Sekaran Modified

Chapter 1
Introduction to Research
2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. www.wileyeurope.com/college/sekaran
Definition of Business Research

Business research: an organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding answers or solutions to it.
Applied versus Basic Research

Basic research: generates a body of knowledge by trying to comprehend how certain problems that occur in organizations can be solved. Applied research: solves a current problem faced by the manager in the work setting, demanding a timely solution.
Examples Applied Research

Apple s iPod fueled the company s success in recent years, helping to increase sales from $5 billion in 2001 to $32 billion in the fiscal year 2008. Growth for the music player averaged more than 200% in 2006 and 2007, before falling to 6% in 2008. Some analysts believe that the number of iPods sold will drop 12% in 2009. The reality is there s a limited group of people who want an iPod or any other portable media player, one analyst says. So the question becomes, what will Apple do about it? The existing machinery in the production department has had so many breakdowns that production has suffered. Machinery has to be replaced. Because of heavy investment costs, a careful recommendation as to whether it is more beneficial to buy the equipment or to lease it is needed.
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Why managers should know about research

Being knowledgeable about research and research methods helps professional managers to:
Identify and effectively solve minor problems in the work setting. Know how to discriminate good from bad research. Appreciate the multiple influences and effects of factors impinging on a situation. Take calculated risks in decision making. Prevent possible vested interests from exercising their influence in a situation. Relate to hired researchers and consultants more effectively. Combine experience with scientific knowledge while making decisions.
Chapter 2
Scientific Investigation
Hallmarks of Scientific Research:

Hallmarks or main distinguishing characteristics of scientific research:
Purposiveness Rigor Testability Replicability Precision and Con dence Objectivity Generalizability Parsimony
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Hypothetico-Deductive Research
The Seven-Step Process in the HypotheticoDeductive Method
Identify a broad problem area Define the problem statement Develop hypotheses Determine measures Data collection Data analysis Interpretation of data
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Deduction and Induction

Deductive reasoning: application of a general theory to a specific case.
Hypothesis testing
Inductive reasoning: a process where we observe specific phenomena and on this basis arrive at general conclusions.
Counting white swans
Both inductive and deductive processes are often used in research.

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Chapter 3
The Research Process - The Broad Problem Area and Defining the Problem Statement
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10
Copyright 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Sekaran/RESEARCH 4E
FIGURE 4.1
The Broad Problem Area

Examples of broad problem areas that a manager could observe at the workplace:
Training programs are not as effective as anticipated. The newly installed information system is not being used by the managers for whom it was primarily designed. The introduction of flexible work hours has created more problems than it has solved in many companies.
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Literature Review
A good literature survey:
Ensures that important variables are not left out of the study. Helps the development of the theoretical framework and hypotheses for testing. Ensures that the problem statement is precise and clear. Reduces the risk of reinventing the wheel . Confirms that the problem is perceived as relevant and significant.
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Data sources
Textbooks Academic and professional journals Theses Conference proceedings Unpublished manuscripts Reports of government departments and corporations Newspapers The Internet
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Searching for Literature

Most libraries have the following electronic resources at their disposal:
Electronic journals Full-text databases Bibliographic databases Abstract databases
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The Problem Statement

Examples of Well-Defined Problem Statements
To what extent has the new advertising campaign been successful in creating the high-quality, customer-centered corporate image that it was intended to produce? How has the new packaging affected the sales of the product? What are the effects of downsizing on the long-range growth patterns of companies?
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Chapter 4
The Research Process - Theoretical Framework & Hypothesis Development
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Theoretical Framework
A theoretical framework represents your beliefs on how certain phenomena (or variables or concepts) are related to each other (a model) and an explanation on why you believe that these variables are associated to each other (a theory).
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Theoretical Framework
Basic steps:
Identify and label the variables correctly State the relationships among the variables: formulate hypotheses Explain how or why you expect these relationships
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Variable
Any concept or construct that varies or changes in value Main types of variables:
Dependent variable Independent variable Moderating variable Mediating /intervening variable
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(In)dependent Variables
Dependent variable (DV)
Is of primary interest to the researcher. The goal of the research project is to understand, predict or explain the variability of this variable.
Independent variable (IV)

