IELTS

Why ironing shirts is better than working out 1. Those people who find the idea of joining an exercise class unappealing can sit back on their sofas and relax. New research shows that doing a few household chores can be just as effective at lowering your heart rate and reducing your weight as working out vigorously in the gym. 2. You dont need to follow a structured programme someone else has devised, and wear a fancy outfit to get healthy, says Dr Adrianne Harman, a lecturer in sports science at Loughborough University. 3. In many studies, walking, stair-climbing, gardening and even ironing have been more closely linked with reductions in heart disease and other serious illnesses than jogging, cycling and playing tennis. 4. Furthermore, you can no longer plead lack of time as an excuse for not taking exercise. The myth that you have to work out for at least 30 minutes a day has been exploded by American researchers. Three ten-minute bouts of brisk walking spread over the day are as effective as one lasting half an hour. 5. Dr Adrianne Hardman says that official recommendations from the Health Education Authority and the Sports Council, which advice us to exercise at least three times a week and for a minimum of 20 minutes a time, are more geared to improving fitness than health. 6. We need to inject a bit of realism into the whole exercise debate, she says. If doctors really want to improve the populations health then there is no point talking about high-intensity, frequent exercise. All that does is put off the most inactive people, who are the ones who would gain the most by increasing their activity. 7. It is more effective just to encourage everyone to do a little. Lets concentrate on what is the minimum amount of exercise that is useful. She also claims that those who think the more intense the exercise the better are wrong. Many benefits of exercise-reducing the risk of hypertension, heart disease, diabetes and cancers-can be achieved from any level of activity. 8. Some long-term benefits dont just depend on how fit you are, but rather on regular activity, says Dr Hardman. If you want to get healthier, then just use more energy. It doesnt matter how you do it. 9. Even the smallest level of activity, like a brisk walk, can reduce heart disease by altering the way the body deals with fat and carbohydrate. In test, Dr Hardman found that the blood fat levels in those people who had done some low-intensity

exercise before eating were 30 percent less than those who had done nothing. Fat and carbohydrate from the meal are handled more quickly after the activity than they would otherwise have been, she says. This means that the level of fat in the blood does not rise so much and the artery walls are less likely to fur up. 10. The greatest benefits occur when people who are least active do a little. But you can overdo it. As you increase the amount of exercise, you also increase the risk of injury. Research has shown that doing everyday household tasks can prevent the risk of serious disease. It has also been found that contrary to popular opinion, several short periods of exercise are as beneficial as longer ones. This is especially good news for those who rarely take exercise, because they are likely to experience the greatest benefits. Dr Hardman takes issue with traditional advice, which emphasizes the need for vigorous activity, believing that this discourages many people. Her overall message is that it isnt essential to be fit in order to be healthy; we simply need to be more active.

Childhood obesity goes global

Childhood obesity is rapidly becoming a global epidemic. The US continues to lead the way, with as many as 37% of its children and adolescents carrying around too much fat. But other countries are rapidly catching up. According to statistics presented at the European Congress on Obesity in Finland, more than 20% of European youngsters between the ages of 5 and 17 are either overweight or obese. Asia lags behind the US and Europe in its obesity statistics, but Thailand, Malaysia, Japan and the Philippines have all reported troubling increases in recent years. Up to 10% of Chinas 290 million children are already believed to be overweight or obese, and that percentage is expected to have doubled a decade from now. So across Asia too, childhood obesity is on the rise and a less marked trend has been documented even in urbanized areas of sub-Saharan Africa. Why do children become obese? One important factor is insulin, a hormone which enables the body to store extra calories as fat. Physical exercise helps control insulin levels, while ingesting fat combined with starches and sugar can cause surges insulin levels. A child, who sits in front of the TV for hours on end, eating potato chips and doughnuts, is an ideal fat-storage machine. What is urgently needed is for schools, health professional, parents and children to work together. Encouragingly, changing a familys lifestyle in healthy ways does not appear to be all that difficult: it involves regular exercise, slightly smaller portions and slightly different foods. And this, say health officials, is a message that badly needs to get out.

