PACKAGE OF PRACTICES OF THE IMPORTANT HORTICULTURAL CROPS OF ANDHRA PRADESH

2010

ANDHRA PRADESH HORTICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

Venkataramannagudem, West Godavari District 534 101 (A.P.)

CONTENTS Page No. Agro climatic Zones of Andhra Pradesh Horticultural Zones of Andhra Pradesh FRUITS Mango Banana Citrus Grapes Guava Sapota Papaya Pineapple Watermelon and Muskmelon Custardapple Pomegranate Ber Aomla Tamarind VEGETABLES Tomato Brinjal Bhendi Gourds Beans Peas Bell Pepper Cauliflower Cabbage Potato Elephant Foot Yam Colocasia Dioscorea Tapioca Sweet Potato

Carrot Leafy Vegetables Amaranthus Spinach Indian Spinach Mint SPICES AND CONDIMENTS Chillies Onion Garlic Ginger Turmeric Coriander Ajwan Fenugreek Fennel PLANTATION CROPS Cashew Coconut Oil palm Cocoa Betelvine Black Pepper FLOWER CROPS Chrysanthemum Crossandra Gladiolus Jasmine Marigold Rose Tuberose AROMATIC PLANTS Lemon Grass Citronella Geranium Palmarosa

Davanam MEDICINAL PLANTS Aswagandha Senna Kalmegh Aloe Coleus Safed Musli Sweet Flag Long Pepper Glory Lily Psyllum Periwinkle Dry Land Horticulture Forest Plants Post Harvesting Equipment GENERAL Composition of Manures and Fertilizers Guide for Mixing Fertilizers Chemical Fertilizer Combinations and Dosage Chart Herbicides available in the Market Control of Perennial Weeds in Orchards Some insecticidal materials for common household use Insecticides their Common names and Trade names with Formulations Preparation of Fungicides Fungicides their Common names and Trade names with Formulations List of Banned Pesticides Ready reckoner for dissolving insecticides Guidelines to the farmers for spraying insecticides Compatability chart of Chemical Fertilizers and Pesticides Compatability chart of Pesticides, Fungicides and Biopesticides Measurements

AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES OF ANDHRA PRADESH Andhra Pradesh is the fifth largest state in India with an area of 2,76,254 sq.km. It is located in southern part of country and extends from 12O to 19O North Latitude and 76O to 84O East Longitude. The State has three geopolitical regions consisting of 23 districts. Soil and climate are the two main factors that determine cropping in any area and the distribution of total rainfall chiefly determines the agro-climatic zones of the state. Based on this, the State has been divided into seven agro-climatic zones. I Krishna Godavari Zone This zone consists of the districts of East Godavari (excluding uplands), West Godavari, Krishna, Guntur and the contiguous areas of Khammam, Nalgonda and Prakasam districts. This zone receives an annual rainfall of 800-1100 mm. The maximum and minimum temperatures during sough west monsoon period ranged from 32O to 36OC and 23O to 24OC, respectively. The important soil groups are deltaic alluvium, red soils with clay base, black cotton soils, red loamy, coastal sands and saline soils. II North Coastal Zone This zone comprises most of Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and Visakhapatnam districts (excluding tribal hill areas) and upland areas of East Godavari district. Annual rainfall is 1000 to 1100 mm. Maximum and minimum temperatures during the south west monsoon ranges from 33O to 35OC and 26O to 27OC, respectively. The soils are predominantly red with clay base. There are small pockets of acidic laterite soils with pH 4.0 to 5.0. III Southern Zone This zone includes the districts of Nellore and Chittoor, southern parts of Prakasam and Cuddapah and eastern part of Anantapur. The annual average rainfall from north east monsoon is 700 to 1000mm and 300 to 450 mm during south west monsoon. The maximum and minimum temperatures during south west monsoon range from 36O to 40OC and 23O to 25OC, respectively. The important soils group is of red loamy soils which are shallow to moderately deep. IV North Telangana Zone This zone includes the districts of Adilabad, Karimnagar, Nizamabad, Medak (except southern borders) Warangal (except north-west portion) Eastern of Nalgonda and Khammam (except extreme southern and eastern parts). The annual average rainfall is 900 to 1150 mm, mostly from south west monsoon. The maximum and minimum temperatures during south west monsoon range from 32O to 37OC and 21O to 25OC, respectively. Red soils

