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A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the substances retain their distinct identities. Homogenous mixture composition of the mixture is the same throughout. e.g. soft drink, milk, solder
Heterogeneous mixture composition is not uniform throughout. E.g. cement, iron filings in sand Physical means can be used to separate a mixture into its pure components. An element is a substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means. A compound is a substance composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically united in fixed proportions. Compounds can only be separated into their pure components (elements) by chemical means. Zn(s) + 2 HCl (aq) ZnCl2(aq) + 2 H2(g) 2 H2O(l) 2 H2(g) + O2(g) Three states of matter: SOLID, LIQUID, GAS A physical change does not alter the composition or identity of a substance 2 H2O(l) H2O(g) A chemical change alters the composition or identity of the substance(s) involved 2 H2O(g) 2 H2(g) + O2(g) MATTER anything that occupies space and has mass. MASS measure of the quantity of matter. SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg)
nucleus
electron cloud
Particle
Mass (g)
Proton number (Z) = No. of protons in nucleus Nucleon number (A) = No. of protons + No. of neutrons = Proton number (Z) + No. of neutrons
A Z
X
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Element Symbol
Exercise 1:
A Z
1. ______ is the proton number. 2. It is the total number of _________ in an atomic nucleus. 3. A is the _________________ of the nuclide X. 4. Nucleon number is defined as the total number of _________ and _________ in an atomic nucleus.
84 36
Kr
59 3+ Co 27
216 O 8
5. The nucleon number of Kr = _____ 6. The proton number of Co3+ = _____ 7. The number of neutrons in Kr = _____ 8. ____ contains 10 electrons. 9. Co3+ consists of ____ protons, ____ electrons and _____ neutrons.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei
1 1 protium
H
1 1 0
4
2 1 deuterium
3 1 tritium
H
1 3 2
1 2 1
Some isotopes are unstable. These unstable isotopes may break-up to form smaller atoms and subatomic particles. This process is known as radioactive decay. This process involves emmission of radioactive rays. For example -decay of uranium-235 235 92
U C
4 2
He e
+ +
231 90
Th N
-decay of carbon-14 14 6
0 -1
14 7
B A A C A
D B E D
A) Vaporisation Chamber Sample of the element is vaporised into gaseous atom. A pump maintains a vacuum inside the mass spectrometer as any air molecules inside would block the movement of the ions and to avoid the contamination of the sample. B) Ionisation Chamber A hot filament emits high-energy electrons. When the electrons collide with the gaseous sample (atom or molecule), positive ions are produced by dislodging an electron from each atom or molecule C) Acceleration Chamber The positive ions are accelerated by an electric field towards the two oppositely charged plates. The electric field is produced by a high voltage between the two plates. The emerging ions are of high and constant velocity. D) Magnetic Field The positive ions are separated and deflected into a circular path by a magnet according to its m/e ratio. E) Ion Detector The numbers of ions and types of isotopes are recorded as a mass spectrum. Example: Mass Spectrum Of Rubidium
Relative Abundance
18 7 85 87
m/e
The mass spectrum of rubidium shows that naturally occurring rubidium consists of two isotopes (two peaks): 85Rb and 87Rb. The height of each line is proportional to the abundance of each isotope.