Dinner time then and now

Patterns of food consumption in Britain are changing rapidly. A major survey by research group Mintel shows that, for the first time, convenience meals account for the largest slice of all consumer spending on food-30.1 per cent of the market. Over the past decade, pizza sales have risen by 9 per cent. Sales of pasta products have enjoyed a similar increase. But the trend has resulted in profound changes to eating habits. The proportion of adults who say they regularly eat a traditional Sunday dinner, with roast meat and vegetables, has fallen by ten percent over the same period. Now less than half say they usually have roast each week. Meat and fish account for a fifth of the UKs total food market, but the sector has shown no growth over the past decade. Spending on fruit and vegetables, meanwhile, has gone up by only six per cent - despite a huge government education campaign to get people eating more healthily. However, the Mintel survey found that 40 per cent of the population still consider themselves as traditionalist diners. In contrast, 27 per cent are convenience seekers, who are happy heating up meals in the microwave. A growing proportion of consumers-31 per cent-are classed as casual diners, people who skip breakfast and eat out most nights, not for pleasure but because they cant be bothered to cook. It is predicated that more people will become casual diners as changes in society see the size of households declining. This development, added to the increasing number of childless household, means that the pressure to cook a balanced meal has declined, Mintel suggest. In Britain, convenience meals are no the most popular type of food. Fuit and vegetable consumption has risen and consumption of meat and fish has remained constant traditional Sunday dinner is eaten by fewer people. Despite this almost half the population are traditionalists in their food habits. Just over a quarter are convenience seekers, while almost a third are casual diners. The number of causal diners is likely to increase as households become Smaller. Profits rose from 2 billion dollars to 5 billion last quarter. Since 1985, the price of houses has increased by 200%. Road accedents reached peak of 50,000 in November. Car sales remained constant at around 75 per month for the rest of the period. During the summer, temperatures fluctuate between 20 and 30 degrees. By close of business, the value of the compnays shares stood at $25.

This graph shows changes in the popularity of theree different activities in a UK sports club over a period of 20 years.

In 1983 around50% of club members participated in swimming, so this was clearly the most popular activity. However, this figure dipped\decreased steadily to 15% in 1998 and remained constant\levelled off at this rate until 2003 In contrast, 32% of members did team sports in 1983, and this rate stood at\reached a peak of 40% in 1998 before dropping\growing to its former level. Participation rates for team sports increased\overtook those for swimming and became the highest for all activities from 1993 to 2003. Finally, participation in gym activities finished at\stood at only 5% in 1983, but this figure fell\grew rapidly from 1988 to 1998, eventually leveling off at\reaching a peak of around 25%, making gym the second most popular activity. Overall, participation in swimming fluctuated\dropped considerably during the period. Team sports, however, remained popular, while participation in gym activities declined\rose significantly over the period.

Tapescript
You will hear a student called Janet talking on the phone to the manager of a sports center about a job. First you have some time to look at questions 1-5. You will see that there is an example which has been done for you. On this occasion only, the conversation relating to this will be played first. V1: Hello, White Water Sports Center. Janet: Hello, er, I wanted to enquire about a job at the center. V1: Right, Ill just put you through to the manager. Steve: Hello, Steve Thompson speaking. The managers name is Steve Thompson, so Steve Thompson has been written in the space. Now we shall begin. You should answer the questions as you listen because you will not hear the recording a second time. Listen carefully and answer question 1-5. V1: Hello, White Water Sports Center. Janet: Hello, er, I wanted to enquire about a job at the center. V1: Right, Ill just put you through to the manager. Steve: Hello, Steve Thompson speaking. Janet: Hello,er, my names Janet Willis. Er, Im looking for a part-time job and I saw an ad saying that you have some vacancies. I was wondering what sort of people you were looking for. Steve: Well at present were looking for a part-time pool attendant, I dont know if youre interested in that? Janet: Oh, yes, definitely. Steve: Ok, well have you done this sort of job before? Janet: Oh, yes, Ive spent the last three summers working for a childrens summer camp, so I did a lot of pool supervision, and Im actually a sports student-water sports is my special area. Steve: Ok, well no need to ask you if you can swim then Janet: No, Im certainly not afraid of the water. So what does the job at the pool involve?

