Kurli ch.
served ruin of the oldest boiler house of the fac
tor y.
A second boiler house is parti ally preserved
in the large southwes t court yar d toward the rear
of the co mplex. Thi s represents a modified ruin,
a piece of the past that has been integrated into a
fountain complex for the courtyard's focus.
Another t ype of archaeological fragment, the
ruin as void, is found in a ti ght alllXiliary court
ya rd off the small er northwest cour tyard. This
was created by remo vi ng an existing elevator and
stair from the factor y building and opening up
that part of the complex to accommodate the
"deep plan" concept .
Exterior steel walkways were added to the
entire complex. They were painted bright red
orange to deliberately contrast with the origi nal
bri ck walls of the factory. The decision to use the
steel wa lkways was to make more square footage
available for rental apartments. The walkways
were not merely dreamed up to achieve extra in
terior space but were derived from existing
bridges built to span the original all ey system of
the compl ex.
PRESERVING THE PAST: PRESERVATION, RESTORATI ON, RENOVATION, AND ADAPTI VE REUSE 393
INTERI OR VIEW OF STUDIO
APARTMENT, COBBLER SQUARE,
CHICAGO, I LLINOIS. F ORMERLY THE
DR. S CHOLL FACTORY COMPLEX,
1880-1965. RENOVATED BY KENNETH
A. SCHROEDER, 1981.
Th e interiors of the apartments reveal
the three-dimens ional texture of the
wood structure o/fioor/ceiling j oists al1d
bracing, contrasted with the more two
dimensional texture of the sand-blasted
brick walls. Photograph by J ohn
Ku rticll .
The concept of coll age is also used in the
apartments. The fr ame of the building can be read
distinctl y. The ceilings are ori ginal and are ex
posed to display their structural integrit y and sim
plicity. In smaller apartments a strip kitchen unit
is ins talled to maximize the living space. Alto
gether there are fjft y plan t ypes in the nearl y three
hundred available apartments of the compl f' x.
This is an extraordinar y amount of variety when
compared to a contemporary hi gh rise of a similar
tot al number of apartments providing onl y three
or four plan types.
BOOTH/HANSEN'S NORTH PIER
Unlike the complex of va ri ous bui ldings that
comprise Cobbler Square, N orth Pier, Chi cago,
Illinois (1 988) , is a single, simple bui lding form
that has been transfor med into retail and offi ce
space. It was built in 1906 as an exhibition center
and warehouse fo r furniture and other products.
The seven story masonry and heavy timber struc
ture was situated on the Ogden Slip overlooking
the Chicago River. For the first time, the cit y had
ca pitali zed on the latent potential of its ri verfront .
It w as originall y 120 feet wide by 1,663 feet long
until cons tructi on of Lake Shore Dri ve in the
1930s reduced the length to 630 feet . The archi
tect , Christi an Albert Eckstrom, desi gned the
utilitar ian bui ldi ng employi ng heav y mill con
struction with solid masonr y exteri or wall s.
North Pier was modulated by traverse brick walls
defming fIre compar tments, co mpl ete with ele
vators and fir e stairs. The south side, fac ing
O gden Slip, accommodated large ca rgo vessels.
The north si de, facing Illinois Street, provided
t ruck loading docks. Adj acent rail road tracks pro
vided addit ional frei ght handling. The si te was a H
hub of commerci al activity.
The building' s interior was composed of
heavy timber columns in a twelve foot grid,
crowned by cast-iron capitals, supporti ng solid
wooden beams , runni ng north-sout h. The beau
ti ful wood ceiling that spans bet ween these beams
was constructed of 3 inch by 6 inch j oists , contin
uously nailed together. T his unique feature not
only made the structure very st rong but imbued
the building wi th a sturdy, rugged character. The
nt.
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EXTERI OR VIEW OF N ORTH P IER,
C HICAGO, ILLI NOI S. FORMERLY A
WAREHOUSE BY C HRI STIAN ALBERT
ECKSTORM, 1906. RENOVATED BY
BOOTH/HANSEN AND A SSOCI ATES,
1989.
The rehabilitatiol1 oj this la,ge
commercial warehouse has rellilali z ed
th is pari oj Chicago , hl'l'ngil1g a lIariely
of I'etail , entertainment, and illstil utional
act ivilies. Photograph by John KUl't ich.
solid qL1alit y of the structure and its unique loca
tion along the ri ver were of pri mar y interest to
the adapti ve reuse developer and archit ect.
The developer, Robert Meers of Broa dacre
Management Com pany, envisioned the proj ect to
be a meeting place for the cit y at the river' s edge.
He met the chall enge of preservmg this historic
struct ure by maintaining its architectural integrity
while making the necessary moderni za tions. The
lower three floors contained 180,000 square feet
of retail, cultural, and rest aurant space. On the
remaining levels, 260, 000 square fee t ofl oft offI ce
was reali zed. A hi gh- rise apa rt ment tower was
built along the east perimeter of the building.
By adding glassy galleria structures, crown
mg the elevator towers wi th pyramidal copper
roofs , cli pping on steel entrance canopies, and
embellishing the ground floor fenest rat ion, the ar
chi tects transfor med the austere exterior into an
engaging peopl e-orient ed building. The detailing
of these clipped-on steel and glass elements cre
at ed a vocabul ary that was sympat hetic wi th the
ori ginal warehouse aesthetic. Fabricated steel
pl ate and exposed fas teners with a painted fmi sh
provided a ri ch layer of ornamentation contrast
ing the brick ex terior.
This language of ornament at ion established
on the exteri or was the basis for the det ailing of
the interior architecture. Every effort was made
to create a consistency from inside to out and to
avoid the predi ctabili ty of detailing found in most
shoppi ng centers. N owhere to be found were ex
t ruded aluminum st orefront s, quarry tile floor s,
acousti c tile ceilings , ubiquitous rental pl anting,
backlit plasti c signage, and banal chai n stores.
However, it is not unlike the typical shopping
center in it s overall plan with doubl e-l oaded
stores facing the linea r mall , a central atrium with
circulati on, and maj or magnets at eit her end.
Therefore, the proven, successful formul a has
been employed, yet the overall experience has
been t ransfor med.
This tr ans formation was made possible by
the sensiti ve and consist ent use of materials to
augment the existing hea vy timber constructi on.
The stamped metal tile fl oors em bedded in con
crete achieve the feeling of a nineteenth cent ury
indust rial walking sur fa ce whil e providing a non
slip, cleanabl e fmi sh. At random loca tions, a
cooki e- cutter stamp of the North Pier logo is in
serted, providing a terti ary det ail and a modest
surpri se of identifI cati on.
Verti cal surfaces were developed wit h preci
sion, expressing the joinery. Handrails were a
combination of lacquered brushed steel, cas t- iron
connectors , fl at pla te stanchions, stainless steel ca
bles, bolts, and poli shed ball bea rI ngs . The union
of these components established a nautical refer
ence to the river commerce of the nineteenth cen
tury. This theme was further elaborated by the
flat steel plate stair stringers with their wavelike
forms. Perforated metal was employed in the stair
risers to visuall y lighten and further accentuate the
parts .
PRESERVING THE PAST: PRESERVATI ON, RENOVATION, AND ADAPTIVE REUSE 395
INTERIOR DETAIL OF STAIR, NORTH
PIER, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. FORMERLY
A WAREHOUSE BY CHRISTIAN ALBERT
ECKSTORM, 1906. RENOVATED BY
BOOTH/ HANSEN AND ASSOCIATES,
1989.
The details were carefit11y planned to
maintain consistency with th e
materials and construction techniques.
Perforated metal, butt-glazed plate glass, and
Herculite doors comprised the minimalist store
fronts. Carefully controlled suspended signage at
each store entrance became the counterpoint to
the uniformity created by the interior corridor.
The pedestrian scaled signs, each unique yet de
signed by the same firm, add personality to one's
experience of the mall. The language of the sig
nage is composed of a collage of various materials
designed to distinctly express the character of the
shops.
At the center, relieving the long, narrow
shopping mall , a huge circular three-story space
was literally carved out of the rectilinear column
and beam structure. This space was conceived as
the hub of activities, a gathering place creating a
grand transition from Illinois Street to the Ogden
Slip. Curvilinear stairs connected the three levels,
visl!ally creating movement with these dynamic
forms. The lower level was designed for dining
and entertainment surrounded by food vendors.
Crowning the grand space was a colossal illumi
nated clock, which further animated the interior,
defming its centrality. On the hour, the clock sets
off a series of mechanical events. Bells ring, ball
roll down a chute to trip a hammer, chimes reso
nate, flags spin, and lights flash, all to the surprise
and delight of the people. The holistic approad:
to developing the interior architecture has created
a dynamic, urbane example of successful adaptive
reuse.
NATIONAL BUILDING MUSEUM,
WASHINGTON, D. C.
The National Building Museum, Washington.
D.C. , '"vas established by Congress in 1980 to
honor and celebrate architecture and building in
the United States and provide a means of present
ing and educating the public about the human
built environment. The museum is situated in the
Pension Building, a historic structure that domi
nates Judiciary Square in central Washington,
D.C.
Designed in 1881 by Montgomery C. Meigs
(1816-1892), the Pension Building was originally
built to house the Pension Bureau in an office
complex where each bureaucrat would be able to
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GREAT HALL, N ATIONAL BUILDI NG
MUSEUM, WASHINGTON D.C.
F OHMERL Y THE PENSION BUILDING
DESIGNED BY MONTG OMERY C.
MEIGS, 1881-1 887. RENOVATED BY
COOPER-LECKY, ARCHITECTS, 1981
1983, AND KEYES CONDON F LORANCE
WITH G IORGI O CAVAGLIERI,
ARCHITECTS, 1984-1988.
This magnificent space was inspired by
the plan
where surrounding rooms, each
conneered wit h a conrilillOU5 arCilded
loggia , would op en OIiI into eel/tral
area. The Coril1lhiall CO IIiI/1I1 S
suppO/'ting rhe cel1tral arches are thought
to be the world's rall es r. Phot ograph by
J ohn Kurtieh.
PRESERVING THE PAST: PRESERVATION. RESTOR:\TION, RENOVATION, AND ADAPTIVE REUSE
work in a space filled with natural li ght and ven
til ation. Thi s was accomplished by designing the
offices around a central, covered court, called the
Great Hall, measuring 316 feet by 116 feet, 159
feet hi gh at the peak of the pitched roof. Adapting
the Italian Renaissance palazzo as the model, the
Great Hall featured a large fountain centered be
tween two colonnades of colossal Corinthian col
umns, constructed out of brick and painted to
resemble Siena marble.
The exterior of the building features a terra
cotta frieze that wraps around its entire perimeter.
Reminiscent of the Parthenon frieze, this band of
scul pture, created by Caspar Buber! (1834-1 889),
presents a procession of Civil War milita ry units:
infant ry, cavalry, artillery, q uart ermas ter corps,
medical corps, and the navy. The strong bas relief
captures a life-like animation, influenced by Ead
weard Mu ybridge' s motion-st udy photographs of
animals which Mei gs sent to Burber! in order that
the sculptor achieve accurate motion represent a
tion in his frieze.
The Pension Bureau occupied the building
between 1885-1926. The building was then oc
cupied by several government agencies from 1926
until 1980, when Congress named it to become
the loca ti on of the newly established National
Building Museum. Cooper-Lecky, architects,
were hired to do preliminary planning of the Pen
sion Building's adaptive reus e and design the re
habilitation of the roof, from 1981-1983. The
Washington architectural firm of Keyes Condon
Fl orance and associate architect Giorgio Cava
glieri of N ew York continued and completed the
renovation between 1984-1988.
The roof was the most immediate problem
facing the restorers. After leaks had been stopped.
a new roof oflightweight concrete panel s replaced
the old, using the original purlins. The exterior
surface was covered with a layer of stainless steel.
coated to resemble weathered copper.
The renovation remained faithful to Meigs ' s
original interior design by keeping the Great Hall
open. Various rooms peripheral to the Great Hall
were converted into galleries. The original case
ment windows had to be reconstructed. The me
chanical and electrical systems were repl aced.
Appropriate color for the interi or was very
important to the renovation. The Corinthian col
umns had originall y been marbleized to represem
continuous shafts of Siena marble; their capital s
were bronzed in such a way as to achieve a lighter
cast on the edges of the acanthus leaves , giving
more life and depth to this ornate order. The color
of the columns of the lower arcade were more
ts,
problemati c to restore. Physical anal ysis revealed
n
that the fIrSt la yer of paint was a dark red. Photo
'e
graphi c records suggested a metallic reflectivity in
he
on
the columns, such as bronze. The final choice was
made on the basis of late twentieth century taste:
' 01
bronze won over the dark red, which was con
he
sidered "ugly" by the aesthetic standards of the
res torers .
~ m
The mandate of the National Building Mu
:d,
seum " is to encourage the public to take part in
ed
lor
el,
EXTERlOR DETAIL OF FRIEZE,
.s's
NATI ONAL BUILDING MUSEUM,
:a11 WASHINGTON D. C. FORMERLY THE
lall PENSION BUILDING DESIGNED BY
se
MONTGOMERY C. MEIGS, 1881
1887. RENOVATED BY C OOPER
le-
LECKY, ARCHITECTS, 1981-1983, AND
KEYES CONDON FLORANCE WITH
:ry
GIORGIO CAVAGLI ERI, ARCHITECTS,
01
1984-1988.
:: nt
The procession of Civil War military
als
units featured in this long, white terra
ter
cotta Ji'ieze stands out vividly agailisl the
mg
red brick of the building proper.
lor
Photograph by J ohn Kurtich .
the on-going debate over wha t relationship our
societ y should establish between the built and nat
ural environments. " II
THE ROOKERY, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
The Rookery, Chicago, Illinois, by Burnham and
Root (1 SSS), was considered the larges t and most
costly office structure completed to date, at one
and-a-half million dollars. The eleven story struc
ture employed masonry exterior bearing wall s

INTERIOR VI EW OF RES TORED TWO
STORY ENTR ANCE LOBBY, THE
ROOKERY, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS.
BURNHAM AND ROOT, 1885-1888.
REMODELED BY FRANK LLOYD
WRIGHT, 1905. RESTORED AND
RENOVATED BY T HOMAS M . H ARBOE
OF MCCUER, 1991 -1992.
This space had been totally destroyed in
the intervening years of the early-to-mid
twentieth century, where incompetent
remodelings disintegrated the original
spatial sequence from the street to the
central light court. Photograph by John
Kurtich.
PRESERVING THE PAST: PRESERVATION, RESTORATION, RENOVATI ON, AND ADAPTIVE REUSE 399
with a modern cast iron interior frame. The heavy
masonry exterior belies the bright and elegant in
terior. A central court was carved into the cubicle
building form, flooding the interior with light and
air. This simple act of contrasting a dark, rugged
exterior with a light, delicate interior resulted in a
compelling sense of arrival.
In 1905, Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959) re
modeled the first floor spaces. Wright clad the
original cast iron structure with white marble and
replaced some of the ornamental iron with a sim
pler geometric design. Root 's electroliers were re-
INTERIOR VIEW OF COURT LOBBY
BEFORE RENOVATION, THE ROOKERY,
CHI CAGO , ILLINOIS. BURNHAM AND
ROOT, 1885-1888. REMODELED BY
FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT, 1905.
This vielv oJ"the !iShl (Ourt, taken in
the early 1970's, shows the skylight
completely covered, the antithesis of
"light ." Photograph by John Kurtich .
placed by planters. Suspended pendant light
fixtures were integrated to brighten the central
space.
In 1930, William E. Drummond (1876-1946)
updated the public spaces, adversely affecting
Burnham & Root 's original concept. The two
story entry vestibule was eliminated to gain leas
able space. The elevators were "modernized,"
eliminating the open grills. A restrained Art Deco
style, ignoring the sensibility of the original con
cept, was employed. Finally, in the 1940's, the
building management covered over the glass sky
~ -
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INTERIOR VIEW OF COURT LOBBY
AFTER RENOVATION, THE ROOKERY,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. BURNHAM AND
RoOT, 1885-1888. REMODELED BY
FRANK LLOYD WRI GHT, 1905.
RESTORED AND RENOVATED BY
THOMAS M. HARBOE OF MCCLlER,
1991-1992.
With the skylight restored to its 1905
glory, Jully uncov ered but made
waterproof, the light COllrt is tntly rhe
interiorJocal point oJthe bllilding again.
Photograph by Johl1
light of the central court with tar paper and paint
to curtail the constant leakage problems.
Burnham & Root ' s original concept was a
spatial journey in which one experienced a series
of contrasting urban and architectural spaces. The
monolithic building, built of dark red rusticated
granite and brick, was entered via the shaded can
yon of La Salle Street. Frank Lloyd Wright con
tinued this concept with the building's elegantly
scaled white and gold-incised marble-cladded
two-story vestibule. This space led directly to the
compressed elevator lobby with its coffered mar
ble ceiling. The sequence terminated upon enter
ing the grandly scaled central court. The delicate
gold detail patterns in the column and beam clad
ding harmonized with the intricate iron roof
structure and glazing grills. A dramatic central
stair announced the vertical axis of the building
leading to a mezzanine surrounded by shops. Op
posing the stair at the mezzanine level was the
symmetrical wings of the oriel stair which ac
cessed all the typical office floors.
The restoration architect, Thomas M. Har
boe (1955- ) of McClier, working for the
PRESERVING THE PAST: PRESERVATION, RESTOR:\TlON , RENOVATION, AND ADAPTIVE REUSE 401
INTERIOR DETAIL OF COURT LOBBY,
THE ROOKERY, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS.
BURNHAM AND ROOT, 1885-1888.
REMODELED BY FRANK LLOYD
WRIGHT, 1905. RESTORED AND
RENOVATED BY THOMAS M. HARBOE
OF MCCLIER, 1991-1992.
This detail has been preserved to record
and display the or(ginal Burnham and
Root materials in contrast to the
subsequent Frank Lloyd Wright
remodeling in 1905. Photograph by
John Kurtich.
owner, the Baldwin Development Company,
was faced with a challenge. He wanted to return
the building to a "Class A" office status while
restoring the structure. The date for this restora
tion was fixed at 1910, which would embrace
Wright's renovation but exclude Drummond's al
terations. The architects used Burnham & Root's
original construction drawings, Wright's marble
shop drawings, and period photographs as pri
mary sources for the reconstruction work. Even
with this information at hand, the preservationist
faced a multitude of complex decisions regarding
the work of three separate architects.
Tra versing Drummond's entrance into
Wright's lobby into Drummond's elevator lobby
into Wright's and Burnham & Root's light court
was a disjointed spatial experience. The architects
were well aware of this complex problem and
through mixing and matching of details created a
balanced composition. Burnham & Root's origi
nal marble mosaic floor pattern was to be rebuilt.
A portion of the original floor remains adjacent to
a column below the oriel stair. A section of
Wright's marble column cladding was removed,
exposing Burnham & Root's cast iron structure, G
left as an "interpretative corner." The two en
trance vestibules were returned to Wright's origi
nal design by heavily relying on the marble shop
drawings. The La Salle Street vestibule and the
Adams Street lobby were opened up to two sto
ries, new stairs installed and clad with the pat
terned white marble. The symmetrical La Salle
vestibule contained twin stairs with a decidedly
horizontal expression. The elevator bank in the
Adams lobby was removed in order to improve
the floor plan. To retain the original design, only
the wall and the door grills were replicated.
Frosted glass was set behind the grill to give an
illusion of depth. Thereby, the original entry se
quence was reestablished.
To alleviate the leakage problems inherent in
the hundreds of small glazing panels in the sky
light of the central court, a new, additional sky
light was installed on the eleventh floor. This
solved the original technical problem while ma;
taining the spirit of the space. In addition, th,
original heavy sashes on the typical offIce floo r:
were maintained by routing deeper reveals to ac
cept new double glazing. The store fronts ha,.l
been replaced at least three times. Working fro I!'
old photographs and a surviving original ba\'
new store fronts were cast in aluminum. Wi['
ace
al
lt's
ble
)[)
len
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ltO
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urt
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md
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ir e,

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ay,
ith
these subtle alterations to the exterior, the build
ing was " modernized" without changing the
original architectural character or details.
SUMMARY
Preserving older buildings is one of the most di
rect links to the sense of the past. The most effec
tive way for soci ety to connect its present
generation with the pas t is by exposure to the rich
collage of history represented through art, litera
ture, science, and architecture. Architecture is the
least abstract of these accomplishments, making it
the most immediate and accessible. Part of Inte
rior Archit ecture is stimulating the imagination
with the intimate display of how past generations
lived. Itpagining former times encourages hu
mans to have confIdence in the futur e.
Cities need old bui ldings so badly it is probably
impossible Jar lJigorous streets and districts to grow
without th em . By old buildings I mean not
piece old buildings, not old buildings in an excellent and
expensilJe state oj rehabilitation-although these make
fine ingredients-but also a good lot ojplain, ordinary,
10w-lJalue old buildings , including some rundown old
buildings. 12
Returning older buildings to their original
dignity requires a sensitivity to careful historical
research and the discipline to carry it through.
Buildings are built to provide shelter for the
human activities. The resultant int erior spaces
contain a visual record of architectural styles, pro
viding some of the most important educational
lessons for the practitioners of Interior Architect.
Painstaking concentration is required to sen
sitively resto re historic architecture. The preser
vationist often times works behind the scenes,
receiving little credit. These custodians of histori
cal style and culture must suppress their egos in
order to objectivel y research and realize a true pic
ture of the past. All restoration or renovation
projects have problem areas to be solved: lost rec
ords, drawings or photographs; conflicting docu
mentation; multiple historic remodelings of the
same space; destruction of original components
through insensitive remodeling; essential mod
ernization. These probl ems creat e diffIcult choices
which must be researched, debated, and tested for
vi ability. They must be weighed for his toric ap
propriateness.
Some of these problems have to be solved
through new design. Designers facing the respon
sibility of replacing missing components in his
toric structures must avoid the temptation to
transform themselves into the reincarnation of the
ori ginal architects or designers. New design calls
for a disciplined, educated, and appropriate crea
tivity.
NOTES
1. When Paul Revere' s house, Boston, was restored in
1900, no records were ke pt concerning exi sting conditions
prior to the rest oration as well as information concerning
restoration decisions.
2. David A. Hanks , The Decorative Designs o..f Frank Lloyd
Wright (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1979), p. 77.
3. Brendan Gill, Many lv/asks: A Life oj Frank Lloyd Wright
(New York: Ballantine Books, 1987), p. 138.
4. Thomas W. Sweeney, "Frank Lloyd Wright's Dana
Thomas House Restored, " Histori c Preservation News, Sep
tember, 1990. pp. 1-2.
5. Frederi ck D. Ni chol s and James A. Bear, Jr. , Monti
cello: A (Monticello: Thomas Jefferson Memo
rial Foundation, 1982) , p. 14.
6. The front door on Prairie A venue was original; its
wood, glass, wrought iron, and lock were the very sa me
that were originall y installed in 1886. Edwin Johnson of
Chicago, Illinois, was contracted to restore the wood
work of the house, including the doors. Beca use the Prai
ri e Avenue door was fifty-six inches wide, it required
three men to remove it in order to restore it. The process
consisted of stripping the wood, cleaning it thoroughly,
re-staining, sanding, wiping down, and finishing with a
good quality pol yurethane.
7. Mariana Griswold VanRensselaer, Henry Hobson Rich
ardson and His Works (New York: Dover Publications,
1969), p. 114.
8. Louis H. Sulli van, Kinde/garten Chats and Orher Writings
(New York: Dover Publications, 1979) , pp. 206-207.
9. Ibid., p. 208.
10. Earl Lifshey, The Housewares Story (Chicago: Na
tional Housewares Manufact urers Association, 1973), p.
128.
11. N ational Building Museum brochure (Washington,
D.C.: N ational Building Museum).
12. JaneJacobs, The Death and Life oJCreat American Citi es
(New York: Random House, 1961), p. 187.
PRESERVING THE PAST: PRESERVATION, RESTOR ATION, RENOVATION, AND ADAPTIVE REUSE 403
...
ESCALATOR ROTUNDA, CRATE AND
BARREL, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS.
SOLOMON, CORDWELL AND BUENZ,
1990.
Photograph by John
I...
----- . ~ . .
..-----:-:-:. .
/'" ~
(
ND
ENZ,
CHAPTER 9
S r YLE: EXPRESSION OF CULTURE
Interior Architecture practitioners are trained to
imagine in three dimensions how their design de
cisions will perform and how the style will fare in
the future. They look into their drawings and
models, imagining movement of people, the
quality of light, or a detail of a room. They con
sider how the materials will wear and how diffl
cult they will be to clean. Their love of good
design tells them one thing while their practical
side counters. Interior Architecture demands a
balance between the often opposing elements of
aesthetics and function. Overly designed elements
can become trendy and short-lived whereas
highly functional solutions can be boring and in
human. So those practicing Interior Architecture
struggle in their imaginations with the future,
trying to see the truth. The test of time will cer
tainly be passed, yet they must wait.
Through direct experience and knowledge of
history, Interior Architecture practitioners slowly
improve at predicting the future. Their judge
ments become more educated as they gain expe
rience. They build and store various experiences
all their lives to achieve credibility. Credible indi
viduals have tremendous value to society because
through their creative work they reveal the fu
ture. The success of many organizations and insti
tutions is based on being flrst or ahead of the
competition. These successful artists, designers,
and architects are looked to for leadership.
Filmmakers have always been interested in
the stylistic imagery of the future as subject mat
ter. The subject is intriguing, fllled with fantasy
and fear. Films such as A Clockwork Orange, 2001:
A Space Odyssey, and Brazil are intriguing exam
ples of peering into the unknown future. These
multimillion dollar motion pictures with the best
cinematography, special effects artists, and crea
tive directors have become the standard format
for science flction. Film is the best medium avail
able to transform humanity through time and
space.
In the 1985 fllm, Brazil, directed by Terry
Gilliam, the viewer experiences a spectacular
dramatization of a future society. The setting is
within a technologically advanced urban environ
ment that in many ways is an extension of the
current era. Although it is highly theatrical, it is
thought provoking because the scenes are based
on present reality. For example, the sound vol
ume is purposely raised to give the audience a
sense of what the noise level will be like in the
future. The sounds generated from airplanes, au
tomobiles, mechanical equipment, and computer
printers have been the sources of concern and the
impetus for laws to limit the rising decibel level.
It seems that high speed technology continues to
push the acceptable sound level up in the name of
progress. Only recently has the need for "white
sound" or background music to mask the noise
levels in offlces and restaurants become evident.
Objectional sound will continue to be a design
and technical problem until the effects are quanti
flable in terms of health, happiness, and eco
nomIcs.
The frightening level of noise amplifles the
general depiction of high stress in Brazil. Com
munications via satellite have made information
and news around the world available to everyone.
Much of this news is stressful, such as the threat
of nuclear holocaust, terrorism, war, or child
snatching. It has become very real because of the
media's technical advances, such as live broad
casts, improved clarity of sound and picture, and
cable television. We are bombarded with the most
up-to-date events around the world. Communi
cation of these events is very important for form
ing public opinion and ultimately taking action.
Being so aware of what is happening in the world
not only makes one fantasize about the future but
reconsider the past.
People generally remember the positive as
pects of history, which make it nostalgic and
more desirable than the present era. The slower,
simpler life with a hi gher sense of security is very
appealing to most people. History provides a
birdseye of what causes design ideas or
styl es to change-changes caused by economic,
political, technological , educational, religious, or
cultural reasons. The styles emerge as an expres
sion of the times, persisting until there are major
changes . When st yles change, there is either a pe
riod of overlapping major concepts , short-lived
exploratory movements, or a time of confusion
and searching. These transition periods create a
time for free thought and investigation. Many in
stances in history have shown that in these times
of conversion, the fashion of design becomes
trendy without substance. It generally breaks the
rules of the previous period in defiance of the es
tablished dogma. Often the new styl e is just that;
a reaction to the pas t. Unless it matures into an
expression of the present culture, it usuall y is
abandoned for a style more responsive to that
time. In studying the history of Interior Architec
ture, one must consider the culture of the times to
understand its resultant sty Ie.
CULTURE AND S TYLE
FRENCH GOTHIC
Gothic architecture began to develop in France
around 11 30 and continued to flouri sh for three
hundred years. The medieval church was con
cerned with educating illiterat e people through
biblical iconography from the Creation to the life
of Christ. Thi s era is sometimes referred to as the
age of faith. Humanity was thought of as a frag
ment of the total creation. To find or underst and
the total, the human being had to first have faith
and accept God. Therefore, faith had to precede
reason in an atmosphere of humility or humble
ness .
To create this theater of educa tion and reli
gious awe , the medieval architects developed
soaring ver ti cal cathedrals articulated by abstract
ribs of stone. By carefully infusing light into the
vertical rhythm of mass and voi d, a brea thtaking
and unea rthl y experience was achi eved. The im
mense scale of the interior architecture reinforc .:
the concept of humanity's insignificance and ht.:
mility, thereby demonstrating the need to haL
faith in God.
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE
Renaissance architecture started in Fl orence
1420, developing for a period of 350 years. Ir
cont ras t to the Gothic st yle's int ent to overpowe:
and diminish the human being's presence, the R
naissance represented a new confidence and r
spect for humanity. This humanitarian view
the res ult of a more stabl e, relati vely secure soci
ety compared to the centuries of religious and feu
dal wars during the medieval period . Kings an
princes took over feudal lands and organize
strong national governments. There were d.
nami c movements from feudal farmland to
due to increased trade and commerce. Educati
was no longer confined to the church and mo .
astery but was availabl e to all of society becau
of the invention of the Gutenberg moveable
about 1440. Education was further develope
through the establi shment of libraries by the ru>
ers and popes. Universities were created to tralL
late ancient literature and to study humanist :::
subjects. Writers and artists changed their intere :
from religious to human subject matter. Societ
in general had a renewed confIdence and sense 0 "
self-esteem.
This new concern for humanity manifeste
itself in antiquity. After all, Roman architect ur
was based on human scale rel ationships, which
make a perfect model for architecture. The oppor
tunity to study and borrow from monuments anc.
ruins was available throughout Ital y. Classical ele
ments symbolized a past democratic civilizatioe
that represented well this new human renaissance
An original style of architecture evolved using
human scale and det ails of classicism with strong
geometric relationships and emphasis on central
ized space to clarify the human being's new pos:
tion in the world.
In viewing Interior Architect ure as an expre
sion of its culture, the shift from the Gothic tc
Renaissance represents a change in humanit y' :
rced
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E XTERI OR DETAIL OF SO UTH PORTAL,
CENTRAL BAY, CATHEDRAL OF N OTRE
DAME, CHARTRES, FRANCE, 11 94
1 260.
The sCIIlplural iconography o.f th.e
cathedral expressed the congruity o. f
history and concordance o.fdilJinit y_ The
central bay prese/lts the Last judgmel'u
presided over by Christ lhe j"dge)
.flank ed by the Virgin Mary OIl d St .
j ohn_ The actillity below the sealed
Christ illustrates the weigh ing of the
so uls and assiglling them to either
Heallen (on the left) or Hell (on the
/'iShl ) . Photograph by j ohn Kurti ch.
INTERIOR VIEW OF NAV E, CATHEDRAL
OF N OTRE DAME, CHARTRES ,
FRANCE,11 94-1260.
The soaring lIerticality of the nalle was
further accentuated from the capital s of
the clustered columns upward through
th e splaying outward o.fthe rib lIaulting.
Photograph by john Kurti ch.
STYLE: EXPRESSION OF CULTURE 40 9
INTERIOR VIEW OF PAZZI C H , ~ P E L ,
FLORENCE, ITA LY. FILIPPO
BRUNELLESCHI, 1429-1446.
The modesll y-scaled chapel represents
Olle ofthe ea rliesl ltaliall Renaissance
archilcclUral expressions oj Ihe Ilell!
concerns oj Iml11an-scaled space ulilizil1g
classical el ements, geometrically
arranged. Photo)iraph by John KUllich .
self-image. Illiterate medieval peasants were hum
bled by God's powerful presence, symbolized by
the soaring Gothic cathedral, whereas educated
schol ars of the sixteenth century considered them
selves as powerful and creative people at the cen
ter of the universe. Their interi or space was
created for humanity and was sy mbolized by clas
sical domed architecture. The imtimidating
Gothic cathedral, with gar goyles and saints peer
ing down at humbl e, ignorant peasants, no longer
represented the new age. Renaissance spaces based
on symmetrical, axial plans capped by domes em
phasized the presence of thi s new humanity. The
scholars and the artists of the Renaissance had re
acted to the low self-image of the medieval think
ing with fresh new spaces to express humanity's
development.
EUROPEAN BAROQUE
In Europe, the Baroque period continued and ex
panded the ideals of the Renai ssance, shifting the
azza was the grandest of all urban theatres . The
space expressed the dualit y of openness and close
ness. Its dominant oval shape created a cross-axis
emphasi s away from the individual. This was an
architecture of synthesis, focu sing on the impor
tance of a complete architectural experience. Ba
roque space emphasized the idea of the center.
This notion of center was epitomized by the
building of the Piazza San Pietro in Rome (1675
1677) by Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). The
world became a giant thea tre, with every human
member a player on this stage, and Bernini ' s pi
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AERIAL VIEW OF PIAZZA
SAN PIETRO, THE VATICAN, ITALY.
GIOVANNI LORENZO BERNINI,
1655-1667.
The scope and orBernini's
piazza is ben realized(ioIl1 above.
Pholograph by John KUrlich.
PLAN OF THE ROYAL CHATEAU AT
VERSAILLES, FRANCE, 1672-1689.
DRAWN BY SILVESTRE, 1680.
Versailles established spalial and
material goals jar ambitious European
royalty jar the nexltwo hundred years .
Courlesy or The Art inslitute oj
Cllicago.
GARDEN ELEVATION OF THE ROYAL
CHATEAU AT VERSAILLES, FnANCE,
1672-1689.
The proportiolls ojthe Royal Chateau
were so long arid broad as compared to
its height that it literally junctioned as a
garden wall. COl/rlesy or The Art
!lutitut e of Chicago.
STYLE: EXPRESSION OF CULTURE 4I I
to the primary path leading to St. Peter's basilica.
The central obelisk became the focal point to lead
humanity fr+:>m all directions into the embracing
arms of the mother church.
The French, through the building of Ver
sailles (1661-1765), further expanded the notion
of Baroque space with the concept of the axis of
infinity, symbolizing the power of absolute mon
archy. The major axis of Versailles was built
along the east-west path of the rising and setting
sun, an appropriate expression of the Sun King.
Versailles became the model of spatial develop
ment throughout Europe during the eighteenth
century, encouraging powerful popes and mon
archs as patrons of immense building programs,
transforming the built environment.
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
After the Baroque, the nineteenth century is re
garded as a period of confusion and exploration.
This was the beginning of the Industrial Revolu
tion. The new age was not only based on agrarian
production but on manufacturing and commerce.
The buildings required to shelter industry had no
precedent and therefore no historic model. These
large halls for manufacturing, exhibition, and dis
tribution embraced the new open space ideals of
the age and employed the new technology of
structural iron and glass construction.
In the beginning the structures were clothed
with classi cal facades that were arbitrarily applied.
Architects generally chose a style that best suited
the building type . Often the style or motifs were
borrowed and used without understanding of de
tailor use of materials , creating confused meaning
and little substance to the essence of the industrial
age.
The Crystal Palace of 1851, designed by Jo
seph Paxton (1803-1865), created a significant
change in the emerging aesthetic. The Cryst al
Palace was the first major industrial age building
to contain no reference to historical styles. It rep
resented society'S optimism in the future and re
jection of the past. Interior space, as represented
by the Crystal Palace, was conceived as large,
open, light, and flexible as opposed to contained.
dark, and permanent. The traditional room wa
replaced by free-fl owing spaces that were pro
gressively abstracted to the essential components.
These components were extended to the outdoors
through the architectural use of glass. The plan.
were no longer ordered by axial symmetry but b ~
logic and consistency.
THE MODERN MOVEMENT
The Modern Movement evolved as an expressi on
of the Industrial Revolution. The concept 0,
Modernist buildings and interiors was reinforce'
by the economics gained through the use of rna _
production. Standardization, modulation, and
repetition became key ideas in creating the expre
sion. The handmade expression of artists ane
craftsmen was replaced with the abstraction of tho
machine. By the 1890s electric lighting was i ~
general use, reinforcing modern spaces wi th
vastly improved illumination. Concurrently, cer.
tral heating and ventilating were conceived ane..:
developed, making possibl e larger areas of gla ~
while improving the comfort zones . The new sys
tems were much more effi cient for heating and
lighting than past open flame methods.
As the technology evolved, the twentieth
century passed through many transitions in style
as a result of the search for the appropriate expres
sion. Before the Industrial Revolution started, the
tall est and therefore most dominant interior
spaces were the cathedrals. Religious architecture
was the most import ant in the towns and cities .
The great halls for commercialism and transpor
tation of the nineteenth century dominated the
cathedrals in size and visual importance. The de
velopment of steel construction in the twentieth
century produced tall office buildings for com
merce that further overshadowed religious archi
tecture. The F. W. Woolworth tower in New
York (by Cass Gilbert , 1911-1913), described as
the "cathedral of commerce," symbolized this
new importance of commerce over religion.
The twentieth century started with the use of
classical and medieval revival styles while pro
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INTERI OR VIEW OF THE CRYSTAL
PALACE. LONDON. ENGLAND. JOSEPH
PAXTON, 1851.
The Crystal Palace was the firs t major
building to seek its own aesthetic based
orl the new materials and techl1iqfles of
the Industrial Rellolution. C(Jurtesy (Jf
The Art Institute a..f Chicago.
STYLE: EXPRESSION O F CULTURE 4 I 3
EXTERIOR VIEW OF WOOLWORTH
BUILDING, NEW YORK, NEW YORK.
CASS GILBERT, 1913.
The "cathedral of commerce" dominated
th e early twenrieth century New York
skyline as the Cathedral of Not re Dame
dom inat es th e city of Chartres.
gressmg through several brief experi ment a
styles, such as Art Nouveau and Art Deco befor
maturing into the International Style. This mod
ern style was the first to create unity and directi O!.
for contemporary design.
THE INTERNATI ONAL STYLE
The International Style started at the Bauhaus ir.
1919 provided the guiding principl es for many
designers today. Its machine aesthetic, composeci
of steel and glass, is noncontextual and is intended
for universal siting, making it bes t suited for free
standing monument type buildings. The Interna
tional Style is a bea utiful representation of the
Industrial Revolution as it is an expression of mas
production. Its construction advantages of speed,
economy, and flexibility rela ted well to the de
mands of a profit-oriented commercial economy.
The somewhat dogmati c principles of the style
were se t forth by Henry-Russell Hitchcock
(1903- ) and Philip Johnson (1906- ) in their
1932 book, Th e International Style: Architecture
sin ce 1922:
There is, .first, a new conception of architecture as
volume rather than as mass. Secondly , regularity rather
than axial symmetry serves as the c h i ~ f means of order
ing design. These two principles, with a third proscrib
ing arbitrary applied decoration, mark th e productions
of th e international styl e. This new style is not inter
national in th e sense that the production of one country
is just lik e that of another. Nor is it so rigid that the
work of various leaders is not clearly distinguishable.
The international style has become evident and defl11
able only gradually as different innovators throughout
the world have successfully carried out parallel experi
ments.
1
Generations of designers learned well the
rules of mass production, which were economy
through repeti tion, standardization, and modula
tion. Functionalism was the most important as
pect of the pl an because design must deal with the
most practi cal aspects in the complex modern
world. If the space sol ved the functional problem
thoroughly, it w as generally considered beautiful
regardless of the aes thetic. Ornamentation was
omitted because it had no functional purpose and
111
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E XTERIOR VIEW OF DOUBLE HOUSE ON
STEEL STANCHIONS,
WEISSENHOFSIEDLUNG, STUTTGART,
G ERMANY. LE CORBUSIER AND PIERRE
J EA NN ERET, 1925.
The double house follows the di(tul1I of
Le Corb llsier's "Five Poin ls," which
includes a raised Sl rll (lII re 011 pilolis, a
roofga rden 011 lap, Jiee plal1 within , F ee
facade withollt, and rihbon lViI/doli's to
erw;rt ize nalural ill/.ll/linaliol1.
Pholograph by John Kllrtich.
it added expense. Often there was more concern
wi th maint aining the planning module than solv
ing human problems. To break the grid and res ult
in a nonstandard detail was considered bad de
sign. It was as though designers were no longer
able to resolve problems creatively with human
car mg.
CONTEXTUALISM
The Internati onal Style was followed by a modern
st yle of architecture based on context in the late
1960s. This work was a reaction to the anonymit y
of the International Styl e. The widespread envi
ronmental and social consciousness developed
during this era fueled the reaction and thereby
eroded the dogmatism of the lnternational pur
ists. The development of the architecture was
based on the relationship wit h the site. This idea
produced modern buildin gs that were less monu
mental related to their environment. Creating a
EXTERIOR VIEW OF HIGHRISE
OFFI CE BUILD INGS, AVENUE OF THE
AMERI CAS, NEW YORK, NEW YORK,
1960s.
The buill erllJirol1l11ent of this avenue in
mid-Iown Manha ttan could be
(haracterized as the Modern }\1ovemenl
gone mad. Photograph by Jolll1 Klmich.
STYLE: EXPRESSlON OF CULTURE 415
sense of place as opposed to the International
Style's desire to make universal space was the in
tent of the (rontextualists. The desire to produce
unique spaces resulted in more variety and less
repetition and monotony. The buildings fIt better
in their contexts and in turn the interior designers
and architects learned to make their designs ap
propriate for those buildings. Yet the spaces gen
erall y remained an expression of the machine
abstract and anonymous.
The Modern Movement broke from history
and abstracted design to the point that there was
no symbolic meaning or relationship with the
past. It was generally perceived as cold, clean, and
impersonal. The minimal details failed to produce
human scale or personality in the interior spaces.
The concepts were geared to the repetition of
mass production as opposed to mass satisfaction.
In general, Modern Movement building was eco
nomical to produce, more efficient to operate, and
easier to design than previous styles. Its major
failing was the style's inability to engage the oc
cupant by providing human comfort Jl1 an Jl1
creasingly technological world.
POST-MODERNISM
The Post-Modern Movement was clear! y a reac
tion to the Modern Movement's shortcomings.
Its leaders believe that by interjecting historical
forms and ideas into modern architecture, the
new environment would be less abs"tract and more
representational. This representational work
would have meaning and therefore could be
understood by the occupant as well as the casual
observer. Establishing a dialogue between the
public and the place was intended to enrich the
human experience, thereby resolving the most
critical Modernist shortcoming.
As in the nineteenth century, the Post-Mod
ernists turned full circle, clothing the interior
spaces and extenor frames with any style appro
priate. Chippendale, Gothic, Classical, and Art
Deco were popular expressions ripe for rebirth in
this period of experiment. Overnight, axial sym
metry was "in" as the organizational principle,
while the grid was twisted, turned, and pulled
into compliance.
The Post-Modern Movement is a transitional
style serving as a period of free thought and ex
periment. Its leaders realized lively new forms
through breaking the rules of the Modern Move
ment. Mies van der Rohe's "less is more" was
replaced by Robert Venturi's parody, "less is a
bore. "
In the beginning, tongue-in-cheek expres
sions of modern spaces with historical clothes
were the vogue. The modernist-trained designers
reopened their dusty history books and searched
for appropriate forms and details. Not knowing
the language or method of construction of the
past , they improvised by translating stone details
into drywall and plastic laminate. Often the trans
lation resulted in cartoonlike images with little
longevity of practical wearing or aesthetic sub
stance.
The radical contrast of Post-Modernism's
historicism to Modernism's abstraction created
great debates and public attention. The Modern
Movement was never totally embraced by the
public, especially in residential design. When the
fresh new spaces, full of memorable forms and
color, began to be constructed, the public's atten
tion was attracted. The new movement gained
prominence when two major building commis
sions were awarded to Post-Modern architects,
Philip Johnson (1906- ) for the AT&T Building
in New York and Michael Graves (1934- ) for
the Oregon State Office Building in Portland.
Prior to these commissions, Post-Modernism had
its roots in interiors and minor buildings. With
more major commissions and competitions being
secured by Post-Modern design firms, the move
ment gained followers. Established Modernist
firms like Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM)
and Murphy/Jahn shifted completely in the mid
eighties. They saw the advantage of identity
gained through the freed use of historic models as
an aesthetic concept. The more complex the tops
and elaborately decorated they could make the
lobbles for high-rise buildings, the better.
e,
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19
iNTERIOR CENTRAL COURTYARD, LES
he
E SPACES D' ABRA XAS, M ARNE-LA
ils
VALLEE, FRANCE. RICARDO BOFILL,
IS
1978-1983.
:Ie
Ricardo BoIdl bUill his rep ,.,tation on
b
large-scaled PasI Modem projects,
borrowing classical details, altering their
I 'S
sca le and arrangemenl, and crealing
ed
monumental, th eat rical hOlAsing
rl1 deIJelopl11et7ls and commercial cent ers .
I'le Pholograph by John KlArlich.
I'le
1d
n
: d
s
:s ,
E XTERIOR VIEW OF THE PORTLAND
BUILDING, PORTLAND, OREGON.
MI CHAEL G RAVES, 1980.
19
e Cent ralIa Ihe concepl of Ihe Porlland
st Bllilding was the publ ic lIature o.(its
1)
col1lex/lo Ihe rest o.fl he cily and also ils
internal funclioll. It s maillfacade is a
:l
metaphoric gate which is established by
:y
Ihe paired "co luIn ns" "pon which resls a
as
fOllr-story "Iin/e l," alld which allows
}S
one a selue ofpassa;;e thl' oll;;h (/11
Ie
inlerior street (dcily serl/ices.
Photograph by Paschall /Tay lor.
STYLE: EXPRESSI ON OF CULTURE 4 I 7
-= ---------
POST-INDUSTRIALISM
The U. S. e ~ o n o m y in the 1980s entered an age
where it shifted from an industrial base to one
based on service and communications. Thi s his
toric transformation, started in 1957 with the
launching of the Sputnik and Columbia satellites,
was precipitat ed by several factors. First , the
space programs developed computer, communi
cation, and robotics that were directly applicable
to use on Earth.
Second, American industri es pacifIed with
years of dominance, became outdated and obso
lete when compared to more aggressive and so
phisticated competing countries. Many new U. S.
products have been reduced to mediocrity
through the desire of big business to appeal to
larger consumer markets. The conservative prac
tice of utilizing focus groups to evaluate new
products has seriously eroded creativity in prod
uct design. In the meantime, products from Eu
rope and the Orient have flooded the market with
no relief in sight . Third World countries have at
tracted industry with their low labor costs and
lack of unions, further reducing American com
panies ' ability to compete.
Third, the industrial age produced a society
disciplined by repetition and uniformity. Culture
of the mass society was oriented to the whole as
opposed to the individual. As Alvin Toffler has
said, "These are societies based on mass produc
tion, mass distribution, mass education, mass
media, mass entertainment, and. mass political
movements-not to mention weapons of mass
destruction." 2 He elaborates, expl aining, "This
much-criticized homogenization of life was often
attributed to technology: It was the machine that
was depriving us of individualism." 3 This idea of
repetition and uniformity is rapidly eroding with
great increases of diversit y and choice, dri ven
mainly by the harnessing of industry by the com
puter.
In terms of designing appropriately for the
future as well as the current era , the hybrid nature
of Interior Architecture gives it the means to con
tinually integrate new ideas with old, fr es h tech
nologies with timeworn techniques, recently
developed materials with traditional, and en
lightened standards of human comfort, conve
nience, and safety. An instructive way to glimpse
into possible futur e architectural evolution is to
examine contemporary building types, from their
historical beginnings to what they might become.
What were the forces that shape architectural
space and what was the res ultant space? Typolo
gies such as retail (shops and stores), commercial
(offIces), residential (habitat), and hospitalit y (ho
tels) are explored.
RETAIL SPACE
ANCIENT ROME
Space for marketing and shopping go back to the
earliest beginnings of the urbanization of human
ity, when people set up temporary structures and
booths to trade food and wares at convenient
crossroads of trade routes. In Western culture, the
anci ent Romans were among the fIrst to institu-
INTERIOR STREET OF THE MARKET
OF TRAJAN, R OM E, ITALY .
A.D. 98-113.
The covered port iofl o{this Gllcien{
mllrket complex is Il pl'ewrsor to the
cOllfemporar), interior shopping mal/ .
Photograph by J ohn KUl'li ch.
418 INTERI OR ARC HITECTURE
tionalize shopping within lar ge, permanen t struc
e
se
tures, such as the marketing hemi cycles of the
to
For um of Trajan, Rome (A.D. 98-113). These
str uctures were multilevel architectural containers
:Ir
e.
for a series of permanent, uniform shops, concep
al
tually similar to con temporary shopping malls.
) The typical indi vidual Roman shop em
al
ployed a counter that separated the interior of the
shop from the street and formed a barlike surface
upon which transactions took place. Well-pre
served remains of such shops found at both Ostia
and Pompeii bear out the fact that the Romans
developed a uniform building type for thi s activ
it y.
D
EUROPEAN AND MIDDLE EASTERN
he
MEDIEVAL SHOPS
11
~ d
The individual shop did no t change essentially for
nt
centuries. Glazing of the facade is fir st docu
he
mented in H olland in the seventeenth century. [n
u-
cities, shops tended to be clustered in the same
area. In order to encourage shopping, parti cularly
during inclement weather, architectural fea tures,
such as arcaded streets, were developed in pl aces
T
r
he
all.
TYPICAL ARCADE STREET, BOLOGNA ,
ITALY.
T he arcaded pedesrrial1 lIlays il1 (f/ural
Bol oglla have remailled since medieval
ti,nes. Ph orograph by John KUI'tich.
I