are predominant in the zone which includes chalkas, red sandy deep red loamy and very deep black cotton soils are also seen in some parts of the zone. V Southern Telangana Zone The districts of Ranga Reddy, Mahaboobnagar (except southern border) Nalgonda (except south-east border) north western part of Warangal and southern part of Medak constitute this zone. The annual average rainfall is 700 to 900 mm. the maximum and minimum temperatures during south west monsoon range from 28O to 34OC and 22O to 23OC, respectively. It is a predominantly red soil tract having red earths with loamy subsoils i.e. chalkas. VI Scarce Rainfall Zone This zone consists of Kurnool, Anantapur, western parts of Prakasam and northern parts of Cuddapah. The average annual rainfall ranges from 500 to 750 mm. The maximum and minimum temperatures during south west monsoon range from 32O to 36OC and 24O to 30OC, respectively. The important soil groups are red earths with loamy soils i.e., chalkas. Red sandy soils and black cotton soils are also seen in some pockets. VII High Altitude and Tribal Areas This zone consists of the areas along the northern borders of the State in the districts of Srikakulam, Vizianagaram, Visakhapatnam, East Godavari and Khammam. These areas are inhabited by tribals and large areas lying at high altitudes upto 1000 m above M.S.L. with high annual rainfall over 1400 mm. HORTICULTURAL ZONES IN ANDHRA PRADESH Andhra Pradesh is essentially a tropical zone. However, depending upon the prevailing climate in the state, it is classified as 2 main fruit growing zones viz., Tropical zone and Subtropical zone 1. Tropical zone This zone is again subdivided into 3 subzones viz., Arid tropical, humid tropical and coastal humid tropical. a) Arid tropical zone It includes western parts of Adilabad, Karimnagar, Nellore, Prakasam, Guntur, Krishna, West Godavari, Nalgonda, Medak, Khammam, Nizamabad, Mahaboobnagar, Kadapa, Kurnool and Anantapur. In this zone high temperatures prevail throughout the year, moderate to scanty rainfall in received from both South-West and North East

Monsoons. The fruits grown in this zone are Mango, Grape, Banana, Sweetorange, Lime, Custardapple, Guava etc.,

b) Humid tropic Heavy rains are received in this zone. Hence, the humidity is more. Based on the amount of rainfall this zone is again subdivided into 2 zones i) Heavy rainfall areas It includes Polavaram, Rampachodavaram talukas of West Godavari distirct where 150-200 cm rainfall is received annually. The elevation will be 600 m. from mean sea level and high humidity prevails in this regions. ii) Low rainfall areas Parts of Adilabad, Warangal, Kurnool and Kadapa come under this zone with annual rainfall of 100 to 150 cm. The fruits grown in this zone are Banana, Sweetorange, Guava, Papaya, Grape and Ber. c) Coastal humid tropic It includes the coastal areas from Nellore to Srikakulam. The average annual rainfall is 75-100 cm., majority of which is received from South-West monsoon and to a small extent from North-East monsoon. In this zone humidity is high due to high rainfall as well as due to presence of sea at close proximity. Banana, Cashew, Pineapple and Coconut are grown in this zone. 2. Sub-tropical zone This zone is sub-divided into two viz., Arid sub-tropical and Humid sub-tropical based on the amount of rainfall received a) Arid sub-tropical areas Average annual rainfall received is 75-100 cm and the elevation is 450 m. above mean sea level. The climate is cold between October and February. This area includes Hyderabad and Rangareddy districts, Horsley hills of Chittoor district and Penukonda taluk of Ananthapur district. Fruits like Grape, Orange, Phalsa, Mandarin, Seethaphal and Lime are cultivated in these areas. b) Humid sub-tropical areas The average annual rainfall in this zone is upto 200 cm and the elevation ranger upto 620 m above MSL. The zone includes parts of Visakhapatnam and Srikakulam districts. Fruits

like Peach, Japanese plum, Avocado, Litchi, Jack fruit and Cocoa can be grown in these areas.