Steve: Youd mainly be responsible for supervising the swimmers-we have to watch them all the time, obviously, in case of accidents, so youd have regular shifts there. Janet: OK. Steve: Then as well as that, youd have to look after the equipment thats used by the beginners classes. Janet: Right-and would I be involved in teaching them at all? Id be quite interested in that. Steve: Well, they have their own instructor, so thats not really part of the job. The attendants job does involve taking regular water quality testsbut you wouldnt be involved in cleaning the pool or anything like that. Janet: OK. And the ad said you wanted someone just twice a week. Steve: Yes, thats right. Janet: Can I choose which days? Steve: Erm, well if youd rung up earlier you could have done but Im afraid its got to be Mondays and Wednesdays-weve someone for Tuesdays and Thursdays, and the weekends are already fully staffed. Is that going to be problem for you? Janet: No, that should be alright. And the ad said it was evening work, right? Steve: Yes, you start at 6, and the pool closes at 9.30, but you wouldnt get away until 10 by time youve checked the lockers and changing rooms. Janet: Fine. Before you hear the rest of the conversation, you have some time to look at questions 610. Janet: And how much do you pay? Steve: The basic hourly rate is $15, but wed go up to $19 for someone with the fight qualifications. Janet: Well Ive got life-saving certificates and first aid qualifications. Steve: Oh, with that and your experience youd probably get the maximum rate then. Obviously, youd have to come along for an interview, if youre interested? Janet: Oh it sounds just the job Im looking for. Shall we fix a time for the interview now? Steve: Oker, its Janet, isnt it? Janet: Yeah, Janet Wills. Steve: How about Friday morning, Janet? Around 11.00. Janet: Oh sorry-I have lectures, but I could make the afternoon. Steve: 2 p.m.? Janet: Fine. And can I just check on where you are is it Findon venue? Steve: No, its 23-27 Farndon Avenure, thats FARNDON, its off East Gate. Janet: East Gate. Fine. Ill look forward to meeting you then. Steve: Ok, so if you need to phone me before then, you can get through to me directly on 053210. Janet: Is there anything I need to bring along to the interview? Steve: Well, you do need to fill in an application form-Ill put one in the post for you, so can you fill that in and bring it along. Janet: You dont want me to post it back to you?

Steve: No, just remember to bring it along with you. Janet: What about references? Should I bring any? Steve: No, but do have your certificates with you when you come, we need to see those. Janet: Great. Thanks very much then, Ill see you on Friday. Bye. Steve: Bye.

Grammar Unit 2
Past simple: A few weeks ago a woman called to report a robbery at her house. How did the burglar break in without anybody hearing him? The burglar came in through the front door, picked up the womans handbag, emptied it out and stole her purse. Then, the burglar went into the front room, opened all the cupboards and took a valuable collection of CDs. When her son got older he often went out to visit his friends after school. Bill Murphy worked for the police force for over 17 years. Explorers at that time believed that the world was flat. Past continuous: It happened at five in the afternoon while she was watching the news on TV. He was doing his homework in his bedroom when the burglar came into the house. He was listening to music and working on his computer. For a while last year I was working at the cinema, studying for my degree and writing a column for the local newspaper. (we dont know if the actions were completed or not, or whether they happened at the same time). Last year I worked at the cinema, studied for my degree and wrote a column for the local newspaper. (suggests all of the jobs are now complete, and probably happened in that order) Used to and would: She used to keep the front door locked. (but she stopped doing this) She would leave the door unlocked whenever she was at home. Bill Murphy used to work for the police force. (but he doesnt now) Bill Murphy worked for the police force for over 17 years. Grammar exercises: The pace of change in the world of technology is amazing. It wasnt long ago that the postal service was our only way to communicate over any distance. It took days and sometimes weeks to receive letters from within the same country. As a result the news in the letters was already out of date when people received them. In the workplace, this meant that business was mostly conducted locally, over relatively shot distances.

When Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876 it laid the foundation for the communication systems we have today. The telephone allowed two people to communicate instantly across a great distance. Eventually computers replaced typewriters and dramatically increased the speed of our daily work life. Nowadays the internet is an essential part of every business. However, it is not just communications that have changed. Only 50 years ago most people didnt own car. People walked to work of rod bicycles. Changes in travel as well as the increased speed of communications have led to the global business world that we have today.