-
INTERIOR STREET OF THE GRAND
B AZAAR, ISTANBUL, T URKEY, 1461,
1651 ,1701, 1898.
The Grand Bazaar is totall y
illtemaliz ed, with self-colltained
shopping protecred by multipl e vaulting.
Photograph by J ohn Kurrich.
such as medieval Bologna. In the Middle East, to
provide shade, the covering of entire streets be
came the standard architectural feature of the ba
zaar. The Grand Bazaar of Istanbul , originally
built over the ruins of an old Byzantine market in
1461 and subsequentl y rebuilt and added to for
the next four hundred yea rs , covers an area of
about two million square feet.
ARCADE SHOPPING
The idea of the covered shopping street beca me
popular in Europe during the sixteenth centur y;
London ori ginated the arcade with the Royal Ex
change in 1566. The arcad e became popul ar
thr oughout Europe in the nineteenth century due
to the availability of iron and glass as structural
material. 4 But arca des and their oriental cousins,
bazaars, were still no more than a collection of
separate shops under a common roof. The majo r
STY LE: EXPRESSION OF CULTURE 419
INTERIOR VIEW OF GALERIE VIVIENNE,
PARIS, FRANCE, 1824.
Building techniques and processes
allowed the rapid growth oj irol1 alld
slass arcades and col/ered streets in
nineteenth-century El1rope. Photograph
by John Klmich.
innovative change in shopping since the ancient
Romans was the creation of the department store.
THE DEPARTMENT STORE
The department store had its origins in the grand
shopping palaces of nineteenth century Europe.
Starting in 1777 in England, the industrial Revo
lution created vast sociological and political
changes in western European countries and the
United States. The reality of manufactured goods
and mechanized transportation made possible a
style of mass consumption never before witnessed
in Western civilization. The great international
expositions of the nineteenth century, starting
with London's Crystal Palace of 1851 and climax
ing with the 1900 Universal Exposition of Paris,
exposed the masses to scientifIC and technical in
novation that was revolutionizing daily life. Con
sumer merchandise began to be displayed at these
fairs until it outnumbered productive tools or sci
entifIC presentations.
The Crystal Palace heralded a new building
technology of iron and glass that made it possible
to shelter vast numbers of acres under one roof
with abundant natural light. The Paris expositions
continued this building trend for the rest of the
century (1855, 1867, 1878, 1889, 1900).
The department store fmt emerged in Paris
based on the same growth of Industrial Revolu
tion prosperity and transformation for merchan
dising technigues as the world fairs. Bon Marche
opened in 1852 and, in 1876, moved into larger
guarters designed by Louis-Charles Boileau
(1837-1896) and Gustave Eiffel (1832-1923). The
new building was a fantasy of glass-covered
courts with aerial iron bridges, slender iron col
umns, grand staircases, and elaborate ornamental
shapes.
The department store introduced an entirely
new set of social interactions to shopping.
Active verbal interchange between customer and
retailer was replaced by the passive, mute re
sponse of consumer to things-a striking example
j
s
e
r
e
:I
INTERIOR VIEW OF THE CROSSING,
CRYSTAL PALACE, LONDON,
ENGLA ND. J OSEPH PAXTON, 1851.
The realization of.lU(h a large building
as th e Crystal Pala ce led to the concept
ofa sil1sle lar,qe buildil1g housing retail
merchandising. Courtesy of The Art
Inst itut e of Chicago.
INTERIOR VIEW OF GRAND STAIRCASE,
MAGAZIN AU BON MARCHE, PARI S,
FR ANCE. GUSTAVE EIFFEL AND L. A.
BOILEAU, 1876.
Tile new (Oluep t of the departmel1l
store, SLI(h as Bon Mar(hc, produced an
atl11osphel'e offal7t(5), al7d desire which
encouraged shoppil1,i; as rleller befol'e
experiell ced. Courtes), of Th e Art
Institut e o..f Chi((1go .
STYLE : EXPRESSIO N OF CULTURE 421
of how "the civilizing process" tames aggressions
and feelings towa rd people while encouraging de
sires and feelings directed toward things. Depart
ment stores were organized to inflame these
material desires and feel ings . Even if the con
sumer was free not to buy at that time, techniques
of merchandising pushed him to want to buy
something. As environments of mass consump
tion, department stores were, and still are, places
where consumers are an audience to be enter
tained by commodi ties , where selling is mingled
with amusement, where arousal of free-floating
desire is as important as immediate purchase of
particular items,s
THE SHOPPING MALL
The depa rtment store served Western society very
effectively until the universality of the automobile
crea ted the suburbs as the desired place to live.
This brought about suburban branches of down
town stores that eventually became the nucleus of
the collective known as the shopping mall, giant
covered areas, conceptually reminiscent of the
Oriental bazaar, but bland and conservative, spa
tiall y and commercially. Although the shopping
mall today contains a variety of specialty and
branch department stores , the individuality of
such stores inhibits the ease of browsing, which
in turn discourages the fantasy and desire in shop-
EXTERIOR VIEW OF OAKBROOK
SHOPPING MALL, OAKBROOK ,
ILLINOI S, 1990.
The shoppin,(! mall is til e al/ tithesis of
the departll1ent store, conceptually
refilming to Illedieval bazaars, but
mil/liS the exotic Inix ofmerchal/dise.
Photograph by)ol1l1 Kurlich.
pers , so preval ent in the nineteenth century de
partment store palaces.
MAIL-ORDER SHOPPING
In the latter part of the nineteenth century, an
other type of retail marketing became popular in
the United States-the mail order ca talogue. The
development of the posta! system (begun in 1847)
along with the rapid expansion and settlement of
the American West, made this innovation pos
sible. The pioneering farmers and settlers were
somewhat at the mercy ofloca! supply sources for
a limited selection of overpriced goods. Thei r
growing dissatisfaction with this means of shop
ping assured the success of the alternative, mai i
order marketing. E. C. Allen of Augusta, Maine.
is given credit for starting the mail order concep,
in 1870. At approximately the same time, Mont
gomery Ward, who unders tood the mi dwesteL
farmers' tastes and needs from his traveling sale_
man da ys, established Montgo mery Ward &.
Company in Chicago. Sears , Roebuck & COIT
pany followed as a fully fledged competitor L
1893. Such was the success of this kind of marke
ing that Sears became one of the biggest and mo .
successful ret ai lers by the late twentiet h centur
with many retail outlet stores throughout tL
countr y and corporate headquarters in the worl d'
tall es t building, the Sears Tower, Chicago (1974
ie
m
In
he
fl)
of
)s
Te
or
~ l r
p
ail
Ie,
pt
It
rn
s
&
1
m
t
st
\ .
- '
s
INTERI OR VIEW OF ARCADIA,
C ARSON PIRI E S COTT Co. , C HICAGO,
ILLINOIS. N1EDERMAI ER DESIGNS WITH
FERGUSO N-HuSTON D ES1G NS, 1986.
All attempt to lure shoppers back to rh e
central business distri ct , Arcadia Iva s an
experiment in IOtal immersion 0r (antas)'
shopping, an attempt to revi ve the (!realll
/./l or/d idea of rheJirst departmenr storcs .
Photograph by Jolm KHrtich .
ELECTRONIC SHOPPING
Interactive electronic home shopping, made pos
sible with the combined technology of the com
puter, video, and telephone, became the late
twentieth century competitor to mail order retail
ing. Now it was possible for the shopper, without
leaving home, to view on a color video screen all
or any objects of a given store as though traveling
through the store. The telephone tou ch-tone but
tons would all ow the shopper to control what
appears on the screen, from sel ecting the shop
ping place to browsing through the store aisles
and choosing specific items. More button pushing
would give the shopper sizes, prices, and allow
the chosen item to be placed in an electronic
"shopping cart." Payment was totally electronic,
using a preregistered , redit card. Delivery could
be specifIed at a particular time, later on the same
day, the next day, or three or four days in the
future.
THE COLLECTIVE SPIRIT OF SHOPPING
Electronic shopping won't make the physical
store obsolet e any more than mail order market
ing repl aced late nineteenth and early twentieth
century urban department stores and specialty
shops. In fact, Sears added an extensive chain of
retail outlets after the mail order business took
off. Why? When people shop, they need a cl ea r
sense of what they want to buy, which can come
.\ . .
\
f'r I
. ~ '
.' 1
best from a physical encounter and inspection.
People al so like to be with people. Collective ex
perience is a powerful and, in some ways intangi
ble ingredient to intensify a personal activity. The
format of the department store best provides the
coll ective experience of shopping. Freedom to
move fr om one department to the next is its es
sence. The individual specialty shops can inhibit
the customer with intimidations to buy. Interac
tive electronic home shopping, although poten
tially offering the ultimate in freedom of choice,
lacks physical immedia cy and tactility. It is linea r
in its format. The department store's freedom is a
strength that no other retailing concept has
matched.
THEATER IN SHOPPING-CARSON PIRIE
SCOTT The element of theater intensifies the
sense of freedom. By manipulating the environ
ment , the experience is altered to create an atmo
sphere in which the particular ret ail goods
stimulate desire. In Chicago, Illinoi s, Carson Pirie
Scott, originally designed by Louis Sulli van
(1899-1904), installed in 1986 a merchandising
experiment in trendy items , called " Arcadia ." A
small building section on Wabash Avenue was
transformed inside and out through bright col ors,
disco music, video walls, and labyrinthine mer
chandise di splays, which completely immersed
the shopper in the fantasy of the environment. By
combining related el ements such as a cookie fa c
tory, an ice cream store, videos with images of
STYLE: EXPRESSION OF C ULTURE 4 23
rock stars, and upbeat music, a lively party expe
ri ence set the tempo for buying nonessential
items. The <ilesigners revived the dream world of
the nineteenth century mass consumption and
made it contemporary.
CRATE AND BARREL
The Michigan Avenue Crate and Barrel Store,
Chicago, Illinois (1990), designed by Solomon,
Cordwell, and Buenz, epitomizes the retailer's
treatment of shopping-as-theater. The six-story
glass and aluminum structure is designed as a
unifIed enclosure to display home furnishings. At
night the store glows , exposing its colorful con
tents; during the shopping day, buyers can ex
amine the merchandise under natural light.
Vertical circulation is achieved by ascending a se
ries of escalators through a round, glassy cylinder
INTERI OR COURT, CRATE AND
BARREL, CHI CAGO, ILLINOI S.
SOLOMON, C ORDWELl AND BUENZ,
1990.
The appeal of Crate altd Bane/ 's
merchandise is Ia/g ely to well
designed a/1d colol)'ul di splays
IhrotiRhotil Ihe slore, which exhibit a
high level o( creati vity and w er;;y
Photograph by Jobll Ktl rtich.
at the corner of the building. This exciting event
exposes the shopper to all levels while enjoying a
spectacular view of Michigan A venue.
Crate and Barrel sells specialized and im
ported house and kitchen goods. Their spaces are
carefully designed as backdrops for the colorful
and ever-changing products. Materials are chosen
to metaphorically represent the different kinds of
home furnishings , for example, the kitchen area
has a con tinuous quarry tile floor; the furniture
area has hardwood and carpeted floor. The engag
ing displays are created and illuminated through
out the store by in-house, professional designers,
not by stock or sales personnel. Flexibility is pro
vided by track lighting that can be changed with
each new display, similar to the way a theater's
lights can be altered for a new performance. Large
and well-designed checkout stations that include
wrapping and packaging in reusabl e Crate and
INTERIOR DETAIL, C RATE AN D
BARREL, C HICAGO, IlLlNOIS.
S O LOMON, CORDWEll AND BUENZ,
1990.
The merchandise is intima Ie and
approachable, errcOflragin;; customers to
touch or lest for com(orl. Pholograph by
Johll
-----
:nt
Barrel shopping bags create an image of efficient
; a
service. Everything about the concept reinforces
its
~
image as a store selling items of good taste and
'11-
design.
tre
ful
en
COMMERCIAL SPACE
of
'ea
ANCIENT EGYPT
Ire
g
Space for commercial transactions, primarily the
.h-
office, developed from several sources. In ancient
rs,
Egypt, specific space was set aside for scribes to
'0-
keep written accounts of such essential items as
ith
grain as it was being stored. Proof of such "of
r's
fices" can be found in small clay funerary models
ge
such as the one of a granary and adjacent "offIce"
de
rld
MODEL OF ANCIENT E GYPTIAN
SCRIBES FROM THE TOMB OF MEKETRE,
XI D YNASTY, 2130 B.C.
The scribe was a prestigious profession
in ancient Egypt, and his talent s /.ilere in
high demand to carryon the eileryday
business o.fthat ciililized society.
Photograp h by John Kurtich.
to
by
for scribes from the tomb of Meketre, XI dy
nasty, 2130 B. c .
ROMAN COMMERCE: OSTIA
Ostia, the port city of ancient Rome, has remains
of an office complex known as " the Square of the
Corporations" (before 12 B.C.). Ostia was the
center of a large organization, the anno na, which
was charged with supplying Rome with food.
The Square of the Corporations was a large com
plex of seventy offices that housed the commer
cial associations of this organization, a sort of
stock exchange or chamber of commerce of the
ancient Roman world. The offICes were a series of
identical single interior spaces linked together to
form three sides of the square. A doubl e arcade of
SQUARE OF THE CORPORATIONS,
OSTI A, ITALY, CA. 12 B.C.
This was the bureaucratic hub of
marlagementfor food and supplies Jor
Rome. This "m ercantil e exchange" was
sLlpported by ma/1 y lalge waI'ehouses a/1d
storage .facilities, also located in Ostia.
Photograph by Joh/1 Kurtich.
-
--- =-- < t - ~ ~ _
- - ~ ~
brick columns formed a continuous porch in front
of the offlces, and the mosaic floor of the porch
identified ear h office at its entry as to the prove
nance of each mer chant and in what kind of com
merce was being engaged.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE
"OFFICE" BUILDING
O stia had a large commerci al section, which con
sisted of warehouses that were controlled and
maintained by these associations. The rel ationship
between warehouses and offi ces continued
throughout the commercial histor y of western
Europe, becoming architecturall y evident in the
si xteenth and seventeenth centuri es in the Neth
erlands, as the Dutch at that time were the leading
merchants of Europe. Government offi ces, on the
other hand, developed as a singular building t ype
in the late twelfth century in Ital y as towns ac
qui red independent status. A prominent example
of such a specialized building was the Uffizi, Fl or
ence (1560-1571) designed by Giorgi o Vasari
(1511-1 574) for Cosimo de Medi ci (1519-1574).
It originally housed administrative offices for the
" nine Conservatori , with their Scrip tori, their
Audienza and their C hancellery." 6
NINETEENTH CENTURY BRITISH OFFICES
Commercial office space continued to be linked
to the warehouse until the ni Q.eteenth century,
when architectural independence fir st occurred in
London. In 1819, Robert Abraham (1774-1850)
desi gned the Count y Fire Offi ce as part of John
Nash's (1752-1 835) classi cal Regent Street devel
opment. Following that , ins urance offices sllch as
the Westminster, Life and British Fire Offi ce,
London (1 831-1832), the Sun Fire Offi ce, Lon
don (1841-1842), and the Liverpool and London
Offi ce, Liverpool (1855-1857) were desi gned by
C. R. Cockerell (1788-1 863). All of these build
ings used neocl assi c elements such as elaborate
corni ces and cl assical orders for the columns on
their exteriors. The warehouses that parallel ed
these earl y offi ces were also externall y decorat ed
THE
.
E XTERIOR VIEW OF UFFIZI GALLERY,
FLORENCE, ITALY. GI ORGIO VASAR I,
1560-1571.
A s Ita ly bega n 10 delJelop indep endelll
city-stales, the Heed for Iheir
adminislmtion was met by a new type of
bllildillg, consist ins ofa series of offices.
Th e Ujfi z i lUas blessed llJ ilh mal1 )'
windows overlooking a narrow COll rl.
Ph olog mp h by J ohn KII, t ich.
,
""-.
-
o(
.i.,
w ith similar ornamentation, making them similar
in appearance to palaces. Windows were relatively
small , so the interiors were dark.
THE FIRST SKYSCRAPER
As new materials such as iron and glass became
more available, improvements in office buildings
occurred. In his Oriel Chambers, Liverpool
(1864), Peter Ellis (1835-1884) enlarged the win
dow openings by using metal framework be
tween slender stone columns. The interiors now
were becoming more generous in size and natural
lighting. The next str uctural breakthrough that
affected offices was the development of the iron
skeleton frame, first featured in the Home Insur
ance Building, Chicago (1884, now demolished),
by William Le Baron Jenney . This ten-story office
building is the first skyscraper actually built, and
it began the movement known as the Chicago
School of Architecture, which spawned the great
est designers of early twent ieth century commer
cial architecture: Louis H. Sulli van (1856-1924),
Dankmar Adler (1844-1900), Daniel H. Burnham
(1846-1912) , John Wellborn Root (1850-1891),
John A. Holabird (1886-1945), and Martin Roche
(1855-1927). A symbol of the Chicago School
was an ideal window designed for the office. The
EXTERIOR VIEW OF COUNTY FIRE
OFFICE, LONDON , ENGLAND. ROBERT
ABRAHAM,1819.
The nineteenth century began a real
upsurge of ojfzee buildings with the
Illidespread growth 0.( il/si/ ranee and
banking Photograph by
RCHM El1glalld.
EXTERIOR VIEW OF ORIEL CHAMBERS,
LIVERPOOL, ENGLAND. PETER ELLIS,
1864.
Oriel Chambers was a very adl'aneed
desigll, featuring Ilery large bay
windows Jar every ojfz(e. Photograph by
)01111 KLlrtieh.
STYLE: EXPHESSJON OF CULTUHE 427
RENDERING OF THE HOME INSURANCE
WILLIAM LE BARON JENNEY, 1884
1885.
The ':(1rsl" skyscraper depended lipan
the devel oplllent of the irOl1 skeleton
Fame alld the in !Jell/ion of the elevator.
Delitsches Archilektur MUSeHltI
Bibliothek.
"Chicago Window" was composed of a large,
fixed-view window, flanked by double-hung
windows for ventilation. T h i ~ design maximized
both view and ventilation for the individual of
fice, lending a unique overall character to Chicago
commercial buildings.
THE ELEVATOR
Commercial office buildings could never have
been possible without the invention of the eleva
tor. An early example of this technology was a
"moving apartment . . . raised by machinery" 7
which would take several people from the ground
to a viewing platform at the Colosseum, Regent's
Park, London (1832). Elisha Otis (1811-1861) de-
EXTERIOR DET AIL OF TYPICAL
CHICAGO WINDOW, CARSON PIRIE
SCOTT CO., CHICAGO, ILLINOIS.
LOUIS SULLIVAN, D. H. BURNHAM
AND COMPANY, 1899, 1903-1904,
1906.
The "Chicago Window" evolved for the
practical reasons oflight and velltilation,
which II)ere from natural sources.
Photograph by)ohn Kurtich.
veloped the world's first safe elevator, initially in
stalled at his factory (which produced bed frames)
in 1853. He invented a double rail system that
guided the passenger platform, preventing it from
crashing if the rope broke. The widespread use of
the elevator created high densities of commercial
districts, which reinforced communications.
Also, a sense of prestige in high-rise office build
ings was established by the ascension to lofty
vi ews, accessed via the elevator.
THE LARKIN BUILDING
Although these new office buildings were struc
turally innovative and their exteriors designed
with flair and imagination, the interiors remained
---
--
" the
';on,
10
1es)
:hat
'on1
e of
cia!
)ns,
ild
)fty
'uc
ned
ned
INTERIOR PERSPECTIVE OF THE LIGHT
CO URT, LARK[N COMPANY
ADMINISTRATI ON BUILDING,
BUFFALO, NEW YOR K, FRANK L LOYD
WRIGHT, 1903,
4
't
I
In addition to the generous all1oul/l oj
nawrallrght which .fiooded the inferior',
the Larkin Building had an
extraordinary heatil1g Ql1d uel1 tilation
system which Wright claimed was one of
"
L" I
i.
, I
the .first air-conditioned bllildings in th e
country, Courtesy oj The A rt Institwe ,
.t.