Influences the DV in either positive or negative way. The variance in the DV is accounted for by the IV.
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Example
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Moderators
Moderating variable
Moderator is qualitative (e.g., gender, race, class) or quantitative (e.g., level of reward) variable that affects the direction and/or strength of relation between independent and dependent variable.
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Mediating/intervening Variable
Mediating variable
surfaces between the time the independent variables start operating to influence the dependent variable and the time their impact is felt on it.
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Hypothesis
A proposition that is empirically testable (falsifiable). It is an empirical statement concerned with the relationship among variables. Good hypothesis:

Must be adequate for its purpose Must be testable Must be better than its rivals
Can be:

Directional Non-directional
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Exercise
Give the hypotheses for the following framework:
Service quality
Customer switching
Switching cost
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Exercise
Give the hypotheses for the following framework:
Service quality
Customer satisfaction
Customer switching
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Argumentation
The expected relationships / hypotheses are an integration of:
Exploratory research Common sense and logical reasoning
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Chapter 5
The Research Process Elements of Research Design
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Research Design
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Purpose of the Study

Exploration Description Hypothesis Testing
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Exploratory study:
is undertaken when not much is known about the situation at hand, or no information is available on how similar problems or research issues have been solved in the past.
Example:
A service provider wants to know why his customers are switching to other service providers
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Descriptive study:
is undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to describe the characteristics of the variables of interest in a situation.
Example:
A bank manager wants to have a profile of the individuals who have loan payments outstanding for 6 months and more. It would include details of their average age, earnings, nature of occupation, fulltime/part-time employment status, and the like. This might help him to elicit further information or decide right away on the types of individuals who should be made ineligible for loans in the future.
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Hypothesis testing:
Studies that engage in hypotheses testing usually explain the nature of certain relationships, or establish the differences among groups or the independence of two or more factors in a situation.
Example:
A marketing manager wants to know if the sales of the company will increase if he doubles the advertising dollars.
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Type of Investigation
Causal Study
it is necessary to establish a definitive cause-andeffect relationship.
Correlational study
identification of the important factors associated with the problem.
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Study Setting
Contrived: artificial setting Non-contrived: the natural environment where work proceeds normally
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Population to be Studied
Unit of analysis:
Individuals Dyads Groups Organizations Cultures
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Time Horizon
Cross-sectional studies
Snapshot of constructs at a single point in time Use of representative sample
Multiple cross-sectional studies

Constructs measured at multiple points in time Use of different sample
Longitudinal studies
Constructs measured at multiple points in time Use of same sample = a true panel
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Chapter 6
Measurement of Variables: Operational Definition
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Measurement
Measurement: the assignment of numbers or other symbols to characteristics (or attributes) of objects according to a pre-specified set of rules.
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(Characteristics of) Objects

