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Guth
Inflation and
the New Era of
High-Precision Cosmology
D uring the past five years our view of the universe has been
jolted by several new and surprising observations. On
March 3, 1998, a New York Times headline announced quite accu-
rately that “Shocked Cosmologists Find Universe Expanding
Faster.” Instead of slowing due to gravitational attraction, the
expansion of the universe was found to be speeding up! By Decem-
ber of that year, Science magazine proclaimed the accelerating
universe the “breakthrough of the year,” and the next month the
cover of Scientific American heralded a “Revolution in Cosmology.”
Shortly afterward new measurements of the cosmic background
radiation overturned the prevailing beliefs about the geometry and
total mass density of the universe. According to the New York
Times of November 26, 1999, “Like the great navigators who first
sailed around the world, establishing its size and the curvature of
tivity allow an expanding solution that starts from a singularity. The evidence
for the big bang is now overwhelming. The expansion of the universe
was first observed in the early 1920s by Vesto Melvin Slipher, and in 1929
was codified by Edwin Hubble into what we now know as “Hubble’s Law”:
on average, each distant galaxy is receding from us with a velocity that
is proportional to its distance. In 1965 Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson
detected a background of microwave radiation arriving at Earth from
all directions—radiation believed to be the afterglow of the primordial
hot dense fireball. Todaywe know, based on data from the Cosmic Back-
ground Explorer (COBE) satellite, that the spectrum of this background
radiation agrees with exquisite precision—to 50 parts per million—with
the thermal spectrum expected for the glow of hot matter in the early
universe. In addition, calculations of nucleosynthesis in the early universe
show that the big bang theory can correctly account for the cosmic abun-
dances of the light nuclear isotopes: hydrogen, deuterium, helium-3, helium-
4, and lithium-7. (Heavier elements, we believe, were synthesized much
later, in the interior of stars, and were then explosively ejected into inter-
stellar space.)
Despite the striking successes of the big bang theory, there is good reason
to believe that the theory in its traditional form is incomplete. Although
it is called the “big bang theory,” it is not really the theory of a bang at
all. It is only the theory of the aftermath of a bang. It elegantly describes
how the early universe expanded and cooled, and how matter clumped
to form galaxies and stars. But the theory says nothing about the under-
Figure 1 lying physics of the primordial bang. It gives not even a clue about what banged,
Possible Geometries for the Cosmos
what caused it to bang, or what happened before it banged. The inflationary
The three possible geometries can be
illustrated as the surface of a sphere universe theory, on the other hand, is a description of the bang itself, and provides
(closed universe),the surface of a saddle plausible answers to these questions and more. Inflation does not do away with
(open universe),and a flat surface. the big bang theory, but instead adds a brief prehistory that joins smoothly to the
traditional description.
highly transparent gas of neutral atoms. The photons of the cosmic background c = 3H 2
radiation have traveled on straight lines ever since, so they provide today an image 8
G
of the universe at an age of 300,000 years, just as the photons reaching your eye
where G is Newton’s gravitational
at this moment provide an image of the page in front of you. Thus, the observa- constant.The critical density is
tions of the cosmic background radiation show that the universe was uniform in defined to be that density which
temperature, to one part in 100,000, at an age of several hundred thousand years. leads to a geometrically flat
universe. (In the past cosmologists
Under many circumstances such uniformity would be easy to understand,
often said that a closed universe
since anything will come to a uniform temperature if left undisturbed for a long ( > c) will recollapse and an
enough time. In the traditional form of the big bang theory, however, the universe open universe ( < c) will expand
evolves so quickly that there is no time for the uniformity to be established. Calcu- forever, but these statements are
invalidated by the possibility of a
lations show that energy and information would have to be transported at about cosmological constant. A positive
100 times the speed of light in order to achieve uniformity by 300,000 years after cosmological constant can allow a
the big bang. Thus, the traditional big bang theory requires us to postulate, with- closed universe to expand forever,
out explanation, that the primordial fireball filled space from the beginning. The and a negative one can cause an
open universe to collapse.)
temperature was the same everywhere by assumption, but not as a consequence of
any physical process. This shortcoming is known as the horizon problem, since cosmol-
ogists use the word “horizon” to indicate the largest distance that information or
energy could have traversed, since the instant of the big bang, given the restric-
tion of the speed of light.
The second special feature of the big bang is a remarkable coincidence called
the flatness problem. This problem concerns the pinpoint precision with which the
mass densityof the early universe must be specified for the big bang theory to agree
with reality.
To understand the problem, we must bear in mind that general relativity
implies that 3-dimensional space can be curved, and that the curvature is deter-
mined by the mass density. If we adopt the idealization that our universe is homo-
geneous (the same at all places) and isotropic (looks the same in all directions), then
there are exactly three cases (see figure 1). If the total mass density exceeds a value
called the critical density, which is determined by the expansion rate, then the universe
curves back on itself to form a space of finite volume but without boundary. In such
a space, called a closed universe, a starship traveling on what appears to be a straight
line would eventually return to its point of origin. The sum of the angles in a trian-
gle would exceed 180, and lines which appear to be parallel would eventually meet
alan h. guth is the Victor F. Weisskopf Professor of Physics and a Margaret MacVicar
Faculty Fellow at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Trained in particle theory at MIT,
Guth held postdoctoral positions at Princeton, Columbia, Cornell, and SLAC before returning
to MIT as a faculty member in 1980. His work in cosmology began at Cornell, when Henry Tye
persuaded him to study the production of magnetic monopoles in the early universe. Using
standard assumptions, they found that far too many would be produced. Continuing this work at
SLAC, Guth discovered that the magnetic monopole glut could be avoided by a new proposal
which he called the inflationary universe. Guth is a member of the National Academy of
Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and was awarded the 2001 Franklin
Medal for Physics of the Franklin Institute and the 2002 Dirac Medal of the Abdus Salam
International Centre for Theoretical Physics.
Guth is still busy exploring the consequences of inflation. He has also written a popular-level
book called “The Inflationary Universe: The Quest for a New Theory of Cosmic Origins”
(Addison-Wesley/Perseus Books, 1997).