oJ Chicago ,
PLAN OF THE L ARKIN C OMPANY
ADMINISTRATI ON BUILDING,
BUffALO, NEW Y ORK, FRANK LLOYD
WRIGHT, 1903,
Thi s plan shows two floors at the same
tim e: on the side the middle
di uiding li ne is the restal/ rant leuel (fft h
floor) and on the ri.Rht side a typical
office.fioor, Courtesy The Art
Instifl.tt e oj Chicago ,
,-------_._----- --- - - -
STYLE: EXPRESSIO OF CULTURE 429
... ...
-- ---
dull and standardized, particularly the actual
works paces. Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959)
had about office interiors for human
activity, which he demonstrated in his Larkin
Company Administration Building, Buffalo
(1903, demolished). The interior of the five-story
office building centered around a light court,
which went the full height of the fIve levels, al
low ing natural light to reach all parts of the inte
rior through double-glazed skylights at the top.
The ends of the light court had a sixth level con
servatory, fill ed with vegetation that was visible
to the workers from their various office levels.
H ea ting and ventilation, including air-purifying
and cooling, guaranteed a consistent, comfortable
environment, regardless of external weather con
ditions. Wright designed furniture, using metal
for the pieces in the main block, to ensure fire
proofll1g. His frees tanding desks had folding
chairs permanently attached to the desk and can
til eve red with a certain amount of arc of move
ment, all to make cleaning the floors easier.
PHILADELPHIA SAVING FUND SOCIETY
In 1930, George Howe (1886-1955) and William
Les caze (1896-1969) designed a high-rise office
building for the Philadelphia Saving Fund Soci
ety. Their design was a departure from the tradi
tional approach of using historical styles to clothe
a contemporary commercial building. Influenced
by structural rhythms, ribbon windows, and ab
sence of applied ornament of European modern
ism, they produced the most advanced office
building for its time. The building was completed
in 1932 and appeared in the Museum of Modern
Art's seminal exhibition, "The International
Style." The main banking floor was located on
the second floor with access by a moving stair
framed in highly polished granite. The interior
remains one of Philadelphia's best commercial in
teriors, resplendent with highly polished marble,
chrome, glass, and the original furnishings and
fittings of 1932.
SEAGRAM BUILDING
Mies van der Rohe (1886-1969) had Visions of
glass and steel office buildings in his curvilinea r
model of a glass skyscraper for Berlin of 1922. A
development of these ideas was realized after
World War II. The Seagram Building (New
York, 1958) is his most famous exa mple of an
office building employing a structural and service
core enclosed by a glass curtain wall. Because the
principles of the concept were highly efficient and
economical, this building became the standard for
office buildings du ring the fifties and sixties in
INTERIOR VIEW OF BANKING fl OOR,
PHILADELPHIA SA VING FU ND SOCIETY
BUILDING, PHILADELPHIA,
PENNSYlVANIA. H OWE AND LESCAZE,
1929-1932.
The highly polished illtel'io,. (If the //lain
bankil1g '/700,. Ihe many 11,r;luillJ!,
./1X{Ur('s and extends them spatially ,
par'l inll)' dissall)il1g CO I I!!fII I ial1aI
st rl/([lIrallagif and blllrrill,r; haUl/dori c., .
PI/(l{(l,f;rapl z /')' Johll Kllrtic/z.
-=--- -
the
:ed
ab
rn
'I ce
ted

nal
on
:alr
lOr
In
)Ie,
md
of
ear
A
ter
ew
an
Ice
the
md
for
In
urban America . The resulting interiors of this
building form tended to be monotonous and pre
dictable. Uniform floor to ceiling heights and
continuous window walls stifl ed creative interior
architecture. The ubiquitous fluorescent light,
combined with dropped ceilings integrated wit h
ai r-conditi oning systems, ensured the monotony.
INTERIOR VIEW OF ATRI UM
GREENHOUSE, FORD FOUNDATION
BUILDING, NEW YORK, NEW YORK.
KEVIN ROCHE, JOHN DINKEl OO
ASSOCIATES, 1966-1967.
This atr/urn provided such a welcOille
reiielfiwl1 the pallfl11elll alld
lack of II egelalion of Ihe cily liIal it
spawned a rash ofarrillm office deslglls
ill Ihe 1970s and 1980s. Photograph by
John Kuni ch.
EXTERI OR OETAIL. SEAGRAiVl
BUILDIN G, NEW YORK , NEW YORK.
LUDWIG iVllES VAN OER ROHE AND
PHILIP J OHNSON; KAHN & JACOBS,
1958.
The III os! ./iW1OIIS of JVIi e.i 11011 del'
RolLe's lIIa lllre this blli/dillg
i.i 1101 IIlirilolit omall'l ellr . The /-/Jeall'l
IIIl1/1iol1 s halJe bem addedfor lIisLi al
definiri oll al1d al'li(lllaliol1, bill th c)' arc
1101 strll(fliral. Phorogl'aph by John
Kllrri c/t .
FORD FOUNDATION HEADQUARTERS
In a reaction to the desensitized offIce environ
ment of uniformit y and effIciency of the 1950s
and 1960s, Roche, Dinkeloo and Associates de
signed a garden atrium offI ce building for the
Ford Foundation (New York, 1966-1967). The
STYLE: EXPRESSION OF CULTURE 43 r
Cor-Ten steel and glass square structure contains
offices along the north and west sides , which
overlook ae ten-stor y-high atrium. This lush inte
rior space contrasts with the hard urban quality of
midtown M anhattan, and it unifies the foundation
physically and spiritually. The multilayered ga r
den is lands caped with mat ure trees, shrubs, and
flower s, creating the essential link bet ween hu
manity and nature. Sliding glass doors per mit the
offi ces to physicall y connect to this oasis, allow
ing the staff to modera te their personal environ
ment. The Ford Foundation Building was a
turning point in humanizing the office environ
ment by unifying the entire staff through a com
mon space, which metaphoricall y represented the
philanth ropi c goal of the foundation itself.
UNION CARBIDE HEADQUARTERS
The Ford Foundation's humanization of its build
ing was expensive, however. Corpora tions in
general were not yet ready to invest this kind of
capital for the comfort and convenience of their
employees. The quest for efficiency in large office
complexes led to a coordinated systems approach.
An exa mpl e of total integration of lighting, air
handling, furniture, partitions, and surface mate
rials was Skidmore, Owings & Merrill' s Union
Carbide Headquart ers, New York (1959). Basing
the design layout on a module system compatible
with the building architecture, the spatial size and
arrangement of offices could refl ect current cor
porate hi erarchies and be easi ly altered to express
changes in those hierar chies.
TH E OPEN OFFICE: WEYERHAEUSER
TECH NOLOGY CENTER
A different approach to large offi ce pl anning de
veloped in Europe. Instead of developing parti
tioned modules that coordinated with the
building architecture, the building and its geome
tr y were ignored. Called the " open offi ce" or the
"office landscape," this concept was first devel
oped by Eberhard and Wolfgang Schnelle from
Quickborner, Germany. As principals of a man
agement consulting group called the Quickborner
Tea m, they thought that office arrangemer.'
should delineat e work process and traffic flO\\
Fi xed partition walls and heavy offi ce furnitur
were abandoned in favor of an open floor and
li ght weight furnitu re that accommodated every
one, including the chief executive office. Skid
more, Owings & Merrill used this concept for the
We yerhaeuser Technology Center , Tacoma,
Washington (1 971).
This center was one of the first buildings to
be totally designed for an open office landsca ped
interior. The San Francisco office of SOM de
signed the building and its interiors. Breaking
awa y from the traditional hi era rchical organi za
tion of contained offices, SOM was able to free
the gl ass curtain wall of any visual interruptions,
preser ving the spectacular view of the nO-acre
wooded site for all of the employees. To maintain
the continuous open interior , the architects de
signed an open workstation produced by Knoll
that provided a fl exibl e and efficient environment.
Current lighting technology no longer applied to
the floati ng offices. Individual tas k-orient ed li ght
ing in each workstation with ambi ent lighting at
the tops of each st ation became the primary
source of interior lighting. The Technology Cen
ter was a major installation that established a cred
ibl e new design idea. That idea was manifested in
the numerous manufactured sys tems that offered
open landscape: fl exibility in unlimited quantiti es.
This new approach and its new technology related
well to the demands of the everchanging corpo
rate structure.
John Naisbitt , the author of Megatrends, said:
" We' re at the beginning of a renaissance in the
arts and literature. All this high tech that we have
to put up with, particularly the computer, is
obliging us to reexa mi ne our humanit y, which we
do in the arts and literat ure. " R N ais bitt continues ,
describing hi s famous phrase "high tech/ hi gh
touch, "
When you high tech into a society, the tech
nology that displaces humans always seems antihuman.
So we human beings try to create a compensatory 'high
touch' to restore the balance between our techn ology and
our humanity or humanness . High tech dissonance re
sults when you put your computer in an environment of
minimalist The more computers in our
- .- - - -. --- - - -- -- : -
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__________ " ... n ... _ -
- --:::=::-= - - --=-- - --- - ==- - -: --
nent
low.
iture
and
rery
;kid
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to
aped
de
king
mza
free
Ions,
-acre
1tam
, de

1ent.
to
ight
19 at
n ary
Cen
:red
ed in
fered
HI es .
lated
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said:
1 the
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h we
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'nloj
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INTERIOR VIEW OF TYPICAL OFFI CE
FLOOR, TECHNOLOGY
CENTER, TACOMA, WASHINGTON .
SKIDMORE, OWINGS AND MERRILL,
1971.
Th e "open office" was a new concept
which altered and transformed
subsequent office and offi ce furniture
des ign. Ph otograph by Ezra Stoller.
I
houses, the more likely th e other aspecls o.f the erl/llroll
ment , the .fitnlitrlre-say, the soja, th e wrtains-wlll
get sofier, cuddlier, or whatever in contrast .
Remember when companies moved to the open space
office separated by white sound instead o.f ph yslca l par
Very high tech-you dOl1't hear anyone nearby
because ojthe white sound. Then you got the high touch
- the phen omenon oj the many jorests of plants that
sprang up in the o.[fices. '>
R ESIDENTIAL SPACE
INDIGENOUS MATERIALS
The home, necessary for survival, was humani
ty's fIrst architecture. Indigenous and readily
available material s dict ated the character of the
dwelling, providing a working palette that led to
many different and regional devel opments in the
history of architecture. Trees and branches were
used in neolithic Mediterranean regions. Animal
bones and skins dominated construction in north
ern Europe and Asia. The building material of the
ancient Near East was mud. Marbl e and other
stone were co mmon building materials in ancient
Greece, as the natural supply of wood became
exhausted . The Romans invented concrete from
the volcanic composition of sand that was com
mon throughout Italy. The Japanese house
evolved from the use of paper as a primary mate
rial. The Industrial Revolution made iron and
glass technology widely a vailable for the first
time. The mid-twentieth century created plastic
as a building material. The late twentieth century
space age brought highly developed ceramics.
TERRA AMATA DWELLING
The oldest"designed" freestanding shelter to date
was recently discovered at Terra Amata near
Nice, France, dating at ca. 300,000 B.C. This oval
shape structure was formed from a series of bent
tree stakes that served as the wall s and roof simul
taneously. The palisadelike wall s were set in sa nd
and propped by a circle of large stones on the
outside. Hefty wood posts provided structural
PERSPECTIV E RENDEIUNG OF O V.>\L HUT
AT TERRA AMATA ( NI C E), FR ANCE,
CA. 30,000 B.C.
Tili" is a reco nstr/./{fiOIl oIthe farliest
!.mown "built .fi"01ll SO'atch" Inllllan
habitat yet idel1tified. Frolll: "A
Paleo lithic Calllp at Nice" by Hel1r y de
Lumley . 1II115lralion by Eric Mose.
Copyright 1969 by Scielll( fic
American, In c., A ll rights reserlJed.
support along the long axis of the shelter, and the
cent er of the space featured a hearth.
CRO-MAGNON SHELTER
SL
During the late Ice Age, ca. 35,000 B. C., Cro
Magnon humanity dominated Europe and devel
Tl-!
oped housing made of mammoth bones and
Cr
skins. They installed cobblestone floors, which
bric
were ingeniously placed by first heating the
thi
stones, then arranging them into the frozen mud
so .
ground. The stones melted into the mud, forming
ill:
durable, dry, insulated floo rs. The interior fea ho '-1._
tured a hearth, which was the center of warmth,
for
sustenance, and social activity.
In::: -
HUT
E,
,I
y de
RECONSTRUCTION OF A COURTYARD
HOUSE, UR, IRAQ, CA. 1900 D. C.
This urban dwelling looked illward 10 a
priIJale courtyard, Jor bOlh sewril)'
reasol1s Gild climale cOl1trol. Besides
ev eryday domeslic aClivilies, the
courlyard was used Jor such special
evel1ls as Iveddings and Junerals.
Drawing by Johl1 Kllrlich.
the
SUMERIAN HOUSE
:ro
"el The typical houses of the ancient Sumerian city of
and
U r (1900 B. c.) were constructed of sun-dried mud
lich
bricks . Mud was the major building material of
the this arid region due to the lack of timber and
md
stone. The houses were clustered together, defm
mg ing narrow, irregular streets . The two-story
[ea-
houses were internally oriented to an open court
lth,
for light and ventilation, with little or no open
ings to the street.
M ODEL OF A eRa-MAGNaN SH ELTER ,
CA. 35,000 B. C.
This .fiill scale reCOIISIJ'l.ICliOIi shows how
Ihe lale lee A , ~ e 1IIIII1al15 could recycle
!lalural lI1alerials mch as animal bOlles
and skins 10 creale a dwelling. Courtes),
Deparll/lelll oj Librar), Services,
AlI1erican MUS el./il1 of Nalilral Hislory.
,
.---"
c
- ---
GREEK HOUSING
Although 1ol 0Ll ses of ancient Greece were ongi
nally made of wood and clay, the Greeks even
tuall y depleted their for ests and built thei r shelters
of brick, stone, and tiles , reserving timber for
roof framing and beams. Their urban house form
was that of the atrium, with rooms developed
around this central, open, airy space. The house
was thus internally oriented as those of Ur, pre
senting blank walls to the outside street. The in
ternal design was based on the organization of the
family and movement of everyday life. There
were areas for day activities and zones for night
functions. The house also had separate quarters
for men and women. The Greek house reached its
zenith on Delos during the second century B. c.
where marble was used extensively for door and
H OUSE COURTYARD WITH MOSAIC
TILE, DELOS, GREECE, CA. 2ND
CENTURY B .C.
This hlxlIriolls hOllse was vu ill arolmd a
large, airy courtyard, which served as
Ill f mail1 adipily space an dfoCiisfor th e
fam ily ,for daily life as well as
crltertaill/llg. PIIO[ograpl1 vy JOltl1
Kurticli.
___ -= _- ~ - - - - - c - . - __ -- -- ~ - - - : ~ - - --_
- ~ ~

re
window frames, atrium and courtyard colon
m
nades, and veneer over the stone rubble walls.
the
F l o ~ r s featured elaborate tile mosaics.
ere
sht
ROMAN ATRIUM HOUSE
ers
its
The Roman single-family dwelling borrowed the
.c.
idea of the peristyle from the Hellenistic Greeks
md
and combined it with the rainwater-collecting
atrium of the Etruscan house. This hybrid house,
INTERIOR VIEW OF AN ATRIUM HO USE
ATRIUM, POMPEII, ITALY , BEFORE
A.D. 79.
da
The basic atrium col1si sled oj Ihe fauces
or "throal" oJtlie hOl/se which led0111
he
lh e streel /0 th e atriu,n proper, til e
atrium with its compluvium
impluvium complex, and the
tablinum which was on the I/lain ax is
oj Ihe Fonl door and fauces and was
cOllsidered the most il11porlalll space oj
the house. Photogl'aph by)ollil Kllrtic/1.
best exemplified by those preserved in Pompeii
and Herculaneum, were inward-looking brick
structures, roofed with wooden beams and terra
cotta tiles . Usually the walls were plastered and
painted with elaborate frescoes , featuring mytho
logical themes, architectural fantasies, or nature
scenes, all of which helped to enhance and
brighten the otherwise small and dimly lit interior
spaces. These single-story houses incorporated
elaborate mosaics on the floors.
Il1 set plan: a. Jauces b. Illyium
c. tablinum d. dilling e. bedroom
.r shop. Drawil1g by Carrel Eakil1.

o

-
c
[J]
b
ROMAN APARTMENT BUILDINGS: OSTIA
As became more populated during
the Imperial period, urban hou sing included ex
tens ive multi stori ed apartmen t buildings. The re
mains of such buildings in O stia represent the
typical vertical development necessitated by
crowded conditi ons. The average apa rtment
building was four stori es hi gh surrounding an in
ternal court yard. Unlike the single-story atrium
ho use, windows opened to both the street and
courtyard. Brick, aga in , was the dominant build
ing material, but usually the exterior walls were
not pl as tered. The maj or room in each flat was
placed on the exteri or with small er flanking
roo ms. These rooms were considered to be fl exi
ble and used as each tenant wished. Thes e flats
were prototypes for the modern, multistoried
apart ments found in every Western city.
INTERIOR CO URTYARD, HOUSE OF
DI ANA , OSTIA, ITALY, A.D. 2ND
CENTURY.
Thi s jour-story insula or apartment
block jeatltred a large cenrral courtyard
that provided naturalli.!?hr and
ventilation [0 the imler rooms alld
centered on a jountain that supplied the
aparrmeniS with domesric water needs
such as cooking, hygiene, and laundry .
Phorograph by )ohl1 Kurli ci1.
JAPANESE HOUSE
Over the course of fift een hundred yea rs the Jap
anese developed and refined paper as a major
building material for their houses. The ephemeral
qualiti es of ho uses constructed of paper unit ed the
J apanese with nature and with one another. Pri
vacy was int ernali zed affecting the tot al design of
the dwelling and how the spaces were used. The
rooms we re multifunctional with appropriate
sto rage to make them flexibl e. Portable furnish
ings were used in the center of the spaces allowing
the screens to be unobstruct ed. In Japanese culture
it is considered rude to put a guest against the wall
as the construction is delicate and cannot be leaned
against. Shoji screens are mo vable partitions con
structed of a single la yer of rice paper pasted to
wood frames to allow diffused light penetration.
Fusuma panels made of multipl e layers of paper
p-
or
'al
he
rJ
of
he
Ite
h
19
re
all
ed
n-
to
n.
er
I
I
I
r I I

r)
II

I EI
r I
I
I
0-
I' !
forming an air pocket provide insulation and in
creased privacy. These panels are interchangeable,
allowing the owner to easily alter the interior to
respond to seasonal conditions and changing
functions. Modular wood and paper panels al
lowed a flexibility unprecedented in the West.
HOUSE, BRUSSELS
Victor Horta 's (1 861-1947) house for Mr. Tassel
in Brussels (1898) utilized the new technologies of
glass and iron construction. Thi s residenti al struc
ture was revolutionary, crystalizing the ideas of
the Art Nouveau movement. The hi ghly personal
and artistic use of these material s resulted in a free
and flexible ground floor plan and a light-filled
interior. Iron columns eliminated bearing walls
while iron and glass skylights allowed sunlight to
fill the interior. The once classical and geometric
elements of structure were transformed into flow
ing orga nic compositions where structure and
decoration could not be separated. The stair of the
Tassel house exemplifies this synthesis. The iron
PLAN O F A TRADITIONAL JAPANESE
HO USE, THE IMANISHI HOUSE, NARA
PREFECTURE.
Th e major determillal1t oJsizing
illdilJid"al spaces withill a traditional
Japanese house U/as tile
cOllfiguration oj the [a[ami, a standard
siz ed (three feet by six Jeet) mal of rice
stra/v packed within a //JO/IOI rush
cov er. Copyright A.D.A. Edita
T okyou Co. Ltd. 1991 .
column supporting the stair is like a tree with
three-dimensional ribbon branches that merge
with sinuous two-dimensional tendril s on the
ceiling. The tile pattern of the floor continues the
swirling motif of the ceiling. In fact, all the sur
faces are a riot of organic growth. Thi s overall
effect transformed the period's limitations of
urban dwellings into a new sense of freedom.
GEODESIC DOME
Plastic was employed by R. Buckminster Fuller
(1895-1983) as the skin on his geodesic dome
(1948 onward) enclosing his autonomous house.
The concept for this house was to manufacture a
standardized enclosure for habitation. Full er ratio
nalized that "we have building materials which
are admirably suited to the erection of structures
without any limitation as to thei r form. This af
fords us the opportunity of building more effi
ciently and to greater functional advantage." 10
Fuller pointed out the advantage of speed of erec
tion due to the simplicity and li ghtweight quality
STYLE: EXPRESSION OF CULTURE 43 9
ills.
dr,
.\1/
-
-
INTERIOR VIEW OF UPPER SITTING
ROOM, TASSEL HOUSE, BIWSSElS,
BELGIUM. VICTOR HORTA, 1898.
Al'l NOl/veau was all ideal sl)'le .)J' Ihe
use of iron , because its 511'11 0 llral
properties aI/awed thill, !lillI/cable,
siml()u5 fOr/tIS 10 crearI' aI/
iI/separable ofskeleral alld
decorative COristructioli. COl/rtcs)'
lvll.lsfe Hona, BI"ussels.
of the prefabricated components. Traditional con
struction has al wa ys been handi ca pped by incle
ment wea ther conditions; the premanufactured
dome greatly reduced this problem. Mass pr oduc
tion was Full er 's key ingredient in the develop
ment of a new efficient, technically advanced , and
economi cal house of the fu ture. Destroying con
ventional images of the house, he sought to rede
fine the functions and construction within a
fl exible enclosure. This was crit ical to freeing
one's conditioned perceptions of what a house
should or could be. The masses had difficulty ac
cepting the idea ofliving in plastic domes, lacking
in human traditions. As a result, Full er's innova
tive and practical ideas were not fully appreciated.
URBAN LOFT LIVING
Once considered experimental or even trendy,
loft living has evolved over the last thirty years of
the twentieth cen tury into a major direction in
EXTE1UOR VIEW OF GEODESIC
DOME (U.S. PAVILION) , Expo '67,
MONTREAL, CANADA.
E. BUCKMINSTER F ULLER, 1967.
Thc Geodesic dOille
lI,hich serl/ed as Ifte U.S. Pavilioll lVas
a patent de nWI'ISIra liOI1 FIII/er 's
and(l lturistic thillkin.,<. In a space
Iwelll)' ilfearl/red a I'IIIllli
leucled sysleIII orexhibil platrornlS
seJ'lJed mrd colllleoed by escalaro/'S and
lI'alki va),s , mid a l11inirail lrlli n which
lraveled throl/gh the illieriol".
by johll Kllrtich.
residential design. The conversion of nineteenth
century warehouses and fact ories into residences
(see Chapter 8, Schroeder's Cobbler Square proj
ect , fo r further discussion of the ada pti ve reuse of
a factory complex into condominiums) has pro
moted a change in attitude toward city living. Re
claiming these urban structures as housing has
established new neighborhoods in the "heart of
town," creating a revival of city centers. Resi
dents no longer face time consuming commutes
from suburbs but live close to city restaurants,
theaters, sho pping, offIces, and are willing recipi
ents of urban conveniences.
Raw loft space, usually open and expansive,
punctuated by structural columns, requires a
unique approach to the delinea tion of interiors.
While residential design traditionally has deal t
with dwelling as a series of rooms , lofts were ini
ti ally defmed as a series of more open and com
municative spaces, spi lling int o each other. Over
the years, loft design has evolved to meet the re-
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quirements of a broader range of occupants, pro
a bal ance between public and private living
zones . Lofts are a celebration of space, the greatest
lu xury experi ence in an otherwise crowded urban
environment.
The fIrm of Tod Williams and Billie Tsien
and Associates, Architects, transfor med a 5, 000
square foot Greenwich Village loft, New York,
N ew York (1991), into a serene retrea t from New
York's hecti c pace. The architects achi eve a rare
harmony by ha'rnessing the opposing forces of se
renit y and activity, The interior becomes the sub
tl e realizati on that serenity requires a degree of
activity, and activity demands a level of quietness
in order to establish a true balance,
To acco mplish this spatiall y, the desi gners
developed a hi ghl y symmetrical pl an with the
central volume accommodating a generous living
room, with the kitchen, dining room, and bed
rooms al ong the peri meter. Count eracting the
static confI guration, the li ving room interi or is
invigorated in sever al ways. The long wall s of the
living space bow outwardly, giving the interior a
su btle, ever-expanding quality, Black plywood
P LA N OF A LOFT, N EW Y ORK, NEW
YORK. T oo W ILLIAMS, B ILLIE T SIEN
AND ASSOCIATES , ARCHITECTS, llJ)l2 .
Th e 5000 squal'c f oor
employs a ((:nl ra'l 'pare Ihal II ll ifies all d
f loods Ihe il11e1'i or wilh liShl , Drawillg
by Billie T sien ,
VIEW OF LI VING AREA OF LOFT, NEW
YORK, N EW YORK. T OD WILLIAMS,
BILLIE T SIEN AND A SS OCIATES,
ARCHITECTS , 1lJlJ2,
The spacioll s sYlIllli elriralli IJ il1,l? roolll
lakesFtl l o( lh e I)iew whi le
Ihe blark plywood bookcasesfloal ill
(0 1111'0.1' 1, all inril1'lMe library ,
Pholograplz hy Peler Pa(e,c.
bookcases march down the western side of the
living roo m, providing strong visual activity, The
asymmetrical seating arrangement demonstr ates a
hi ghl y charged balancing act. The li ving room
floor softly refl ects the tr anquil interior but
springs to activity as footst eps fall on the terrazzo.
A series of partitions are employed to delin
eate space. Sliding panels of pi gmented plaster,
separate the di ning room and the master bedroom
from the large living space, When the partitions
ar e opened, the serene living area is energized
with increased natural light fl ooding the expanded
vistas. At the opposite end of the li ving room,
near the loft ' s entrance, is a rotating partition, The
plywood screen revolves around a metal pole,
Copper-leafed on one side and painted gray and
white on the other, the fa ceted partition di vides
the li ving room into spacious and intimate areas.
Williams and Tsien were able to bring int o
bal ance the bes t features of private and publi c
space within the residenti al confInes of the loft .
Sepa rate bedr ooms and baths provide a peaceful
pnvate zone while the expansive li ving room,
dining room, and kitchen create publi c zones, re-
STYLE : EX PRESSI O N OF CULTU RE 443
ceptive to actIvity. The architects ' appreciation
for the spatial opportunities in loft design made it
possible to ~ r i n g the power of luxuriant expa nses
of space into the urban residential realm.
SMART HOUSE
In the late twentieth century plastics and other
manufactured synthetic materials became stan
dard for many of the components of home con
struction. The list , such as PVC plumbing piping,
molded foam decorative trim, vinyl-covered win
dow frames, and fiberglass shower stalls, was vir
tually endless and reduced the building cost. At
the sa me time, electronic and computer technol
ogy was developed to integrate and automate
such basic functions as securit y, safety, energy
control, and entertainment, making the house
more convenient. The "Smart House, " was a
proj ect fmt built in 1987 by the National Associ
ation of Home Builders who directed thirty man
ufacturers to design a new home wiring system,
organizing all fu nctions of power and tel ecom
munications into a centrally controlled computer.
Semi conductors were integra ted into the appli
ances, giving them the ability to communicate
through an advanced wiring system (containing
electrical, telephone, audio, visual, and security)
which was controlled by the house computer.
These sys tems allowed the house to catch up wi th
current technologi es but they initlally did not af
fect the architectural ex pression of the new age. II
MASS HOUSING
Housing of the twenty-fi rst century will rel y on
more and more manufactured components in
order to control cost and maximize availability.
Unfortunately today, house construction is an ar
chaic industry that relies on a labor-intensive in
dividual craft that is no longer abundant. On-site
house construction is vulnerable to weather con
ditions and it is diffi cult to coordinate all the var
ious trades necessar y to complete the building.
This traditional process has not kept pace with
contemporary needs, thus making such housing
unavailable fo r much of the population.
SWEDISH HOUSING INDUSTRY
The Swedish housing industry has not only cre
ated fl exibility in its houses but , through indus
trializati on, has given the public an affordable,
energy effici ent , and technically advanced prod
uct. As a reaction to the oil embargo of the 1970s,
Sweden developed three systems for indust rial
ized housing: a volume-element system similar to
a "mobile home"; a large panel system; and a
small panel system. Of the three, the small panel
system is an architect's dream. It is essentially a
kit of fl exible parts that allows a minimum crew
to assemble a wea ther tight enclosure in less than
two days after the foundation work has been
completed. Beca use the system is modular, great
variety ca n be achieved in the floor plans and de
tail s, sati sfying the owners ' specific needs. Pos si
bl y due to thei r severe climate, the Swedes focus
on their interiors and care less about the external
E
SWEDISH I NDUSTRIALIZED PREFAB
HO USING, 1947.
T he pre-cut panels and aaompally il1,!?
co nstruction kit made possible a
breakthroush ill the lime it took 10
assemble a prefabricated hOllse. Courtesy
oJ Arkitekrur Forl a,l( AB Copyr(Rh l
1991.
appearance. With their proven advantages, these
systems have not addressed the issues of individ
:re uall'Cy in a democratic society. A further disadvan
us tage is that the construction is limited to wood,
Jle, which does not offer enough selection in style or
Jd quality.
'Os, The components systems relate well to com
ial puterized design, selection, budgeting, and con
e to struction sequencing. The computer promises
d a speed, efflciency, accuracy, variety, and synthesis
!nel of a wide spectrum of information at the design
y a er's fmgertips. Unfortunately, none of these ad
ew vantages guarantees an aesthetic and functional
h.an house. This could be the downfall of the hope of
een
'eat
de
SS1
cus
'nal
EXTANT REMAINS OF THE STOA,
SANCTUARY OF THE GREAT GODS,
SAMOTHRACE, GREECE, 300-250
B.C.
Although the stoa was normally a
building reserved Jar colwl/ ereial
purposes in the Greek ag ora or
marketplace, here if provided ovemi<r;hf
shelterJor the inifiates who had fI'av eled
-tesy
from ajar to take part in rituals of the
Mysteri es. Phofo,r;raph by John Kllrlicit.
.
affordable, well-designed housing.
12
Since most
housing is not currently designed by architects
and designers, the computer-generated house
would likely be embraced by developers and
builders who dominate the market. The computer
does not design.
HOSPITALITY
Early travel was predominantly stimulated by
commerce, religion, and politics. The earliest ac
commodations for travelers were based on resi
dential forms that were modified to provide basic
security, shelter, and sustenance. These shelters
were comprised of two types, transient and desti
nation. Transient lodging was geographically de
termined by the distance one could travel by foot
or ani mal in a da y. These remote facili ties tended
to emphasize the basic needs of security and shel
ter. Destination lodging was generally located in
urban or religious centers. These facilities, de
signed for longer visits, related to their surround
ing environments, such as markets and shrines .
The basic functions of transi ent and destination
hostelries have not changed throughout the his
tory of Western civilization.
STOA, SAMOTHRACE, GREECE
An example of an ancient Greek Hellenistic build
ing built for transient overnight shelter in a reli
gious sanctuary is the Stoa of the Sanctuary of the
Great Gods, Samothrace, Greece (first half of the
third century B.C.). The Greek stoa originated as
a colonnaded shed, open to sunlight on one of its
long walls and enclosed on its i"emaining three
sides. Generally the stoa was a principal building
in the agora (market place) of the city, providing
shelter for shops, public discussions and debat e,
or simple loitering. The Stoa at Samothracc,
however, was used for lodging by the initiat es
who traveled great distances to participate in the
rituals of the Mysteries. Such travelers would
bring their own bedrolls and claim sleeping space
in the Stoa's expansive porch, dormitory style.
s'r. r. AZ.:'
Y EST! BUl. l'
. SI::RVANTS' 0
i ..=,-' , ,,,, ' -, '
1l1t.tllN'G II
;pu,AN
THE MONASTERY OF ST. GALL
After the fa ll of the western Roman Empire, tra vel
in western Europe was precarious, if not da nger
ous, The safes t and most comfortabl e lodging de
veloped in the many monas ter ies that sprang up
throughout the continent. These walled com
plexes w ere sel f-sufft cient , allowing them to sur
vi ve in isol ated locations. The monas tery at St, Gall,
meti culously reconstructed by Walter Horn and
Ernes t Born in their 1979 study, The Plan of St,
Call (U ni versit y of California Press, Berkeley), fea
tured separate guest ho uses for distinguished visi-
PERSPECTIVE SECTION OF THE
HOUSE FOR DISTINGUISHED GUESTS,
ST, GALL, SWITZERLAND, A,D.
820-830. RECONSTRUCTED AND
DRA WN BY W ALTER HORN AND
ERNEST BORN.
The gerl erous j i1(ilities for di stinguished
guests li se a simple triangular roojjra me
supported on a central column and beam
sys fem. Copyright, Uni versifyof
Cal lJomia Press,
PLAN OF THE H OUSE FOR
DISTI NGUISHED GUESTS, ST, GALL,
SWITZERLAND , A,D, 820-830,
RECONSTRUCTED AND DRAWN BY
WALTER H ORN AND ERNEST BORN,
TI,i , reconstruction delli or/strafes a
Il iaarchy FOIII public fO pril,are
as well as FOI/I nobleman 10 servant .
Copyright , Universit y of Cali{omia
Press.
tors and for pil grims and paupers, The plan of each
centered on a large hearth, surrounded by gener
ous space fo r dining, Thi s grand central space was
framed by heavy timbers and illuminated by a
lant ern structure on the roof ridge and dominated
by the large quadrangular stone ftreplace, Periph
eral to thi s space were sl eepin g quarters, sta bl es,
servants' quarters, and storage, Each guest house
had an annex that contai ned a kitchen, bake
room, and brewing facil ities, In the House for
Distingui shed Guests, the luxury of privacy was
ext ended by individual sleeping rooms complete
with corner fir eplaces and attached privies,
DIONYSOS MONASTERY, MOUNT ATHOS
Alt"nough the eastern Roman Empire lasted about
one thousand yea rs longer than the western, the
needs of both monasteries were simila r: security,
shelter, and sustenance. Some of the best-pre
served eastern monasteri es are loca ted on the pen
insula of Mt. Athos in northern Greece. Although
it is not known when monastici sm first appeared
in this area, the earli est surviving monastery, the
Great Lavra, was founded in A.D. 963. Two major
types of monastic orders existed on the peninsula:
the cenobites (who lived as a community and ab
stained from meat) and the idiorrhythm es (who
lived as individuals and were allowed to ea t mea t) .
:h
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as
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)[
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The generic architectural plan developed by
these monastic groups consisted of a central
church in a court defmed by monks' cells, guests'
quarters, refectory, and library. These perimeter
elements formed a wall that provided security for
the autonomous community within the complex.
Each monastery had access to the sea. The mon
ast eries were linked by overland trails. Visitors
were common and welcome. Today it is still pos
sible to visit the surviving monasteries and expe
ri ence their medieval hospitality if one is male and
previously approved by the Greek Orthodox
Church.
The cenobite monas tery ofDionysos, located
on the western side of the peninsula nea r Mount
EXTERIOR VIEW OF THE MONAST EHY
OF DIONYSOS , MT. ATHOS, GREEC E,
A.D. 1375.
The J>rtress -I ike IIw/lasterics
o(Mt. Athas Ilad scwril)' alld de(cllSe as
a priorit)'. Diollysos seems 10 groll '
(JI:'Salli({JI/y oul 0(1111' n,ck), clitJs whi(h
-"'pparl it. Ph tJIO,lZraph b), Johl1 Kllrti(h.
STYLE: EXPRESSION OF CU LT URE 447
---- - --- -- --------- ---
-------- ---
e
TYPICAL PLAN OF A MT. ATHOS
MO NASTERY.
a. entry b. calhelicon (ch/./rch)
c. phiale (s helt er for Holy Waler)
d. trapeza (refect ory) e. bell lower and
lib mry .f mo nks ' cells g. archolltaria
(guest rOO ll1s). Drawing by John
KI./rtich .
Athos, was built on a steep cliff overlooking the
sea in A.D. 1375 . It takes a visitor about thirty
mi nut es to climb the steep trai l from the pi er to
the entry gate. Visit ors are received by a monk
who is responsibl e for their stay at the monas ter y.
He leads them to their "cells," which are actually
bri ght and airy rooms built into the peripheral
wall. Each room has its own heating system, a
corner ceramic stove that becomes the dominant
architectural feature of the space. The spectacular
views from these proto-hotel rooms more than
compensate for their austerity.
Pri or to taking meals, guests must participate
in prayer at the monastery chapel. Then they are
led to the refectory, a surprising interior space full
of color and detail. The simple, symmetrical , ap
sidal hall is made complex by its wall pai ntings,
depicting Greek Orthodox iconography Because
the Dionysos monastery is cenobite, the monks
and guests eat together in silence while one monk
reads incessantly from the Scriptures. The long
wooden tables, flanked by benches, feature a con
tinuous perimeter cloth napkin, shared by all.
When the reading stops and the Book closes, the
meal ends.
PERSIAN CARAVANSERAI(S):
MADIR-I-SHAH, ISFAHAN
The medieval Persian world produced spectacul ar
structures co mmitted to hospitality along the
trade routes connecting the ci ties . These struc
tures were indispensable to commercial and eco
nomi c prosperit y beca use of the hostil e climate
crea ted by numerous civil wars, organi zed ban
ditry, and opportunistic marauders. Located
roughl y one day's travel apart, caravanserais were
designed to provide security, shelter, and suste
nance for the caravans. The generic plan was con
centric, featuring a central court surrounded by
arcades containing the guest quarters and service
facilities. The animals were isolat ed on the perim
eter of the guest quarters, immediately within the
external wall. Thi s separation ensured security for
the indispensable pack animals while providing a
more hospitable environment for the travelers.
Security was guaranteed by massive exterior
walls penetrated by one portal only, making de
fens e controll able. These portals were often em
bellished and decorated with enameled tiles
rivaling the entrances to the great mosques. In
side, service amenities usually included baths and
kitchens. In the bigger caravanserais, luxury quar
ters, often located on the roof, were provided for
distinguished gues ts. Such interiors usually con
sisted of fIred brick, occasionally combined with
stone or embellished with painted murals.
The caravanserais in urban areas were gen
erally located near bazaars, bridges, and madras
sas. The Persian madrassa was a theology school
associated with a mosque. The Madrassa Madir
i-Shah, Isfahan, built between 1706 and 1714, had
an attached caravanserai, which was built to pro
duce income for the students and faculty of the
madrassa. The plan of this caravanserai was typi
cal, with a central courtyard surrounded by ar
cau
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caded guest rooms. In the mid-twentieth century,
this caravanserai became the most luxurious hos
pitality complex in Isfahan, the Shah Abbas
Hotel. The appropriateness of the medieval cara
vanserai plan lent itself to conversion into a con
temporary hotel. The conversion ensured the
longevity and historic continuity of this unique
building form.
RENDERIN G OF AN EIGHTEENTH
CENTURY CARAVANSERAIS, ISFAHAN ,
IRAN.
Thi s caravanserais wos located near the
center of IsJahan, adjacent to the
Madrassa Madir-i-Shah, the dome and
minarets o.f which can be seen looming
above the caravanserais's room cubides.
Courtesy oJ The Art Inst itute of
Chi cago.
COURTYARD OF THE SHAH ABBAS
HOTEl , I SFAHAN, IRAN, 1963.
This luxur), hotel, (ol'Ilierted.fi'olri tile
originol caravanserais, carri es all ilS
tradilioll ofproviding 0 resting place/or
travelers. PhOloglaph by)ohn Kllrric/z
CALIFORNIA MISSIONS:
SAN JUAN BAUTISTA
The California miss ion system was established to
bring Spanish order and religion to the native
population. A string of twenty-one missions was
built between 1769 and 1823, linked by the El
Camino Real and spaced approximately a day's
STYLE: EXPRESSI ON OF CU LTURE 449
journey apart by horseback. Since the founding
padres came from M exico, the influence of Span
ish was predominant. The purpose of
these settlement s was to provide protection, edu
cation, religion, sust ena nce, and social order to
the region.
The form of these building complexes was
similar to the European monasteries, with a pati o
(quadrangular court) surrounded by arcaded
chambers connected to the mission church, guest
rooms, and other service buildings. Due to the
scarcity of wood, the construction was solid and
massive adobe and stone walls, ranging in thi ck
ness fr om three to six feet. Thi s wall mass pro
duced an internal thermal stability, keeping the
buildings cooler in the summer and warmer in the
winter. The molded quality of these adobe wall s
crea ted a distincti ve, sensuous aura. Decoration in
special areas, such as portals, windows, and wain
scoting, was achi eved by the colorful and exuber-
E X TERIOR VI EW OF MISSION SA N
J UAN BAUTISTA, CALIFORNIA, 1797.
COl'lstrl/cted a/thick, brick walls Mid
surrounded by heavy ar(lldes, the
/'nissiol1 is natl/rally inslliated to (olISerl'e
/reat ill the will tel' Ilnd mailliain ((Jolness
in the Slml/11er. Photograph by JolllI
KUI,ti(h.
ant use of paint. The combinati on of free-hand
painting on these imperfect walls evoked a naive
spirit, giving wa rmth to the spaces.
Mission San Juan Bautista (1797) vvas built in
one of the most fertile valleys of California , mak
ing it one of the richest of missions. The pictur
esque composition of the gabled facade, bell
tower, and arcaded porch epitomized the " mis
sion style" in this area. The unpretenti ous image
of security and shelter created the symbol ofhos
pitality. The bell tower itself was used to beckon
travelers and local inhabitant s for spiritual and
physical sustenance.
THE EUROPEAN PALACE AS A MODEL
The industrialization of the Wes t brought about a
ne w building t ype during the first half of the nine
teenth century: the urban hotel, using the Euro
pean palace as a model. The palace was designed
to be an elegant place of hospitality, accommodat
ing many guests. " The very formality and ano
nymity of the plan gave the palace a certain
fl exibilit y of accommodation, all the more be
cause it was des igned to house large numbers of
servants and co urt iers. " I j T he word " hotel"
meant in French an urban palace or public build
ing. During the French Revolution, America's
sympathy resulted in a Francophile movement,
influencing manners, dress, vocabulary, and cui
sine. " Hotel" was adopted to describe a new
building t ype, a palatial hospitality cent er for
gues ts to act out their latent fantasies in elite lux
ury.
The hotel was invented in N ew York. New
York was expanding at this time, with a popula
ti on of 30,000 when the seventy-three-room City
Hotel was built (1 794-1796). The City Hotel was
not an inn but a structure designed to afford com
fortabl e lodgings and the bes t in food and drink.
The Tremont House, Boston (1829), marked the
beginning of America' s grand hotels. It occupied
an entire city block and was considered the largest
in the world with 170 rooms. It featured single
and double rooms with individual, separa te locks.
The hotel empl oyed gas lights throughout all
publi c areas and provided eight wa ter closets and
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EXTERIOR VIEW OF THE MIDLAND
GRAND HOTEL AND ST. PANCRAS
STATION, LONDON, ENGLAND. SIR
GEORGE GILBERT SCOTT, W.H.
BARLOW, AND R.M. ORDISH.
1863-1876.
The illCongntity of.flnrl1s befween rhe
hOlel and train station rel/ealthe
Victorian lack ofCO Il cern about the
integration ofarchitecture and
technology. Photograph by Jolm