Objects persons Characteristics achievement motivation strategic business units ethnic diversity companies shampoo yogurt organizational effectiveness effects Taste
Types of Variables
Two types of variables:
One lends itself to objective and precise measurement; The other is more nebulous and does not lend itself to accurate measurement because of its abstract and/or subjective nature.
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Operationalizing Concepts
Operationalizing concepts: reduction of abstract concepts to render them measurable in a tangible way. Operationalizing is done by looking at the behavioral dimensions, facets, or properties denoted by the concept.
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Example
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Chapter 7
Measurement of Variables: Scaling, Reliability, Validity
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Scale
Scale: tool or mechanism by which individuals are distinguished as to how they differ from one another on the variables of interest to our study.
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Nominal Scale
A nominal scale is one that allows the researcher to assign subjects to certain categories or groups. What is your department? O Marketing O Maintenance O Production O Servicing O Sales O Public Relations What is your gender? O Male O Female
O Finance O Personnel O Accounting
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Ordinal Scale
Ordinal scale: not only categorizes variables in such a way as to denote differences among various categories, it also rankorders categories in some meaningful way. What is the highest level of education you have completed? O Less than High School O High School/GED Equivalent O College Degree O Masters Degree O Doctoral Degree
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Interval Scale
Interval scale: whereas the nominal scale allows us only to qualitatively distinguish groups by categorizing them into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive sets, and the ordinal scale to rank-order the preferences, the interval scale lets us measure the distance between any two points on the scale.
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Interval scale
Circle the number that represents your feelings at this particular moment best. There are no right or wrong answers. Please answer every question. 1. I invest more in my work than I get out of it I disagree completely 1 2 3 4 5 I agree completely
2. I exert myself too much considering what I get back in return I disagree completely 1 2 3 4 5 I agree completely
3. For the efforts I put into the organization, I get much in return I disagree completely 1 2 3 4 5 I agree completely
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Ratio Scale
Ratio scale: overcomes the disadvantage of the arbitrary origin point of the interval scale, in that it has an absolute (in contrast to an arbitrary) zero point, which is a meaningful measurement point. What is your age?
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Properties of the Four Scales
2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. www.wileyeurope.com/college/sekar an
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Goodness of Measures
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Validity
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Reliability
Reliability of measure indicates extent to which it is without bias and hence ensures consistent measurement across time (stability) and across the various items in the instrument (internal consistency).
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Stability
Stability: ability of a measure to remain the same over time, despite uncontrollable testing conditions or the state of the respondents themselves.
Test Retest Reliability: The reliability coef cient obtained with a repetition of the same measure on a second occasion. Parallel-Form Reliability: Responses on two comparable sets of measures tapping the same construct are highly correlated.
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Internal Consistency
Internal Consistency of Measures is indicative of the homogeneity of the items in the measure that tap the construct.
Interitem Consistency Reliability: This is a test of the consistency of respondents answers to all the items in a measure. The most popular test of interitem consistency reliability is the Cronbach s coef cient alpha. Split-Half Reliability: Split-half reliability reflects the correlations between two halves of an instrument.
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Chapter 8
Data Collection Methods
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Sources of Data
Primary data: information obtained rsthand by the researcher on the variables of interest for the specific purpose of the study. Examples: individuals, focus groups, panels Secondary data: information gathered from sources already existing. Examples: company records or archives, government publications, industry analyses offered by the media, web sites, the Internet, and so on.
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Personal Interview
Advantages

Can clarify doubts about questionnaire Can pick up non-verbal cues Relatively high response/cooperation Special visual aids and scoring devises can be used
Disadvantages

High costs and time intensive Geographical limitations Response bias / Confidentiality difficult to be assured Some respondents are unwilling to talk to strangers Trained interviewers
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Telephone Interview
Advantages
Discomfort of face to face is avoided Faster / Number of calls per day could be high Lower cost
Disadvantages
Interview length must be limited Low response rate No facial expressions
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Self-administered
Advantages

Lowest cost option Expanded geographical coverage Requires minimal staff Perceived as more anonymous
Disadvantages

Low response rate in some modes No interviewer intervention possible for clarification Cannot be too long or complex Incomplete surveys
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Principles of Questionnaire Design.
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Questionnaire Design
Definition
A questionnaire is a pre-formulated, written set of questions to which the respondent records his answers
Steps 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Determine the content of the questionnaire Determine the form of response Determine the wording of the questions Determine the question sequence Write cover letter
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1. Questionnaire content
Framework
Need information for all constructs in framework
Measurement: Operationalizing
Objective construct:
1 element/items often 1 question
Subjective construct:
multiple elements/items multiple questions
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2. Response format
Closed vs. Open-ended questions
Closed questions
Helps respondents to make quick decisions Helps researchers to code
Open-ended question
First: unbiased point of view Final: additional insights Complementary to closed question: for interpretation purpose
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3. Question Wording
Avoid double-barreled questions Avoid ambiguous questions and words Use of ordinary words Avoid leading or biasing questions Social desirability Avoid recall depended questions
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3. Question Wording
Use positive and negative statements
Dresdner delivers high quality banking service Dresdner has poor customer operational support Avoid double negatives
Limit the length of the questions