Calculation a) What is the relative atomic mass of Rb? (mi x Qi) Ar Rb = Qi = = (85 x 18) + (87 x 7) (18 + 7) 85.56
b) What is the percentage abundance of each of the isotopes? 18 x 100 = 72 % % 85Rb = 25 % 87Rb = 100 72 = 28 %
Mole (symbol = mol): The amount of substance that contains as many elementary particles as there are atoms in exactly 12.000 g of 12C. 1 mol = 6.022 x 1023 particles (Avogadros constant = 6.022 x 1023 mol1 ) 1 12C atom = 12.00 amu but 1 mole 12C atoms = 6.022 X 1023 atoms = 12.00 g For any element, Relative Atomic Mass (amu) = Molar Mass (grams) For all substances, the molar mass in grams per mole is numerically equal to the formula weight in atomic mass units. Molar Mass = Ar or Mr (in g mol1) Example: How many atoms are in 0.551 g of potassium (K)? 1 mol K = 39.10 g K = 6.022 x 1023 atoms K 6.022 x 1023 atom Number of K atoms = 0.551 g X 39.10 g = 8.49 x 1021 atoms Relative Molecular Mass (or molecular weight) is the sum of the atomic masses (in amu) in a molecule. Due to the fact that the quantity of gaseous materials depends on its pressure, temperature and/or volume, 1 mol of any substance in this state would occupy different volumes. Room Temp. & Pressure (R.T.P.) Standard Room Temp. & Pressure (S.T.P.) T = 25oC (298 K) P = 1 atm (101 325 Pa) T = 25oC (298 K) P = 1 atm (101 325 Pa)
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VOLUME S.I. derived unit for volume is cubic meter (m3). but in chemistry, dm3 (or litres) are usually used. 1 cm3 = (1 x 10-2 m)3 = 1 x 10-6 m3 1 dm3 = (1 x 10-1 m)3 = 1 x 10-3 m3 1L = 1,000 mL = 1,000 cm3 = 1 dm3 1 mL = 1 cm3 DENSITY S.I. SI derived unit for density is kg/m3 mass density = volume Significant Figures Any digit that is not zero is significant 1.234 kg 4 significant figures Zeros between nonzero digits are significant 606 m 3 significant figures Zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant 0.08 L 1 significant figure
9 Lau Kah Pew STPM 2006
Significant Figures If a number is greater than 1, then all zeros to the right of the decimal point are significant 2.0 mg 2 significant figures If a number is less than 1, then only the zeros that are at the end and in the middle of the number are significant 0.00420 g 3 significant figures
ACCURACY how close a measurement is to the true value PRECISION how close a set of measurements are to each other
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A) Molarity The number of mole of dissolved solute divided by the volume of the mixture. Symbol: M (sometimes the symbol c is used) Unit: mol L1 or mol dm3 or M
M =
Example: A student prepared a solution by dissolving 0.586 g of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 in 250.0 cm3 of water. Calculate its concentration.
B) Molal Concentration (Molality) The number of mole of dissolved solute divided by the mass (in kg) of the solvent. Symbol: m or M Unit: mol Kg1 or molal or m
M =
Example: Calculate the molal concentration of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) solution containing 8.40 g of ethylene glycol in 200 g of water. The molar mass of ethylene glycol is 62 g/mol.
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C) Weight per Cent (Per Cent By Mass) Mass ratio between solute and solution. Symbol: % w/w Unit: % 10% w/w of NaOH means 10 g NaOH dissolved in 90 g of water (solvent). % w/w = msolute msolution Note: msolution = msolute + msolvent
Example: A sample of 0.892 g of potassium chloride, KCl is dissolved in 54.3 g of water. What is the per cent by mass of KCl in this solution?
D) Weight/Volume per Cent The ratio between the mass of the solute and the volume of the solution. Symbol: % w/v Unit: % g/mL 5% w/v of KCl means that 5 g of KCl is dissolved in 100 mL of KCl (aq) solution. % w/v = msolute Vsolution
Example: What mass of NaCl is needed to prepare 250 mL of 0.9% w/v solution
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E) Mole Fraction The ratio between the numbers of mole of a component compared to the total number of moles of every component found in the solution. Symbol: xA = xA (mole fraction for A) Unit: none nA = number of mol of component A in a mixture
of two or more component nT = total number of moles of all the components (including A) in a mixture
nA nT
Example: What is the mole fraction of CuCl2 in a solution prepared by dissolving 0.30 mol of CuCl2 in 40.0 mol of H2O.