bathing facilities in the basement. The hotel
swiftly became the pride of Boston and the center
of political and social life.
Another type of palatial hotel w as developed
in England in the 1840s. This was the "terminus"
hotel, an essential attachment to the new railway
stations that were located in major cities due to
the rapid development of the railroad . One of the
most lavish and largest of these Victorian hotels
was the Midland Grand Hotel (1866-1876) at St.
Pancras Station, designed by Sir George Gilbert
Scott (1811-1878). Designing in his fa vorite styIe,
English Gothic Revival, Scott created a fantasy of
medieval spires, pinnacl es, towers, and pointed
arches of brick and stone. The lavish 400-room
hotel was outfitted with the latest modern conve
niences of the period, such as gas chandeli ers,
electric bells , rubbish chutes, and hydraulic lifts.
The architect described his hotel as "possibly too
good for its purpose." The train station it was
attached to was the engineering marvel of its day
in terms of the unsu pported span of its roof shed
-230 feet-making it the larges t iron st ructure in
the world.
Ironically, the technology developed in the
train shed was contrasted by the lack of originality
in the hotel itself. In fact , the collision of the hor
izontality of the shed and the verticality of the
hotel were very poorly resol ved. Although the
critics of the day praised the building complex for
its harmony and style, its real lack of architectural
integration is apparent to the modern eye.
RESORT HOTELS: THE GREENBRIER,
WHITE SULPHUR SPRINGS
The grand resort hotels were full y developed in
the nineteenth century. Location was everything:
a spectacular mountain view, a choice seaside set
ting, a unique healing spring, a shimmering lake.
These establishments catered to the rich and priv
ileged. The resulting architecture was palatial,
designed to accommodate the demanding expec
tations of the elite guests. Generally, the design of
these hotels reflected local traditions in a styl e
sympathetic with their sites. The interiors were
spacious to pro vide an elegant setting for the
many cotillions, galas, banquets, receptions, teas,
and other indul gent amusements.
The Greenbrier was established in White Sul
phur Springs, West Virginia, in 1778 initially as a
retreat feat uring the curative powers of sulphur
springs. During the nineteenth century, the
Greenbrier complex's first hotel, the Old White,
was built as a gathering place for the wealthy and
prominent. By the early twentieth century, a
larger hotel called The Greenbrier replaced the
Old White as a resort with every amenity, where
the visitor never had to leave the grounds to find
all desired outdoor sporting activities and enter-
STYLE: EXPRESSJON OF CULTURE 45 I
tainments. It was a sumptuous adult camp where
eve.Jy imaginable sporting activity was engaged in
during the day, with grand parti es being de ri
gueur in the evening.
This glamorous setting was conceived by in
terior designer Dorothy Draper (1889-1969),
who had a co mpl ete understanding for what a
wealthy audi ence would require from its sur
ro undings. This knowledge result ed from being
rea red in a well-connected family. Capitalizing on
this background, she opened her own interior de
sign firm, Dorothy Draper and Company, in
1925. She was the first American woman decora
tor to concentrate on nonresidential design, spe
cializing 111 hot els, restaurants , shops , and
hospitals.
By the time Draper was commissioned 111
1946 to redecorate The Greenbrier, she had fine
tuned her neo-Baroque style, a styl e emblazoned
with strong and boldly scaled elements, Vivid col
ors, and ri ch pattern. Overscaling decorative ele
ments gave her work a surrealistic qualit y. With
an $11 million budget and a great amount of de
sign freedom, Draper used her vibrant technique
to transform The Greenbrier int o a world of ro
mance.
Sympathetic to the period and style of the
Greenbrier's architecture, Draper used Georgian
antiques throughout the interiors. She had an in
nate talent for mixing old and new styles, giving
her clients the comfort of the familiar while intro
ducing fr es h new ideas that gave her interi ors a
sense of delight. Quality of detailing was para
mount in her design scheme. The public spaces
exuded a se rene elega nce while the private guest
INTERIOR VIEW OF THE VICTORIAN
WRITING ROOM, THE GREENJlRlER,
WHITE SULPHUR SPRINGS, WEST
VIRGINIA. DOROTHY DRAPER, 1946
1948.
Th e oversea/ed al1d
mirror works LlJeli as a prirne focus point
for the fireplace wall. Photograph by
Hans Vall Nes.
rooms displ ayed Draper's sense of originality. No
two rooms were alike, giving each gues t a subtle
message that he/ she was special and would receive
such care while staying at The Greenbrier. Upon
ent ering a g uest room, one might find kelly green
wall s, vivid cabbage rose chintz draperies and
bedspreads, and whimsicall y painted four-poster
Georgian beds in pristine white. Dorothy Draper
created an elegant resort fill ed with panache while
resonating its rich heritage. She celebrated the
South's formalit y and elega nce 'vvithOl1t redu cing
its serenity to a level of stuffiness often created
when inter iors are highly designed.
MI XED USE:
THE AUDITORIUM BUILDI NG, CHICAGO
The Auditorium Building, Chicago (1889)
by Adler and Sullivan, pioneered the idea of
mi xed use development. It was com prised of a
400-room hotel, an office block of 136 units, and
a 4,237 sea t thea ter. The concept behind this ma
sive development, the lar gest in the world at the
time, was two-fold : (1) to create a complex that
gene rat ed energy from its mi xt ure of activit ies:
and (2) to decrease the development risk by build
ing three proflt centers.
This optimistic program provided a stimul at
ing challenge for one of the great creative archi
tects of the time, Louis Sullivan. Integration of
these three distinct functional elements on a ti ght
urban site resulted in a co mpact ten-story granite
and limestone monolith. The hotel faced Mi chi
gan Avenue and the lake beyond and was entered
throu gh a bold Roman arch. The lobby con
tras ted the monochromatic stone exterior with a
pol ychromed marble mosai c floor, a Mexican
onyx wainscot, and a riot of gilded plaster foli ate
reliefs. A dramatic stair, framed by another
Roman ar ch, spill ed into the lobby, inviting
gues ts to ascend to the second floor reception
room. Here they found a spectacular view of Lake
Michigan through an open loggia that projected
over the hotel entrance.
The re ception room was rich with Sullivan's
patterns in gold and g reen, claret draperies , and
Wilton carpeting. Three sources of illumination
INTERIOR OF HOTEL LO BBY,
AUDITORIUM BUILDING, CHICAGO,
ILLINOIS AS THE LOBBY OF ROOSEVELT
UNIVERSITY IN 1')<)2. ADLER AND
SULLIVAN, 1889.
Th e opcl/ ness and luxuriousl), decoraled
grand slairease oflhe oriflinallobby
invited guesls 10 ascend 10 Ihe second
floor receplion room overlooking Lakc
Michigarl. Pholoflraph by)011l7 Kurlich.
enhanced this visual opulence: a large fireplace
with its flattering flame; electric lights spraying
out of ornate ceiling medallions; and natural light
transformed through stained-glass windows on
the north wall.
Adler and Sullivan's brilliant design for this
unprecedented building type marked a turning
point in the history of hospitality. The powerful
454 INTEHIOR ARCHITECTURE
EXTERI OR VIEW OF THE AUDITORIUM
ADLER AND SULLIVAN, 1889.
Th e mixed-ll.ie
maintains a slrong Ilisllallll1ily wilh ilS
COl1tillllOIlS Iwo-slory sral1ile base al1d a
.facade oj arched cololll/ades
arOl./lld jOll r stories ofils mid- seaiol1.
Ph olosrapll by)ohn KUYlirh.
sequence of spaces, from the austere exterior to
the opulent interior, created an overwhelming
sense of arrival. Grand spaces were formed by
constructing gigantic girders that transfer the
small-bay columns of the guest room floors into
large bays in the public spaces. The monumental
scale of these spaces is articula ted and unified
through Sullivan's boundless ornamentation.
to
Jy
he
to
tal
ed
INTERI OR OF HOTEL DI NING ROOM,
A UD ITORIUM BUILDIN G, CHI CAGO,
ILLINOI S. ADLER AND SULLIVAN,
1889.
Tile arcil fd val/I, oflhc dillillX 1'00111
ceilil1X corl lil1ued tli e thelll e c!f the
ROIiIaIl arch as a rnaj or dCS(Q'1 elel1lelll ,
both for II/all opellil1};S and volumetric
IIwssins Courres), of The Art [mrilulf

iNTER IOR OF LIBRARY , R OOS EV ELT
U NIVERSITY ( HOUSED IN THE A DLER
AND SULLIVAN AUDITORIUM
BUILDING), CHI CAGO, ILLINOIS, 1992.
The 1'00111 was il1lo
Ih e cel1 tl'allibrary .fin Roosevelt
Universil ), ajier rhey purchased rhe
Bllildillg in 1946.
Photograph b)' John Kurtich.
19
THE ATRIUM HOTEL:
HYATT REGENCY, ATLANTA
In 1966-1967, 1969, John Portman (1924- ) de
signed and developed the large-scale atrium hotel,
the Hyatt Regency, Atlanta, which became the
prototype for a series of centralized convention
hotels. An early predecessor for this type of hotel
was the Brown Palace Hotel, Denver, 1892. The
Brown Palace Hotel was centered around an
eight-story skylighted court that functioned as the
lobby. Each level contained open galleries sur
rounding and overlooking the lobby. These gal
leries replaced conventional hallways and
provided a direct transition between lobby and
guest room.
Portman magnifted the idea of the galleried,
centralized lobby by building an interior space of
seventeen gall eries and three stories of suites in
the Hya tt Regency, Atlanta. This prototype es
tablished a formula that was to influence a gener
ation of hospitality, commercial, and retail
design. The formula consis ted of a spectacular
skylighted atrium, multistori ed galleries with
INTERIOR OF LOIlBY, HYATT
REGENCY, ATLANTA, GEORGI A. JOHN
PORTMAN, 1966-1967, 1969.
Th e Hyall Regency spa lvrl cd a 11ew
genera/io11 of hotels Willi "super-space"
lobbies, which spalially connected every
p,lIest rool11 /0 the cflltrililobby.
PIlOIograpl1 by John Kurficl1.
hanging plants, crystalline capsule elevat ors, gi
gantic suspended mobil es, aedi culated coffee
shops, and a "town square" scheme of shops and
activities.
THE MOTEL: THE MADONNA INN,
SAN LUIS OBISPO
The motel, a contraction of "motor hotel," was
an all-American invention. In the early twentieth
century, the automobile became a popular means
of travel, creating a demand for convenient lodg
ings along the highways. One of the ea rliest mo
tels was built in Douglas, Arizona in 1913. In the
1920s, a chain of motels was developed in Califor
nia with the prototype built in San Luis Obispo.
Motels proliferated during the depression years,
providing an economical alternative to the more
expensive hotels.
The motel provided travel ers with conve
ni ence, informality, efftci ency, accessibility, and
economy. The general architectural form was low
and spread out. The earli es t motels tended to be
separate cabins 'with adjacent parking. As motel
gl
tYee
and
wa s
ieth
:ans
dg
no
the
for
;po.
ars,
lore
lve
and
low
) be
otel
I NTERIOR VIEW OF THE " CARIN
ROOM," THE MADONNA INN, SA:-"
LUI S OBISPO, CALIFORNIA , 1958.
The "Carin Rool11 "Ieacllres a
bed IlIicll an oiler-scoled heodboard,
;1Il/miliored wirli (andelobra-rarryiIiX
"pll((i" (/laked baby-an<fZels) ,tlyillS ill
rhe cathedral-ailillg space. COt/rres)'
the lvIadonna Inn.
INTERIOR VIEW OF THE "CAVEMAN
ROOM," THE MADONNA INN, SAN
LUIS OI3lSPO, CALIFORNIA, 1':/58.
The "Callemon Room" reproduces ril e
space oro primordal caue,
}.IITlished willi late-lwelllielh-ceniury
hole! jillTlill./l'e ond rheolricol gro llo
liShring. Courtesy orrlle Madonna Inn.
chains developed, they beca me architecturally
anonymous and visually bl and. To break this
trend, some motels used visual gimmicks to at
tract visitors, such as di sgui si ng the cabins as N a
ti ve Ameri can teepees . Eventuall y motels added
other amenities, such as restaurants and swim
ming pools.
An unusual motel, the Madonna Inn, w as
built in San Luis Obispo, California, in 1958. It
fea tured el aborate interiors for the guest rooms,
refl ecti ve of Alpine chalet kitsch, with no two
alike. The Swiss imagery was reinforced by em
pl oying N ative rock extensively to create rock
"rooms," rock waterfall showers, and rock fIre
places . The motel grew fr o m twelve rooms to 109
rooms over the next twenty years, an o utgrowth
of its popul arity and conveni ent location.
A fantasy w orld is created with an over
whelming sense of naive grandeur . The variet y of
outrageous public spaces encourages guests to ex-
INTERI OR VIEW OF TYPICAL ROOM ,
N AKAGIN CAPSULE BUILDING. KI SHO
KUROKAWA,1972.
The epil ol1le oj'space cIncifllc)" Ihe
1'00111 ol:eal1izes all ji //1CIi O/'/5 or basic
hHma/'/ /ivin,e needs a//d cv//'/jOrlS at the
expel/se or conformity and tiR/1l colilro/.
COl/rtesy o(The J apa n Archirect.
plore the Silver Bar, the Gold Rush Dining
Room, the Earl y American Horseshoe coffee bar,
and the men's restroom with its electronicall y
controll ed rock waterfall urinal. The gues t rooms
are a master y of kitsch, featuring mi xed metaphor
with wild abandon. Each room has a theme with
its own mOle, such as Old World, Just Heaven,
Love N est, and Rock Bottom. Old World is a
stone cavern that frames a king-size bed in shock
ing reds. Stone is extensively employed in the
fir eplace, floors, shower, and wash basi ns with
cascading waterfalls. The bed's huge stone head
board is sharply contras ted by golden chandeliers,
illuminating cupid ' s gy mnasium.
CAPSULE HOTELS: THE ARCHITECTURE OF
KISHO KUROKAWA
In response to urban densit y and economics, the
capsule hotel emerged in the 1970s in Japan. The
C,'
b'
g:
kr
c r
tu
n
r
c ::
s' .
0,
r
a
th
INTERI OR VIEW OF TYPICAL ROOM ,
FORMULA 1 HOTEL, FRANCE, 1990
1991.
Each room can slfep Iinet people ill
co rr:!i)rl , but th e spa ce docs I/M illclude a
built-il1 bathroorn. COllrtesy o(
HO TEC, Hotel ForllJlj/e 1.
ling
building that engendered this idea w as the Naka
bar,
gin Capsule Building, designed by Kisho Kuro
llly
ka wa (1934- ) in 1972. The hotel form is
)ms
composed of two clements: (1) an on-site struc
)hor
tural system containing the vertical communica
vith
tions and mechanical services; (2) an off-site,
fen,
mass-produced module containing the guest
IS a
rooms. Limited services and size of prefabricat ed
lCk-
capsules were in tended to compete wi th the more
the
traditional hotel design. Kurokawa designed the
vith
capsule as simple as poss ible as an all-welded,

li ghtweight, steel-truss box.
ers,
The Nakagin capsule was a complete living
system in an eight foot by twelve foot space. The
ergonomically designed space accommodated all
OF
of one's living needs, including built-in bath
room, doubl e bed, kitchen, desk, chair, storage,
electronic enter tainment, and heating, ventilation,
the
and air-conditioning (HVAC) . The advantage of
The
this compact and highly organized living module
EXTERIOR VI EW OF F OR MULE 1
HOTEL, FRANC E, 1990-1991.
B y the eud 0(1991, 213 hOl els Cl. f
Ihis /./lere buill th roughout
Fl"all cc. Courtes y o(HOTEC, Hoc,
FOrll1lfl e 1.
was the ease of maintenance and accessibility to
all functions. The disadvantages were that such a
ti ght space crea ted a sense of claustrophobia and
limited fl exibility.
A variation of this hotel type was developed
in France in the early 1990s, creating the state-of
the-art transient hostelry of the late twentieth cen
tury. Called "Formule 1, " the hotel was built
from prefabricated modules assembled on the site
The idea was to provide inexpensive lodgings for
up to three people (in 1991, a room for three was
the equivalent 0[$24.00) . Ea ch 90 square foot air
conditioned, soundproofed room included a dou
ble bed, single bed, sink, desk, chair, closet, and
television set. One bat hroom was allotted to
every three rooms, the shower of which was
cleaned automatically after each use. The Formule
1 hotels w ere built near airports and major high
ways , capitalizing on the volume of travel.
STYLE: EXPR ESSION OF CULTURE 459
..
SUMMARY
Style has a l ~ a y s been a subj ect of great debate.
Hi story has given humanity overviews of stylistic
periods complete with their rise and fall rel ated to
the culture o f the times . Through ca reful anal ysis,
it is found that persisting styles are the ones that
cl early express the spirit of the era. Whether the
era was driven by econo mi c, social, technologi
cal, political , or reli gious dev elopments , the re
sultant style was a direct expression of that unique
period.
Histori c case studies have been emphasized in
this chapter to illustrate history's importance as a
wellspring of ideas. Past generations have creat ed
a wealth of solutions to generic design problems.
These histori c layers of ideas are like a great cata
log from which the designer may draw upon. It
is important that these solutions be understood in
rel ationship to the culture and technology o f the
time. Emul ation of ideas without this historic
knowledge can result in inappropriate designs,
not full y steeped in today' s needs .
The development of four generic building
types (retail , commercial, residential, and hospi
tality) have been explored to demonstrate how
these forms evolved from their infancy to con
temporary times. By havin g a broader historic
view, designers have a sense of their pl ace in time.
This perspective can be essential to the crea tion of
mature and appropriate Interior Ar chitecture.
The creation of space that supports the pur
pos e of retailing must not only be fun ctional but
trigger the emotional response of the consumer.
The primary purpose of retail marketing is to at
tract customers and sell them goods. The archi
tectural int erior of a store can give the mer chant a
competitive edge. This was a concern of the nine
t eenth century merchant who understood the psy
chology of creating dreams that motivated.
Creating dreams wi ll be just as important in the
future. Ar chitecture is a natural vehicle for start
ing a dream on the street by attracting potential
customers. Interior Ar chitecture is the embodi
ment of the dream by creating an experience that
stimulates desire. The realization of the dream oc
curs when customers purchase their goods.
Ancient Egypt has provided one of the earli
est examples o f architectural space devoted to
commercial transactions. The evolution of thi s
building type involved both warehouse storage
and administrative fa cilities. The ancient Roman
port of Ostia built numerous permanent masonry
warehouses , controlled by a separate complex of
administrative offIces known as the Square o f the
Corporations. Commercial space is decidedly
urban, and therefore is an essential part of the
fabric of citi es . The Industri al Revolution brought
about a rapid expansion of business facilities due
to mass production o f goods and their distribu
tion. The design of commerci al offIce space has
become very sophisti cat ed, addressing the pres
sures of competition, cost, and fl exibility. With
the phenomenal expansion of commu!1lcations
and computers in the business world, the concern
of Interior Ar chitecture is to create the balance
between technology and humanit y.
The home, necessary for survival, was hu
manity's fIrst ar chit ecture. Indigenous and readily
available materials di ctat ed the character of the
d welling, providing a working palett e that led to
many different and regional developments in the
history of ar chitectur e. Trees and branches were
used in neolithi c Mediterranean regions. Animal
bones and skins dominated constru ction in north
ern Europe and Asi a. The building materi al of the
ancient Near East was mud. Marble and other
stone were common building materials in ancient
Greece, as the natural supply of wood beca me
exhausted. The Romans invented concrete from
the volcanic composition of sand that was com
mon throughout Italy. The Japanese hous e
evolved from the use of paper as a primary mate
ri al. The Industrial Revolution made iron and
glass t echnology . widely available for the first
time. The mid-twenti eth centur y creat ed plasti c
as a building material. The lat e twentieth century
space age brought highly developed cerami cs.
The designer is not only influenced by the
material s available, but also the variety of human
needs. T he ubiquitous nucl ea r famil y is no longer
the norm in this country. The nonnuclear alter
natives include double-income households, un
marri ed heterosexual couples, single-parent
111
\" a
en. -
Il!:
\\.
da
erP-
It .
id:
ror
l i ~
ae-'
are
pr
ne(]
cor
Th
er.i
kn
ti- families, gay and lesbian couples, single adults,
ro handicapped adults, retired adults, and shared
. .
11S households, ro name a few. Such SOCIal complex
ge ity requires new forms to accommodate specific
an needs.
ry Since the beginning of civilized travel, lodg
of ing providing shelter, sustenance, and security has
he not changed significantly. The two basic types,
Ily transient and destination hostelries, continue to be
he patterned functionall y after residential models. It
:ht is unfortunate that the majority of hospitality de
ue sign continues to rely on a manufactured residen
u tial image, which usually rings as a false comfort.
las Used by transients, who have a variety of tastes
~ s and accommodation needs, these spaces result in
tth predictable and inoffensive designs. The lack of
conviction in developing a specific personality
brings about "safe" spaces, void of memorable
identity.
Furthermore, the contemporary hospitality
IU- industry in general is uninterested in geographical
ily variety and is focused on the economy of homog
he enization. Why should a hotel room in Peoria,
to Illinois, be indistinguishabl e from one in Seattle,
he Washington? For a business traveler, such a stan
:re dardized accommodati on may provide a comfort
ul ing degree of familiarity, reducing the stress of
:h traveling. On the other hand , such interiors lack
he the variety that makes traveling stimul ating by
ler emphasizing a sense of style and place.
~ n t The two extremes of contemporary hospital
n e ity design, the predictabl e chain model and the
1m idiosyncratic one-of-a-kind accommodation, mir
11- ror the plurism of culture. All too often, designers
Ise limit their solutions to pragmati c and superficial
te aestheti c issues. Interior Architecture practiti oners
nd are committed to a vision beyond the immediate
rst programmatic requirements, requiring a simulta
ti c neous juggling of pragmatic and idealistic ideas in
ry completing work of potent identity.
he
an E PILOGUE
;er
~ r The world today is one of specialists versus gen
n eralists, partly because of the vast increases in
~ n t knowledge in the world. The desire to be efficient
with the use of this knowledge has led people in
many fields to concentrate on limited areas of ex
pertise. Interior Architecture demands a holistic
outl ook from its practitioners. Students pursuing
this field must first be made sensitive to a total
design attitude. Truly functional spaces perform
as a whole, not as isolated parts. Therefore the
space must be developed as an integrated total.
Traditional academic institutions have separated
the responsibility in the name of specialization and
efficiency, resulting in problematic solutions that
solve only parts of the puzzle. Interior Architec
ture requires an educational approach somewhat
different than the typical education for either the
architec t or the interior designer.
The architect is usually trained at one of the
many accredited schools of architecture found in
both private and public universities and colleges
throughout the nation. Accreditation is connected
to the state licensing procedures, which deter
mines certain aspects of the curriculum. This is
well and good beca use licensed archit ects are le
gally responsible for the public welfare and safet y
of their executed buildings. Most architectural
curricula, however, avoid or ignore any senous
attention to the design of interi or space. The prev
al ent attitude is that architecture is the ultimate art
and interior design is a secondary, less important
aspect. Thus architecture students receive vir
tually no formal schooling in creative lighting,
color theory, furniture design, fabric selection, in
terior materials and finishes, comprehension of
interior product design, and planning of interior
spaces They general! y learn to plan buildings
well, but they are not taught to study and develop
the use of the space within the structure. It is evi
dent in their drawings, void of any suggestions of
furniture or finishes, that they lack an awareness
of Interior Architecture. Architecture is created to
defme interior space, yet for generations architec
ture students have been taught to ignore the heart
of buildings They also lack the understanding of
human quality in their designs, a much different
attribute than technical quality (a technically "per
fect" building might very well have no bea ring
whatsoever on human participation or interac
tion). Yet. in the real world, the completion of
int erior spaces of newly construct ed buildings and
the development of interior space of recycled
older constitute a growing majorit y of
commiss ions for practi cing ar chit ects.
On the other hand, the interior designer has
traditionally been trained in programs that, for a
large part, are outgrowths of college home eco
nomics departments. With recent titl e licensing in
place the curricula has expanded becoming more
professional. Yet the course of study o ri gi nated as
home decorating cl asses for family-oriented
women and was looked down upon by the archi
tects as frivolous and shallow. These interior de
sign students lack schooling in buiJdmg structure,
not only the basi c way a building is constructed,
but also building systems and how parts go to
gether, which consequently affect how details go
together. Without the understanding of deta iling,
they lack a powerful means of developing the
unity of space; a whole lang uage of details must
be unders tood. Often mechanical syste ms and
services are not tau ght , so the students do not
know how to take advanta ge of them as part of
the palette of mani pula blc ma terials for reinforc
ing their schem es , whether it is a simple HVAC
register cover or a comprehensive ceiling system
that coordinat es wit h the plan. Moreover, there
al so is not enough emphasi s on three-dimensional
development of spaces. Whereas architecture stu
dents are trai ned to work in three dimensions
with scal e models, interior design st udents gen
erally concentrate on the pl an, el evation, and se
lection of mat eri als and furniture. Although these
students learn how to do perspective renderi ngs,
they usual! y do not use them as a tool to devel op
and visualize space in the design process. Archi
tects are better trai ned at custom designing things
out of raw materials; interior deSIgners tend to be
more dependent on select ing manufactured prod
ucts out of catalogs. Teamwork experience is
sometime lacking in many interior design pro
grams; instead the mdividual ego is encouraged
and fostered, w hich makes the transition from
school to the professional world diffIcult for
many. Many interior designers do not think in the
context of how space should respond to existing
conditions, such as views, nat ural li ght , building
mat erials , and so forth; on the other nand, archi
4-6 2 INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE
tects generally learn how to create a sense of pl ace
responding to context.
There is a tendency for interior designers to
put budgeta ry emphasis on fme fmishes and fur
niture rather than manipulat1l1g the space in a si g
rr
nifi cant way. The interiors profession has a
ble
sti gma of being concerned with the cosmetics of
ch
ll1t erior space and are looked down upon as "dec
rhl."
orators" by the architect s. But interior designers
apr
are tr ained to be sensiti ve to the tactile qualities of
materi als and furniture, whi ch results in the hu
manizing of interior spa ce . On the other hand,
many architects are guilt y of being sla ves to the
systemizati on of space, such as column spaCl11g,
dominance of grid , or det ailing as an end in itself
The interior designer feel s that the architect lacks
the ability to create interior space cent ered on
human quality, which tri ggers positive reactions
to human perceptual senses. The space that the
architect leaves for the designer to complete is
very often poorl y considered for furniture ar
arc
sp,,_
rangement or appropriate proportions for the in
laL
tended use, Clients usuall y do not consider such
Su
architects for the completion of the interiors be
ca use of their lack of sensitivity.
Neit her the architect nor the interior designer
is taught enough about real world situati ons such
1/1 ,
as des igner-cli ent relationships. Working wi th the
II't
client, communicating with the cli ent, and under
sta nding w hat it means to be a client are issues not
generall y addressed in the academic set ting. Yet Th_
the school can be. an effective place for students to
learn to be professionally responsive, assertive,
and sensi tive to client needs. The academic setting
can provide the opportunity to develop the skill
o{
of li stening. Such experiences are learned (s ome
el 1.,L
times the hard way) in the real world , but the
I f "
school offers a "safe" environment to practice
f O _'
these experi ences .
a il
Many clients are becoming more sophisti
AI:
cated in their desire for properly completed inte
ri or space that has meaning and signifIcance for
their functional and aes theti c needs. These clients
interview prospecti ve architects and designers
much more carefully, tr ying to avoid both archi
ex.
tects who cannot compl ete int eri or space and in
CO
ter ior designers who are ignorant of architectural
to
and struct ural aspects of interi or space. Design
1111
llace
cannot be taught by formula, nor should it re
spQl1d primarily to any current or fa shionabl e
~ s to
trend_ The student should not be trained onl y for
fur-
a particul ar job upon graduation, but must be
Slg
IS a
trained for life, to be a ble to adj ust to the inevita
ble social, politi cal, technological, and aes thetic
:s of
changes that continuall y occur . For that reason,
dec
ners
the design process should be the basic method or
approach for creating anything-a house, an au
:s of
tomobil e, a city, a suit of clothes, a chair , a gour
hu
met meal.
ll1d,
The reintegration of art within the physical
the
environment wi ll pla y an important role in mak
mg,
ing architectural spa ce more humane. Environ
;c1f.
mental art, or what some ca ll "space art," are
lcks
those optimisti c experiences in Int erior Architec
on
ture where art is at one w ith architecture (see
ons
Chapter 4 for the four-dimensional aspect of art
the
infused w ith architecture) . Fully integrat ed art in
e IS
ar
architecture wi ll produce compl ete purposeful
spaces that provide humanity with experiences re
m
lated to the hi gh tech world. The arti st Marc Oi
uch
Suvero reinforced thi s ideal of integrati on, saying
bc-
The artist needs to be into the architectllre at a
ncr much earlier stagc, at the brlildinx des(t;;11 stage. At tilat
lJch moment the relation between sculptll re alld arc!Jifl!C!urc
the
would become reai; and the possilu)ity of that , ~ r e a t
moment oJthe unity ofa /,zreat bllildillg ill dialo
c
\!lIc witii
In-
not
a ,\?reat piece ojswlpture could be real. 14
Yet
The architect Stanton Eckstut recalls his experi
; to
ence of working with artist Mary Mi ss in a re
vealing quotation:
In man)' wa),s workin,,? with Mary rem inded me
of what archit ecturc is all about, that it's all artistic
1e
cndea1!or. It 's nol just building. 11 '5 /lot jl/st_/illa/lcial.
:he
It' s not just working wilh context alld tryin,,? to rcspond
Ice
to a place. It' s much more abolll ell1ot iol'lal experiel1ce
and memory. ';
ti
te
All great interior spaces have possessed this intan
or
gible and unquantifiable sense of emo tion. The
ltS
medium of space has been manipulated in such a
:rs
way as to engage the perceiver in a memorable
lI
experience. These experiences will become more
common in the future as aest het ic ad van ces st rive
n
to keep pace wi th the explosion of technology.
-al
The practitioners of Interior Ar chitect , as the
generali st and coordinator of interior space, will
find it desirable to again include the arti st as a
natural part of the team. T he desi re of contempo
rary artists to ha ve grea ter impact in interior
space, as evident 111 the high t ech, environmental ,
and performan ce ar ts , will make it easier for the
designer to fmd and integrate appropriate artists.
This rediscovery of art in architecture will have a
profound effect on the practice and will redef1l1e
the current aestheti c limits.
The voca bular y of the third dimension is the
primary method of dramatizing the spirit of
space. Thi s aspect of Interior Architecture is criti
cal to the quality of everyday life in an ino-eas
ingly complex world. The exploitation of the
third dimension ca n create va riet y, relief, unit y,
and drama while reinforcing the purpose of space.
Mediocrit y in a commerciall y biased world has
seriously undermined the importance of three-di
mensional spati al developmen t. The future will
prove that exploitation of space will not only be
necessary for humanit y's well-being but also \vill
be demanded commerciall y fo r economic succcs .
History has provided the world with a legacy
of interior spaces that destroy the const raints of
normalcy and transform them into experiences
that ignit e the senses. Thi s is the fourth dimen
sion, and it will become part of the common vo
cabulary of all who practice Interior Architecture.
Although such spaces as the Pantheon or Unit y
Temple have consist ently been studied , the es
sence of t heir fourth dimension is not entirely
understood. This abstract element of Interior Ar
chitecture can only be realized by comprehending
the whole, not by focusing on the parts. Interio r
Architecture is the holistic integration of the arts
that form profound spa ce.
Light and color are the elements that the de
signer uses t o reinforce three- an d four-dimen
sional space and can become the magic that
reinforces humanity 's well-being. Light is the es
sential defll1Er of space. Color not only reinforces
space, but it esta blishes physical and psychologi
ca l atmosphere. Sensitivity to how these elemen ts
affect people in space is the raison d'etre for the
stu dy of beha vi oral respons e to color and li ght,
spa tial perception, cultural awareness, aes theti c
potenti al, and latent creative promise. Technol
ogy has produced an overwhelming array of so-
STYLE: EXP RES SI ON or CULTU RE 403
phisticated lighting devices from which the
designer cag select. Unfortunately, technology
does not ensure better illumination; but hands-on
understanding of lighting applied from a concep
tual point of view can draw a veritable relation
ship with the architecture.
Interior Architecture depends on the design
er's ability to relate the contents to the enclosure.
Furnishings are the links that establish the inti
mate connection between the architecture and its
human occupants. The personality or character of
a space is revealed through the expressive qualities
of its furniture. Its direct contact with the human
body demands the designer be sensitive to the in
herent sensuality of furnishings. The comfort fac
tor of furniture is strategic in combating the
everyday stress generated by the postindustrial
world. Perhaps design professionals need to reex
amine the value of intimate objects in interior
space. These are the elements that most directly
shape, organize, nurture, and reflect one's human
ity. The mandate of Interior Architecture is to
reveal and implement the latent complexion of
society's many levels of existence. This transcends
the mere functional and decorative aspects of de
sign and allows one to realize individual freedom
of expression.
The maturity to restrain the freedom of
expression is vital to the success of achieving au
thenticity in historic preservation and restoration.
Architecture representing a past era is indispens
able to a society's continuity and stability. The
historically sensitive practitioners who devote
their careers to such preservation and restoration
are unfortunately invisible in this future-oriented
world. These unspoken heroes are painstakingly
preserving the connection to the best the past has
to offer to the future.
The key to preserving the future is rooted in
a commitment to education. The fruits of this task
are not immediately evident to the students or the
teachers. Education is a lifelong process; it does
not end with the completion of formal schooling.
One of the goals of education is the development
of a passion for Interior Architecture. Such love
for the profession is essential to sustain the drive
necessary to handle the day-to-day mundane de
tails of the work. Another goal of education is to
prepare students for their social responsibility to
the public. This charge can best be examined in a
secure academic environment. Finally, the stu
dents' education should weave self-discipline,
creativity, resourcefulness, and vision into the
fabric of their lives, providing perpetual inspira
tion.
Interior Architecture is inspired humanism.
Space is generated by human needs and aspira
tions. The intimate connection between people
and their shelter is a primary concern for the sen
sitive designer to determine. Historically, great
designers have always understood and capitalized
on this connection, while most practitioners have
been isolated by the polarization of their respec
tive professions. Design education should not
perpetuate this unhealthy philosophy of dissocia
tion. Architecture cannot be separated from its
interiors. It is those practitioners who have risen
above this split who have been recognized by so
ciety as masters of holistically designed space. The
time has come for such unification to be the norm
rather than the exception. The emergence of In
terior Architecture establishes the link between
architecture and interior design. Interior Architec
ture postulates an equality of interest between in
teriors and extenors that advocates a new
direction in design education as well as the profes
sions. The philosophical challenge of Interior Ar
chitecture will demand qualified and motivated
professionals cleansed of the dogma and -isms of
the past. For the future of Interior Architecture is
bright and expanding.
1.
I.
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a
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NOTES
I. Aenry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson, The in
ternational Style (New York, W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.,
1932), p. 20.
2. Alvin Toffler, "The Data Deluge-Artificial Intelli
gence," (Omni, Oct. 1984), p. 42.
3. Ibid.
4. The earliest glass-covered arcades seem to appear in
Pari s in the late eighteenth century: arcades in the Palais
Royale (1786-1788) and the Passage du Caire (1798
1799).
5. Rosalind H. Williams, Dream Worlds (Berkeley: Uni
versity of California Press, 1982), p. 67.
6. Nikol aus Pevsner, A History oj Building Types (Prince
ton: Princeton University Press, 1976), p. 32.
7. Ibid, p. 221.
8. Anthony Liversidge, "Interview: John Naisbitt,"
(Omni, Oct. 1984), p. 114.
9. Ibid, pp. 164-165.
10. Donald W. Robertson, The Mind's Eye oj Richard
Buckminster Fuller (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1974),
p.33.
II. See the "artist's" rendering of the first Smart House
on page 10, Smart House by Ralph Lee Smith, (Columbia,
SC: GP Publishing, 1988). It is unfortunate that the tech
nological advances of this structure were not expressed in
the architecture.
12. Well-designed, in this case, mea ns functional excel
lence, structural integrit y, and aesthetic distinction-the
three components of Vitruvius' definition of architecture.
13. Lewis Mumford, The Ci ty in History (New York:
Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc., 1961), p. 378.
14. Jeanue Parkin, Art in Architecture (Ontario, Canada:
Visual Arts Ontario, 1982), p. 102.
15. Victoria Geibel, " The Act of Engagement," Metrop
olis, July/ August 1986, p. 30.
INDEX
Numbers in bold tyne indicJte pages on which illustrati ons are to be found.
A
Aalt o, Alvar (1898-1976)
archit ec ture, philosophy of. 8-9
Aodemic Bookstore, Hel s inki . Fin land , 234.
235
Aurora Boreali s, inAucl1cc from, 229, 227
beech wood. usc of. 338
Finni sh Pa vilion , N cw York World', Fair.
1939,231.231
furniture. philosophy of, 3.17-338
Inte-rior A Tchitecturc, role In defInition of,
8-9
lighr, philosophy of, 227-229
Municipal Library. Viipllfi. Finland, 229,
230
Nell io na) Pensio ns InstinHe, Helsinki , Finbnd.
234. 234,235
Scroll Chair , 338, 338
Tuberculosis Sanatorium, PJimjo, Fillbnd.
234, 234, 235
unique express ion, 10
Village Crmer. Sayn, rsa lo, Finl and.
233
Vi II , Mairea. Noormarkkll, Finland:
descriprion, 9. 9
reaction to eontexr, 109-111. 110
n"lIf,1 Ii ghr , 232. 232
Abraham, Rob<rt (1774-1850):
Counry Fire Off,cc, London. Enflland, 42(,
427, 427
Adam. Robert (1728-1792):
furnirure, general discussion, 315-317
Osrerlcy Park HOllse. Middlesex, England :
color, usc of, 276
furnishings, 315, 317
renovation, 21, 21
Syon HOll se. Middlesex , England,
fu rnishings, 317,318
adaptive reuse:
defming Interior Architcctllrc, 4
deflnirion, 16, 362
hi storic exa mples:
France:
Arc-er- Se nans: Saline Royale, 26-27, 26,
27
Pari s: C luny Barhs. 24-25, 25
Grl'ccc:
Mr. Arhos, Alexander rhe Great
Monumenr. 23. 23
Iraly:
Rome:
Colos sclI m, 24. 24
Th"arer of Marcellus, 23-24, 23
Verona : C3srrl vecchi o. 25-2(). 25
United St ,ucs:
ChICago. IL:
Children's Museulll. 362, 362
C obbler Squarc, 392-304. 393,394
He lell e Curtis co rporace headquJrters ,
387- 389, 387, 389
N ort h Pier. 394-3%. 395,396
Mont erey. CA: Monterey Bay
Agnariulll, 39 1-392, 392
St. Louis. MO: Union Sration. 390- 391.
390
Washington D.C.. N;l[i oll:11 Building
Museum. 396- 399, 355, 397.
398
Interior Archicecmrl'. clements o f clcfllliri oll
o f,
Moderll effcC( o f. 28
Post-Modernism, effeer of. 2S
Adler. D,nklllar (1844- 190U):
co mmercia l deSign. C hicago, IL.
Adler and Sulli van:
Audirorium Theat cr Budding. Chicago, IL:
desi gn. departure from 3S-3(),
36, 454. 454,455
Chicago Stock Exchange Buildmg Ellt rallee,
Chicago, IL. preservation , 366,
366
Srock Exchange Trading Roolll.
Chicago. I L: prescr v,ltlOn,
365, 365
Building, Buffalo, NY: renova tion.
376-378. 377
J(;:di cubr dcvclopmenr:
acclicula, '-)4
Moore House, New Haven , CT. 95-97. 96
!'Vloore House. Ori nda , CA. 94-95. 95
Temple of Bacchu, . BJal bek. Lebanon. 94. 94
acs[hcti cs:
balance wi rh functlon,
Agnol erri . Fernando ( IS75- 1933):
Whire Bed room, Hill H ouse. Heleusburgh.
Scotl and , descriprion of. 324. 324
agora , Gree k:
compari so n v, irh Village Center. Sa ynJtsalo.
Finla nd. 234, 233
Alberti . L"on Bartim (1404-1472):
perspeer ive. principles of, Ddla Pill/ra , 86-87
Alexande r rhe Grear (Alexander 111 ,356- 323
B.C.):
Alc: xJll dcr the Grear MOrlll l11ell{, Mt. Athos,
Grcece. 23. 23
Allard, Roger (l RR5-1 901):
cubi sm. writings of. 13R
Allen , E.e
mai l-o rde r coun' pc 422
AlralllirJ., SpaiJ1 :
use o f color , 252
,1n imari oll through furnishings:
definition, 106
Cohen ApJrtlnt'llt, New York. NY. 108-](1').
108
White Bedroom, Hill House. Hciensburgh,
Scotl,nd, 10(" 107
Apollin.ire. Guillaume
cubis m. w rjting s of. 138
,1rGldc:
England:
Londo ll: Royal Exchange, 41
Frall ce:
Pari s:
G<l1crie Vi vienne, 420
Passage du Ca ire. 192-1 <)3. 192
Iral y:
MJl an: Galleri a Virtori o Emanuel II, 193,
193
Arc-c' t- Sc' IlJns , France:
Saline Rovak. ad"privc reuse. 26-27. 26,
27
architecture:
compil'{iOll of ilHe rior SP:lCC, :1ppro:lch. l()()
cduc:ltion:
fllrlli[Urc, 30,3
liT. C hicago. IL,
furni shmgs, as cOlllpJred lO ilHcri o r design.
30!,
phil oso phy, as compared to interi or desigl1,
3
rese:Hch fo r hislOric buildings.
362- 363
ROIl1 :l 1l ,Hchit t.'ctlI re, b:tsis of. 40H
(rcllds. cOOlHH.' rci al. 2H
value of rhe past. 403
Art \)eco:
Exposi tion des Arts OecotJ"fs I Pari s,
Franct'. 2S4
pn:dcccssor to IlltcrnJti oll JI style, 414
Art N o uveau:
E:-.:positioll Univcrsclk 1()()(J, Pari s, Franct.'.
281
to illtCTllJtional St yle. -' 14
T assel House. Brussel,. Belc;iulll.
440
Arts :lJld CrJfrs fV1ovCIIlCIH:
disclission. 32 1-322
Athens, GreeCt':
Acropoli s, 33. 34,
Age of Peri cles..D. 174
PJrtht'llon:
description, 33-34. 34, I 165, 166>