Rules of thumb: < 20 words < one full line in print
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4. Question Sequence
Personal and sensitive data at the end

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5. Cover Letter
The cover letter is the introductory page of the questionnaire It includes:
Identification of the researcher Motivation for respondents to fill it in Confidentiality Thanking of the respondent
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Structured Observations
Recording prespecified behavioral patterns of people, objects and events in a systematic manner. Quantitative in nature Different types
Personal observation
(e.g., mystery shopper, pantry audit) (e.g., scanner data, people meter, eye tracking)
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Electronic observation
Chapter 10
Sampling
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Sampling
Sampling: the process of selecting a sufficient number of elements from the population, so that results from analyzing the sample are generalizable to the population.
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Relevant Terms
Population refers to the entire group of people, events, or things of interest that the researcher wishes to investigate. Sampling unit: the element or set of elements that is available for selection in some stage of the sampling process. A sample is a subset of the population. It comprises some members selected from it.
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Relevant Terms - 3
The characteristics of the population such as (the population mean), (the population standard deviation), and 2 (the population variance) are referred to as its parameters. The central tendencies, the dispersions, and other statistics in the sample of interest to the research are treated as approximations of the central tendencies, dispersions, and other parameters of the population.
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Statistics versus Parameters
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Advantages of Sampling
Less costs Less errors due to less fatigue Less time Avoiding the destruction of elements
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The Sampling Process

Major steps in sampling:
Define the population. Determine the sample frame Determine the sampling design Determine the appropriate sample size Execute the sampling process
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Sampling Techniques
Probability versus nonprobability sampling Probability sampling: elements in the population have a known and non-zero chance of being chosen
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Sampling Techniques
Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling Systematic Sampling Stratified Random Sampling Cluster Sampling
Nonprobability Sampling
Convenience Sampling Judgment Sampling Quota Sampling
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Simple Random Sampling
Procedure
Each element has a known and equal chance of being selected
Characteristics
Highly generalizable Easily understood Reliable population frame necessary
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Systematic Sampling
Procedure
Each nth element, starting with random choice of an element between 1 and n
Characteristics
Similar to simple random sampling Systematic biases when elements are not randomly listed
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Cluster Sampling
Procedure
Divide of population in clusters Random selection of clusters Include all elements from selected clusters
Characteristics
Intercluster homogeneity Intracluster heterogeneity Easy and cost efficient Low correspondence with reality
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Stratified Sampling
Procedure
Divide of population in strata Include all strata Random selection of elements from strata
Proportionate Disproportionate
Characteristics
Interstrata heterogeneity Intrastratum homogeneity Includes all relevant subpopulations
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(Dis)proportionate Stratified Sampling

Number of subjects in total sample is allocated among the strata (dis)proportional to the relative number of elements in each stratum in the population Disproportionate case:
strata exhibiting more variability are sampled more than proportional to their relative size requires more knowledge of the population, not just relative sizes of strata
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Example
86
Overview
87
Overview
88
Overview
89
Choice Points in Sampling Design
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Tradeoff between precision and confidence

We can increase both confidence and precision by increasing the sample size
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Sample size: guidelines

In general: Categories: Multivariate: Experiments:
30 < n < 500 30 per subcategory 10 x number of var s 15 to 20 per condition

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Sample Size for a Given Population Size
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Sample Size for a Given
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Chapter 11
Quantitative Data Analysis
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95
Getting the Data Ready for Analysis

Data coding: assigning a number to the participants responses so they can be entered into a database. Data Entry: after responses have been coded, they can be entered into a database. Raw data can be entered through any software program (e.g., SPSS)
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Editing Data
An example of an illogical response is an outlier response. An outlier is an observation that is substantially different from the other observations. Inconsistent responses are responses that are not in harmony with other information. Illegal codes are values that are not specified in the coding instructions.
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Transforming Data
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Getting a Feel for the Data
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Frequencies
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Descriptive Statistics: Central Tendencies and Dispersions
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Reliability Analysis
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Chapter 12
Quantitative Data Analysis: Hypothesis Testing
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103
Type I Errors, Type II Errors and Statistical Power