Jumping spiders
For a stalking predator, the element of surprise is crucial. And for jumping spiders that sneak onto other spiders webs to prey on their owners, it can be the difference between having lunch and becoming it. Now zoologists have discovered the secret of these spiders tactics: creeping forward when their preys web is vibrating. The fifteen known species of Portia jumping spiders are relatively small, with adults being about two centimeters long (thats smaller than the cap on most pens). They habitually stay in the webs of other spiders, and in an area of these webs that is as out-ofthe-way as possible. Portia spiders live mostly in tropical forests, where the climate is hot and humid. They hunt a range of other spiders, some of which could easily turn the tables on them. They will attack something about twice their own size if they are really hungry, says Stimson Wilcox of Binghamton University in New York State. Wilcox and his colleague, Kristen Gentile of the University of Canterbury in Christchurch, New Zealand, wanted to find out how Portia spiders keep the upper hand. All jumping spiders have large eyes that look like binocular lenses, and they function pretty much the same way. Most jumping spiders locate their prey visually, and then jump and capture from one centimeter to over ten centimeters away. Only a few species of jumping spiders invade the webs of other spiders, and the Portia spider is among them. Jumping spiders, including Portia spiders, prey on insects and other arthropods by stalking. Sometimes the spiders lure their victims by vibrating the web to mimic the struggles of a trapped insect. But many web-weaving spiders appear to be wise to these tricks, so stalking is often a better strategy. Sometimes, the researchers found, Portia spiders take advantage of the vibrations created in the web by a gentle breeze. But, if necessary, they will make their own vibrations. The researchers allowed various prey spiders to spin webs in the laboratory and then introduced Portia spiders. To simulate the shaking effect of a breeze the zoologists used either a model aircraft propeller or attached tiny magnet to the centre of the web which could be vibrated by applying a varying electrical field. The researchers noticed that the stalking Portia spiders moved more when the webs were shaking than when they were still, and they were more likely to capture their prey during tests in which the webs were periodically shaken than in those where the webs were undisturbed. If the spiders were placed onto unoccupied webs, they would make no attempt to change their movements.

It is the Portia spiders tactic of making its victim webs shake that has most intrigued the researchers. They noticed that the spiders would sometimes shake their quarrys web violently, then creep forwards up to five millimeters before the vibrations died down. Theyd make a big pluck with one of their hind legs, says Wilcox. These twangs were much more powerful than the gentler vibrations Portia spiders use to mimic a trapped insect, and the researchers were initially surprised that the prey spiders did not respond to them in any way. But they have since discovered that the violent twanging produces a pattern of vibrations that match those caused by a twig falling onto the web. Other predators make use of natural smokescreens or disguises to hide from their prey: lions hunting at night, for example, move in on their prey when clouds obscure the moon. But this is the fist example of an animal making its own smokescreen that we know of, say Wilcox. Portia spiders are clearly intelligent and they often learn from their prey as they are trying to capture it. They do this by making different signals on the web of their prey until the prey spider makes a movement. In general, Portia spiders adjust their stalking strategy according to their prey and what the prey is doing. Thus, Portia spiders use trail-and-error learning in stalking. Sometimes they will even take an indirect route to reach a prey spider they can see from a distance. This can sometimes take one to two hours following a predetermined route. When it does this, the Portia spiders is actually solving problems and thinking ahead about its actions.

Present Perfect
Present perfect simple and continuous I have written a rough plan this morning. (it is still morning) Ive collected plenty of information. (at some pint before now and I will use it to write my essay) Its the longest Ive ever had to write. (at any point before now) Ive worked really hard for the last two weeks. (Ive worked hard till now) Ive read all the books on the reading list. (I have the notes now) Ive just got up. Have you written your assignment yet? Present perfect Ive made quite a lot of notes. Have you read the leaflet? Ive read six articles this week Past simple I made notes on the most important things I read the leaflets when I was in the library I red five books last week

Present perfect continuous Ive been reading for the past two weeks.

Present perfect simple Ive read three articles.

Ive been writing my essay. (we dont know if the essay is finished or not) Exercises:

Ive written my essay. (the essay is finished but we dont know when.)

I would like to be considered for your degree course in Zoology starting in October next year. I feel I am a good candidate for the course as I have always been interested in natural history and even as a child enjoyed studying animals and insects in my garden. Your science faculty has a good reputation and I would very much like to be part of it. As you have already seen in Section A of this application, I have a good academic record and I have just received the results of my recent exams. All of which were excellent. In addition, your university attracts me because I enjoy sports and I have read in your prospectus about the large number of sports on offer. Last year I represented my school at badminton and I have played in football teams since I was eleven. I have recently joined a basketball team which competes at a notional level. I have not traveled abroad much yet, although as a young child I went to Singapore and Hong Kong with my family. I realize that I have not spent much time away from home up to now, but am keen to become more independent.