FRUIT CROPS

MANGO (Mangifera indica L.) Mango is considered as king of fruits. Andhra Pradesh is the second largest mango growing state in the country with an area of about 4.31 lakh hectares and annual production of 43.5 lakh metric tons. In Andhra Pradesh mango occupies 68 per cent of the total area under fruits. 24 % of the total production of mango in India is from Andhra Pradesh. The mango is grown extensively in Krishna, Vijayanagaram, Vishakapatnam, West and East Godavari, Kadapa, Warangal, Nalgonda, Adilabad, Medak and Rangareddy district. Climate Mango is well adapted to tropical climate. High humidity and cloudy weather at the time of flowering are not favourable as they affect pollination and fruit set and encourage diseases. Rains during flowering are detrimental to the crop. Soils Alluvial and sandyloams are ideal for mango cultivation. It can be grown even on lighter soils like chalkas and dubbas when properly manured. Alkaline and saline soils should be avoided. The most desirable soils for mango should be of medium texture, deep (2 to 2.5 m) well drained with low water table (below 180 cms in all seasons) and have a pH range of 6.0 to 7.5. Mango cannot tolerate high soil salt content (not more than 0.05 %). Varieties Banganpalli (Baneshan) Banganpalli is the leading commercial variety of the state. The tree is medium in size and regular in bearing. The fruit is large, with is golden yellow color. The flesh of fruit is firm, fibreless. The fruit quality is very good with good keeping quality. It is tolerant to hoppers and winds. Totapari (Bangalora, Collector, Chittoor mamidi) Totapari is better suited to dry regions, more regular and prolific yielder. The tree is medium size. Fruit medium to large, skin thick, golden yellow colour, flesh firm, fibre less, fruit quality poor to medium. The keeping quality is good. The bearing in Totapari is later than Banganpalli. Tree brittle and more susceptible to hoppers and cyclone damage compared to Banganpalli.

Suvarnarekha (Sundari, Lal Sundari) This variety is popular in Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam districts. Fruit is medium in size, skin medium thick, light cadmium with a blush of red, flesh soft, fibreless. Fruit quality medium to good, bearing heavy and regular. variety is suitable for export. Neelum Neelum is a late variety, more popular in Rayalaseema region. Fruit are medium in size. Skin medium thick, yellow in colour. The flesh is fibreless and fruit quality is good, Neelum is a regular and heavy bearer. However, the fruit does not attain good size in Telangana region. Dashehari Dashehari is a commercial variety of North India and found suitable for growing in North Telangana Zone. The tree is medium in size. Fruit is small to medium, skin medium thick and yellow in colour. The flesh is firm, fibreless with good fruit quality. However, Dashehari is irregular in bearer, susceptible to hoppers and powdery mildew. Peddarasam Peddarasam is popular in Godavari and Krishna districts. The tree is medium in height, with large fruit. The fruit turns greenish yellow when ripe. The fruit juice is abundant, fibrous and sub-acidic. The bearing is regular and early. Chinnarasam Chinnarasam is popular in Nuzividu area of Krishna district. The tree is medium in size. The fruit is medium in size with abundant juice, characteristic strong flavor with fairly good keeping quality. The fruit quality is very good. The bearing is regular and heavy. Navaneetham The tree is medium to large size. The fruit is medium with abundant juice and short and soft fiber. The fruit quality is good. poor. Mahmooda Vikarabad A dwarf variety suited for high density planting. The tree is small in size. The fruit is medium, skin thin, yellowish green, flesh moderately firm, fibreless. The fruit quality very good to best. The bearing is regular, heavy, midseason to late, susceptible to hoppers, tolerates wind. The fruit keeping quality is good. Chirutapudi Goa (Royal Special) The bearing is regular and heavy, midseason, susceptible to powdery mildew and moderately tolerant to hoppers. Fruit keeping quality Suvarnarekha is moderately tolerant to hoppers and susceptible to powdery mildew. The keeping quality of the fruit is good. This