F) Parts per Million Percentages (%) are parts per hundred. Parts per million (ppm) is quantity of component (in grams) in 106 g of the mixture. Symbol: Unit: Cppm = Cppm ppm @ mg/L @ g/g @ g/mL @ mg/kg mass of solute (g) Volume of solution (g) X 106
Example: The concentration of calcium ions in blood is 100.0 ppm. Calculate the mass of calcium ions in 500.0 g of blood.
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Al
3+
protons = 13 electrons = 13 3 = 10 A monatomic ion contains only one atom: Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom: OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3Ionic compounds consist of a combination of cations and anions. the formula is always the same as the empirical formula the sum of the charges on the cation(s) and anion(s) in each formula unit must equal zero 2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6
Al
3+
Al2O3
O2-
Pb(CN)2
lead cyanide
Lau Kah Pew STPM 2006
Transition metal ionic compounds indicate charge on metal with Roman numerals
Note that the Roman numeral is written in parenthesis and is joined to the name of the metal. Molecular Compounds nonmetals or nonmetals + metalloids The name of the first element in the formula is the same as in the periodic table. But the last element ends in the suffix ide. HCl hydrogen chloride HBr hydrogen bromide SiC silicon carbide If there are more than one combination of compounds from the same elements, the prefix mono, di, tri etc to denote number of atoms in the molecule. NO nitrogen monoxide NO2 nitrogen dioxide N2O4 dinitrogen tetroxide Some compounds are more commonly known by their traditional names (which may be non-systematic), or for organic compounds, they have their own systematic nomenclature. H2O water NH3 ammonia CH4 methane C2H4 ethene
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Acids Acids is usually named according to its physical state Acid HCl HBr HI HCN H2S Molecular Form hydrogen chloride hydrogen bromide hydrogen iodide hydrogen cyanide hydrogen sulphide Aqueous Form hydrochloric acid hydrobromic acid hydroiodic acid hydrocyanic acid hydrosulphuric acid
Oxoacids: are acids that contain H, O & another element. The formulas are normally written with the H first, and the O last. Acid HNO3 H2CO3 H2SO4 HClO3 Name Nitric acid Carbonic acid Sulphuric acid Chloric acid
Some oxoacids have the same central element but contain different number H & O. Naming oxoacids more oxygen
per + Name of element + ic
HClO4
normal oxoacid e.g. HClO3 less 1 oxygen
perchloric acid
Name of element + ic
chloric acid
Name of element + ous
HClO2
least oxygen
chlorous acid
hypo + Name of element + ous
HClO
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hypochlorous acid
Lau Kah Pew STPM 2006
NaClO4
normal oxoacid e.g. NaClO3 less 1 oxygen
sodium perchlorate
Name of anion + ate
sodium chlorate
Name of anion + ite
NaClO2
least oxygen
sodium chlorite
hypo + Name of anion + ite
NaClO
Therefore... H2SO4 hydrogen sulphate H2SO3 hydrohen sulphite (less one O)
sodium hypochlorite
KNO3 KNO2
Bases Bases contain hydroxide ion or yields hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. KOH NaOH Ba(OH)2 potassium hydroxide sodium hydroxide barium hydroxide
Molecular Formula & Empirical Formula A molecular formula shows the exact number of atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a substance. An empirical formula shows the simplest whole-number ratio of the atoms in a substance Compounds with different molecular formulae can have the same empirical formula, and such substances will have the same percentage composition We can use percent composition to determine the empirical formula of a compound Example Determine the empirical formula for ethanol. If the combustion of 11.5 g ethanol is found to produce 22.0 g CO2 and 13.5 g H2O.
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1.5 Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry is the calculation of the quantities of reactants and products involved in a chemical reaction. A + 2B C + 3D Based upon a balanced chemical equation, we know the mol ratio of reactants and products, thus we are able to determine the quantity of any one of these if the required amount of information is available. Example Methanol burns in air according to the equation 2 CH3OH + 3 O2 2 CO2 + 4 H2O If 209 g of methanol are used up in the combustion, what mass of water is produced?