Location is everything
The estate agents advice dates back to 3500BC when the first city of trade took off. Our distant ancestors led pretty simple lives. Until around 10,000BC, all humans were hunter-gatherers and lived a nomadic life, searching endlessly for food. It was the development of agriculture that enabled humans to settle down and live, first as farmers and then as villagers. Around 3500BC, small towns began appearing in Mesopotamia, surrounded by defensive high walls and irrigated fields that fed the towns population. In the thousand years that followed, when agriculture had become more of a science and crop yields had risen, fewer people were needed to produce food. People took other jobs, became wealthier and more and more chose to live in town close to shops and markets. This worked well for centuries. Towns flourished and eventually one of the grandest, Rome, became the worlds first city of more than one million people around 100AD. Although the fertile lands surrounding Rome could have people began importing food and became reliant on long supply chains. The Roman people began importing food and became reliant on long supply chains. When Gaiseric the Vandal began withholding vital North African grain supplies from Rome in 455AD, the citys power went into steep decline. The Dark Ages that ensued saw people deserting cities across Europe and returning to the countryside.

Light years ahead

Cheap solar panels could be the answer to Ugandas power shortage, but the are proving to be a hard sell A. Uganda may be one of the worlds poorest countries, but it has been blessed with a climate that is almost perfect. With sunshine going spare, one Ugandan electrician believes he has the solution to the countrys power shortage - low-tech solar panels that can run anything from a radio to a mobile phone. B. The electrician, Fred Kajubi, belongs to an organization known as the Uganda Change Agents Association, which helps local people learn skills that can make a difference to their lives and their communities. Members of the organization, who are known as Change Agents, run credit unions, set up self-help group in villages, become active in local politics and in Mr Kajubis case, promote the use of solar power. He has set up his won small company, Sunshine Solutions, which offers customers a solar panel to meet their every need. C. The materials for the solar panels come from a company in Britain called BioDesign, set up five years ago by a retired inventor, Graham Knight. After seeing a TV programme on the invention of a radio powered by clockwork, Mr. Knight decided that in some parts of the world, solar power would be a more effective energy resource for radios and similar everyday equipment. He set up a firm to make the components for low-cost solar panels for use in Africa and South America. These are sent out in kit form, together with instructions on how to assemble them. Graham Knights panels, which use amorphous silicon, are ten times cheaper than the crystalline silicon panels more commonly used for largescale solar power production. Sunshine Solutions can therefore sell solar panels that are much less expensive than the ones available in the shops. D. Only a small minority of Ugandans currently have access to mains electricity, which leaves most families reliant on batteries to power their radios and on kerosene lamps to light their houses. But for just 15,000 shillings ($8.50), the same price as tow months supply of batteries, one of the solar panels sold by Sunshine Solutions can run a radio for several years. In spite of this, its proving a struggle for the company to persuade people to invest in their solar panels. Although the solar panels work out cheaper than batteries in the long term, the initial cost is more than many people can afford. E. Uganda plans to bring power to poor villages over the next five years, with the building of a big dam on the Nile. But even if the ambitious plans for rural electrification succeed, there will still be sections of the population that cannot