10

Royal special gives second crop (September-October) apart from main season. Tree is medium in size. The fruit is medium, juice abundant with good fruit quality. The bearing is regular, mid-season to late, moderately tolerant to hoppers, less susceptible to winds. Jalal It is a pickle variety, regular bearer, fruit size is medium to large. It is a late variety. A.U.Rumani A hybrid between Rumani and Mulgoa. Fruit medium to large flesh melting, fibreless juice, fruit quality and bearing better than parents, stands transportation well. This hybrid was released from Horticultural Research Station, Anantharajupet. Neeleshan This hybrid was released from H.R.S., Anantharajupet. It is a hybrid between Neelum and Baneshan. The fruits are medium in size with firm fibreless flesh. The fruit matures 15 days later than Baneshan and catches the late market. Neeluddin It is a hybrid between Neelum and Himayuddin. The fruits are medium sized weighing on an average 200 g each and intermediate between the parents in shape. The skin is smooth, flesh is firm, melting and fibreless with characteristic flavor. It is abundantly juicy, very sweet in taste and rich in chemical constituents. Each tree bears 500 to 700 fruits regularly and comes to harvest in the last week of May. Neelgoa This hybrid is developed by crossing Neelum with Yerramulgoa. The fruits are akin to Neelum but bigger in size and smooth skinned. The flesh is firm, melting, fibreless, moderately juicy and very sweet in taste with a delightful flavour. The fruit weighs 270 g and is rich in nutrients. It has a regular bearing habit and produces 1000 fruits just like Neelum and comes to harvest in the month of May. Swarna Jehangir It is a hybrid between Chinna Suvarnarekha and Jehangir and inherits the attractive colour of the former parent and the size and quality of the latter. The fruit resembles Jehangir in shape and skin characters, but slightly less in size weighing 230 g. The flesh is moderately firm, fibreless, abundantly juicy and very sweet with pleasant flavour. It excels both the parents in yield and bears 600 fruits. The fruits are harvested in the month of June and stands transport very well. Manjeera

11

It is a hybrid of Rumani X Neelum released from Sangareddy. Fruits very attractive and large, looks like Rumani. It is a dwarf variety, suitable for high density planting. About 500 plants can be accommodated per hectare adopting a spacing of 4.5 m either way. Tolerant to powdery mildew and hoppers. Amrapali It is a cross between Dashehari and Neelum. Amrapali is precocious, distinctly dwarf, highly regular and prolific in bearing and has good fruit quality. Since Amrapali is a short statured variety, the planting distance can be reduced considerably. Ratna It is a cross between Neelum and Alphonso. It has good qualities of Alphanso in fruit characters with semi dwarf growing habit. The formation of spongy tissue is absent. Mallika It is a cross between Neelum and Dahsehari. The tree is medium in size and regular bearer. The fruits are large, elongated, good quality and bears in cluster. Arka Aruna It is a cross between Banganpalli and Alphonso released from IIHR, Bangalore. It is regular bearer. The fruit are large (500-700 g) and attractive, fibreless with sweet flesh. Arka Puneet It is a cross between Alphonso and Banganpalli released from IIHR, Bangalore. It is regular bearer with medium size fruit (200-300 g) with very attractive red colour, fibreless flesh. Arka Anmol It is a cross between Alphonso and Janardhan Pasand released from IIHR, Bangalore. The tree is semi dwarf, regular bearer with orange colour flesh. The fruit has long shelf life and hence suitable for export. Sindhu It is a back cross between Ratna and Alphonso. It has paper thin seed which weighs about 6.8 g. Planting Material Mango is commercially propagated by Veneer grafting. One or two year old veneer grafts should be collected from an authentic source. The grafts should have a minimum of 4 whorls of leaves with strong graft union. Planting and spacing

12

The plantation of mango should be taken up at the beginning of the monsoon (JuneJuly). In areas with heavy rainfall planting should be done at the end of rainy season. The pit of size 1m x 1m x 1m should be dug and filled with top soil, well mixed with 25 kg farmyard manure and 2 kg superphosphate and 100 gm of Folidol powder to avoid termite damage. Planting distances can be around 7 to 10 meters depending on soil depth and vigour of the variety planted. Even 12 meters spacing may be necessary in very deep and fertile soils. The graft should be planted with ball of earth and press the soil all around the base. The graft joint should be above ground level. Stake the plant to prevent wind damage. Remove root-stock sprouts below the graft joint. Manures and fertilizers To improve the texture of soils, add adequate tank silt and FYM. Sowing of the green manure crop (20 kg sun hemp/10 kg diancha/acre) with the onset of monsoon Fertilizer and incorporating 45 days after sowing. The fertilizers schedule for mango for different ages is as follows Age of the tree First year Second Year Third Year Forth Year Fifth Year Sixth Year Seventh Year Eight Year Ninth Year Tenth Year Nitrogen Phosphorus grams / tree 100 100 200 200 300 300 400 400 500 500 600 600 700 700 800 800 900 900 1000 1000 Potash 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Fertilizers should be applied through placement in circular trenches around the trunk. For the 10 years age and above trees the fertilizer should be applied at 1.5 m away from the trunk

Manures and fertilizers should be generally done in the beginning of monsoon. Irrigation should be given after the application of fertilizers. Wherever irrigation is available it is advantageous to apply half of the recommended dose of fertilizers after fruit set.