Type I error (E): the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true; accepting the alternate hypothesis when in fact it is false. For example; Concluding that two variables are related when in fact they are not. Type II error (F): the probability of accepting the null hypothesis given that the alternative hypothesis is actually true; rejecting the alternate hypothesis when in fact it is true. For example; Concluding that two variables are not related when in fact they are.
Statistical power (1 - F): the probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis.
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Choosing the Appropriate Statistical Technique
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Testing Hypotheses on a Single Mean

One sample t-test: statistical technique that is used to test the hypothesis that the mean of the population from which a sample is drawn is equal to a comparison standard.
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Testing Hypotheses about Two Related Means

Paired samples t-test: examines differences in same group before and after a treatment. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test: a nonparametric test for examining significant differences between two related samples or repeated measurements on a single sample. Used as an alternative for a paired samples ttest when the population cannot be assumed to be normally distributed.
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Testing Hypotheses about Two Related Means - 2

McNemar's test: non-parametric method used on nominal data. It assesses the significance of the difference between two dependent samples when the variable of interest is dichotomous. It is used primarily in beforeafter studies to test for an experimental effect.
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Testing Hypotheses about Two Unrelated Means

Independent samples t-test: is done to see if there are any significant differences in the means for two groups in the variable of interest.
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Testing Hypotheses about Several Means

ANalysis Of VAriance (ANOVA) helps to examine the signi cant mean differences among more than two groups on an interval or ratio-scaled dependent variable.
110
Regression Analysis
Simple regression analysis is used in a situation where one metric independent variable is hypothesized to affect one metric dependent variable.
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Scatter plot
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80
LKLHD_DATE
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40
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
PHYS_ATTR
112
Simple Linear Regression

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X 2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. www.wileyeurope.com/college/sekaran
113
Ordinary Least Squares Estimation

n
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Xi 2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. www.wileyeurope.com/college/sekaran

114
SPSS
Analyze h Regression h Linear
Model Summary Model 1 R .841 R Square .707 Adjusted R Square .704 Std. Error of the Estimate 5.919
ANOVA Model 1 Sum of Squares 8195.319 3398.640 11593.960 df Mean Square 8195.319 35.038 F 33.901 Sig. .000
Regression Residual Total
1 97 98
115
SPSS cont d
Coefficients Unstandardized Coefficients B Std. Error 34.738 2.065 .520 .034 Standardized Coefficients Beta .841
Model 1
(Constant) PHYS_ATTR
t 16.822 15.294
Sig. .000 .000
116
Model validation
1. 2. Face validity: signs and magnitudes make sense Statistical validity:

Model fit: R2 Model significance: F-test Parameter significance: t-test Strength of effects: beta-coefficients Discussion of multicollinearity: correlation matrix Out-of-sample forecast errors
3.
Predictive validity: how well the model predicts
117
SPSS
118
Measure of Overall Fit: R2

R2 measures the proportion of the variation in y that is explained by the variation in x. R2 = total variation unexplained variation total variation R2 takes on any value between zero and one:
R2 = 1: Perfect match between the line and the data points. R2 = 0: There is no linear relationship between x and y.
119
SPSS
= r(Likelihood to Date, Physical Attractiveness)
120
Model Significance
H0: F0 = F1 = ... = Fm = 0 (all parameters are zero)
H1: Not H0
121
Model Significance
H0: F0 = F1 = ... = Fm = 0 (all parameters are zero) H1: Not H0 Test statistic (k = # of variables excl. intercept)
F =
(SSReg/k) (SSe/(n 1 k)
~ Fk, n-1-k
SSReg = explained variation by regression SSe = unexplained variation by regression
122
SPSS
ANOVA el 1 Sum of Squares 8195.319 3398.6 0 11593.960 f 1 97 98 Mean Square 8195.319 35.038 F 233.901 Sig. .000
Regress n Res T
123
Parameter significance
Testing that a specific parameter is significant H0: Fj = 0 H1: Fj { 0 Test-statistic: t = bj/SEj ~ tn-k-1
with bj = the estimated coefficient for Fj SEj = the standard error of bj
(i.e., Fj { 0)
124
SPSS cont d
Coefficients Unstandardized Coefficients B Std. Error 34.738 2.065 .520 .034 Standardized Coefficients Beta .841
Model 1
(Constant) PHYS_ATTR
t 16.822 15.294
Sig. .000 .000
125
Conceptual Model
Physical Attractiveness
Likelihood to Date
126
Multiple Regression Analysis