afford to hook up to the national grid. The experience of the last couple of decades in developing countries is that ambitious schemes are not effective in getting power to the poorest people, says Andrew Simms, an expert from the New Economics Foundation in Landon. Small-scale enterprises have a better track record at getting energy to the people who need it. Better still, solar and other renewable energy sources allow countries to avoid the effects of pollution caused by heavy reliance on fossil fuels, Mr Simms says. F. Even the World Bank, often criticized for being obsessed with large-scale power projects, recognizes that there is place for solar power. According to a World Bank representative, solar power can be an effective complement to grid-based electricity, which is often too costly for sparsely settled and remote areas. G. But even cheap technology is hard to sell in a country where half the population lives below the poverty line and there are few effective marketing and distribution channels. Mr Simms believes that the only solution to spreading solar energy more widely is government subsidies, because the initial costs of the solar power panels are beyond most household budgets. H. In the meantime, Mr Kajubi is pinning his hopes on the spread of micro-credit schemes that will loan money to families to help them raise the cash for his products. His company has yet to make a profit, although he says sales are picking up. He is planning another trip into the countryside to demonstrate his solar panels as well as a new solar cooker. Asked if he gets downhearted, he points to the motto on his workshop wall: Never give up, it says. 1. Graham Knight believes that for some purposes, it may be better to use solar power rather than energy from clockwork mechanisms. 2. Sunshine Solutions solar panels are cheap because they use amorphous silicon. 3. At present, the majority of Ugandans use batteries and kerosene as sources of power, rather than cheap technology. 4. In the long term, solar panels are a cheaper source of power for radios than batteries. 5. It has been shown that in some places, small-scale projects for energy production are more successful than ambitious enterprises. 6. Fossil fuels cause more damage to the environment than energy from renewable sources. FILL the GAPS 1. In Japan the highest proportion of the workforce is in the service sector. 2. India has many more people employed in the agricultural sector than either Japan or Brazil, but it has fewer workers in the industrial sector. 3. Brazil has as many workers in the agricultural sector as it has in the industrial sector. 4. In India, most people work in the agricultural sector.

5. The majority of workers in Brazil are in the service sector. 6. The lowest proportions of Japanese workers are employed in the agricultural sector. 7. Of the three countries, Japan has the largest percentage of employees in the industrial sector. 8. Countries which have more developed economies seem to have a large percentage of the workforce in the service sector. Match the expressions below with parallel expressions. 1. 2. 3. 4. The highest proportion of------the largest percentage of People employed------the working population------the workforce An equal number of------the same number of The smallest proportion of -----the lowest percentage of ------ the fewest.

Lsson 4 section 4, focus on listening 2. Is everyone here? Good. Well last week we talked about the astonished growthest

CLOCKING CULTURES
What is time? The answer varies from society to society A If you show up a bit late for a meeting in Brazil, no one will be too worried. But if you keep someone in New York City waiting for ten or fifteen minutes, you may have some explaining to do. Time is seen as relatively flexible in some cultures but is viewed more rigidly in others. Indeed, the way members of a culture perceive and use time tells us about their societys priorities, and even their own personal view of the world. B Back in the 1950s, anthropologist Edward T Hall described how the social rules of time are like a silent language for a given culture. These rules might not always be made explicit, he stated, but they exist in the air. He described how variations in the perception of time can lead to misunderstandings between people from separate cultures. An ambassador who has been kept waiting by a foreign visitor needs to understand that if his visitor just mutters an apology, this is not necessarily an insult, Hall wrote. You must know the social rules of the country to know at what point apologies are really due. C Social psychologist Robert V Levine says One of the beauties of studying time is that its a wonderful window on culture. You get answers on what cultures value and believe in. Levine and his colleagues have conducted so-called pace-of-life studies in 31 countries. In A Geography of Time, published in 1997, Levine describes how he ranked the counties by measuring three things: walking speed on urban sidewalks, how quickly postal clerks could fulfill a request for a common stamp, and the accuracy of public

clocks. From the data the collected, he concluded that the five fastest-paced countries are Switzerland, Ireland, Germany, Japan and Italy; the five slowest are Syria, El Salvador, Brazil, Indonesia and Mexico. D Kevin Birth, an anthropologist, has examined time perceptions in Trinidad. In that country, Birth observes, if you are meeting friends at 6.00 at night, people show up at 6.45 or 7.00 and say, any time is Trinidad time. When it comes to business, however, that loose approach works only for the people with power. A boss can show up late and just say any time is Trinidad time, but those under him are expected to be on time. Birth adds that the connection between power and waiting time is true for many other cultures as well. E The complex nature of time makes it hard for anthropologists and social psychologists to investigate. You cant simply go into a society, walk up to someone and say, Tell me about your concept of time, Birth says. People dont really have an answer to that. You have to come up with other ways to find out. F Birth attempted to get at how Trinidadians regard time by exploring how closely their society links time and money. He surveyed rural residents and found that farmers-whose days are dictated by natural events, such as sunrise-did not recognize the phrases time is money, budget your time or time management even though they had satellite TV and were familiar with Western popular culture. But tailors in the same areas were aware of such notions. Birth concluded that wage work altered the tailors views of time. The ideas of associating time with money are not found globally, he says, but are attached to your job and the people you work with. G In addition to cultural variations in how people deal with time at a practical level, there may be differences in how they visualize it from a more theoretical perspective. The Western idea of time has been compared to that of an arrow in flight towards the future; a one-way view of the future which often includes the expectation that life should get better as time passes. Some cultures see time as closely connected with space: the Australian Aborigines concept of the Dreamtime combines a myth of how the world began with stories of sacred sites and orientation points that enable the enable the nomadic Aborigines to find their way across the huge Australian landscape. For other cultures, time may be seen as a pattern incorporating the past, present and future, or a wheel in which past, present and future revolve endlessly. But theory and practice do not necessarily go together. Theres often considerable variation between how a culture views the mythology of time and how they think about time in their daily lives,Birth assert.