For the correction of micronutrient deficiency, spraying of ZnSO4 5 g , Boran 2 g and 10 g urea per liter of water is recommended at the onset of monsoon. Spraying of KNO3 @ 10 g/l during November helps in opening of the flower bud and uniform flowering.

Pruning

13

Pruning to remove criss cross branches may be done so that center of the tree is opened out and inner branches are exposed to sunlight. Pruning of the dried twigs and branches should be done with pruning saw during June-July. Pruning in mango encourages production of new shoots. Intercultivation Inter crops like vegetables, low growing field crops and fruits like Phalsa or Papaya can be profitably grown in alleys in young orchards. Red gram is not advisable as it is an alternative host to mealy bug. In old orchards shade tolerating crops like ginger, turmeric etc., can be taken. Two ploughing in the inter spaces, once at the beginning and another at the end of the monsoon keep the orchard weed free and facilitate rain water percolation. Pruning Pruning to remove criss cross branches may be done so that center of the tree is opened out and inner branches are exposed to sunlight. Irrigation Mango responds well to irrigation, particularly at fruit set and developmental phases. The young plants at bearing stage should be irrigated frequently.

In bearing trees, for obtaining good flowering, irrigation must be stopped at least 2 months before flowering period. Stopping of irrigation creates stress and encourages flower bud formation.

Irrigation should be given fruit set and thereafter at regular intervals during fruit development period, beginning from fruit set stage to full development stage. For better quality irrigation should be stopped 20-30 days before maturity/harvesting the crop. As far as possible irrigation should be give with drip system. Drip irrigation not only conservers water but also increases water use efficiency. For conservation of rain water, rows (in rectangular system of planting) should be along the contour in sloppy locations.

Fruit Drop Fruit drop in mango occurs when the fruits are at pea stage of development. Moisture deficiency, nutrient deficiency and hormonal imbalance are the causes for the mango fruit drop. Fruit drop can be controlled by spraying 2,4 D at 10 ppm or Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) at 20 ppm twice at an interval of 15 days during the early stage (peanut stage) of fruit development. Irregular Bearing

14

Irregular bearing in mango is due to imbalance in nutrient status of the plant. Balanced manuring and fertilizer application and irrigation will keep the tree healthy and vigorous and prevent the irregular bearing. Pruning of weak, dead criss cross shoots to open the canopy of the tree is suggested to regulate the bearing in old trees. Top Working Top working is done to replace the inferior seedling mango by know variety. The trees are beheaded upto 1.5 m height in August to September months i.e., after receding of heavy rainy. Allow 4-5 vigorous shoots to grow. Grafting on the shoots is done by veneer grafting on the shoots of pencil thickness. Once the graft is successful, remove the shoots arising from the seedling tree. Prune the new shoots to get more branches. The young shoots arising from grafts should be protected. Harvesting and packing Early harvest of fully developed but not matured fruit starts in April to catch the early Northern markets. However, the fruits harvested without reaching maturity will not ripen properly. Normal harvest commences when few Patukayalu or Shakh fall from the tree. In case of pickle mangoes, time of harvest is relatively more flexible and any time between stone hardening and attainment of physiological maturity. Harvesting the fruits with a long poll having a net at the end (Gowka) or Dapoli harvester and lowering them gently on a gunny cushion minimizes the injuries. The minimum total soluble content for harvesting without sacrificing the quality is 9.0 in case of Banganpalli and 8.5 for Dashehari. For judging the maturity, fruit samples from various directions of the tree are taken and dropped in a bucket of water, the dipped fruits being indicative of correct maturity. The fruits should be harvested with 7 cm stock and taken to the packhouse in plastic crates. Desapping of the fruits should be done by keeping the fruits in inverted position in the desapping nets for about 3-4 hours. Desapping of mango fruits prevent the sap injury on the fruits. After desapping the stock of the fruits are cut up to 1 cm. The desapped fruits are washed thoroughly in the running water to remove the dirt and other extraneous material. For export, the mango fruits are graded as per the international guidelines of the importing country. The fruits are then packed in the Corrugated fiber board baskets with stock end pointing upward to avoid injury to the fruits. Post Harvest Technology The mango fruits can be stored for 8-10 days at room temperatures. However, under cold storage the fruits can be stored up to 25 days at 12.5 90 %. Mango fruits cannot be stored below 12.5 Plant protection
O O

C and relative humidity of 80-

C as it causes the chilling injury.