We use more than one (metric or non-metric) independent variable to explain variance in a (metric) dependent variable.
127
Conceptual Model
Perceived Intelligence
+ +
Likelihood to Date
128
OV Model 1 Sum of Squares 8 57.731 3336. 8 11593.960 df 96 98 Mean Square 41 8.8 34.75 Sig. .000
Regression Residual otal
118.808
Coefficients Unstandardized Coefficients B Std. Error 31.575 3.130 .050 .037 .5 3 .034
129
Model 1
(Constant) PERC_IN GCE PHYS_A R
Standardized Coefficients Beta .074 .846
t 10.088 1.340 15.413
Sig. .000 .183 .000
Conceptual Model
Gender Perceived Intelligence
+ +
+
Likelihood to Date
130
Moderators
Moderator is qualitative (e.g., gender, race, class) or quantitative (e.g., level of reward) that affects the direction and/or strength of the relation between dependent and independent variable Analytical representation
Y = 0 + 1X1 + 2X2 + 3X1X2
with Y = DV X1 = IV X2 = Moderator
131
Moderators
Model M d l R . R r dj st d r R . td. rr r f sti t t . .
OV M d l f r s 3. 3 . 5 3. df 4 4 M n 4 r . 4 . 7 ig. .
gr ssi n sid l T t l
3.4
132
Moderators
Coeffi ients Unstandardi ed Coeffi ients B Std. Error 32.603 3.163 .000 .043 .496 .027 -.420 3.624 .127 .058 Standardi ed Coeffi ients Beta .000 .802 -.019 .369
odel 1 (Constant) PE C_I CE P S_A GENDE PI_GENDE
t 10.306 .004 18.540 -.116 2.177
Si . .000 .997 .000 .908 .032
interaction significant effect on dep. var.
133
Conceptual Model
Gender Perceived Intelligence
+ +
+
Likelihood to Date
+
Communality of Interests
Perceived Fit
134
Mediating/intervening variable
Accounts for the relation between the independent and dependent variable Analytical representation
1. 2. Y = 0 + 1X => 1 is significant M = 2 + 3X => 3 is significant Y = 4 + 5X + 6M => 5 is not significant => 6 is significant
With
3.
Y = DV X = IV M = mediator
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Step 1
M ode l S umm ary M odel 1 R .963 R Square .927 Adjus ted R Square .923 St d. E rror of the E stimate 3. 020
ANOVA Model 1 Sum of Squares 1074 .603 848.357 11593.960 df 5 93 98 Mean Square 2149.121 9.122 F 235.595 Sig. .000
Regression Residual Total
136
Step 1 cont d
Coeffi ient r iz ffici ts B St . Err r 17. . 7 . . . 17 . 18 .783 2.379 .122 . 38 .212 .019 st St r ized Coefficients Bet . .836 -. 36 .356 .319
l 1
st I D I O
t)
D I
t 6. 6 1. 29.269 -.329 3.201 11.187
Si . . . 1 . .743 .002 .000
significant effect on dep. var.