Athens, Greece (coni.)
fourth dimension, example of, 164, 167,
165,166
optical corrections and refInements , 165
167,166
sculpture, 164-165,167
Stoa of Analos:
compari son to Village Center, Say nats alo,
Finland, 234, 233
natural li ght, 182- 183, 183
Atlanta, GA :
Hyatt Regency Hotel, 456,456
Augustus (Gai us Octavianus, 63 B.C.-A.D. 14):
reign of, influence on furniture, 309
Aurora Boreali s:
defInition, 229, 227
inAuence on Aalto, 229, 227
B
Baalbek, Lebanon:
Temple of Bacchus, aedic ular development ,
94, 94
Babylon, Iraq:
Gat e of [shtar, 255-256, 255, 358, 358
Badovici, Jean (1893-1956) :
describing Eileen Gra y, 14
Baia, Italy:
Temple of Mercury, natu ral light , 183-184,
184
Baldwi n, Bill y (1903-1984):
desi gn philosoph y, 343
San Antonio, T X, house, furnishings , 343
Ballets Russes :
color revolution, 281, 281
Banks/Eakin:
Chi cago Chil dren's Museum, Chi cago, IL,
adaptive reuse, 362, 362
Claridge Hotel , Ch icago, IL, renovation, 381
383,382
George' s Restaurant, Chicago, IL, simulated
carved space, 11 9-1 21, 120,121
Mama Mia' Pasta, Chicago, IL, verti cal
development of horizont al planes,
97-98, 97
Barbaro, Daniel e (a lso spell ed Daniello, 1514
1570):
La Pratica della Perspettiva, 87
Villa Ba rbaro, Maser, It aly, 154
Barbaro, Marcantonio (1518-1 595) :
Villa Barbaro, Maser, [tal l', 154
Barcelona Chair:
Blaser, Werner discussi on, 334
335
German Pavili on, Barcelona, Spain, 334-335
2400 Lake View Avenue Building lobby,
Chicago, IL, 39
Barcelona, Spain:
Casa Badlo:
furniture, 322-324, 323
German Pavilion:
color, 290- 291, 291
ext ens ion of space beyond the enclosure, 73,
73,74
furnishings, 334-335, 334
spatial continuum, 73
Baroque, European:
Bernini, Gian Lorenzo, 410
culture and St)'Ie, 41 0-412
infInity, eonccpt of. 412
Pi azza San Pietro, Rome, Ital y, 41 0, 411
space, 410
Versailles, France, 412, 411
Barragan, Luis (1902-1 988):
Chapel for the Capuchinas Sacramentarias del
Purisimo Copazon de Maria,
Tlalplan, Mexico, 293
Bauhaus:
International Style, 414
phi losophy, 336-337
Weiner Werkstatte, similarity to, 327
Bear Run, PA:
Falling Water:
fou rth dimension, 151-153,152,153
li ght, natura l, 242, 242
Beeby, Thomas (1941- ):
Thonet showroom, Chi cago, IL, 44
Beitl er, J. Paul and Penelope:
Douglas House, Harbor Springs , MI,
restorat ion, 374-376, 375
Berard, Christian (1902-1 949):
Frank, Jean-Michel, collaboration with, 343
Berli n, Germany:
Staatliche Museum, 358, 358
Bernini , Gian Lorenzo (1598-1680):
Piazza San Pierro, Vati can, Italy, 41 0- 412, 411
Bers Nimroud , Ira q:
Temple of the Seven Spheres, 255
Biedermeier:
dis cussion, 321
Blackie, Walter W. (1860-1 953):
Hill House, Helensburgh, Scotl and, client , 106
Blair, Francis Preston (1791-1 876):
Bl air House, Washington, D C., 378-380, 379
Blaser, Werner (1924- ):
Barcelona Chair , discussion, 334-335
Boileau, Louis-Charles (1837-1 896):
Bon March, Paris, France, 420, 421
Booth/ Hansen and Associat es:
Hclene Curtis headquart ers, Chicago, IL, 387
389, 387, 389
North Pier, Chicago, IL, 394-396, 395,396
Born, Ernest (1898-1992):
SI. Gall Monastery, Switzerland, 446, 446
Borromini, Francesco (1599-1667):
Pal azzo Spada, Rome, It aly, 92-93, 92
San Carlo aile Quattro Fontane, Rome, Ital)"
187-1 88, 187
Botta, Mario (1943- ):
Single family house, Massagno, Switzerland,
121-123, 122
Boulle, Andre-Charl es (1642-1 732):
furniture design, 315, 316
marquetry, 315, 316
Brak, Iraq:
Eye Temple, 254- 255
Bramante, Donato ( 1444-1514):
S. Maria presso S. Satiro, Milan, Ital y, 89-90,
89
Branzi, Andrea (1928- ):
furniture design, 346
Memphis, 346
Braque, Georges (1882-1963):
Ballets Russ es, use of color, 281
cubism, 138
Breuer, Marcel (1902-1 982):
Bauhaus, training, 336-337
Cantilever Chair, 337
Rietve ld, Gerrit , inAuence from, 337
tubular steel, use of. 337
Wassily Chair, 337, 337
Brighton, England:
Royal Pavilion, lise of color, 276, 278
BruneI, Isambard Kingdom (1806-1 859):
Paddington Station If , London, England, 192,
192
Brunelleschi , Filippo (1377-1446):
perspecti ve demonstrat ion, "peepshows" I 86
San Lorenzo, Florence, Italy, 186, 186
Brussels, Bel giu m:
Pa lais Stoclet , fu rni shings, 327, 326
Tassel House, exampl e of iron and glass, 439
440,440
Br yn Mawr, PA:
Erdman Hall Dor mit o ries, 222, 223
Buatt a, Mario ( 1935- ):
Dillon Room , Blair House, Washington D.C. ,
378-380, 379
Buberi , Caspar (1834-1 889):
frie ze of Pension Burea u, Washington D .C.,
396-399, 397, 398
Buddhism:
space-time, relationship to, 131, 132
Buffalo, NY:
Guara nty Building, renova tion, 376-378, 377
Larkin Building:
inAuence from Home and Studio, Oak Park ,
24 1, 240
innovation in office buildings, 428-430,
429
Burne-Jones, Edwa rd (1833-1 898):
Red House, Bexley Heath, Kent, England ,
321, 322
Burnham and Root:
Montauk Block, Chicago, IL, 198, 198
Rookery , Chicago, IL, 22-23, 22, 399-403,
399,400,401 , 402
Burnham, D. H. (1846-1 912):
commercial design, C hi cago, IL, 427
Uni on Station, Washi ngton D. C., 380-381,
380
c
California:
missions:
description, 449-450
Mi ssion San Juan Bautista, CA, 450, 450
sys tem, 449- 450
Calli crates (mid-fIfth centur y B.C. ):
Parthenon, constructi on, 165
Cambridge, MA :
Chapel, MIT, lighting, 203-205, 204
Chareau. Po,
Oal sac",',
furnit ure -..
Chartres. F'r'"
Notre D
fo urth
col or.
Chicago. IL

Audi tonu
Carri gan -_
Carson P
Century
Hall
illumun '
C hi cagoL
.
C hicago
I
Cobb I; ,
468 INDEX
16
92,
39
c,
ark ,
Kresge Auditorium. MIT . lighting. 203-205,
204
Cannon Architects:
Guarant\ Building. Buffalo. NY, renovation,
. 3"6-37 . 377
caravanserais. definitio n. -l-l8-449
Castellar. France:
Tempe aPailla. fufT' ;shulgs. 338-340
<;:otal Hu yuk . Tur. e\' :
houses. usc of color. 23.!
cave:
Altamira Caws. Spain . use of color, 252
exca vated Imerior l\rchit ectut e, 11 5
Lascaux C,,es. France. use of color, 252
Royalt on Hotel. N Y. metaph oric sacred cave,
111
cenobit e. defini tion. -l-l7
Cervet eri, Itak
Tomb of Reliefs. use of colo r, 260-261
Chanaux . ," dolph ( I 7- 1965) :
Frank , j ean-.\ 1ichel. coUa boration with, 340
Chandi garh. Ind\J:
government buildings of Le Corbusier,
lmul. ted can 'cd spacc, 118-11 9
Palace ofj ustice \Hi gh Court ), 11 9, 118
Chariott eS\iUe. VA:
Monti cell o. resto rati on. 370- 373, 371,372
Rotunda, Uni \'ersit y of V irgi nia, restorati on,
359-360. 360
Choreau , Pierre (l883- 1950) :
Dals aces's apart ment. Pari s. France, 340, 341
furnitu re. philosoph \' o f. 340
Cha rnes. France:
Notre D ame :
fo urt h dimension. 167- 169, 168,169,409
color. use of. 263- 265, 265
Chicago. IL:
Associates Center. fo urth dimensi on, 170
Audit orium Building. basis of desi gn, 35-36,
36, 453-455. 454, 455
Carri ga n residence. tenovati on, 359- 360, 361
Carson Piri e Scott. 423, 423
Century of Progress 1933:
Hall of Science. li ghting, 200, 200
illumination. el ectflC. 200
Chicago Children' s Museum, adaptive reuse,
362. 362
Chicago School of Architecture, 427
Chi cago Stock Exchange, building entran ce,
preservati on. 366. 366
Chicago Stoc. Exchange. Trading Room:
preserYati on. 364-365, 365
scale. exploit ati on of. 102, 103
verti cal de\e!opment. 99-100, 100
Chicago window. 428. 428
Clar idge Hotel. reno \'J(i on, 381-383, 382
Cobbler Square. adaptive rellse, 392-394, 393,
394
Columbian Ex position. 1893:
Burnham. D. H .. director, 380
illumination. eleCtric, 197
ManufaCtu res Building, lighting, 197, 197
Cr ate and Barrel. 424-425. 404, 424
Crescendo Proj ecr, fourth dimension, 173
174. 173
Driehaus Research Associatcs:
cont ext, 111-112, 111, 112
furni shings , 348, 348
860-880 Lakeshore Drive apartments . 42, 42
Flori an apartmen(:
col or, use of. 298. 247,299
construct ed interi or. 123-125, 124
George's Restaurant , simulat ed car ved space,
11 9-121 , 120,121
Gless ner House, reSt oration, 373- 374, 373,
374
Helene Curti s corporate headquarters,
ada pti ve reuse, 387-389, 387,389
Mama Mia' Pas ta. ve rtical development, 97
98,97
Mont auk !:llock. 198, 198
nineteenth centur y pos t-fif e, 34-35
North Pier , adapti ve reuse. 394-396, 395,396
Paint ed Apartment :
before and after compari son. 42, 47, 41
character, 47
descripti on o f des ign. 47. 50-56, 41, 50
dining area, 31
fou rth dimensi on. 149-1 SO. 150
furnitur e. 54- 56. 53, 54, 55
li ght, 47, 49, 149-150, 150
location, 38, 46
spatial desi gn concept , 47
spatial rel ationships, 338-39, 47
Pannell Kerr Forstcc:
fOllrth dimensi on, 170-171,170
natural li ght control, " sailboat" , 129
Ro bie HOll se:
culmination of Prairie house, 4, 76
des cripti on, 4-6. 6,76-78, 77
iut erl ock ing form and space. 76-78, 77
ribbon windows. 6, 76. 237
Rookery, renovati on, 22-23. 22, 399-403,
399, 400, 401, 402
Scholl Fact ory (.w Cobbl er Square)
Sears Towe r. 422
Sc ate of illinOIS Building .
devel opment. 100. 101
Steci and Glass House. 47- 48. 48
Thonet Showroom, Merchandise Mart. 44
45,45
Three First Na tional Pl az a. III. 112
T. W. !:l es t Newsst and, li se of ( a la r. 296- 298.
297
2400 Lake Vie\\' Avenue Building model
apartment, 40
United Airlines Terminal, O'Hare Airport ,
93-94. 93
Chri stiansen , Hans (1866-1 945):
HauprresrJuranr, Klll1sdcr-Koloni c,
Darmstadt. Germany, desi gn for
Tiffany windows, 200, 199
cmema:
Griffith, D . W .. 135
Porter, Edwin S. , 135
space-time, rel ati onship to. 135-136, 136
time, alt eration o f, 135
cla ss icism:
Indllsrrial Revolution , usc of, 41 2
It alian Renaissance, lise o f. 408
Cockerell, C. R. (1788-1863):
Li ve rpool and London Offi ce, Li ve rpool ,
Engl"nd. 426
Sun Fire Offi ce, London. England , 426
W.:stminsrer. Life and British Fire OffIce,
London. Engl and, 426
Cohen , Stuart (1942- ):
Carri gan residence, Chicago, IL, 359-360, 361
C olbert, Jean-Haptist e (161 Y- 1683) :
chicfmini srer to Louis XIV, 313
Collills, Geo rge (1 9 17-1993) :
Casa Bat\l o, Barcelona, Spain, analysis o f.
322, 324
(alar :
aniline dyes, nineteenth ccmury, 281
Art Deco, 284
Art Nou vea u, 28 1
blindness, 249
co nstanc y. 249
defll1ing el ement of Interi or Ar chit ectur e, 4
fiience, Persian tile and mosaic, 269, 269
hi sto ric t' x"mpks:
Eo vpt:
palette # 3. O wen J ones , 254
Karnak: Temple of Amon, 254
Saqqara: Mas taba of Mereruka, Room of
Pillars, 253
England :
Brighton: H. oyal Pavilion, 276, 278
London:
Cr ys tal Pal ace, 278, 278
Soane residence, 276, 277
Middlesex: Osreri ey Park House 276
Frallce:
Chartres: Notre Dame. 2('3-266, 265
FOll ta inbleau: Roy"1 C hat eau. no, 27.1.
273
Frank. jean-Michel , 284
C<lVes, 252
Marseilles: Unite d' Hablt ation, 28(J-2H7 ,
285
Paris:
Ballet Russ es, 28 1. 281
Belle Epoglle, 2H I
Expositi on des Arts Decoratifs, 184
Maison Ia Roche, 288, 289
Pessac: working ci ass housing. 287-28H,
288
Poi ss y-sur- Se ine: Villa SavoyC', 288 , 289
St. Deni s: Abbe y. St ained glass d<' tail , 266
Vau x-Ie-Vi comt e: Chateau, 273, 274
Versailles: Royal C hateau , 275 , 275
Greece:
Athells:
Academy. por ch detail , 259
Acropoli s, " oli ve tree pediment", 259
Sroa of Attalos, Ionic ca pitals, 258
Crete: Knossos , Palace o f Minos, 256, 257
Macedoni a: Lafkadia To mb, 258
Ol ynthus: House o f Many Col ors, 258
259. 260
Sanrorini : Ph ira. bouses, 285, 285
Iran:
Is fahan: Masjid-i-Shah. 269, 269
Sus a: Pal ace of Da rius I, 256, 256
INDEX 469
color (Will.)
Ir.q :
Babylon: GJfe of bhtar. 255-256, 255
I:Icrs Nimroud: Temple of Seven Spheres.
255
llr.k: Eye Temple, 254-255
Uruk: White Templc, cb y (on,s, 255
Ur: ZiggurJt, 255
Ital y:
Cerveteri : Tomb of ,he Rdiefs. 2(,0-2(, 1
Herc ulaneum : :lrrium hOllse, It;]l y. 261
262
Po mpeii :
at rium hOllse, 26 1-262
freswoffood,261
H o use o f Vertii. frescoes. 261
R3venn,,: Mauooieul1l ofG"II" PI3cidi".
262- 263. 262, 263
Ro me: San,'lg11azlo. no. 272
Sie11a: 21;6-2m, 267, 268
T"rquinia: Tomb of rhe Leopards. 2(,0
Viccnz:l: Villa AJIl\(.'rico-Valmar(lll,l
(La Rotonda), 270. 271
Mexico:
Tlapl.Hl : chapel for the Capuchi n3's
S3CfJ nlCnt arla s de] i'urisimo
Corazo11 d< Mari a. 29.>
Spain:
Altamira: caves, 252
Barcelona '
C hurch of the Sagr.l,h Fam ili.l. 282.
282
German Pa vi li on. 291!-2')1. 291
Swirzcrlalld:
Do rnach: Goerhe.lllllill I 8.: II . 2B2-28-1.
283
Zurich: Heidi Web,' r Pavili on . 2H'J. 290
Turkey:
(:ar, 1 Hu yuk: hOll ses. 252
I",nbul: H agi.l Sophia. 263. 264
UnirC'd States :
Chicago. IL:
Florian apartflll'1lr. 2')8.247,299
T. W. Besr Newsst and. 21)1,- 2')8. 297
Los Angdt:' s, CA: H:1l1Sl'rIll :l11
Showroom. 29-1-2%. 295,296
New York. NY: Gold lllJIl Sokol o\\'
Copdantl . 2')3-21)-1 . 294
Sprillg Green. WI: Tali csill. 284
iIHC[;lCCi o n, 250
1l1.1 I1ipul ati oll . 2Sl)
oprics. 251)
p;}i lHing. rromp<-' I'ocd, R!..'llaiss;l11C'c,
2711
p!..'rccption, 24<1, 15()
phorography.
ph ys iol ogy.
psychology, 251)-251

De'St ijl. 287. 287
de Wolfe. Ehie. 2')1 - 2')3. 292
Coeth c, JohJIlJ1 Wolfg:lllg VOll . 283
J ones. Owen . 278
Morris. William. 279
Ruskill. Johu . 2HII
Violkt-k-Duc, Eugene. 280- 281. 280
Wood, Ru by I(oss Goodn ow, 293
Frank Llo yd. 28-1-285. 284
rh ree clilllcll siol1:l 1 300
suincd glass, mr: dic\'dl. procedures, 26 ..L 2h6.
266
\\'avclcngt h differences. 2-19
comlTlercial sPJce:
Clev;ltOr. in vention of. -i2H
histori c <-'sa mples:
Egy pt:
Tomb of /vlekerrc. scr ibe model . -125. 425
Engl and:
Li\'crpool:
Llvnpool and London O ffice. -126
Otl ei Cham bers. 427. 427
London:
Count y Fire Office, -126- -127. 427
Su n F' ;'e OffIce. -I21i
Wes tminster, Life ,1 nd Brirish Fire
Ofticc. 426
1,,1\,:
Florence: Ufr,zl Pal ace. 426, 426
Ost ia: Square of Corporati ons. -125- 426.
425
United S[Jt!..' s:
Buffalo. NY: Larkin Building, -I2il- -I311.
429
Chi c3go. IL:
School of Archlt cc turc. -1 27
Chi o go \\'indo\\. 428. 428
HOl1le Bu ildill g.
428 '
N C\\' York. NY,
For d Found", oll Hc"dquarrcrs. -I 3l
432. 431
Seagram Buildillg. 430--131. 431
Ullioll Carbide HeadquJrters. -1 32
Philadelphia. I' A: l'hiladclphi:l S.lving
Fund Society, 4311, 430
Ta C01ll'1. QA: \X!cyerhaellsc[' Tl'chll ology
Cent er. 347. -1 32--13-1 . 433
cOlllPulviurn :
ddill irioll . lH3
Constanr illa ('-33U):
S. Cosrall za. ROlll e. 1))5. 185
COll sra nriJl C' (COI1 St;lIlti llC I. "the Gn.:;H .. 2H(l ?
337):
S. Costall zJ. ROl11 e. 185. 185
cOll srrucrl'd Illtcnor Archit ccrurc:
ddi lliri oll . 123
Flori;111 JP:lrtlllCllt. Chicago. IL. 12:1- 125.
124
Sp,lkr HOll se. VcnlCe. CA. 125- 126. 125
C01Hl' ,'\t. re;]((i011 to:
dctil1 ltioll . lU9
J)rk'!uus Hescarch Associ:l {c:... Chkago. f L.
111 -11 2, 111,112 .
M:1lkrHolIse. N c'''' York. NY.11 3- 11'i. 113,
114
Vill a M:tirc'a, Noormarkkll. Filii ali d. 1119- 111.
110
conrexrt1J lis1ll :
ddillirioll.
Ill r(J'lLltlOllJI Sryk. [C'aerioll ru, 41 5
Cook . Clarence (1828-1 \100):
C lc,<,sllc r, Mrs., illAucll cC 011, 373
Crace. Frcderlck ( I 771)- IR'i9):
Pavil1011, l3righloll, EllglJlld, u<; t,;' of colo r,
276, 278
C race. John ( 1754- 1819). and sons:
P;lvi li oll , Brighton, Ellgblld, li S!..' of (olor,
276. 278
Crons toll. CHherillC ( 1841)-1 934):
Glasgow te;HOO11lS, cli ent of iv1a ck ill to::.h , 10
crt:'Jtiviry:
crcdtive process, JJ
definition, 33
cl1 bi::.m :
Albrd. Hoger. U8
A pollin,'ire. GlIil lJlI lTIe ,
BrJqllc, Gcorges. 13H
I'i ca"o. Pa biD:
"Lcs D,'lllOisciles dA vig noll ". 13ll. 138
"Wineg!."s', I3R. 139
Spacc-tin:le. reLltionship to. 138
cu lture:
l3,lI'oque. Ellrope;ll1. -11 0-412. 411
COllt ntu,lrsm. -115--11 (,
gc'llCLHOr of styli.:.
Goth ic, Frellch, -1(18. 409
Indust ri;"] 1 Revolution , -i 12. 413
Ilirernational S,,k. -11-1-415. 415
Modern Mo ve,;,ent . -11 2. -11 -1. 414 , 415
POS I -i1 R
POSt Modern ism. 416--117
Rellaissan cc. Ir.l li an. -lOll . 4111. 410
Cnus thc' C rca r (Cnlls 11 5'111/ 3Ri)-52\1 B. C.):
'color. usc oc. dllr'jng thc Tl'ig: ll of, 25() . 256
D
J);lCC.L
N.lti o llJl 'As>ernbly llu ildi llg. 22-1. 225
Suhr .l \\ard\ Celltral Hospit.11. 22-1
DaiLls. T X:
SUllk\, Kor shJk <H rhe Cresccllt. 20)
. 206 .
Da11:l, SUS;]1l L1\\-rcll(('
I).na HOllSe. Sprlll gflcid. lL. 3()H- 3711. 369,
370
D,lrtl" I B. C.):
palace. SLlSa. lise ot' color. 2S(,. 256
JJJrlll ::.u dt. GL'rm;l1lY :
H:luptrl.'::.raur:lIlr. KUllsrlcr- Kolo lli !..' , 20(). 199
l)c1aunJ\. Robl'rt (IRHS-I\I-II):
" The Red To\\'er" . \41. 142
B.dlers I( ussl's. U'l' o t' colo r. 281
JJc"L'ft de lZcc z, FLIll CC:
C: Ollllllll 11lHUCllCC OIl JdfcrsOll. 371.
.>72
])e Stijl :
theon. 287
1ll()\'!..'Ill<..'11t.
Schroder House. Utrecht , 7k-7'J . 78,33 1-332
dc' Wolk. Ebie (IX65-1 0511) :
book. Tit" H,IIf.'C ill C,I(ld T rt::f<', USc o ( (olor.
292
JJ2-.)33
Di3gluk.
B;ll,
Di noc
Alex
Dom
dc\ .....
Da rn.,
Goc:
D oug