15

Pests Mango hopper (Tenemanchu purugu) (Idioscopus clypealis , Idioscopus nitidulus Amritodus atkinsoni ) Damage is caused by sucking sap from tender leaves and inflorescence. Ovipositional punctures also cause damage to tender leaves and inflorescence. Severely infested leaves become curled and inflorescence gets dried. Affected parts are covered with honeydew and sooty mould. Control One spray with carbaryl @ 3 gms/litre of water in November before panicle formation ensuring that tree trunks are also thoroughly drenched during the spray. During full length stage of panicle but before full bloom full bloom stage spraying with endosulfan @ 2 ml /litre of water or Dimethoate @ 2 ml /litre of water or imida cloprid @ 0.3 ml/ litre of water if incidence of hoppers is high (more than 5-10 per panicle).After fruit set at pea size stage spraying with imida cloprid @ 0.3 ml/ litre of water or thiamethoxam @ 0.4 gm/ litre of water. Mealybug (Drosicha mangiferae, Rastrococcus iceryodies) Nymphs and adults suck the plant sap and reduce the vigor of the plant. Excessive and continuous draining of plant sap causes wilting and finally drying of infested tissue. They also secrete honey dew, a sticky substance, which encourages the development of a fungus Maliola mangiferae, resulting in sooty mould. R iceryodies is serious in South India. They are considered more important because if the control measures are not taken timely, the crop may be destroyed completely. Control Plough orchard during summer to expose eggs to natural enemies and sun heat. Remove weeds like Clerodendron infortunaturm which are additional hosts. After mud plastering 25 cm width 400 gauge alkathene sheet may be fastened to the tree trunk 30 cm above the ground level in the month of December- January or use at sticky band on tree trunk to prevent migration of crawlers from soil to trees, one week before their emergence. Raking the soil around the tree trunk and mixing of chlorpyriphos (1.5% dust) @250 gm per tree. The dust may also be sprinkled below the alkathene band on the tree. Spray NSKE 4% or crude garlic oil 1% or Dimethoate 0.06 % or Acephate @ 2 gm/lt or Spirotetramat @ 0.3 ml/lit of water Shoot Borer (Chlumetia transversa) It causes serious damage to new flush of mango. The affected shoots wilt droop and finally get dried. The infested trees become stunted in growth and the shoot into which this

16

larva is bored dies and does not flower subsequently flowering is inhibited. Young trees up to the age of 8-10 years are more damaged. Control Do not retain minor flushes during off season. Apply relatively higher dosage of potash. Prune the infested the shoots and burn. Spray at bud sprouting stage with Carbaryl 0.1 % followed by Dimethoate 0.04% or Quinalphos 0.5% at 15 days interval from commencement of new flesh. Stem Borer (Kaandam tolughu purugu) Batocera rufomaculata Damage is caused by the grub of this beetle as it feeds inside the stems, boring upwards and resulting in drying of branches and in severe cases attacked tree is killed. Grubs with robust body feeding on inside tissues will be observed when there is severe infestation. Control The grubs can be extracted through hooked wires and then destroyed. Sthe insect can be controlled by injecting in hole 0.02% dichlorvos ( DDVP) or 0.05% endosulphan @ 5 ml/holes or Celphos (aluminium phosphate) one tablet (3g) per hole and then holes may be sealed with mud . Stone or Nut Weevil (Sternochaetus mangiferae, S.frigidus ) It is a common pest of mango in southern India. Another species, S. frigidus,of the pest is found in Assam and Bengal. Sweeter varieties such as Alphonso, Bangalora, Neelum,