137
Step 2
M ode l S umm ary M odel 1 R .977 R Square .9 Adjus ted R Square .9 St d. E rror of the E stimate 2. 927
AN Model 1 Sum of Squares 1772 . 1 1. 79 1 1.9 df
A Mea Square 1772 . 1 . F . Si . .
Re ressio Residual Total
1 97 9
138
Step 2 cont d
C U
ff c
ts Standardized Coefficients Beta .977
(C CO
) _ R
tandardiz d Coefficients B Std. rr r 8.474 1.132 .820 .018
t 7.484 45.479
Sig. .000 .000
significant effect on mediator
139
Step 3
M ode l l . . r 4 . r j t r t t . rr r f ti t .
AN f l R gr R i T t l i n l r . 76 .6 4 . 6 f
A n 4.7 . r F 6. 6 ig. .
140
Step 3 cont d
Coeffi ie t nst ndardized oefficients td. rror 14.969 2.478 .019 .028 .518 .017 -2.040 2.307 .142 .037 -.051 .085 .320 .102 tandardized oefficients eta .028 .839 -.094 .412 -.077 .405
Model 1
ns t nt) I HY _ TTR G ND R PI_G ND R COMM_INT R P RC_FIT
t 6.041 .688 30.733 -.884 3.825 -.596 3.153
i . .000 .493 .000 .379 .000 .553 .002
insignificant effect of indep. var on dep. Var. significant effect of mediator on dep. var.
141
Chapter 13
Qualitative Data Analysis
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142
Qualitative Data
Qualitative data: data in the form of words. Examples: interview notes, transcripts of focus groups, answers to open-ended questions, transcription of video recordings, accounts of experiences with a product on the internet, news articles, and the like.
143
Analysis of Qualitative Data

The analysis of qualitative data is aimed at making valid inferences from the often overwhelming amount of collected data. Steps:
data reduction data display drawing and verifying conclusions
144
Data Reduction
Coding: the analytic process through which the qualitative data that you have gathered are reduced, rearranged, and integrated to form theory. Categorization: is the process of organizing, arranging, and classifying coding units.
145
Data Display
Data display: taking your reduced data and displaying them in an organized, condensed manner. Examples: charts, matrices, diagrams, graphs, frequently mentioned phrases, and/or drawings.
146
Drawing Conclusions
At this point where you answer your research questions by determining what identified themes stand for, by thinking about explanations for observed patterns and relationships, or by making contrasts and comparisons.
147
Reliability in Qualitative Research

Category reliability depends on the analyst s ability to formulate categories and present to competent judges definitions of the categories so they will agree on which items of a certain population belong in a category and which do not. (Kassarjian, 1977, p. 14). Interjudge reliability can be defined degree of consistency between coders processing the same data (Kassarjian 1977).
148
Validity in Qualitative Research

Validity refers to the extent to which the qualitative research results:
accurately represent the collected data (internal validity) can be generalized or transferred to other contexts or settings (external validity).
149
Chapter 14
The Research Report
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150
Presentation of Results
Results of the study and recommendations to solve the problem have to be effectively communicated to the sponsor, so that suggestions made are accepted and implemented. Contents and organization of written report and oral presentation depend on the purpose of the research study, and the audience to which it is targeted.
151
The Written Report

Important to identify the purpose of the report, so that it can be tailored accordingly. Examples
Simple descriptive report Comprehensive report, offering alternative solutions
152
Characteristics of a Well-Written Report

Clarity Conciseness Coherence The right emphasis on important aspects Meaningful organization of paragraphs Smooth transition from one topic to the next Apt choice of words Specificity
153
Contents of Research Report

Title Executive summary or a synopsis Table of contents The research proposal

Purpose of the study Background Problem statement
Framework of the study & hypotheses Method Data analysis Conclusions and recommendations
154
Oral Presentation
Deciding on the Content Visual Aids
For instance graphs, charts, tables
The presenter The presentation Handling questions

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Chapter 1

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Definition of Business Research

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Applied versus Basic Research

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Examples Applied Research

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Why managers should know about research

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Hallmarks of Scientific Research:

Deduction and Induction

Both inductive and deductive processes are often used in research.

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The Broad Problem Area

Searching for Literature

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The Problem Statement

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Independent variable (IV)

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Purpose of the Study

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Purpose of the Study

Purpose of the Study

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Purpose of the Study

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Multiple cross-sectional studies

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(Characteristics of) Objects

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O Finance O Personnel O Accounting

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Properties of the Four Scales

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