Drape'
The
Drcm
III
Drum
T he
dynam
C apr
denn
Laur,
E
Ea m
QUIC
Eckstr
Non
Edi son
Au or
incdn
ccill ca
Ren
Ed\\' a,
crelt
Egypt.
bed.:
chalT
col",
furn ..
K3m
Sag.:
Tom
Eiffi:!.
Hon

470 INDEX
19
Ga rden Room. Colon y Club. Ne\\' York.
N Y. 333. 331
Diaghilc\. Sergei
Balkt s Russos . usc 01 colo r. 2' 1. 281
Dinocr.,,'s (lat e fourth cemu,,' B.C.):
Aicxonder tht' Great Mt. Athos.
G re ce. 2';. 23
Dom-ino sys[cm:
development. I . 7
DOl"nJch. Swi[zerlan
Goetheanum I Jnd II. ust' of color. 2fQ- 28-t .
283
Douglas ..AR
earl y ex.mple of mOiOr ho tel. 456
Draper. DorOthy d "9- 1969) :
The Greenbri er. \\'hi re Sulphur Springs. WV.
4- 1-4- 3. 452
Dremrner. \ 1ichelc 1949- ):
Block residence r(,11 0 \ '3[i 0I1 . E\'a nsron, IL.
"5-3' . 386
Drumm ond. E. I 76-1 946):
The Roo 'en' r 1100atio l1. Ch icago. IL. 41JO
'11 '
dyn:lmic [ensian through compress ion and
expans ion:
Capi toline HIll. Rome. 83-84. 84
dcfll1iri o n. ' 3
Lallfcmian Li b rar y. Florellce . 85. 85,86
E
Earnes. C harles Jl10 Eames. Ray
191 ;- IY88) :
Lounge chair and o{(oman. 344
philo; o ph,. 3+1
Eberhard and '\'I: "olfI!Jng Schnelk:
offit'e desi gn: - ,
opt'll pl;n. 432
Ia ndsca
Quickborner Team.
Eckstro m. C hrbtian :\ Ibert:
North Pier. C hi cago . IL. 394. 395
Edison. Thomas I 4-
Auoroscopc, in,,' "J1[lOil of. 135
incandescent in\'cnt ioll of. 1Y6- 197
cduca ti on:
Re naissJll ce. ..\'t'l0Pll1f..'nt dU['Jllg, 40H
Edwards . Dr. !:l elt\ . ):
crcati\'i( y, dctillmon of 33
Egypr. ancicm:
bed. 30,
chair. 307, ,)4 ,
colo r pakuc #3. 0\\ ' 1..' 11 JOlll' S, 254
furlliru rt' , 30n- Jn-:
K, rnak: Temple o C",'\I1IOIl. H ypostylc Hall ,
color simulat ed clrVeo SPJcc.
116
S:l gg;na: ,\ o i' \I1('f\.'fllk 3, Room o(
PIllJr>. usc of color. 253
TOl1l b o r" .\ \'ke re: scribe model. CX:lI11plc of
commctcial s p.Ke. 425. 425
r. Eiffe!' GustJW J923)
BOll \ 1archt. Paris . Fra nce. 421
Einel T o\\'er. P"is. Frallee. 1411-142. 142
Einstein , Albert (1879-IC)':;':;):
rdJtivit y, tlKory of, 134
Ekphallt . India:
excavated interi ors. 1I':;- 116, 115
elevator:
O ti s. Eli s ha. in vcntor. 428
Ellis, Peter (I I)lR4):
Oriel Cha mbers. Liverpool. Englalld, 4n. 427
Ephesus. T urkey:
Temple of Artemi s. reno\,Jtion, 1H. 18
Eshcri ck, Homsey. Uodgt: and Davis :
Morutrcy Bay Aquarium, M01ltcrey, CA,
ada pti \' e reuse. 1- .102, 392
fOllrth dilllensi on, 144-146.146
Europe:
Cro-Magnoll hOll slng . .J'>4, 435
Evo ns. Sir A rthur
Knos505. Crete. Grecce. IHI. 182
Eveu x sur l'Arbresk, France
S"illcc-Marie-dc- la-Tourettl' . 177, 210. 216,
217
exc.1v:lt\.' d Inrnior Archi reclure:
GiVe, liS
defillicion. II':;
hi storic t'xJrnplcs:
Indi a:
Ekph allto. I 1 115
Karli. 115-11(,
ex(cnsion of sp;lce beyond the \.' Ilc! os urc:
Urick Coulltry HOllse prCliecr. 72-73. 72
Gc rlll,n Palilio n. Ba rcdon,l. Spai n. 73. 73, 74
KllolI Inrcl'Ilil(Jol1J I ShO\\TOOlli . P:uis. Fr;lIlct:',
75-7(,. 75
Vi ll a Almeri co- V:llmar:1l1,l (,'La Rowlld:t '}
Vicenz. 711-72. 71
eyc, human:
CHllna, cOlllp;uisOIl (0, 17Y-I:-)0. 179
ph,>iolo!'(y. 179- 181)
F
Fairfax. VA:
fourth 15tJ - l()(),
160
CU I\, rnarbrc:
Audi oCraftcrs. FJ ir f.1X. VA. 1':;9
Tcatro Olinlplco. ViCt'lllJ. It all. 91J-\I2. 90,
91
Fi tch. Jallles Mar<con (1909
Willial1lsbu(g, V A, crit ici sm ofrcstorJrion,
17
Fl.lvin. Dan (1933- ):
HZltlSCrm.:lll Sho\\Toom, Los CA,
294- 2%. 295, 296 '
li ght sculp{llrc. 44
Florcll cc. Ira"':
LallrclltiJIl Librar y, dynamic (cllsion, R5, 85,
86
P;lzzi l'xpn:ssi o ll o f 410
Sail Lun.' lll0, n;HlIr:tll ighr, lo(), 186
UlliZi P:dao: . space . 42{). 426
Fl o ri,n. Paul (19':;0- ):
apartll1CllL Ch icago. IL, (olor, :2t)8, 247,299
COllS[rtH:rL'd imCfl OI', 123- t25, 124
All orescem li g h{ing:
ad\'antages, 202
202
ceilings, 202
lUlTlil lOllS c\.'ilillgS. 202
New York World 's Fair 1')39. N t' \\' York.
NY, 202
Sail Fr<lneisco Golden Gate Exposit ion 19'>9,
Sail Fro ll eisco. CA. 202. 202
Uni on Carbide Building, N ew Yo rk, NY,
202. 203
F01J(,1illbk;l1l. Fr:mce:
royal chateau. color. no. 273. 273
Font all . I)orncnico ( 1543-1607):
Col osse um, Rome, haly, adapti\'e reme, 24, 24
Fo rd , Powel l, and C"rsOIl:
hOll sc, Ar izon:1 desert , J4J
fOfl'sh orre nil1g:
ddilliti o ll, 63
Fort Worth, TX:
Kimbel l Museulll , li g ht , 22-i - 22(), 225
Fouquc' t , Nicolas ( 10 15- 1(,80):
V,H1 .x-Ic- VicorntL', FrJllce:
color. 273, 274
furnishings, 313
fourth dinl t'nsion:
defining dement o filltcri o r Arc hit ccnm.:',
dt'flllirioJ), 131
hi storic t'xJJll Plcs:
France:
Chartres: No tre Damt', 168, 169
Pa ri s: Eirfd Tower. 1411- I42. 142
I'oiss y-sur-Se lllc: Villa S.lIoye, 143- 144.
143
Creecc:
Achens: Parthenon. 1(, 4- 1(,7. 165,1 66
Italy:
MaIH".!: Palazzo de l Tc. \55-1 ':;9. 156,
157, 158
Maser: Vi ll a Barbaro. 134- 155.154
Rome: Panr!reoll. 147, 148
Til'oli : ViII" d'Estc:
Alice of One HUll drcd Foulltains. 161
FOllllt :}in o( thc 0\\'1. \()2-J()3
Founc ain o f ROlll e. I(. I-162. 161
gardens. 15<)-1(,3. 161, 162,163
O\'al Foulllai ll . 162
WJ [cr 1 ()2. 163
Ull itcd S"tes:'
Lkar I(un. PA: "Fallin g W,lter" 15 1-153.
152, 153
C hi cago, IL:
C resccndo projeCl. 173-174. 173
Pailllc'd Apartlllcnc. 14<)-1:;11.150
i'allll el l Kcrr Forster. 1711-171 . 170
F.1ll'Cl.\. VA: Audlll Cr.l(ccrs. ISC)-IW. 160
Ir\"lil g. T X: WillJaiuS S'luarc. 163-1(,4. 164
iVl il \\,;JllkfC, WI : Building,
144-143.145 '
MOllt\.'rey. CA : Moml'fcy
Aqll.lrilll1l. 144-14(,.146
Ne\\' York. NY : I(oy., Iroll Hord. 171
173.172
Pb11 0. IL: HOllS\.', 1:)tl-151.
151
Francis I (1494-1547):
roya l cha teau, Fo nrainblcau , France, COJOf ,
270, 273, 273
Fr ank, Jean-Michel (1895-1941):
color, use of, 284
furni shings , philosophy, 340
Noai ll es to\-vnhollse, Paris, France,
furnishings. 343, 342
Fuller, R. Buckminster (1895 - 1983) :
geodesic dome, 439-441, 441
function :
balance wi th aes thetics, 407
Furness, Frank ( 1839 - 1912):
employer of Loui s Sulli va n, 34
furnishings :
animating space, 106-109
attitudes. architects vs designers. 305
Baldwin, Billy, philosophy, 343
defIning element of Interior Archit ec tur e, 4
Gray, Eil een , philosophy. 338
hi storic c,amples:
England:
Middlesex:
Os terly Park Housc, 315, 317
Syon House, 317, 318
France:
Castell ar: Tempe aPail),. 338
Paris
Ca fe COstas, 349, 350
Dalsaccs's apartment . 340. 341
Internatio nal Expos i(i on of Decorati ve
Art s 1925. I'Espr i{ Nouvea u. 336,
335
Knoll int crnalional Showroom. 347.
347
Noailles townhouse. 343, 342
Hoguebrunc: House E-1027, 14-1 6. IS,
303, 339
Nerherlands:
Utrecht: Schroder House, 78-79. 78, 33 1
332
Scotland:
Hclcnsburgh: Hill House, Whit c
Bedroom. 106-107. 107, 324- 325.
325
Spain :
Barcelona: German Pa vilion, 334. 334
Unit ed St.1fes:
Chicago, IL:
Driehaus Research Associal es. 111-11 2.
111, 112, 348, 348
Robie House, 4-6. 6,76-78, 77
New York, NY:
Cohcn Apartrnent, 108-109, 108
Garden Room, Colony Club, 333, 332
Pasadena. C A: Gamble House, 329- 330,
330
Morri s, Ma rshall . Faulkner and Co.. 322
Shaker communi{y. 318-319, 319
{ex{il es as furni shings, Islami c, 310-311 . 311
Wood, Ruby Ross Goodnow, 333-334
furniture:
educa tion:
arc hit ects, 306
Int erio r Architecture. 306
inreri or des igners, 306
historic examples:
Aalto, Alvar:
beech wood. use of, 338
Scroll Chair, 338. 338
philosophy 337-338
Adam. Robert:
OS{erlel' Park House. Middlesex,
England. 31 S. 317
philosoph y. 315-317
Syon House, Middlesex. England, 317,
318
Baldwin. Bill y:
house. Arizona desert. 343- 344
philosoph y, 343-344
Biedermieicr:
summary. gene ral, 321
Breuer, Marcel:
Bauhaus philosophy, 336- 337
Canrilever Chair , 337
philosophy. 336-337
Wassily Chair. 337, 337
Chareau, Pierre:
Dalsaces's apartment, P::His, France, 340,
341
philosophy. 340
Dc Stijl:
Mondrian, Piet, 331
NeoplaSl icism, 33 1
Oud. J. J. P .. 3.1 I
philosoph y, 332- 333
Red! Blue Chair (Rood! Blauwe Swel) .
331.331
Rietveld, Gcrnr , 331
Schroder House. Uuechr. Nctherlands.
7B-79.78, 33 1-332
Van Doesburg, Theo, 33 I
de Wolfe. Elsie:
chintz. use of, 291-293. 292,332
Garden Room. Colony Club. Ne\\' York.
NY. 333. 332
philosophy, 332-333
Egypt, ancielH:
bed. 307
chair . 307. 307
su mmar y. general, 306- 307
Frank. Jean-Michel :
Berard. Christi an. coll aborator, 343
C hanaux. Adolph, collaborator. 340
Giacomc{ti BrotherS. coll aborators. 343
Noaillcs townhouse, Paris. France. 343.
342
philosophy, 340-343
Terry, Emilio, collaborator. 343
Gaudi, Antoni:
Casa lJatilo. Barcelona. Spai n, 322- 324.
323
philosophy. 322-324
Gra y, Eileen:
House E-l 027. Roguebrunc. France, 14
16, 15, 303,339
No nconformi st A rmchair, 339
philosophy, 338-340
Tempe aPaili a. Castell ar, Francc. 338
340
T ransac C hair, 339
Tube lamp. 339
Greece, ancien t :
klismos, 30B-309. 309
sumrnJr Y, genera l, 308-309
Greene and Greene:
Gamble House" Pasadena, CA, 329. 330
philosophy,
Hoffman. Josef:
Moser, Koloman, 324
Olbrich. Joseph Maria, 324
Pala is Stoclet, Brussels, lleJgium. 327, 326
phil osophy, 324-327
Vien na Secession, 324
Waerndorfer , Frit z. 324
Wagner, 0 [(0 , 324
Weiner We rksc' ''c. 324-327
Islam:
Baghdad Kiosk, T opkapi Sar ayi, Istanbul ,
Turkey, 311
Furniture ge neral summary, 310-31 I
rex ril es. 310-311
Japan, traditl ona I:
built-ins, 3 13
nabnoma. 313
okllZashiki, 313
shi{5ur ai. 3 I 3
sUl11mary, genera l, 313. 313
ta<ami .313
Landahl Gro up:
Driehaus Resea rch Associates. Chicago.
IL. 348- 349. 348
philosophy. 347- 349
Lc
built-ins. 335- 336
((/sier -"allri(/rn, 335
"chai se-l ongue arc'glage cOlltinu", 336.
336
['Esprit N ouvt:au. Int t:r national
Exposition of Decorative Arts
1925. Paris , FrJnce. 336. 335
"fall{cuil grand conforr". 336
Perri.md. Charl o" e, 336
phil osophy. 335- 336
Tho net chairs. 336
Lo uIS XIV:
lloulk, Andre-C harles. 3 15. 316
Colbert ..",an-Baptiste. 313
Fouquet. Nicolas, 313
Le llrun, Cha rl es. 313
marquctry.315
summar y. genaal, 313-316
Vaux-!c-Vi comte,3 D
Versaill es:
Galerie des Glaces. 315. 314
Manufacture Rovale des Meubles de]a
Couronne.313
Mackint os h. C harl es Hennic:
cn{fance hall , Hill House, Hel ensbur gh,
Scodand. 1
phil osophy, 324- 325
Whire lledroom, Hill Ho use.
HeIensburgh. Scotland, 324. 325
Will ow Tea Rooms, Glasgow, Scotland,
10. 11.324
Re
Ro
Co _
Sca:":

Sch
Sh
b
L.
W
r
472 INDEX
L
Mackint osh. :-'1ar_J.r'" :-. acdonald :
philosoph, ' . 324--}.:5
White Be room. HIli House.
Helensbu' c b . o: l;lOd . 324. 325
medieval. We'S(em Eu:of:.'(':
buil t-ins. 310 .
chest . 310. 31 0
summan ' . . ': 10
Memphis: .
Branzi . And rea. '
C arll on Room D";d,,,. 346
phil osoph y. >-'b- . ,
SOH ass. E:co, ,,_ - 34<>
Ger man Pavilion. BarcdoOl . Spai n. 334.
3:>4
philosophy_ ' 34-3.3'
llliorr; . V;'uliam:
Morris . . h:s:-,.ill. Fml;;o ,and Co . 322
Red HollS<'. lk . Hea:h. Kent .
Em!lan:l. J. l. 312

seHk 3. 1
Perriand. CW .o.. ", , '
: U . 336.
336
Le C o r!l:!.,.., . 330
Pfi ster. <s:
Grand H :d. .tS,llI1=ton D. C. . 9 - 99.
99
Knot . "Toom, Pa ris.
F;-ao..--e.. : ' . '
phil oso? ,
Plaza ... PU1S. r :.nce. in Auence, 98
Co,?<,"-:XJD. T acoma.
Ren '
ca 2'- Jl..
.3_ .ill
sumrru 3L!
Rom-f'
couch. }.'-: 309
Jo H--3: 0
345
9. 350
The HOl/se i" Good Taste, 333
philosophy. 333- 334
Wright, Frank Ll oyd:
Home and Studio, Oak Park, IL, 327, 328
Prairie School furniturc, 327
philosophy, 327-329
Loos, Adolf. phil osophy, 305
Scot[, MacKa y Hugh Bailie, philosophy, 305
futur e:
,magery:
Brazil,407
Clockwork Orange , 407
2001: A Space Odyssey, 407
Interio r Architecture predicting, 407- 408
G
Garches, France:
Villa Stein/ de Monzie, 211 , 212
Gaudi, Antoni (18521926) :
Casa Batllo, Barcelona, Spain, 322- 324, 323
Church of Sagrada Familia, Barcelona, Spain,
282, 282
furniture phil osophy, 322-324
Gehry, Frank (1929- ):
Spill er House, Venice, CA, constructed
interiors, 125-1 26, 125
Giacometti Brothers:
Frank, Jean-Michel, collaborati on with, 343
Gilbert , Cass (1859-1 934) :
Wool worth Building, New York, NY. 413,
414
Gillia m, Terry, (1940- )
Brazil, 407
Gisolfi, Peter, Architects:
Goldman Sokolow Copeland, New York,
NY, color, 293- 294, 294
Glasgow, Scotla nd:
Buchanan Street T ca rooms. 10
Willow Tearooms, 10-11. 11
glass:
glazing of shops, Holland , sevcnteent h
celllury, 419
Goctheanum I and II, Dornach, Switzerland,
282-284, 283
skylight glass, development of, 191
sta ined glass, medieval, process, 264-266, 266
Glen, Rob:
Williams Square. Irving, TX. fourth
dimension, 163-164, 164
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von:
color, theory of, 284, 283
Goldsmith, Myron (\918- ):
liT educa tion , 42
got hic, French:
ca thcdral as symbol of God' s prese nce, 408
culture and Style, 408
Notre Dame. Chartres, France, 167-169.168,
169,263-264, 265,409
Graves, Michael (1934- ):
Oregon State Office Building, Ponland, OR,
416,417
Gray, Eil een (1878-1976):
architectu re, philosophy, 14
background, 14
comparison ro Ma ckintosh on furniture, 14
furniture design, 14, 338
furniture, phil osoph y, 338- 340
House E-l 027, Roquebrune, France, 14-16,
15,301,303,339
Tempe aPaill a. C astellar, France, 338-340
Greece. ancient:
Age ofPericies, 33, 164, 174
Athens , 33- 34. 34, 164-1 67, 165,166
Delos, housing, 436-437, 436
furniture, gene ral summary, 308-309
klismos, 308-309, 309
ME. Athos:
Alexander the Great Monument , 23, 23
Dion ysos monastery, 447-448, 447, 448
Great Lavra monastery, 447
Parthenon, 33-34, 34, 164-167, 165, 166
Samothrace, hospitality (Stoa), 445, 445
Greene, C harles Sumner (1868- 1957) and
Greene, Henry
Mather (1870-1 954):
furniture, philosophy, 329
Gamble House, Pasadena, CA, 329, 330
Greensburg, PA:
Tribune Review Building, 219-221, 221
Griffith, D. W. (1874-1 948):
fdm techniqucs , 135
Gris, Juan (1887-1927):
Ballets Russes, color , 281,281
Gropius, W alter (1883-1969):
Bauhaus philosoph y, 336-337
Gutenberg (Johann, 1400'- ' 1468):
type, invention of moveable, 408
H
Hampton, Mar k (1940- ):
Blair Housc, Washington D. C. renovat ion , 378
Harboe, Thomas M. (1955- ):
The Rookery restorati on, Chicago, IL, 401
402
Harbor Springs, MI :
Douglas House, restoration, 374- 376, 375
Harrington, Elaine (1942- ):
Glessner House, C hi cago, IL, rest o ration,
373-374, 373,374
Hasbrouck. Wilbert ( 193 1- ):
Dana House. Springfteld, IL, restoration, 368
370. 369,370
Hayden, Michael (1943- ):
kineti c neon sculpture. United Airlines
Terminal) O'Hare Airpon,
Chicago, IL, 93-94, 93
Hel ensburgh, Scotland:
Hill House:
entrance hall , 1
White Bedroo m, 106, 107,324,325
Hellmuth, Obata and Kassabaum:
Union Station, St. Louis . MO, adaptive reusc,
390- 391, 390
Hel sinki, Finla nd:
National Pensions Institute, 234, 234, 235
Aca demic Books tore, 234, 235
INDEX 473
Herculaneum, Ital y:
atrium house:
light , natural, 183
color, 261-262
Hero of Al exandria (third century A. D.):
water organs, 162
Highland Park, IL:
Ward W. Willets residence, plan, 5
Himmel/Donner, architects:
Stanky Korsl"k at the Crescent, Da11.1s. TX,
205-207, 206
Hinduism :
space-time, rel ati onship to, 131, 132
history:
rol e of, 407-40R
Hit chcock, Henry-Russell (1903-1987):
Int ernati onal Style, 414
The Inte/'llational Style: Archite{/Ilre Since 1922,
414
Hoffm;mn, Josef (1870-1956) :
Mackintosh, infiueneed by, 324
Palais St oc kt , Brussel s, Belgium, 327. 326
phil osophy, 324-327 - .
Vi enna Secessi on, 324
Weiner Waksratte, 324-327
Holabird, John A. (1886-1945):
commercial design , Chicago, IL. 427
Holland, see Netherlands
holism:
deftning Interi or Architecture, J,
tradition of master architect s, 4, 7, 8, 10
HolI , Ste ven (1947- ):
Cohen apartment, New York, NY, 108-109.
108
Museum Tower Apanll1cnt. New York , NY ,
102-104,103
Horn, Walter (1908- ):
St. Ga ll Monast ery, Switzerland, 446, 446
Horta, Victor (1861-1947):
Tassd Ho use, Brussels. Belgium. 439-440,
440
hospitalit y design:
his roricJI examples:
England:
London: Midland Grand Hotel. 450-451,
451
FrJllce:
Formulc 1 Horel, 459, 459
Greece:
Mr. Athos:
Di onysos Monasrery, 447-448, 447,
448
Grea t bvra Mon:lsterV, 447
Sa mothracc: stoa, 445, 445
Ir an:
Isfa han:
Madrassa Madir-i-Shah , 448-449, 449
Shah Abbas Hotel, 449, 449
Japan :
Nakagin Capsule Building, 458-459, 458
Switzerland:
St. Call : monastery, 446, 446
United Srates:
Atlanta, GA: Hyatt Regency Hotel , 456,
456
Boston , MA: Tremo nt Hotel, 450
Chicago, IL: Auditorium Building, 453
455, 454,455
Denver, co: Brawn Palace Hot el, 456
Douglas, AR: motor hotel , 456
New York , NY: Cit y Horel, 450
San Juan Bauri sta, CA: Mi ss ion San Juan
B,llllisra, 449-450, 450
San Lui s Obispo, CA : Madonna Inn,
456-458, 457
White Sulphur Springs, WV: The
Greenbrier, 451-453, 452
hotel:
atrium hotel, definition, 456
Audit or ium Building, Chi cago. IL, 453-455,
454, 455
Brown Palace Hot el, Denver, CO, 456
capsul e hotel , 458
City Horel, New York, NY, 450
dcflllition:
French, 450
Unit ed Stares, 450
Fo rmuk I Ho tcl. France. 459, 459
Greenbrier, White Sulphur Springs. WV . 451
453, 452
Hyatt Regency Hot el, Arl al'lla, GA, 456, 456
inventi on of. 450
Madonna Inn, San Lui s Obispo, C A,
457
Midland Grand Hotel , Loncion, England , 450
45 I. 451
mi xed used horel. definition , 453
motel. defmition, 456
Nakagin Capsule Building, .lapan, 458-459,
458
p,1 lacc as model . 450
reSort hotel. definiti on, 451
tet mlllus hotel, definition, 45 I
Tremont Hotel , i:lost on, MA , 450
house:
hi storical examples:
Belgium: Brussels, Tassel House, 439-440.
440
Europe (general): era-Magnan , 434, 435
France: Nice, Terra Amara, 434, 434
Greece: Delos, 436- 437, 436
Iraq: Ur. 43), 435
Italy:
Hercubneum: atrium house. 437
Ostia: apartment building, 438, 438
Pompeii: atrium house, 437, 437
Japan: general , 438-439, 439
Sweden: housing industry , 444-445, 444
Unit ed Srates:
geodesic dome, 439-44 J, 441
New York , NY: Greenwic h Village loft ,
441-444,442,443
"Smart House", 444
materials :
animal bones and skins, 434
brick:
fired, 436, 437, 438
mud , 434, 435
ce rami cs, 434
computerized design, 445
concrete, 434
copper, 443
fiberglass, 444
glass, 434, 439
iron, 434, 439
marble, 434
mosaics, 437
papcr, 434, 438, 439
pl as ter, 437, 443
plastic, 434, 441. 444
scmi-conduccofs, 444
stone, 434, 436
terrazzo. 443
tile, 436, 437, 439
wood, 434, 436, 437, 438, 439, 443,
445
hOllsing:
industriali zc'd, Swedish, 444-445, 444
problems of, 444
Howe, Gcorge (1886- 1955):
Philadelphia Saving Fund Soci ety,
Philadelphi a, P A, 430, 430
humani s m:
Aalw' s belier, 8
idi orrh yt hme:
dcrlnition, 447
Iktlllus (mid flfrh century B. C.):
Parthenon, c Olls(f\l((ioll , 165
II !losso (1494-1540) :
(<l Eas M;!irn: ROll S), Roya l Ch5tcau.
FOlHainbleJll. Frallce, col or. 270,
273, 273
implu vium:
definirion, 183
ill C<l lldcsce llt lam p:
corbon filament, 196
111vention, 196
tungsten fllJment , 196
lndllsrrial Revolution:
basis of. 412
buildings for indusrrv. 412
cbssici ;m as Stvle. 412
C rystall'olace. ' London, England, 412, 413,
420, 421
(kpartlllcm stOfe origins , 420
Internati onal Style as expression, 414
Pax ton , Joseph, 412
skylight glass , development of. 191 ,420
insid e/ oufside:
dcfll1illg demcnt of (meri or A rchitecture. 4
hi storic examples:
FrJllce:
Paris: Ei ffci Towcr, 140-142, 142
Poi ssy-sur-Sein e: Villa Savoye, 143-144,
143
United States:
Mil waukee, WI: Insi de/Out side Building,
144-145, 145
Interi or ArchitecCllre:
approach in completing int erio r spoce, 306
bal ance in desi gn, 407
fune"
Hit er:
John
rna
orig
Orna
predL
pn ne
We"
inter per ..
Vill a
Ippolit
Vi ll a
Irving. r
Wil"
Is f.1h an,
AIi Q