etc. are more prone to attack by this pest. Female lays eggs on the epicarp of partially
developed fruits or under the rind of ripening fruits. Newly emerged grubs bore through the pulp, feed on seed coat and later cause damage to cotyledons. Pupation takes place inside the seed. Discolouration of the pulp adjacent to the affected portion has been observed. Eggs are minute and white in colour. Adult weevils are 5 to 8 mm long, stout and dark brown in colour. Life-cycle is completed in 40 to 50 days during June-July. Adults hibernate until the next fruiting season. There is only one generation in a year. Extent of damage in susceptible cultivars like Neelum, Totapuri and Banganpalli varies from 60 to 65 %. Control Collect fallen infested fruits and destroy. Spraying of apply sticky band at upper end of the trunk to prevent migration of weevils to branches for egg laying on fruits during February- March. Keep the tree basins clean to prevent hiding of diapausing weevils. Spray during of season (December January) on tree trunk up to 2m height with fenthion 0.05%or Carbayl 0.1% or Deltamethrin 00025% six weeks after fruit set (especially at marble stage) and second spray may be given after 15 days.

17

Thrips (Rati Mangu) (Thrips hawaiiensis, Scirtothrips dorsalis) Thrips appear during flowering and fruiting stages where their infestation can be recognized during January on flowers and developing fruits causing Mangu though initial infestation result in flower drop. Their impact on young fruits are seen in terms of rough surface as well as deshaping of fruits.

Control It can be controlled by spraying thiamethoxam @ 0.4 gm / litre of water or acephate 1.5 ml/lt of water or fipronil 2 ml / lt of water. Leaf Webber (Orthaga euadrusalis) The infestation is severe in shady conditions. Old orchards with lesser space between tree canopies have more infestation than open orchards. The larvae of Orthaga spp web the leaves and the terminal shoots into clusters which harbor several of them in the initial stage. The larvae are gregarious in the beginning and feed by scrapping the leaf surface. Late instar larvae feed on whole leaf lamina leaving only midrib. Severs attack leads to drying of shoots / branches and reduction in fruit yield. Control Supervise the orchard once in a month and search for webbed shoots. Prune the infested shoots and destroy them along with larvae during April July. After pruning 2 to 3 sprays starting from last week of July at 15 days interval with Carbaryl 0.2% or quinalphos 0.05% have been found effective in controlling the pest. Shoot gall psylla (Apsylla cistellata) It is a very serious pest of mango in many parts of India, particularly in Terai region of U.P., North Bihar and West Bengal. This pest creates green conical galls in leaf axis. The activity of the pest starts from August. The galls dry out after emergence of psyllid adults in March. The galls are usually seen during September-October. Consequently, there is no fruit set. There is only one generation of the pest in a year. Control The galls with nymphs inside should be collected and destroyed to prevent carryover of the pest. The pest can effectively be controlled by spraying monocrotophos (0.05%) or dimethoate (0.06%) or quinalphos (0.05 %) at 2 week intervals starting from the middle of August. The use of same chemical for every spray should be avoided. Mango fruit borer (Deanolis albizonalis)

18

In coastal Andhra Pradesh the incidence of mango fruit borer is slowly increasing and assuming as a serious problem on mango in some areas. The incidence is found right from pea size upto maturity stage. In initial stages upto 6-10 larvae are found in one fruit. fruits in one bunch are prone to attack due to migration of grown up larvae to neighboring fruits as in case of nut weevil Newly emerged larvae bore through the pulp, feed on seed coat and later cause damage to cotyledons. Control After mango harvest removal of Dead wood from the tree Removal of diapausing stage of Mango fruit borer from cracks and crevices in the bark and dried twigs Removal and destruction of damaged and MFB infested fruits especially at pea and marble stages of the fruit

In Second fort night of January spray of chloripyriphos 2.5 ml or dichlorovas 1.5 ml or carbaryl 3 gms per litre of water especially in those garden where previous incidence of this recorded. Repeat spray of chloripyriphos 2.5 ml or dichlorovas 1.5 ml or carbaryl 3 gms or Neem oil 3ml + chloripyriphos 1 ml per litre of water at marble stage of the fruit. The sprayings should be preferably carried out during evening hours

Spraying of NSKE 5 % at 10 days interval during the months of April and May upto 15 days before harvest

Red mite (Erra nalli) (Oligonychus mangiferous) These mites both in nymphal and adult stages infest mango leaves. Their presence reflects in terms of scrapped chlorophyll resulting in yellowish tinge on upper side and white webs on underside of leaf. Control It can be controlled by spraying wettable sulphur 3gm/ litre of water or diafenthiuron 1 ml /lt of water. Diseases Powdery midew ( Budida Rogam) Oidium mangifere Powdery mildew is one of the most serious diseases of mango affecting almost all the varieties, Some times, as high as 70-80 per cent crop loss has been recorded on individual plant basis. The characteristic symptom of the disease is the white superficial powdery fungal growth on leaves, stalks of panicles, flowers and young fruits. The affected flowers and fruits drop pre-maturely reducing the crop load considerably or might even prevent the fruit