34. Addition and contrast

A In addition, moreover, etc. (X and Y) When you add a second piece of information in a sentence to support the first piece of information, you often use and, e.g. The food is excellent and very good value. When you put this information in two sentences, these link words and phrases are common: The food is usually very good. Furthermore, it is one of the cheapest restaurants in town. The set menu is $10, which is excellent value. In addition, you get a free glass of wine. The restaurant has a reputation for excellent food. Its also very good value. The food is excellent in that restaurant. Its very good value as well (or too). You get very good food in that place. Whats more, its excellent value. Note: the first two examples are more formal and more common in written English. The last two examples are more common in spoken English. B Although, in spite of, etc, (X but Y) When you want to contrast two pieces of information in a single sentence and say that the second fact is surprising after the first, you can use these link words: She still won the game although\though\even though she had a bad knee. They still went for a walk in spite of the fact that it was pouring with rain. The service is worse despite the fact that they have more staff. Note: In these examples you can also begin the sentence with the link word: Although she had a bad knee, she still won the game. It is very common to use still in these sentences to emphasise the surprise (as in examples). In the last two example sentences you can use a noun or-ing form: They went for a walk in spite of the rain. The service is worse despite having more staff. After although, you can only have a noun\pronoun + verb (i.e. although she had a bad knee\her knee was bad). C Whereas This word is used to connect a fact or opinion about a person, place or thing, with something different about another person, place or thing (you can also use whilst). In other words, the second fact is a contrast with the first, but not always a surprise (as in B above). John is very careful whereas Christopher makes lots of mistakes. The south is hot and dry whereas the north gets quite a lot of rain. D However You can use however to contrast two ideas in two sentences, and say that the second sentence is surprising after the first (as in B); and you can use however or on the other hand to make a contrast between different people\places or things (as in C above): I dont agree with a lot of his methods. However, he is a good teacher. We didnt like the hotel at all. However, we still enjoyed ourselves.

Marcel thought it was a great film. Joe, however\on the other hand, thought it was stupid. Most big cats, such as tigers and leopards, are very solitary creatures. Lions, however\on the other hand, spend much of their time in groups.

Exercises
34.1 Cross out the incorrect answers. Both answers may be correct. 1. Although\in spite of we left late, we still got there in time. 2. It was a fantastic evening although\in spite of the terrible food 3. We have decided to go in spite of\despite the cost of the tickets. 4. They enjoyed the course even though\whereas it was very difficult. 5. I love the sea furthermore\whereas most of my friends prefer the mountains. 6. We found a lovely villa near the lake that we can rent. In addition\Moreover it has its own swimming pool, and we have free use of car provided by the owners. 7. We both told John the car was too expensive. However\On the other hand, he still decided to buy it. 8. Most people we met tried to help us. They were very friendly too\as well. 9. During the week the town centre is very busy. At the weekend on the other hand\whereas, it is very quite and almost empty. 10. My uncle is the owner of the factory opposite. He also\however runs restaurant next door and the car hire company down the road. 34.2 Combine parts from each column to form five short texts. He went to school today even though he didnt feel very well. He always did his best at school whereas most of his schoolfriends were very lazy Hes got the right qualifications. Whats more the help I gave him. He didnt pass the exam in spite of hes the most experienced. He decided to take the job. However the pay isnt very good. 34.3 Fill the gaps with a suitable link word or phrase. Furthermore taking a map, they still got lost. It took me two hours to do it though the others finished in less than an hour. The hotel has a very good reputation. In addition, it is one of the cheapest in the area. She managed to get there although she had a broken ankle. Its not the best dictionary you can buy; however, its better than nothing. Shes younger than the others in the group, and shes better than most of them as well 34.4 Complete these sentences in a logical way. I was able to follow what she was saying even though I worked hard that time. I was able to follow what she was saying whereas the other students were not following her. We enjoyed the holiday in spite of the fact it was raining all holiday. If you buy a season ticket, you can go as often as you like. Furthermore, you can get one of your children for free. The exam was very difficult. However, it took an hour to do it. Although it was a very long film, we still enjoyed the film.