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All 6 used 6 balance (leftover) Example In one process, 124 g of Al are reacted with 601 g of Fe2O3 2 Al + Fe2O3 Al2O3 + 2 Fe Calculate the mass of Al2O3 formed.
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% Yield =
Example
Cu + 2 AgNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2 Ag When 10.0 g of copper was reacted with excess silver nitrate solution, 30.0 g of silver was obtained. a) What is the maximum number of grams of Ag that could have been obtained? b) What was the actual yield of Ag in grams? c) Calculate the percentage yield for this reaction.
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Example 2 A particular analytical chemistry procedure requires 0.0500 M K2CrO4. What volume of 0.250 M K2CrO4 must be diluted with water to prepare 100 mL of 0.0500 M K2CrO4?
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In a titration, a solution of accurately known concentration is gradually added to another solution of unknown concentration until the chemical reaction between the two solutions is complete. During titration, the point whereby the reaction is completed is called the equivalence point The INDICATOR is the substance that changes color at (or near) the equivalence point. It functions as a marker to indicate when the reaction is completed. Example 3 A 25.00 mL sample of HCl solution is titrated against Na2CO3 solution of 0.150 M. It requires 21.20 mL of Na2CO3 for complete neutralisation. Calculate the concentration of HCl solution.
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Lau Kah Pew STPM 2006 EXERCISE 1. Copper exist naturally on Earth as 63Cu and 65Cu with an isotopic ratio of 2.333 respectively. Based on the carbon-12 scale, the relative isotopic mass of 63Cu = 62.9396 and 65Cu = 64.9278. Determine the relative atomic mass of copper.
[63.54]
2. Natural lithium is: 7.42% 6Li (6.015 amu) and 92.58% 7Li (7.016 amu). Calculate the relative atomic mass of lithium metal.
[6.941]
4. A sample of iron, Fe, weighs 1.00 kg. What is the amount (mole) of Fe?
[17.9 mol]
7. How much space is needed to fill 3.2 moles of methane gas at room temperature?
[76.8]
8. An antacid tablet contains 450 mg Na2CO3. When swallowed, the Na2CO3 reacts with gastric secretion which contains hydrochloric acid (HCl), according to the reaction equation, Na2CO3 + 2 HCl 2 NaCl + CO2 + H2O How many grams of HCl were neutralized by the tablet?
[0.031g]
9. Calculate the mass of (NH4)2CO3 that contains a) 0.300 mol NH4+ b) 6.02 x 1023 H atoms 10. How many moles of water can fill a half litre bottle? (the density of water is 1.00 g/mL) 11. Determine the density of oxygen and helium gas at STP. (nHe = 4.003 g/mol; nO = 16.00 g/mol) 12. Seawater is typically 3.5% sea salt and has a density of about 1.03 g/mL. How many grams of sea salt would be needed to prepare enough seawater solution to completely fill a 62.5 L aquarium? 13. An experiment calls for a 0.150 m solution of sodium chloride in water. How many grams of NaCl would have to be dissolved in 500.0 g of water to prepare a solution of this molality?
[4.38 g]
[2.25 X 103 g]
15. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) cures scurvy and may help prevent the common cold. It is composed of 40.92% carbon, 4.58% hydrogen and 54.50% oxygen by mass. The molar mass of ascorbic acid is 176 g mol1. Determine its empirical formula and molecular formula.
[C6H8O6]
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Lau Kah Pew STPM 2006 16. A compound Y with chemical formula as shown below: CH2=CHCOOCH3 Write the empirical formula and molecular formula of the compound. Calculate the percentage composition of carbon in the compound Y. 17. Urea, (NH2)2CO, is prepared by reacting ammonia with carbon dioxide. 2 NH3(g) + CO2(g) (NH2)2CO(aq) + H2O(l) In one process, 637.2 g of ammonia are allowed to react with 1142 g of CO2. a) Which of the two reactants is the limiting reagent? b) Calculate the mass of (NH2)2CO formed and, c) Determine the amount of excess reagent (in grams) that is left at the end of the reaction.