(arJ\'
M adr
Masj -
MasJ:C:
Shah _
Islam:
Bagh'
furnih.
textil e
Istan bu .l. 'T
Bagh'
Hag ..
J
Jahn , H,
eduo
Stare
474 INDEX
completi o n of inte ri or space, 4
defmiti o n , 3
design o f entire buildin g, 3-4, 7, 8
element s, 4
express io n, 3
furniture educati o n , 306
future, predicting the, 407
preservati o n, rcst or:1tion, renovati on, and
adaptive reuse as clements , 8
C]uesti o ns concernin g, 3
s pace-time element, 131
int e ri o r d esIgn:
approach in completing interior space , 3, 306
furnitur e:
altitudes about, 3US
ed uca tion. 3U6
philosoph v, 3
programs , origins, 3
interlocking form :1nd space:
Schro de r House. Utrecht, 78-79, 78
Robie Ho use. C hi cJgo, 76-78, 77
Inrernationa l S[\' le:
Bauhaus. 414'
defIniti o n, 414
fUllcti onal is m, 41
Hitchcock , Hen r v-Russell , 414
J ohnson. Philip. 4 14
mas s pro duction, 414
ori gins. 414
o rnamentation, o mi ss ion, 414
predecesso rs, 414
prin cipl es . 41 4
Weisscnhofsied lun g, Gl.::r mallY, 415
interpenetration of space:
Villa Sa\o\(. Poi s,,', 7-8, 8
Ippo lit o 11 d Este. (C;rdinal o f FerrarJ . 1509
1572)
Vill a d'Estc. Ti\oli. Italy. 159
Irvin g, TX:
Williams Square . fourth dimension , 163-1 1>4.
164
Isfahan, Iran:
Ali Qapu Pa\ ilion. natural li ght, 189-190, 189
bazaa r, na rural light. 190, 190
caravanserais . d efinicio n of, 448
Mad"ssa .'vladir- i- Sluh, 448- 449, 449
Masjed- i-J omeh, nat1l" l li ght, 188-1 89, 188
M asj id- i-Shah . col o r. 269. 269
Shah Abbas Ho tel, 449,449
Islam :
Baghdad Ki osk. Topkapi Sarayi, Istanbul,
T u r key. 311
furniture, genera l su mmary. 310-311
tex tiles. 3 10- 31 1
Istanbu l, Turke\ ' :
Baghdad T o pkapi Sara yi, Istanbu l,
Turke\. 311
H agia So phia. colo r, 263. 264
J
Jahn . Helmut ):
educa ti on (li T ) . 42
State or Il lino is Cent e r. C hi cago, IL, 100, 101
Tho n<t Showroom, C hic.'go, IL. 44
Unit ed AJ rlines Terminal. Airporr ,
C hi cago, IL, 93- 94. 93
Janus:
Roman god of doors, 140. 141
Jap.llI :
built-ins. 3 13
furnitu re, gcner Ji summary, 313
housin g, 438-439, 439
n,bno lll. , 313
okuzashiki , 313
shitsurai. 313
tat ami. 3 13
Jefferson. Thomas (1746-1826):
career. 370-371
Montice llo, C hArlottesville, VA. 370- 373,
371 ,372
Rotunda, Uni versity or Virginia,
Charl ott es ville. 359, 360
Jenne y, Wil liam LeBaron (1832- 1907):
emplo yer o f Lo uis Sullivau , 35
HOlll e Insurance Building, C hicago. IL. 427
428, 428
Jerusale m, Israel:
H un'a Synagogue proJe ct. 226. 226
Johnson, Philip (1906- ):
AT &T Building, New York. NY, 416
Int ernational St)'le, 414
The hllen/(/riol1(// S,yle: /1)'(/'il 'O/ll'(' Sillce 1922,
414
lones , Owen (1809-1874):
. color theon' . 278, 278
Morris, William. inAucnce on, :279
Jones, Hobert:
Pa vi li on, Brighton, England , color. 276. 278
J oyce, J ames ( 1882-1 941):
strea m-of-cons cious ness , 136
Ul)'.'!cS, 136
.lung, Ca rl (IR75- 196 1):
Sullivan, Loui s, philosophi ca l comparison to.
35
K
Kahn. Louis I. ( 1902-1 974) :
colullln as li ght filter, 223
Erdman Hall Dormitories, llrvn Mawr. PA.
222. 223 '
Fi rSt Unitari an C hurch, Rochester. NY, 22 1
222. 222
Hurva Syna gogue project, Jerusa lem, Israel.
226. 226
Kimbell Museulll, Fort Wort h , TX, 224-226,
225
light. phil osoph y o f, 207. 218-2 19
materials, phil osoph y of, 36- 37
Mikvch brJei Synagogue projen,
Philadelphia, I'A. 224, 224
National Assembly Buil ding, Dacca ,
Bangladesh , 224, 225
Salk InstilUt e Lect ure Hall s projec t , La J o ll a,
C A, 37, 37, 224
Suhrawardy Cen tral H ospi t al, Dacca,
Bangladesh, 224
Tri bune Review Building, Crt:' ensburg. PA,
2 19- 221, 221
U,S, Consulat e projecr, Luanda , POHuglles('
Ango la, 222-223, 223
Weiss House, N orristo wn, PA, 2 19, 220
window. ke y-hole. development o f, 219, 221 ,
223
Ka!cc, Don (1935- ):
Frank Lloyd Wri ght Home ,md Studio
resro ration, 366-368. 367
Curniwrc, PLliri t:' Scho ol , 327
Kalil , Michael ( 1944-1 99 1):
Kr amer Pt:nthOll SC' , New York, N Y, 205
Kandinsky, Wassd y (1866-1944):
Wassi l v Chair, 337, 337
Karli , India:
caV<' , 11 5
excavated Interior Architecture, 11 5-11 6
Karnak, Eg ypt:
Temple of Ammo n, Hypostyk Hall:
colo r, 254
natural, 180, 181
Glfved space, 11 6- 117, 116
Kent. England:
Red House, Bexky Heath , 32 1, 322
Ke,d'"'lI . Willi am ( 195 1- ):
Hch:n ..... C uni s cor porat c
C 111eago, IL, 387- 389, 387,389
Klimt , GUS[Jve (1862-1918):
Palai s stoclet, Brussels, Bel g ium, 327, 326
Knossos, C rc[e. Greece:
Pa lace o f Minos:
color. 256, 257
natllt a.l. 182
Kolbe. Georg (1877-1947):
Ge rman Pavili on. Barc..... lo Il J. Spain , 291
Krause. Andre\\' T . ( 1947- ):
Guarantv Building, lluff.l o, NY. reSt oration ,
, 378 -
Kruee k and Ol sen:
background , 42-43
compa rison wi th Mies va n dcr Hohe, 42
I)ainred Apa rtment, Chicago, IL:
design, 47, 50-56. 49,50
fo urth d imension . 149- 150.150
futlliture , 54-56. 31,53,54,55
loca ti o n , 38. 46
and Glass House, C hi cago, IL. 47, 48
T ho net showtoo[1l, Chicago, IL, 45
work ing methods, 45-47
Kruec k , ( 1946- ):
edura,ion. IIT 42- 43. The School of the Art
Institute of Chicago, 43
cli ent/archi[ c;:c t meeting for Painted
Apartment. 43
Kuro ka \\'0, Kis ho ( 1934 - ):
N akagi n Capsule Building, J apa n , 458- 459,
458
L
Labrouste. H enri ( 18UI-1 87S):
Bibliothequc Nationale. Pa ris, Fran ce, 193,
194
INDEX 475
La Jolla , Califo rni a:
Salk Inst itute of Biological Studies:
laboratory complex, 37, 37
lecture hall project , 224
l andah!. Greg (1947- ).347
landahl Group:
Douglas House, Harbor Springs, MI, 374
376,375
Driehaus Research Associa tes, Chicago, Il,
111-112, 111, 112, 348-349, 348
furnishings, phil osophy, 347- 349
Pannell Kerr Forster, Chicago, Il, 170-171,
129,170
Lascau x, France:
caves, color , 252
l aurent, Brigitte:
Royalton Hotel, New York, NY, 171-173,
172
l e Brun, C harles (1619-1690):
Ga leri e des Gl aces, Versailles, France, 315,
314
Manufacture Royale des Meubles de la
Cou ronne, 313
Vaux-Ie-Vicomte, France, 273, 274,313
Le C orbusier (1887-1965):
archit ecture:
f, ve points of. 144, 209
phil osophy of. 7
space-time, 44
brise-soleil , 213, 213
C handi garh:
government buildings, 118-11 9
Palace of Just ice (Hi gh Cou rt ), 11 9, 118
color:
De Stijl theory , inAuence on, 287, 287
inAuence from Greek island houses, 285, 285
defming Int erior Archit ecture, 7
Dom-ino System, 7, 7
l'Esprit Nouveau , International Exposition of
Decorati ve Arts 1925, Paris,
France, 336, 335
furniture:
"chaise-longue art'glage continu ". 336. 336
"fauteuil grand confort ", 336
philosophy, 335-336
steel , tubular, use of, 336
Heidi Weber Pa vilion, Zurich, Switzerland,
289, 290
light, phil osoph y of. 207. 209
Maison la Roche, Paris. France:
color, 288, 289
light, natural, 209-211, 211
Maison Ozenfant. Paris. France, 209,210
"Na ture Morte de l'Esprit Nouveau", 138
140, 139
Notre Dame du Haut , Ronchamp, France:
li ght, natural, 213-215, 216, 217
scale, exploitation of, 104, 105
Pessac working class housing, Pessac, France,
287-288, 288
Perriand Charlott e, collaborator with. 336
Sain r-Mari e-de-Ia-Tourettc. Eveux SliT
I' Abresk, France: light, natural,
215-218,176,217,218,219
unique expres sion, 10
Unit e d'Habira(ion , Marseill es, Frallce:
colo r, 286-287, 285
li ght, natural, 213, 214
Villa Savoye. Poissy-sur-Seine, France:
color, 288, 289
cubist paintings, comparison to, 144
descripti on, 7-8, 8, 143-144, 143
Eiffel Tower, compuison to , 144
int erpenetra tion of space, 8, 144
li ght , natural, 211-213, 212
space-time, 144
Villa Stein/de Monzie, Garches, Fran ce, 211,
212
Ledoux, Claude-Nicol as ( 1736- 1806):
Saline Royale, Arc-et-Senans, 26-27, 26, 27
Lee, Ann (Macher Ann) (1736-1784)
founder of the Shaker Movement. 318
Le Notre. Andre (1613-1700) :
Vau x-Ie-Vicomte, France, 273
Lescaze, William (1896- 1969):
Philadelphia Saving Fund Society,
Philadelphia, PA, 430, 430
Le Vau , Louis (1612-1 670):
Va ux-Ie-Vico mte. France, 273, 274
Licht ens tei n. Roy (1923- ):
painti ng , phil osophy of. 43, 43
li ght :
Aalt o , Alvar, master of light:
Academic Bookstore, Helsinki, Finland,
234.235
Finnish Pa vi li on, New York World 's Fair
1939, New York, NY, 231-232,
231
Municipal library, Viipuri, Finland, 229,
230
Na(i onai Pensions Institute, Helsinki.
Finl and, 234, 234,235
Tuberculosi s Sa natorium, Paimio, Finl and,
234 , 234,235
Village Center, Saynatsalo. Finl and . 232
234, 233
Villa Mairea, Noormar kku. Finland. 232,
232
defining element of Interior Archit ec ture. 4
electri c illumination, summary, 196-197
fourth dimension, 149-1 50, 150
glass , sk ylight , development of, 191
histori c exampl es:
Egypt:
Karnak : T emple of Ammon, H ypostyic
Hal!. 180, 181
England:
London:
Dulwich Ga llery, 193-195, 195
Paddington Station, 192, 192
Soane residence, 190- 191 , 191
France:
Pari s:
Bibhotheque Nati onalc, 193, 194
Expositio n Uni verselle 1878, 197, 196
Ex positi on Universelle 1889.197,197
Galerie Vivienne, 420
Passage du Cai re, 192-193, 192
Germany :
Darmstadt: Hauptrestaurant. 200, 199
Greece:
Athens: Stoa of Attalos, 182-1 83, 183
Crete: Knossos, Palace of Min os, 181
182, 182
Iran:
Isfah an:
Ali Qapu Pavilion, 189-190, 189
Bazaa r , 190, 190
Masjed-i-Jomeh, 188-189, 188
Italy:
ilaia : Templ e of Mcrcury, 183-1 84, 184
Florence: San Lo renzo, 186, 186
Hercul aneum : atrium house, 183
Milan : Galleri a Vittori o Emanuel I!. 193,
193
Pompei i: Jtrium house, 183, 184,
Rome:
San Ca rlo ail e quattro Fontane, 187
188, 187
Santa Sabina. 186. 186
S. Costanza. 185, 185
Tivoli : Hadrian 's Villa, 184,185
United Srates :
Ca mbridge, MA :
M.I.T.:
Chapel, 203-205, 204
Kresge AudilOrium, 203, 204
C hicago, ' IL:
Centur y of Progress 1933, Hall of
Science Building. 200, 200
Columbian Expositi on 1893.
Manufactures Building, 197,
197
Montauk Bl ock, 198, 198
Paint ed Apart ment, 149-150,150
Vivere, 207, 208, 209
Dallas, T X: Stanley Korshak at the
Crescent , 205-207, 206
New York, NY :
Guggenheim Museum. 193, 195,237
Kramer Penthouse. 205
New York World's Fai r 1939:
Petroleum !:luilding, 202
U. S. Steel Pav ilion , 202
Rainbow Room, Rockefeller Center,
200-201. 201
TWA Termin al, JFK Airport. 205, 205
Union Carbide Building. 202, 203
St. Louis. MO: Union Stat ion
Headhousc, 198- 200, 198
San Francisco, C A: Golden Gate
Exposition, 202, 202
Kahn, louis I. , master oflighr :
Erdman Hall Dormitories, !:lryn Mawr, PA,
222, 223
First Unitari an Church. Rochester. NY,
221 - 222,222
Hurva Synagogue project. Jerusalem, Israel.
226, 226
Kimbell Museu m. Fort Worth, TX, 224
226, 225
Mikveh Israel Syna gogue project ,
Philadelphia, PA , 224, 224
National Assembly Building. Dacca,
!:langJ.des h, 224, 225
f
H
476 INDEX
34
93,
37
,
205
, PA,
;rael,
4
Sa lk Institut e Lecture Hall s project, La Joll a,
CA,224
Suhrawardy Central Hos pital, Dacca,
Bangladesh, 224
T ribune-Review Building, Grnsburg, PA,
21 9-221, 221
U.S. ConslllJte proj ecr. Luancia, Porrugcse
Angola, 222-223, 223
Wei ss House, Norristown, PA, 220
Le Corbusi er, mas tcr of li ght:
brise-soleil , 213 , 213
Maison la Roche, PJri s, Fr,mce, 209- 2 11 ,
211
Maison Ozenfant, Pari s, Francc, 209, 210
Nacre D<1Jnl' dt! Haue. Ronchamp, France,
213-215, 216, 217
Saincc-Mari e-dc-Ia-Toure(( e. Evt' u:\: sur
I'Arbresk, France, 215- 218, 217,
218,219
Unite d'Habitation, lV! arseilles, Fra nce, 21 3,
214
Vili a Savoyc, Poi ssy- sur-Seine, Fr;ll1 ce. 211
213, 212
Villa St ei n/de Monzi e, Garches, Fr,mce,
211, 212,
natural , sum mary, 180
Saa rinen, fero, phil osoph y of light, 203
Wright, Frank Lloyd , mastcr of li ght:
Boynton res idence, Rochester, NY, 237
241 , 238, 239
" Falling Wa ter ," Be,,, Run, PA, 242, 242
Homc and Studi o, Oak Park, IL 236-237,
236
Johnson Wax Admini stration Building,
Racine, WI, 242, 243
Larkin Building , Buff,llo, NY, 237, 241,
240
Robi c House, Chi cago, IL, 237, 238
Unit y C hurch, Oak Pa rk , IL 241
lighting: '
BOl/gie Eleoriql/e, 107, 196
candelabra, 195-196, 196
ca ndle, tec hnolog y o f, 195
chandeli er , 195-1 96, 196
combusti on, disadv,lOtages of, 196
electric. effect on Modern Movement, 180
Auorcsccnt:
adva nragcs, 202
disad van tages , 202
gas, 196
histori c fX;lmp les:
Fr.1nce:
Par is:
Expos ition Universelle 1878, 197, 196
Expos ition Universelle 1889, 197, 197
Germ any:
Darms tJdc Haupnestaurant , Kunsdcr
Koloni e, 200, 199
Unit ed States:
Oak Park, IL: Un it v C hurch, 63-67, 57,
64,65,66 '
C hi cago, IL:
Century o f Progress 1933, 200, 200
Columbi an Expositi on ISY3, 197,197
Ro bie House, 237, 238
New York , NY:
New York World's Fair 1939, 202
Rainbow Roo l11, Rockefeller Cent er,
200-201, 201
Roya lt on Hotel , 171-1 73, 172
San Froncisco, C A: Gol den Gate
Exposition, 1939, 202, 202
incandescent:
carbon f,lament. 196
in ve ntion, 196
tungs ten fdament, 196
oil , 196
Ligori o, Pirro (1520-1580):
V ili a d' Este gardens, 159
Link , Theodore (1850- 1923):
Uni on StJtion, St. Louis, MO, 198, 390
lircratu re. st ream-o f-conscioll snL'ss:
J oyce, James, 136
space- time, relati onship to, 136
Woolf, Virgmi a, 136
Li verpool, Engl and:
Liverpool and London O ffi ce, 426
Oriel C hambers, 427, 427
London, England:
Colosseu,;; , Regent's Park, 428
COUIHV Fire Off,ce, 426- 427, 427
Palace:
color, use of. 278, 278
Indus [tial RevolutIon , 140, 412, 413, 420,
421
Oulwich Gall er y, 'Jalur<llli ght , 193-195,
195
Padding[Qn Stati on, natural "ght, 192, 192
Roya l Exchange Arc.1de, 19-420
Soarl e residence:
color, use of. 276, 277
imerior sp<1ce, master of. 11
li ght, use o f, 190-191, 191
spatial ilHerpos iti on, 79- 81, 79,80
Sun Fire Off,ce, 426
Westminster , Life and British Fi re Ortice, 426
Loos, Adolf(1 870-1933):
furniture , ph ilosoph y of. 305
Los Angell's , C A:
Showrool11 , 294-296, 295,296
Louis XIV (1 638-1715):
Boulle, Andre- Charles, 3 15, 316
fu rnitllre, 313-316
ManufaCture Royale dC's Meu bles de la
Couronne, esta blishment of, 313
marqlle[t), ,315
Vaux-lc-Vicomte, France, 273, 274, 3 13
Versai lles, France:
C hambre du Roi, 275
Galerie des Glaces, 315, 314
Louis XV (171 0- 1774)
roya l chateau, Vcrsaill es, France, color, 275
Loui s XVI (1754-1793)
royal chatea u, Versa ill es , France, color, 275,
275
Loui s Philippe (1773- 1850), 16
Lovell , Dr. J oseph (1788-1 836);
Blair House, Washington D. C, 378
Lua nda, Portugese Angolo:
U. S. Consul ate proj ect, 222-223, 223
M
MA:
space-time, relat ionship to, 133, 132
Macedonia , G reece:
Lat"kadia Tomb, 258
Mackintosh, C h,lrles Hennie (1868- 1 '.128):
C ranston , Ca therine. 10
fumilllre, 324-325
Glasgow, Scotland :
Buchanan Streer Tea rooms, 10
Willow Tearooms, I II, 11, 324
Helcnsburgh:
Hill
en[t ance hall ,
Whit e Bedroom, 106,107,324,325
Hoffm,mn , Josef, inAuence u pon, 324
inreri ors. complete, 10
MackilHosh, Margaret Macdonald (1865-1 933):
design collaborat or with Charl es Renni e
Mackint os h, 106
Helensbu rgh, Hill Ho use, Wh it L' Bedroom,
106, 107, 324, 325
Maddox, Eva (I <)43- )
T. W. Best Newss tand, Chi cago , IL, 296- 298 ,
297
M.lirrc R Oll S. sl'e il Rosso
Mallct, LJuric:
i'vlall et HOLlse, New York, NY, 113-11 5, 113,
114
M, nn , Tho mas ( 1875-1 955) :
Ti re ,HaSic ,\<Iolllll aill, 135
mannCrI sm:
dcfllliri Ol1, 155
Palazzo del T L', Mantua, 1"l y, 155- 159, 156,
157, 158
MannLl eci (Paolo, sixteenth cClln"y) :
cathedr,l l Aoor, Siena, Italy, 266-269, 267,
268
Ma ntua, 1[Ol y:
Pal azzo del To, 155-15<),156,157,158
Marri ott, C eli,l (1934- ):
background , 3<)
role "' cli ent. 39-40, 42
steps in volved in selecting architect , 39, 43-44
Maser, 1[Oly:
Vill a Ba rbaro , 154-155,154
Masl o\\', Abraham H, (1908-1 970):
description of ( rc;ni ve process, 3H
MassJgno. Switzerl and:
sin gle family hOll se by Mori o Botta , 121- 123,
122
Mastro, James ( 1946- ):
residence renovation, Chicago, IL, 383- 385,
383, 384
materi als:
dcfll1ing element of Inrerior Archi(ecture, 4
Matisse, H enri (1869- 1927):
Ba ll ets ""sses , color, 28 1, 281
Medi ci, Cosimo de (151 9-1574):
Uff,zi, Fl o renCe" Ita I\', 426, 426
medieval, \",cstern ..
bLl ilt-ins, 3 11)
che'st, 31 () , 310
furniture , 3 10
INDEX 477
- -- -
-- -
Meers , I,obert :
North Pier, C hic,go, IL . 3')4-396. 395,396
Meier, Richard (I )
Doug las House, Harbor Spriugs, M I. 374
376, 375
Meigs , M o ntgolllery C ( 18 I b-IBn):
Pensi on Burcdu (N;:ttional Building JV1Uscllm) ,
Was hiugton D.C. . 3%- 399 , 397,
398
Me mphi s:
13oulle, co mpari son to, 346
!:l r,lnzi, Andrea. 346
Ca rlto n Roo nl Dl vider. 346
philos ophy, 346- 347
Sortsass, Et tore. 346, 346
Michelangelo ( Buo n, rro ti . 1475-1 564) :
"Aria s" sculptu re, 34. 35
Capitoli ne Hill , Ro me. It aly:
d y namic tensio n, 83- 84, 84
rmoY,Hi o n , 19 - 21, 20,21
LJ L1rcnti all LibrJr y, Flort'!l cc, Iraly, dyna mic
tensi on. 85, 85, 86
Middlesex. England :
Os rerkv Park HOtl s{:":
color: 276
fllrniture. 3 15, 3 17
ft' ll ov;ni on , 21
Syon H o use:
fllrniture. 317,318
Mit s Y, 1l dc r Rohe . Ludwig
architecture . phil osoph v. 42-43
arrirude .1bOllt 42
IJrick COl nltry H o use projL'et. 72- 73. 72
Farnswort h Houst'. Plano, IL, l S0- 151. 151
furni rure::
!:larcdL",a Chair . 334
philosophy, .1.14- 335
Gl'[ mJ. 1I Pav ilioll , Uarcclol1:l. Spain:
color . I, 291
ex tensio n o f SP JCC beyolld rhe c1lclosure , 7J,
73, 74
furnishing s. 33-1, 334
spati:d 73
ModfTll Movcment. leJder II) Un it ed SCHL'S .
2H
Seagralll !:lu ildin g. Ncw YOtk. NY . 4311-431.
431
2400 Lake V](.:w Ave llue Buil dill g. C hi (,l gU.
IL . 39, 40, 41,
Mil on,ltolv :
Ga lleria \fittol'io Elll ,nlllcill. 193, 193
S. Mari " prcsso S. Sot iro. 8'1- ')1) , 89
Milcrtls. Turkc\"
agoro , 35H '
Mill, t , Lout> ( 1855-1 '12.:
Unio n Sranol1 HeJdho usc-. Sr. LOllls. M('),
1 198, I. 390
lYIil wo ukec, WI:
Ill sidcI Our:aoe L3 uil d lll g. Bes t Produus Co..
\44-14 5. 145
Min ko ",ski. Her mann ( I H!A-I VIILJ):
Sp:1cl' -til1l c . 134
Mod<.: rn MO Vl' Il H.' llt :
Avellue ofrhc Ncw York, NY, 415
CO!1(L'P r. 412
cffe<: t o n presff v<l ri o ll . fl'stOrJIIQIl . f t' 110\';lt i on.
and adapr i\' c 27- 28
Inciusrri,ll Revolutj oll, expression of, 412
past, break with. 412
(cchnoiogy:
lV10dern Movement, effeCt on. -l-l .?:
style, effcet on. 412
Woolwort h Bui lding. Ncw Yor k . NY. 412,
414
M onas tcn"
hospitalit y accommoda tion, 440
Mr. Athos. G t cece:
l)ionvsos, 447- 448. 447,448
G reat' La"ra, 447
St. C OllI. Switzerl and . 446. 446
Mondri an, Pi et ( I H72-1 1)44 ):
Dc Srijlmovcl11cnt, 33 1
lV1 onragnJna, lta h"
Vllla'- 'PisJlli. IIlAucncc Oil Mom i(fll o, 371
MorHfrc\" CA:
C,n ncr\. 391
)v \ olHl'rt'y Hay Aqu,uiuJn:
adopti ve rL'use. 392
fo urth dimension. 144- 14(,. 146
l\;loorl' . Chorks ):
Jec1 iruiJr o rg;lIli zt'f. 1)4
Moore Ho use, Ncw Ha\ CIl. CT . <)5 - <)7. 96
Moo re House, Orinda. CA. 95
Mortis. Marshall. Faulkner :lIld Co..
decorating lifl ll , 322
Morri s. Wi ll iam (I R3 4-IHW,) :
co lo r thL'on. "79-2KII. 279
folJo\\'C rs oi. 311
fU fIllWfc. 321 - 322
Heel Housc. 13e.,\!c , HCJth. KCIl r. El1gIJll c1.
3"1. 322
Ill osai(
Pcrsid.1l de\cl 0 pll1elH. 209. 269
MosL'r . ):
Viwte. Chi ca go. IL . 2117. 208,209
MmL'f, ( IS!18- ILJI X):
Horrmann, rcbtl o l1 shlp [0, 324
Vi enllJ 324
Wc iuL' r Werk>t'ittc. .124- 327
morel. ,.:.('(' ho rcl
Nl otl1l'r Anll, S('t' Lt'C, Alln
Illoti on p.1l"alla x, (l.2
rvl o ull( Arhos, Gn.:ccc:
tht..' Gre;n M Ollll l lH.'lH, 2,\ 23
l)i oll Ys os rnOI1 ,l srcry, 447- HH. 447, 448
Gre.n L3\'ra 1ll 0 Il JSrcr\". 447
Murph y/J.l1l1l : .
shift fr om lll odernis m ro po:. r-mockr llislll. 41()
IllU:.IC
" Lc S,l(re du PrilHe lllps " . 137
sp.\(<.' - rime. rebnollship ro, 137- 13H. 137
Str.l \i nsky, [gor. 137-1 3H
Mll\bridge. E,l dwc"rd ( I H311- 1<)()4):
mo ri on-srud y phowgraphs of ;]1lI111.1b. 31)0
N
NJ isbitt . John (1')"9' - ):
high tl.:ch/ high touch c ll \ ' ir Oll111Cll L 432
Nash, J o hu ( 1752- IH35):
Pa vili oll. !:lti g ht o n, Ellglall d. color. 27(,. 278
Nati o ll al Associ :Jt ioll of Homc !:llliiders:
"Sn1.ln House". 444
1l ,1rllr<.'
Jrchircct ural sy mbiosi s \\' ith, IS{). 151-1 53
cydes , \\'ith, 144-146
cycl e, d .ll" ,
sp,Ke- time, 144 -1 53
NCDud, od nezz;H (6!i1-5iiO 1l. C):
Isht ,lf Gat e, 13aDylon, 35k. 358
!l eon :
Centllf)' oC Prog ress 1LJ33. C hicof;o, 1L, 21111.
200
ll eoplJ stici:'l1l :
I,ict wld, Gerrit. 33 1
Schroder Hou sc. Utrecht. Nethcrl ;mds. 331
332
t heo[\', 33 1
\';)11 L) OL'S bllrg, Thco, JJ1
Nereilll. A nders (I V47- ):
C:l rrig:lll rcsidL'lH."C, Chic.lgO, IL. ,\5()-J60,
361
Net hnlonds:
gLlzill g of shops. SC\' CIHCCllth lTlHllry, 41 ()
Jil d o ftices. r<.'l '-It lonshi p, 42()
Ne \\' Ha \'Cll. CT:
Moore House. 96
Ne\\'ton. Sir Iso,l c ( 1642-1 727):
Nnnoni:lIl . 134. 140
rhrcc-dilllcnsi oll,,1 space. Nc\\" tol1i :1l1. [31,
134. 1411
NL'\\ York. NY:
AT &T 4 16
Cohell ,'p.,rtlllC'llt , IllS-1 m. 108
Fi lllli sh P,,, ili oll. Ne\\ ' York World' s F,ur.
Olb
H
W.W. 23 1, 231
Ford FO l1l1d,HIOll -u 1-432,
431
Goldmall Sokol ow Copel.llld. 21)3- "')4 , 294
Grcell \\'ich VllbgL' lofr . 441 - 444.442, 443
GU(T(rcnh\"' illl jVlll SClll1l:
,Illd Stud io, O ,lk Por k. IL. inAuellce
UpOll . n7
lighL n:Hur.,t. 237
\'crti o l dC\'C]oplIlcllr ot" hOrLZOI1('ll plancs.
11111. 101
KLIIH<.T 203
Litrle. F. \V., li\'ingro01ll, Mcrro po li rall
Muscunl o f Art . 36.,-3(,4, 363
M" llet H Oll sc. 113- 11 5. 113 . 114
Ivl usl' lIlll To,,cr ,\p.H{t llCIlr. 11J2-1()4, 103
[{" nDo w Roo m. Rockefelkr Cell tel'. "11(1-2111.
201
Sc,l gram Uu il dillQ" 4.1()-4.l 1. 431
T\VA Terlll illai. )Fl< A irpo rt , "115. 205
U nioll C:Hbilk !:llliiding. 21 1". 203, 4,,"
Woolworth lllllidill g. 4'12. 414
Nice FLlIl (C:
T crt"l A lll :Jt;] hou SL'. 434
Nl ckcl. I(i ch,ml
C h ic l gO Srock Tr:Hl ill g Room,
, C hi cago . 1L. 31,4 '
Fr.ul cc:
M,lISOll C3 rtCC, J7l
INDEX
Nitti . Cha rles (1052- ):
trol1lp(' r oc- it p,lilltillg, I j<;l, 160
Noonll<lrkku. Filli<tlld:
Vil la Maire'a:
des(ripcio ll . 9-1 0. 9
li ght. 232. 232
n:.':lCtioJ) t o COl}tcxr, 10<)- 111. 110
NOJ'r1:"! COWI1 , PA:
Weiss House. 21 <J. 220
o
Oak PArk. IL:
Frank Ll oyd Wrig ht HOnl e ,,"d Studi o:
furniture, dilling room, .")27, 328
light. 237
restoration. 366-360. 367
Unity Church, influcnce UpOIl, 237
Ul1lt)' Church:
Honle ,111d Studio. iJ1Aucncc upon, 237
lighting. 59, 237. 241
three dimenSional des ign. 63- 67. 59,64,65,
66
office design:
Ebcrhard /'.: Wolfgang Schnelle. 432
Knoll ofticc enviro nment. 104.105
landscape. 104. 432
Naisbitt. John, hi g h tech/high touch. 432
opcn.
Qll iekborncr Te.1111 , 432
sca lc. explo itati o n of. 102. 10<1-. 105
Skidmor<. Owi ngs & Merrill. 432. 433
Wcycrh<ll..' uscr T I..'chll o logy Ct.' mer. TaC0 I11;l,
WA. 347. 432-434. 433
Olbrich. Joseph Maria (IS67- 19()o)
H3uprreStdUrallt, Kunsrk'r- Ko[olllC,
UarmSt.H.ir, Germany, .:WO,
199
Vienna Seces sion, 324
O lsen. Ke ith (1947- ):
" Painted Apa runcnt ." C hi cago. IL, 43
O lynthus. Grc<cc':
House of Many Colors, 258-259. 260
o pen plan:
DOITl-ino Sy"e11l of Lc Corbusi"r. 7, 7
office. 104. 432
Prairie hOll ses of Wright. 4-5.
organic architfcrurc:
dcfinirion, 4
Ori nd a, CA:
Moore House, 94- 95. 95
ornamCIl (;ltl on:
II.
International Style. omission of.
Ostia, Italy:
markets. 425-426
Square of the Corpora tions. 425- 426.
425
Otis . Elish., (18 11-1 861)
dcvJ [or, of. 42H
Oud.].].P. (1890-1 963:)
Dc Stijl movement , 331
Ozenfaot. (IHH6-I%6):
Maison Ozenfant. P.1ris, France. 210
purism. 20')
p
Pack:1rd, alld Lu cih: :
MomCfcy Aqll.1r IUIll, lVlolltcrc)', CA, .191
Pa lbdio. And rea (15118- 15811):
Il'ffcrsolJ , Thom.ls, infil h," Il Cl' OIl. 37 1
'II 1kdmrore. Veni ,c'. It ., I1 60-711. 69
Teatro Olimpico. Viccnza. ItJII', 91)- '12. 90,
91
Villa AIl1lCrlco-V.1IIll.H.1na ("La I\Olonda" ).
VlCCIl Z,1. i!.d \', 7()-72, 71
Vi lla Barbaro. M.lse'r. It.;II. 154
Vill;1 PlS<1111. Ivlonragn,l1):l, h,l ly , 371
Pal is, Francc: '
Delle Epo'l uc. 2H I
ll ibli oth"'l li e N.l{i oll .,k. 1<)3. 194
[Jon Marc hc. 4211. 421
Cafe Coot"" 350
Clllll\' Boths. 24-25. 25
cllbisill. J3R-139
Dals",e's ap;lrtl11e'llt. 341
Eiff,,1 To\\er. 140-143.142
Exh ibiti o ll of 19111. model ofC.ludi s church.
2X2
Exposition dc's Art s Decor.mrs. Ins 284..'\1(,.
335
L' ni\' crsclk 11)55,
Exposition unl\'ersc'l lc 1867. 420
Exposition Unl\'crsdk 1878. 196,42i1
Exposition Ulli\' erscllc lRfN, 197,

Expo:;i(ioll L IlI\'\. T'id k J9UO, 2RI. BI
G,l.lenl' rv1.ldlillcS, 1-\0
G;1kri c 420
Horel de S, II11 . 37 1
KI101l1I1ternatl ol,aI SI10'HOOIn. 75- 7(,. 75,
347. 347
M,lsol1 la 211, 2RR. 289
Maisol1 Ozenl:1I lt. 2m. 210
Noailies tn"'nholl se. 342
Notre ])al11e c'1thedral. 16- 17.281
I'assage du Calrc. 192- 193. 192
l'as.,d<:I1.,. CA:
G.lIl lbk House. ,; 29. 330
P""ton. .Imcph ;1 803-10(5):
Cr\'stal London. Engl.1I1 d. 12. 413,
. 421 '
pnCcp(lon:
spdtial .
,isual. 179- 1S0
PergJ IHoll . Turkey'
Altar o(Zeus. 358
P,Ti cies (4')5-429 H.C):
age or. 33
P""hel1ol1. Athens, Greece. 33. 34, 1M. 174
Pericles, Age' 01":
Athens. 33-34
descript ion, 33
PHthenol1. col1st runiol1. 164- 167. 165, 166
Perkil1s al1d Will :
House. IL. restorali on, .173
Perl mall. RlCll ard:
Cobble'r Square, Chicago. IL. 392
l'erriand. Cha rlotte (1903- ):
Le Cor busier. collaborator with. 336
pcrspcctl\ ',::
;Il'ri,d, ddinino ll . "
Albcrti, Leon Battis r;l. Drlf!! (Jilllro, :-)() - : .p
IhuJJclk-;clli. Filippo, s. ' ::-;()
Llnl CtJ oh:)clIr:t.
dl ,l\\'illt!; II1;1Chili l'S. lh' Il .l iss.tnce. :)7, 87 88
dt in pcr<;pcni \c, hi s(o( it eX.1 1l1 pies:
13.1fb:l ro. Daniello, (t OIll L il Pmli tl l dcl/(l
Pt'l'.'Pfllil'll, 87
Sedlo, Scb:1::,ti,llIO, l'ro111 LihJ't) Prill/o, 87
Vignola, Cial'U 1l10 13,lrOZLlO, frolll Lt' Dlle
delhi Pr(J"j)('lIiJ}(' P !d// (II, 88
()3
linc:n. dcflllj (;Oll. (d
tcxturc !.tL1di(., Ilt , (I]
rhrcc d i;ll CllSioll,l l srrUCTurcs ill
(trompe l'oei l), lli storic
MiLIlI: S, M:lria prcsso S, S;:niro, :1() - t)(J,
89
F Ol11 e: l)a l.l 2zo Spada. ,):2-<).l 92
Vieel1z.1: Te.1tro Olll11pico. 90, 91
United S tHCS:
Chi c<lgo. IL: United Ai rlincs Terminal.
O I-l.1re Ai rpo rt . <J1- 94. 93
p.lill{1llg ill pn')pl..'ct ivc (trolllpe I' o\., il) , hi ::, rorK
e.\Jl1lpky
It aly:
IV\alltll ,l: l' Jlazzo del T c. 155-159. 157,
158
l'ol11peii: Home orthe Verti. 86. 86
M:1scr: Villa l:larbaro. I 154
Vl(C Il 2:,l : Villa
(" La Rotol1da"). 270. 271
Unit ld Starcs:
F,1\rfJ.x. VA: Al1di oCr., ft ers. 15<)- 1(,11.
160
RC:Il,li ss<1 ncl'. gl' l1l'ral, 8()-l))
Fr:lllC(,:
\\'orkiJ1g housillg, 2H7- 28x. 288
Pcrer or Ch<lslus ((ou rtCl'lHh century):
Chil l\" Pans. 2-\ - 25, 25
I'fister. 'Charks ( l <jW-I 9<)O):
(urll i tUfl', pllliosoph y. 3-1 7
Gr;l nd Hotel . Washil1 f\ton DC. . \18- 99. 98,99
I<nollillterllrlrional Showroo m, Par is. 7:-'-76.
75, 347. 347
\'(/eycrhac' lI scr Corp.. Taco l1 lJ . WA. 347
[,hld!.ls (')1111-4311 B.C.):
Parth('l1oll. cOlls truction , 165
Ph ibdclphi . PA
Mik\'c h Isr;,d projl'Cl, 224, 224
Ph ilJdclphia Savi ll g Funu Socicr y:
Philadelpl"". PA. 4311. 430
Phlra , SJ1HOri ni , Greece:
hOll ses, of color. :20.1, 285
physic s:
Ein Stein. Albert. 134
gCllcral dll'ory oCrclativity. 13-1
Minkow,ki. Hermann. 1.'\ 4
NcwlOn. Sir Isaac. I3 I - 134
special ofrdarivil Y, 13-\
l'ic.lSSO. I' ,blo
Ua llets Russes. Il se o f color. 2SI. 281
cl.lbi,l11. 138, 139
INDEX 479
Picasso, Pablo (COllf.)
Le Corbusicr, architecture, relationship to,
138-140, 139
"Les Demoiselles d'Avignon", 138, 138
"Still Life", Lichtenstein intccpretation, 43, 43
"Wineglass", 138, 139
Pinturieehio (1454-1513):
cathedral floor, Siena, Italy, 26('-2('9, 267,268
Plano, IL:
Farnsworth House, 150-151, 151
Poe, Edgar Allen (1809-1849)
The Pi! alld the Pel/dllllwl, quote (rom, 1.56
Poissy-sur-Scinc, France:
Vill,l Savoye:
color, 288, 289
cubist paintings, comparison ro, ]44
description, 7-8, 8, 143-144, 143
Ei((c] Tovvcr, comparison to, 144
interpenetration or SPdCC, 7-8, 144
light, natural, 144
space-time, 144
Pollock, Jackson (1912-1956):
crcarive process. 3H
process of painting, 38, 38
Pompadour, Madame de (1721-1764):
royal chJ.[cau, Versailles, lISC of color. 175
Pompeii, Italy:
atrium hOLlse:
light, natural, 183,184
color, 261-262
House of the Vettii, linear perspective, 86, 86,
light 184
markets, 419
Porter, Edwin S. (1869-1941):
cinema, intcrclltting, 135
"The Ex-Convict", 135
Portland, OR:
Oregon State Office Building, 410,417
Porrlllan, John (1924- ):
Hy'" Regency Horcl, Atlanta, GA, 456, 456
Post-Industrialism:
defll1ition, 418
Post-Modernism:
clcfl11ition, 416
effect on preservation, restoration, l"CllOVJtion,
Jnd adaptive re-lIse, 2R
Ies Espaces d'Abraxas, Marne-Ia Vallee,
France, 417
Oregon State OffIce Building, Portland, OR,
417
Potsdam, Germany:
Schloss Charlottenhof, tent room, 321, 320
Powolnay, Michael (1871-1954):
sculprure, P;dais Stocler, Brussels, 13t'igiulll.
327
Pozzo, Andrea (1642-1709):
navc ceiling painring. Saint 'Ignazio, HOlllt',
Iraly, 270, 272
Prairie bouse:
developlllent, Frank Lloyd Wright, 4-6, 5
ilHerlocking form and spacc. 76-78, 77
preservation:
caregorics, 16,357-358
defIning Interior Architccrure, 4
deflllition, 16,357,358
in situ example:
Johnson \YJax Administration Building,
Racine, WI, 359, 359
Notre DJme, Paris, France. 16
Modern Movement effen, 28
museum preservation examples:
Art Institute of Chicago. Chicago. IL:
Chicago Swck Exchange Entrance Arch,
366, 366
Chicago Stock Exchange Trading
304-365, 365
1\1etropolitan lVluselllll of An, Ne\\' York,
NY:
F. W. Little \tving room, 303-304, 363
Museum, Berlin, Germanv:
Babylon, Gate of Ish"r, 358, 358 .
Miletus, Agora, 35R
Pergamon, Alrar of Zeus, 358, 358
Post-Modernism cfrecr, 28
research procedures. 363
Ruskin, John, theories and practice. 17
United St;ltes philosophy, 27-28
Viollet-le-Duc. theories and practice, 1(,-17
Q
Quickborner, Germany:
Eberhard 0: Wolfgang Schnelle, 432
Quickborner Team, 432
R
R,lcine, WI:
Johnson \VJX Administration Building:
Home and Srudio, Oak Park, IL. llJAucnced
by, 237
light, 237, 242, 243
preservation, in siru, 35<), 359
Rasmussen. Steen Eiler (1898- ):
working class hOllsing. Pessac, France, color.
287-288, 288
Ravenna, Italy:
Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, 262-263, 262, 263
Rfllaissal1ce, \rait,lll:
cassone, 312, 312
cassapanca, 312, 312
culture and sry\c. 4()B-4111
cduGuian, 408
furniture, gelleral. 312
Gutenberg, 408
hUIl1;lllita;iall view, 400
Pazzi Chapel, Florence, Iral)', 410
space, 410
rCllo\'JtioIJ:
defining Interior Architecture, 4
definition, 16,359,376
hisroric examples:
EnglJl1d:
Middlesex: Osterley Park House. 21, 21
Italy:
Rome:
Capitoline Hill, 21,21
Pantheon, IR-1Y, 19
Turkey:
Ephesus: Temple of Artemis, 18,18
United States:
Buffalo, NY: Guaranty 13uilding, 370
378, 377
Chicago, 1L:
Block residence, 385-380, 386
Carrig;an residC'l1ce, 35'J-3(,(). 361
Claridge Hotel, 381-383, 382
and Sk yIar 38J-3H5,
383, 384
R.ookery, 22-23, 22, 3YY-4U3, 399, 400,
401, 402
W,lshillgtOll D.C,:
Blair House, 378-380, 379
Union Sration, 380-381,380
Jvlodern iVlovelllCllt etTect, 28
Post-Modernism etTen.
rC:-'[Oraflon:
detllling Illterior A rchitecrure, -+
definition, 16, 35'.1
historic
Ullltcd Stdtl'S:
Charlottesville, V A:
Monticello, 3711-373, 371, 372
University of Virginia. 359
3(1), 360
Chicago, IL: Glessner House, 373-374,
373, 374
H,lrbor Springs, MI: DonglJs House,
374-376, 375
Oak Park, IL: Frank Lloyd Wright Home
,mel Studio, 3('0-3(,8, 367
Springfield. IL: J)ana House, 3(,H-37(),
369, 370
Wlilialllsburg, VA, 17-18,17
lVloderll 1\1o\'ClllClH dfcct, 2H
Post-J\10defllisl11 ctTecr, .28
reuil
Allen, E. c., mail-order concept, 422
collecti\'e experience ot'shopplIlg, 4.2()-42.2,
423
clectronic shopping, -+.23
hIstoric examples:
Eno;land:
London:
CrysrJI Palace, inAucnce, 42(), 421
RO\'al Exchange Arcade, 41
Frallce:
Pans:
Bon Marche, 420, 421
Galene Visicnne, 420
Ital)"
Bologna: ,l(odcd srreets, 41Sl. 419
Ostia, 419
Pompeii. 41<)
I,ome: Forulll ofTrajall, 418-419, 418
NetheriJllds:
gbzillg of shops, seventeenrh century,
41 <)
Turkev:
lstJr;bul: Grand Bazaar, 419, 419
Unired Sr;ltCs:
ChrcJgo:
Carson Pirie Scotr. 423, 423
Rome.
ane!
COl..,
fum
[nc
A rch
Bath,
Bam
Foru
PalOlZZ'
San C
480 INDEX