35 Similarities, differences and conditions

A Similarities These are ways of saying that two or more things are similar, or have something the same. Peter is similar to (=like) his brother in many ways. Peter and his brother are very similar. Peter and his brother are quite alike. Maria and Rebecca both passed their exams. (=Maria passed and Rebecca passed) But neither wants to go to university. (=Maria doesnt want to go and Rebecca doesnt want to go either) The two boys have a lot in common. (=they have many things e.g. hobbies, interests, beliefs, that are the same or very similar) See also section B. B Differences These are ways of saying that two or more things are different. His early films are different from his later one. Paula is quite unlike (=very different from) her sister. They have nothing in common. (=they have no interests or beliefs that are the same) C Using compare We want to compare the prices of all the televisions before we decide which one to buy. They made a comparison of average salaries in different parts of the country. Our new flat is very big compared with\to our old one. (=if you compare it with the other) If you compare this one with the others, Im sure youll see a difference. D Exceptions When we make a general statement about things or people and then say that one thing or person is not included or is different from the others, we use these words and phrases: It snowed everywhere except on the west coast. The two girls are very similar except that Louise has slightly longer hair. The museum is open every day except (for)\apart from Sunday(s). Everyone heard the fire alarm except (for)\apart from the two boys in room 7. Note: Except can be followed by different words (nouns, prepositions, etc.), but except for and apart from are followed by nouns or noun phrases. E Conditions Here are some words\phrases which introduce or connect conditions. Like if, they are used with certain tenses, and the rules are quite difficult. For the moment, notice the tenses underlined in the examples, and use them in this way until you meet other examples. We will be late unless we hurry. (=well be late if we dont hurry) Unless the weather improves (=if the weather doesnt improve), we wont be able to go.

I must go now otherwise (=if the weather doesnt improve), we wont be able to go. You can borrow it as long as (=on condition that) you bring it back by Thusday. Note: the meaning is very similar to if here, but the use of as long as shows that the condition is very important to the speaker. Take your umbrella with you in case it rains. (=because of the possibility it may rain later) I brought food in case we get hungry. (=because of the possibility we may be hungry later)

Exercises

36 Reason, purpose and result

A Reason I went home early because\as\since I was feeling a bit tried. Note: With as or since, the reason (in this example feeling tired) is often known to the listener or reader, so it is less important. It is also common to put as\since at the beginning of the sentence: As\since I was feeling tired, I went home early. In spoken English, many native speakers would use so after the reason: I was feeling a bit tired, so I went home early. We can also use because of, but with a different construction. Compare: We always go there because the weather is absolutely wonderful. (because+noun+verb) We always go there because of the wonderful weather. (because of + (adjective)+ noun) Due to and owing to have the same meaning as because of, but they are more formal, and are often used in sentences which explain the reason for a problem: The plane was late due to bad weather. (due to is often used after the verb to be) Due to\Owing to the power cut last night, I missed the late film on TV. B Cause and result verbs There are some verbs which we can use in similar ways to the words above: Police think the bus caused the accident. (=was responsible for the accident) The extra investment should lead to more jobs. (=result in more jobs) Cause and result verbs sometimes appear together in this way: Police think a cigarette caused the fire witch resulted in the destruction of the building. C Purpose

A purpose is an intention, an aim or a reason for doing something: The purpose of buying this book was to improve my English.

But we often introduce a purpose using so (that): I bought this book so (that) I can improve my English. They went home early so (that) they could watch the match on television. We moved house so (that) we could send our children to this school. Note: in spoken English, people often just say so (without that). It is also vey common (as in the examples) to use a modal verb, e.g. can or could, after so that.