[NH3 = limiting reagent, 1124 g (NH2)2CO, 319 g CO2]
18. Titanium is a strong, lightweight, corrosion-resistant metal that is used in rockets, aircraft, bicycle frames, and even sports cars. It is prepared by the reaction of titanium(IV) chloride with molten magnesium between 950o to 1150oC. TiCl4 (g) + 2 Mg (l) Ti (s) + 2 MgCl2(l) In a certain industrial operation, 3.54 X 107 g of TiCl4 are reacted with 1.13 X 107 g of Mg. Calculate the theoretical yield of Ti in grams. If 7.91 X 106 g of Ti is actually obtained, determine the percent yield.
[8.93 X 106 g Ti, 88.6 %]
19. What mass of KI is required to make 500. mL of a 2.80 M KI solution? 20. A 16.42 mL volume of 0.1327 M KMnO4 solution is needed to oxidise 20.00 mL of a FeSO4 solution in an acidic medium. What is the concentration of the FeSO4 ? A 16.42 mL volume of 0.1327 M KMnO4 solution is needed to oxidise 20.00 mL of a FeSO4 solution in an acidic medium. What is the concentration of the FeSO4?
[0.5450 M]
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Q9-P2-2000 a) (i) Define relative atomic mass. (ii) The relative atomic mass of X is 30.97. How many times is one atom of X heavier than one atom of carbon-12? (iii) Naturally occurring sulphur consists of four isotopes with relative abundance shown in the table below. Relative Isotopic Mass 31.97 32.97 33.96 35.96 Relative Abundance (%) 95.02 0.75 4.21 0.02
Calculate the relative atomic mass of sulphur b) The mass spectrum of 1,2-dichloropropane shows peaks at mass/charge ratio of 112, 114, and 116. (i) If 1,2-dichloropropane consists of isotopes: hydrogen-1, carbon-12, chlorine-35 and chlorine-37, give the formulae of the ions responsible for the peaks. (ii) If the ratio of chlorine-35 to chlorine-37 is 3:1, determine the relative abundance of the three peaks. (iii) Sketch and label the mass spectrum of 1,2-dichloropropane showing the peaks concerned.
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Q10-P2-2002 a) An organic compound, P, with a relative molecular mass of 126.5, has the following composition by mass: carbon, 66.4%; chlorine, 28.1%; and hydrogen, 5.5%. Determine the molecular formula of P.
Q7-P2-1999 a) A hydrocarbon with an empirical formula C7H6, and a relative molecular mass of 180 contains 93.33% carbon, and 6.67% hydrogen by mass. Determine the molecular formula of this hydrocarbon.
Q5-P1-Nov 1973 Figure 2 shows the distances of ions in the mass spectrometer of bromine gas. The bromine used consists of its isotopes with a nucleon number of 79 and 81. The atomic mass of bromine is 79.9. The three groups of lines; A, B and C, is produced by ions Br+(g), Br2+(g) and Br2+(g). State which of the ions give the following lines. (a) Group A (b) Group B (c) Group C
1 2 A
1 2 B
1 2 C
Identify all the lines in groups B and C. Underline the spectrum which has the highest abundance.
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June 1999 Air contains 21% oxygen gas. Natural oxygen consists of three isotopes; 16O, 17O, and 18O. a) Write all possible molecular formulae of oxygen that might exist in our air. b) A mixture of these isotopes was analysed in a mass spectrometer. A stream of univalent positive ions produced is deflected by the magnetic field and is detected by the ion detector. Which ion would deflect least? Explain. c) Calculate the molar mass of the heaviest oxygen gas.
Mar 2002 Analysis of mass spectrometer shows that copper consists of two naturally occurring isotopes: 63Cu and 65Cu. If the ratio of relative abundance of these two isotopes is 63 Cu = 2.235 65 Cu Calculate the percentage of relative abundance of each copper isotope.
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