,')
,Illc
C rate and Burel, 404,424
Montgomery Wa rd. <122
Scars 422
Sears TOlVer. 4n
Oakbrook: sho pping l11all , 422, 422
mail-order shopping. 422
mall. shopping, 422, 422
store , depJrrme-n f,
theater in , ho pping, 423-424, 423
Richardson, H. H. (I H38-1 886):
Glessner House, C hicago. IL, 373- 374, 373,
374
Rie[vdd, Gerrit (1888-1904):
Breuer. Marcel. influence Oil , 337
de Stijl movement , 331 -332
RedlHlue C hair (Rood/l3lauwe Stoel), 331,
331
Schroder House, Utrecht:
fuwishings, 331-332
interl ocking space, 78-79, 78
Wright, Frank Lloyd. similarit y to Prairie
Sc hool interiors, 3:1 1
Roche, Dinkeloo and Assoc iates:
Fo rd Founda ti oll Headquarra5, New York,
N Y) ;Il r iunl office buildjng,
431-432, 431
Roche, Martin (1855-1 927):
cOl11l11 ercj.d des ign, ChicJgo, IL. 427
Hochester , NY :
Bo ynt on tesidence, 237-241. 238, 239
Fir;t Un itarian C hurch, 221 - 222. 222
Roentgen, W ilhelm Konrad ( 1845-1923):
X-ray, in vention of, 134-135, 134
Romano, Gui lio (14Y'!-1 546):
Palazzo del Te, Mantua. It aly, 155-159.156,
157,158
Rome, Ital y:
ancient:
couch, 309- 310, 309
furniture, general di scuss ion, 309- 310
rricliniu m, 309- 310, 309
Arch ofCOnSCJ1Hinc, infll1en ce on Union
Station, Washingt on D.c:., 3HO
Baths ofCaracalb, of spaces. 67- 68,
68
BJths of Dioclct ian, illAuence on Union
Statio n, Washi ngton D .C.. 380
Capit oli ne Hill :
dynamic tension, 83- 84, 84
renovati on. 19-22, 20,21
Colossel1m:
adaptive reuse, 24. 24
jllf1ucncc 0 11 Neue Staatsga lcrjc, SrungJ[! ,
81
Forum o fTrajan. 41 8-41 9. 418
P ,lla ZZQ Spada, three-dimensional trompe
l' oeil, 92-93, 92
Pantht'on:
fourth dimension, 146-1 4') ,147,148
renovation, 18-1 9, 19
silTluhted carved spact" 117-1 1H. 117
Pi azza Sa n Piet ro, center oLutcnti on, 4 10
412, 411
San C;) r1o ail e quanro FotHa ne, light, n;.lt ura l,
187-IHS.187
Sant 'Ignazio. color. 270, 272
Sa nta S"bi nJ . lighr. narural. 186, 186
S. Cosranz;l. light . n:lflHJI. 185, 185
St. Peter's baSIlica. 41 0-41 2.411
Theatrc' of Marcellus. adapti\'e reuse.
23
Ronc hamp , FLH1CC:
Notre Dame du H;:tut:
light. natural . 213- 215.216,217
sc"ie. exploitati oll of. 104. 105
Root. j ohn Wel lborn (1851)- 189 1):
COIll1l1crcial design. Chicago, IL. 427
ROCjl1\;'b runc, France:
House E-III27. 14- 16. 15,303,339
i{lIsk in.jollIl (1819-1900)
color [heory. 280
prcsc.: rvJ(loll t heories. 17
s
Saannen, Ecro (1911)-1%1):
C hapel . M.I.T. Ca mbridge. MA. 203- 205.
204
Kre'ge Audito rium, M.LT . Cambndge.
MA. 203. 204
TWA Tenninal,jFK Airport, New York.
NY. 205. 205
Salllt-Gaudens. August", (1848-1907):
sculptor for Uni on Station. W" shingtoll D. C"
38 1
St. Gall. Switzerland:
4..J6, 446
Sf. LoUIS. MO:
Union Sution:
adaptive rellse, 390-391. 390
eketne illumination, 198-2011. 198
Samuelson . Timothy (1951- ):
Union Stati on. St. Lou is. MO" 391
San Lu is Obispo, CA:
Madonna Inll , 456-458, 457
San Vito d'Alri,o!e. Italy:
Chapel. Brion To mb, furni shings.
345
Sayna[sal, Finhnd :
village celHl!r:
compa ri son to Greek agofJ, ..L 233
hght , natural, 232- 234. 233
cxploiu( ioll of:
Chicago Stock Exchange Trading Roolll.
C hicago. IL. 102, 103
def1niti on, 102 '
Knoll inrerl1;:trion;d Office GroLlp,
105
Museum Tower ;}p.1 rtmel1 t, Nt \\' York , NY,
102- 104. 103
Notre Dame dll H,lll t, HOl1 chalYip, Fr:-HICt,
IU4, 105
office landscape scheme, 104, 105
Sealll ozzi. Vinccnzo (1552-1 616):
Tcatro O hmpieo. Vieen za. Ital y, 911-92, 90,
91
Scorpa, Carlo (1906-1 97S)
CJsrelvecchi o, Verona, .1da pri ve rcuse, 2S- 2())
25
chapel . Brion Tomb. S.ln Vito d'Alti\'olc.
fu rnis hings , 3.:tS- 34(). 345
furnitul'<' phil osophy,
Sch inkel. Ka rl Fricdrich ( 17S I-1 841 ):
illtluctlcC 011. 321
fnrnitur e. phi losophy. 321)- 32 1
"sccrcr:tire aabJtrl11t", 321
rent room. Schloss Charl ottc'll hoe Potsdam.
Cernunv. 321. 320
Sch roeder. K,' nncr h ( I ')43- ):
Cobbler Squlre. Chicago. IL. ad:tpli vt' n.u::,c,
393, 394
Thonet SI' 01l,(001)1. Chic,lg0, 1L, 44
SCO[t. MacKo), Hugh Ba ili e
furniture, philosoph y. 31)5
SCOtr, S,r George Gil bert (ISII- IK78):
Midl and Grand Hotel, Londo1', England,
45 1, 451
sequt'Ll ce of Sp<KCS:
Baths ofCa racalia , Rome, 67-68, 68
II l1,c'dclltore, Veni ce, 68- 70, 69
Serli o. Sebastiano (1475-1 554):
drawing (rom Lib ro Prill/o, 87
SeurJt. Georges (I H)9- 1H9 1):
Owell Jo nes as precurso r to, 278
shading:
dcfn1iti on. 62- 63. 62
shadow:
dcflllit ion, 62-63, 62
Shah Abbas i (1589-1 627):
bazaM. Isfahan. Iran, 190. 190
P"' ili on oC Ali Qapu, Isr., han , I"n. 189-1 90.
189
Sh:lkcr cOllllllunir v:
built - ins. 318- 3'1'1. 319
furniture. philosophy. 318-319
Lee. Ann (Mo[her An n), 3 1 H
Shcrl11a n, lonarhdn (1958- ):
AudioCrafters, Fairl"x. VA. 15')-1 6(). 160
Sicn,1.l r,,\I:
2()o-269, 267,268
slmubrl:' d c:lr\'ed SpJCC, ex;:tmples:
Egypt
Ka rnak: TCI11)l Je of Amon, Hypos tyk Hall,
116-117, 116
Ch:tlldigJrh:
gOl' efnlll ellt build ings, 118- 11 9
Palace ofjusti ce (Hi gh Cou rt ), 119. 118
It<,k
l(ol11c: Panth eon, 117- 118, 117
Switzerland: M.1SS.1g110: sll1gk hOLl se,
121-1 23, 122
United St,ltes:
Chi cago. IL: c.;eorgt'\ ReSt.1Ur<lIH , 110- 121,
120, 121
::.i lllu)r.mcH v of inside :l nd OlHS_idc:
ddilli[io1;, 140-1 43. 142, 143
Eiffd Tower. Paris. Frallce. 1411- 143. 142
Site Projects. Inc..
Illside/ Outside I:lu ilding, Best Prod ucts Co.,
jVlil waukcc, WI. fourrh d imension.
144-145, 145
Ma ll et House. N ew York, NY, reaction to
contex t, 113- 115.113, 114
INDEX 48r
Sixrlls V. Po pe (pap.l ey :
Coi oss t'lIl1l , Ro mt' . italy. adaptiYc reuse. 2..L
24
sizl' consr,lIl cy:
ddiniri o n. (' 2-():I . 63
Sk y. Ali son ( 1046- )
J\I1 ,lllcr HOll se. New Yo rk, NY. rea ct ion [0
(Ollle" r. 11 :1-115. 113, 114
Skybr. C laudi a ( 1% 1- ):
n:sidcll C<: renovati o ll , Chic.t go. IL, 3H3- 3:45.
383, 384
SkHhllorc. ,1I1d Mcrrill:
ChicJgu Srock Exchange ciltrancc. Ale.
Chi cago, IL. prcsnvarioll Jild
r""ora ri o n. :166. 366
Chicago St ock ExeJullgc Trading Room.
Al e. Chicago. IL, prestrY;lrioll
and l'es tor.1[i o n. 364-365, 365
shift fr OIll modc: rni sill co pos t-moderni sm, 41 6
Three Fi rs t N ational Pl aza . Chicago. IL. 11 1.
112 '
Uni o n C arbide Buildi ng. New Yor k. NY.
202. 203 , 432
Weye rhaeuser Technology Center, Taco lll J ,
WA, 347. 432-434. 433
Soane, Sir J o hn
Adam. pra ising, :lI S
Duhvlch Galkry, 193-1%.195
Nereim, Ande rs and Cohen, Swan. inAucncc
(ro m. 350
SOJIlt' residence, London, England :
Breakfast Parl our. \2. 13, 190-191.191
DOlT) e Room. 8 1, 80
Mo nk 's P.Hl o ur , 14
Monumellt;.}} Coun, 12
Librar y/ Dining rooms, 11- 12, 12,276. 277
Picture Room . 14
spatial il1terpos iti o n, 79- 81, 79, 80
Solomon. Cordwell. and Bucnz:
Crate and Barrel, Cill cago, IL. 424-425. 404,
424
Sottsass, Ettore (1917- ) :
Carlton Room Di vider, 346
Memphis. 346-347
space:
hU1l1<lni sti c.3
space-rime:
archi{cnural demat eri ali za ti on. Farnswonh
Ho use. I'l ano. IL. 150-151 , 151
afchircctllfdi sy mbiosis wi th na [ure. " Falling
warer. " ll eJf I' A. 151-153,
152, 153
architecturc, 131.140-143
birth of. 134
Braqu", Georgcs, J3R
Buddhism. 13\. 132
ci nc ma, 135, 136
cubi s m , 138, 138, 139
de fmiti o n, 131
Dc!.unay, Ro bert, 141 , 142
d ynami c light . Painted Apa rtment . C hi cago,
IL. 149. 150
Edison. TholTl,ls. 135
Eiffel. Gustave. 140
Einstein, Albcrt, 134. 137
G riff"h, [) W, 135
1-lindlnslI). 13 \. 132
house, Villa SavoyC', poissY-Slir-Sell1c. FLlllCC,
14.1-144,143
insldc/ olltsick:
Be" Products Co. Mil wa ukce. WI. 144.
145
Eifld Tower , Par is. France. 14fl -142.
142
IIHl 'rJer i o ll wit h cyck's o f I1.HUrl'. MOJ1(acy
B.ly Aqu,nilllll. lvl o lHc rcy. CA.
144. 14(, . 146
Le' Corbusier. 13H-140. 139, 143- 144 . 143
lire- CHUrl'. srrclrll-o(-consc io\ lSll t'SS . 1]()
l.ll)lIs, 1411. 141
J o,'(e. ].ll11es. 13(,
MA. 133. 132
M.lIl1L Thomas. 135
1ll t"r,1 pho r:
sexllJl. Roya lton Hotd. Nell' York. N Y.
171-1 73. 172
subs ri uui vc. PannelJ Ke rr Fors{t' r , C hi cago,
IL. 170-1 71, 129,170
tv1. i nko\\'ski , Hermanll, 134
Illori o n, g ;l[OCllS, Villa d 'Es rL' , T i\'oli, iDl y,
150.161-163,161,162, 163
moti o n and sculpture, \Y,lilliJlll s Square,
I"'ing, TX. 163-1 64, 164
llIu sic, \37-138, 137
lI ar rarive an, Notre Dallle, C h,utr es, France.
167-160,168,169
Newtonian ph vs ics . 131. 134
Pi casso. Pablo, US, 138, 139
Po rt er. Ed win S .. 135
process, C rescendo proj ect. C hi cago. IL. 173
174. 173
Wilhelm Konrad , 134- 1.15
Parthenon, AdlCIl S,
167. 165,166
Scr.l\'in sky. Igor. 137
Tao. 131-133,133
crolllpe I'oeil:
dVll ami sll1, FOlllHain of Ro me, Vill a o' Esre,
. T ivol i. Ital y. 159, 16 1-1 62. 161
expa nsioll , Aud, oCrartC>' s. F.l irfax. V A,
159, 160
ilHcgrari on wirh 11;) u rc. ViJl .J tl.Hha ro,
Maser, Ital \, . 154-155. 154
warp. Pal azzo del Malltua. Ital y, 155
159. 156,157,158
Wool f. Virgi])i .l. 136
x-ray, 134-135. 135
Spada, Cardinal:
Palazzo Spada garden. ROllle. Iral),. 92
spati al c01ltinuum:
CCrllJ all Pav ili on, Spain , 73
spati allllCer posi ti o n:
dcflnit ion. 79- 91
Neue S{;lJlsgaicric, Stuug.ut , Gl'r mall Y, 8 1
83. 82,83
Soane reSidence, LOll don . Englalld . 79-81. 79,
80
Starck. Phili ppe ( 1949- )
Cafe Costes, Pari s, France furnishings, 349,
350
ClJrllirllrc. 34()
ROv.llt on Hotel. Ne\\' York, NY. IOllreh
. dime])sioll, 171-17.1.172
Stelll cr . I( udo lph (I Bli 1-1925):
Gocrht'.l l1111ll I ;l1ld II. Donneh, S\\, lr zed.lIl li .
colo r. 282-284. 283
stereopsi s:
dcfm iri oll . (, I . 61 T.
Stirling . JUlles ( 1029- 1992):
Neue Sr;l<usgakr ic, SW((garr. Gcrlll :\I1 Y,
XI-K.'i. 82, 83
S[Q<l :
hus pit alir y ,1CTO rlllllOdatioll, deflniti o1l uf.
445
ddinition oC
Sroa of Att .ll os. Athens, Grccce. 182,183, :D4.
233
s tu,l. S(\ 111 0ri l1'<lCC, Greect' , 445
StrJ yinsh ' . Igor ( 1882- 197 1):
colo r. li se III hall et. 281. 281
in lIlusil-, 137
"Ie Sacre ou Prime' mps". 137. 137
St ung;lrL Ge rman\':
N:uL' Sr;lilrsga lcl:ic, sp:Hia l il1tLTposi ri oll, Kl
83. 82, 83
Style:
Baroque. Euro pea n. 410-4\2. 411
classici s m as f3 c.loe. 412, 416
contcxcualis rn.415-41 6 CI
c'\press ioll of the timcs , 40S C
gothic. Frcnch. 408. 409
Indus"ial Revolut io n. 41 2. 413
In[(nwio n.l1 Sryle, 414-415. 415
Modem MO'Clll 'IH. 412-4\4 . 414,415
Post-lndusrri alis l11 . 41 8
Post-Modern is m, 4 1(), 417
rCJccion to rhc 408
Renaissance. I"li an. 408-4111. 409
technology, 41:2 ,
Sulhvan, Louis (185(, -1 924):
archi[(crurc, pbil osoplw of. 35-3h
Carson Pir ie SCO tt . C hi ca go. IL . 423
co mmercial il,
)\I\ ilkt , l oui s, Coll .l boraroT wiTh inter ior of
Trad ll1 g Il.oonl , C hi cago Stock
bch.lnge. C hi cago. lL. \ 98 200.
198, 390- 39 1
Susa, Iran:
pab(e o r D ariu s I, (o lor . 25(, . 256
S\vA Group:
Williallls Square, Irving. T X , fOllrth
dime nsion . l li3
Swan. Sir John Willi al11 B, (1828-1<)14)
l;llllp. inVL' llti oll o f. 196
S\\'edlsh hOllsin g ind ustr y:
oescripti o n, 444- H5. 444
T
Taeollla. \V A:
Weyer h.leuscr Technol ogy Cent er. :1 47. 432
434, 433
Tao:
space-time. rclarionsi1ip to, 13 1- 133, 133
482 INDEX
Tarqllllli a, Ital y:
Tomb of [he Leopuds. 260
techno logy:
environment al. on Modal] l\I1ovCIIl CIH,
412
evo luti on durill g rhl' t\\"(' nti eth cl: ntury.
414
Terr)" Emilio
Fr",k, Jean-Michel. colbbora[i o ll wi[h ,
.343
83 tCxtun:' g radient:
63
third dimension:
aed iclli a. 9.j
acd icu lar de ve lo pment , historic exa mpks:
3-1 , Leball o n: Baa lbek: Temple o f Bacchus. 94,
94
U nited States:
New Haven, CT: Moore HOll sc,
96
Or inda , C A: Moore House,
95
anim.:u ion dno\l gh furni s hings, hi s to ri c
exa mples:
Scodand: Hdensburgh: Hill House, White
Beorool1l , 106, 107
Uni[ed S[O[L'S: New York, NY: Cohen
Aparrrnent , 108-109, 108
CJ ve, 11 5
cOnSffllc(cd l nt erior Architecture, hi slO[ic
exa mples:
Unireo Sca res:
Chicago. I L: FloriJn :lp:lrtll1t'tH, 123-125,
124
Venice, CA: Spiller HOll se, 125- 126.
125
defmin g dCrTlerH o f Interi or Archit ecwn:, 4.
6 1
dynami c tension through compress ion and
expan.'iion, hi stori c examples:
It alv:
F'loH.' nce: Laurcntian Librar y. t>S, 85,
86
Rome: Ca pitoline Hill , 83- 84. 84
exclvated Inter ior Archit ecrun:, hismr ic
i{). exa mples:
India :
Elephanta . 11 5-11 6, 115
Karli. 11 5-116
experience o f, 61,63
expl oit ::l tlOil o f scale, hi sto ric exa mpl es:
Francc: Ronchamp: Norr c O"111e Oil Hall[,
\04, 105
Uniteo Scates:
C hi cago IL:
Knoll Internati onal Showroom. 105
Stock Exchange Trad ing Room, 102.
103
cxtcnsion of space beyond rhe enclos ure,
hi storic
fxa mples:
2-
Brick COllllrry HOll se projec[, 72-73,
72
Fra nce: Par is: Knoll inter ll a[i oll :l l
Showroom, 75-76. 75
Ital y: Vicenz:l : Vi lb AlnH: r1co- VallTl:1rallri
("Ll Rowllda"). 70- 72. 71
SpJ. in : Barn' lolla: GCrl1l.l1l Pa vili on. 73.
73,74
forcs hortl..' lling. 63
human 61. 62
11lterl ockillg form Jlld his(Qric
<.' x::l1l1pks:
Ne[herlands: Urrcchr: Sc hroder H Ollse. 78
79. 78
United SC1l6: C hi c.go. IL: I( obit' HOII ,e.
76-78. 77
lIHcrpos)[ion. 63. 62
inrcrpo::,itioll (Sp;Ui,11) . historle t".'\.111lples:
Enp; llIld : Lo ndo n: SO"" C res idence. 79- 81.
, 79,80
Ger many: Suurg.<I n : StJJrsg;li erie. RI
83, 82,83
kinc(i c Cll!"'::'. 61. 62
J1lJl1ifestarions, 61
monOIl p:H.11b x, ()2
o ffi ce landsca pe. 104
perspeCtivc. 62-63. 62
persp!..'C{J\'e, hi sto ri c eX.llll pl es:
Ital y:
Milan : S. Maria Prso S. Sa[iro. 89- 90,
89
Pomp,, " : HOll se of Vt'rr n, 86. 86
Rome: 1', 1.1ZZO Sp.l da Garden . \!2- Y3, 92
Vic<'nz,l: Tcatro O hillpi co, \10-92. 90, 91
Uni teo Sw es: C h, ogo. IL: Unit ed Airl incs
Terrnin.d. 93- ':14. 93
dra\\'ings, hIstOri c
[j arbaro. D, ni el lo. 87
Scrii o, Scbasr iano, 87
Vig no la . G i.1como Barozz io. 88
ph ys iol ogical Clll'S, 6 1
pi c[orial ell es. 61- 63
poche, 11 8
reacri on to collt l'.'\r. histo ric examples:
Finland: N oornnrkkll: ViliJ M,lirea. 109
I II. 110
United St:Hes:
Chic,o,o. IL: Dnehaus Research
'AssoCla [cs. 111- 112, 111 , 112
Ne\\' York. NY: M.lliel HOllse. 113- 115.
113, 114
sequcl1C!,.' of Sp :lCt:'S. hi slOric t'xJ. l1lplt's:
Il aly:
[t o mJn bar h pla n (Alberti). 67
Rome: Ba[hs o fCarJca lh, 67-6R. 68
Veni ce: 111(cdcntore. 6H- 70, 69
shading. 62-63. 62
shodow. 62-63, 62
simul ated cJ rved space, hi sro ri c ex.1mpks:
Egypt : Km.. k: H yposryk Hall , 11 6- 117,
11 6
Indi . :
C hand; garh:
gO\'Crllmellt buildings, 11 8-11 ',)
['al oce ofJlI sti cc (High Court ). 119.
11 8
I[ al),: Rome: P.lJltileon, 11 7-11 8, 117
Swit ze rl and: Mossagno: single fa mily hOll se,
121 -1 23. 122
Ulli red Sra(es: C hi !"'ago. l L.
[(est.lllran[ . 11 ':1 -1 1 1. 120,121
siz!..' (01l 5Ll Il Cy, ()2- o3, 62
stereopsi s. (i l. 61
\'cnic" l dcve lo pmenr o f hor izoll u l pl anc::"
eX;l lllpks:
U nit ed Slatcs:
C hi cago. IL
C hi cago E.'\ c1ullgc Tradi1lg
\1\1- \(111. 10'0 '
Ma lll<l Mi,,' i'J,ro, '17-\18. 97
Scare of 1IIIIIois Ccn[Cf . l Oll, 101
New York. NY: Guggell hei m Ivht SCllnl ,
100- 102, 101 "
D .C .. Gr.lnd H Olel. 9H- <)'J,
98,99
T honcr:
( hairs. l' Esprit Nouvea u, IlltCT Il <lr inn:li
Expos ition of l)ecor;.Iti vl' Art s
In5. Paris, France. 3.16, 335
Tiger man. Stanle y ( 1930- ):
Thone' [ Sho\\'r oo l11 , C hicago. IL. 44
tile:
glazt'd. Persl.ln . 2(,l). 269
Tivoli . It al\':
Haorian,', ViII", Il.",ra llight. 184, 185
VillJ d'E"e:
Al lt'e of O n(' HlIndred FOlllHains, 161
FOllnrai n of the Owl. 162-1 63
FoullCJIn o i"l{o l11 c, 16 1-1 62, 161
ga rdens. fourth oimension. 161,
162, 163
Oval FOllnt ain. 162
Warer Organ, 162. 163
TiJlplan. Me ., ico:
fo r (hc Ca pli cilil1Js Sa.cram!"' lllJ rias del
Puri smo Corazo)} dc tVt J f1d, (010 1' ,
293
To fAL' r. Ah-i ll (1\128- ):
mJ SS v s, rh e lI1ciividuJI., -.+l H
rr ompe l'oeiL
color. uSe o f. ill pa in ring:
I(ome. I[ al\,. 270, 272
Vi iI" Almerico- Va lmara,'" ("La l(otollda"),
Vicenz., Italy. 271
fou r dimens iona l: '
AlI dioC"fters , Foirfax, VA. 15\1 -1 (1), 160
h lnzo oel Te, Ma nrlla. h all'. ISS- I S\!. 156,
157, 158 .
Vill a Barbaro. Maser, Ital y, 154-1 55.
154
p:l 1!lting, Renaissa nce, 8h-R7
rhn.:l'
Palazzo Spada, Rome, It, ll', 92
S. MarIO presso S. Satiro, Mdan, 1[,,1 1', H9
<)0. 89
Tcatro O lirnpico, Vicenza. It aly. 90- 91. 90,
91
U,lHed Airlines Terminal. O' Horc Airport ,
C hiCJ go. IL . <)3-94, 93
Tuchlllan, Bar bar.l ( 1'1 12-1 98\1):
Thr Prolld T,' wrr, 134
T wombl y, Cy (1929- ):
co mparison betwecn the pri ce o( <Hr :lnd the
pri ce of ronockling. 45
v
u
Ur, Iraq:
ho using, 435, 435
ziggurat, color, 255
The N et herlands:
Schrode r Ho use, inte rl o cking fo rlll and space,
78-79,78, 2H7, 33 1-332
UtrilI o, Maurice (1883-1955):
Baile" Russes, color, 281. 281
va n Doesbu rg, Theo (1883-1931):
Dc Stijl color theo ry, 287
neo plastici s lll ,331
Vasari, Gi orgio (1 511-1 574)
Uff,zi, Fl o rence, Ital y. 426. 426
Vau x-k- ViCOllltC. Frallct:
colo r, usc o f, 273, 274
furni s hings, .)13
Venard, Cl aude (sixteenth ce ntur y) :
water organ, development of
Ven ice, CA:
Spiller HOllse, construcred Interior
Architecture, 125-126.
125
Venic e, Ital y:
II Redent ore, sequence o f spaccs, 68- 70,
69
Venturi , Robert (1925- ):
" Less is a 13ore " , 416
Verol1 ;], Italy:
Casrciv('cchio. adaptive rt' li se. 25-26.
25
Veronese, Pao lo (1528-1588):
Vill a Ba r baro, Maser , [ta lv . 133
Versailles, Fr;t llCC: '
absolute mo na rc h y. po,wr o f. 412.
411
col or. use of. 275, 275
furni shings, 313-316
Gab' ie des G laces. 315. 314
realiz ation throug h Le Vall, Le Brun. LI?
Notre, 27.>, 274
vertical development o fho r izonral planes :
United Stares:
Chicago. IL:
C hicago Stock Exchange Trading Room.
9<)-100,100
MalTla Mia' Pasta. 97- 98. 97
St.lte o f Illinois Cente r. 100, 101
New York, NY: Guggenheim Mus eulll ,
100-1 02, 101
Washington D .C. Grand Ho tel. 98-W, 98,
99
Vice nza, Ital y'
TeJtro OlimpicQ, three dimcnsi o n:t1 rrompe
l' oeil. 90-92, 90, 91
ViliJ Ahnerico-Valmarana (" La Rotonda"):
col or , usc of, 270, 271
extension of spacc beyond encl os ure, 70-72,
71
Victoria, Queen (1819-1901), 134
Viel1J1,), Austri a;
Ho ffmJnn, Josef, 324-327
Moser, Koloman, 324
O lbrich , J oseph . 324
Vi c' nn,) 314
Wagner , OttO, 314
Weiner Wer k,, "tte, 324-327
Vignelli. Lell , (1936- )
Hauserman Showroom . Los Angeles. CA.
color. 294-1% . 295, ' 296
Vignelli , M,1Simo (1 <)J I - ):
HJusnnuli Showroom. Lo s Angeles, CA,
color . 294-196, 295 , 296
Vigno la. Giacomo Ba rozz i (ISII7-1 573):
Lc Duc del/II Prns})(,lIil'f1 Prf1 lic(I,
88
Viipuri , Finland:
Municipal Library, 22<). 230
Vinci . Jo hn (1937- ):
Chi cago Srock Exchang,' Entrance. AI C,
C hicago, IL. prcst'n';:ttioll an d
rest o rallon . 36(', 366
Chicago Srock Exchange Tf3ding Roo m.
AlC, C hicago, IL.
and restOta{ ion . 364-363.
365
education . 42
Violkt-k-Due. Eugenc-Emm,nuel (1814- I
col or theor y. 280-1SI, 280
Notre Dame Ca{hed ra!. PHis. France. 1(,
prese tl' atl on theori es , 16- I 7
VUfuvius:
J.rchit ecrufC', definirion of. J
watcr organs, 161
w
WJerndorfcr. Fritz (1 868- I 939):
Weine r Wor ks t, ,, c, 314
W' gner, Dicter (194,1- ):
C rescendo project, C hicago . IL. founh
dim(,llsio ll. 173
Wagner. Otto (1841-1918):
Vienl}<l Scce'S:>iOIl , .124
Washington O. C.
Blair House. renov,tion. 378-380. 379
Gra nd Ho{d, veniral de\' c1opmcm o f
horizont al plJn,' s, 98- 99. 98,
99
Na{ional Building Museulll . adapti ve feu se,
396-39<). 355,397, 398
Union Swti on, renovation. 380- 38 1. 380
Webb. Philip (1831-191S):
Red H ouse, Bexle" Heath. Kent. Engbnd, 7
\'t./ecse, Har ry. and As:,ociJ.{cs :
Union Station. Washington D .C., reno\'arioll,
381
Werkst arrc:
Bauhau s, simil arit v ro, 327
Hoffmanll , J oscr. 324- 327
Moser, Kolorn,l ll, 314
Palais Stociet, Brussels, Bel gilllll . 327, 326
summary discllss ion, 324-327
Waerndorfer, Fritz , 314
\X/ hl't'l s-Gnsro ff-Sh.m ka , li g hting designers:
Sron1e" K ors h3k at the Crescent , D"Ii.1 I, TX,
. 203-207, 206
White, Sulphur Springs, WV:
The G reen brier, 431-433. 452
Whit e. Stan ford (1833-1906):
13e,1l 1X "restorJ rioll " of rh e Rotunda,
University of Virgill i.:t.
C ha rlottes"i ll ", VA ..)S<)
W ilhelm III. King Friedrich, of Pru ssi3 (17711
I 84U)
j 3bamnt" bv Schinkel. 321
Williamsburg. V A: .
restor>ti on. 17- 18, 17
Wdlall1l s/ Tsi cll:
G""'n\\'ich Vill,Hi;c lo ft . New Yo rk. NY. 441
444. 442, 443
Wines. J amc's (1 <)32- ):
Sitc Projects. Inc. . 144
Wood. Ru by Ross Goodn ow (l880- 19'iO):
Tile HOJl esl HOl/se:
colo r . usc o f, 2<)3
333-334
Woolf. Virgi. ;in (1882-1941 )
IirCfJru re, s tn.:;:t m-of- collSciollSIH:SS, 136
Wright. Frank Lloyd (1867-1959):
J rchit,'cture, philosoph y of. 4-3
Boynton residence. Rochester, NY:
dining room . 237-24 I. 238, 239
li ght, n7, 241, 238, 239
ribbon \\indo\\" s. 237
color theor y. 284-283. 284
DanJ H ouse. Sprlll gf.c1d, lL:
descripti on, 368, 369,370
desig n , 36H- 369. 369,370
rest o ration , 36H- 370
dcfming ilHeri o r Arcill recru re. 4- 5
" Failing Wa ter." Hear Run, PA :
fourt' h d imens ion. I:; 1- I53. 152
li g ht , 242 , 242
fo urth d.mension. 151-133.152
furlli{uJ"c
dcsi on 3?7-3
J
<) 328
New York, NY:
Ho m" " nd St udi o. inAuenced by. 237
lig ht . 113rural, 237
\'('ni e d de\'el o pmclH of ho nzolltal planes.
100- I02, 101
Home and Stud. o . O "k Park, IL:
descriptlon. 237
furnitllre, 237. 238
light , natural , 237
resto rat io n , 366- 368, 367
,dea l practice. 4
lllt e riockmg form ond s poce, 76- 7H, 77
Jo hnson \X/ax Administration B Llilding.
Racine, WI :
HonK' and Studi o . inAut' neC'd by, 237
light, 237, 242. 243
presen 'Hion . in Sltu , 3SH- 339. 359
Lnrki n Building, Buffalo, N Y:
furniture. off. ee, 430
Ho me and St ud io. in AuCll ced b y. 237
light, 237 , 240,430, 429
o ffice building. innovat ion, 418-430, 429
li g ht, phil osoph y of, 20Y, 235-236
li g hting , Ro bi e HOll se, Chicago, IL, 6
Link HOl1 se li ving room, preserva ri on. 363
364, 363
org;lnic architecture:
descripti on, 4
philosoph y, 327-32<)
Prairie h o t 1 s ~ :
dcscrip(ion. 4-5, 5
heart h. S. 76
interiors, si milar f O Rietvel d, Gcrri r. 331
plan. crucifo rm. 237. 237
ribbon \\'i lldo\\". lise of. 237
Robie H o use. C hicago. IL:
descripti ou. 4-6. 6,76-78, 77
int erl ocking (o rl11 and spaec, 76- 78, 77
lig h'iug, 6,237. 238
thr,' c dimensional design. 63-67. 59, 64,65,
66, 237. 241 - 242. 241
Unity Church, Oak P,lrk, IL:
deserip,ion, 63- 67. 59, 64, 65, 66
Home and S<udio, inAucnced by. 237
li gl", 237. 241-242, 241
uni que t'xpression, 10
v(' nical devd opmcnt oChorizolHal planes. 100.
101
Wi lle ts House, Hi ghland Park. IL, pla n. 5
\Vya tr. iVlauhc\\' Digby (1820-1877)
Paddington Station II. London, Engl and, In.
192
x
x-r:l y:
inw lHi o n, 134-135
iVl ann , T ho mas , 135
Rocnt gen, Wilhelm Ko nrad . 134
space-time, relation shi p ro, 134-135
z
Z ur ic h, Switzerlan d:
Heidi Weber Pavlii o n. color, 2B'J, 290
Le Corbusier. 289. 290

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19. "Louis Kahn: Statements on Architectule," Zodiac 17

Wiener Werkstatte. Although its initial inspira

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