19

set. Rains or mists accompanied by cooler nights during flowering are congenial for the disease spread. The fungus parasitizes young tissues of all parts of the inflorescence, leaves and fruits. Control Following three sprays of fungicides at 15 days interval recommended for effective control of the disease Wettable sulphur 3-4 g/lit of water or Calixin 1 ml/lit or 1 ml Karathane / lit. water). Anthracnose (Macha Rogam) Colletotrichum gloeosporiodes The anthracnose disease is of widespread occurrence. The disease causes serious losses to young shoots, flowers and fruits under favourable climatic conditions of high humidity, frequent rains and a temperature of 24-32oC. It is also affects fruits during storage. The disease produces leaf spot; blossom blight, withertip, twig blight and fruit rot symptoms. Tender shoots and foliage are easily affected which ultimately cause die back of young branches. Older twigs may also be infected through wounds which in severe cases may be fatal. Black spots develop on panicles as well as on fruits. Severe infection destroys the entire inflorescence resulting in no setting of fruits. Young infected fruits develop black spots, shrivel and drop off. Fruits infected at mature stage carry the fungus into storage and cause considerable loss during storage, transit and marketing. The fungus perpetuates on twigs and leaves of mango or other hosts. Control Dead twigs should be pruned to reduce inoculum potential Trees may be sprayed twice with Carbendazim @ 1g/lit or Thiophenate methyl 1g/lit at 15 days interval during flowering to control blossom infection. Spraying of copper fungicides (0.3%) is recommended for the control of foliar infection. Bacterial canker (Xanthomonas campestris pv. mangiferaeindicae) The disease causes fruit drop (10-70%), yield loss (10-85%) and storage rot (5100%). Many commercial cultivars of mango including Langra, Dashehari, Amrapali, Mallika, and Totapuri are susceptible to this disease. The disease is found on leaves, petioles, twigs, branches and fruits, initially producing water-soaked lesions and later turning into typical cankers. The disease first appears as minute water-soaked irregular lesions on any part of leaf or leaf lamina. The lesions are light yellow in colour but with age, enlarge and turn dark brown to black. They become angular, cankerous and raised, and are surrounded by chlorotic halos. Several lesions coalesce to form irregular necrotic cankerous patches. In

20

severe infections the leaves turn yellow and drop off. Cankerous lesions appear on petioles, twigs and young fruits. The water soaked lesions also develop on fruits which later turn dark brown to black. They often burst open, releasing highly contagious gummy ooze containg bacterial cells. The fresh lesions on branches and twigs are water soaked which later become raised and dark brown in colour with longitudinal cracks but without any ooze. Control Seedling certification, inspection and orchard sanitation. Three sprays of streptocycline (100 ppm) or Agrimycin-100 (100 ppm) after first visual symptom at 10-days intervals. Monthly sprays of Bavistin (1000 ppm) or copper oxychloride (3000 ppm) were also found effective. BANANA (Musa sapientum) Banana is cultivated in an extent of 60,000 ha. in the State. It is the third important fruit crop after mango and citrus, occupying 8% of the fruit growing area in the State. Although it is cultivated in almost all the districts, it is extending in East Godavari, West Godavari, Cuddapah, Guntur, Krishna, Visakhapatnam, Vijayanagaram and Kurnool districts. Climate Banana performs very well under humid tropical condition but can be cultivated successfully even under humid or semi arid sub tropical conditions. The growth and yield of most of the varieties are better at a temperature range of 25-30oC. Soils Almost all the agricultural soils are suitable if they are deep, well drained and neutral in reaction. Black loams, red loams and sandy loams of uplands are most suited. The soils should be atleast more than 75 cm deep with water table lower than 1.0 to 1.2m, pH 6.5 to 7.5 and less than 1.5% salts. It requires well drained soils having a depth of at least 1m. The ideal PH is around 6.5 to 7.5. Varieties Karpura Chakkarakeli (Poovan, Ginni) This is a popular table banana and the foremost commercial variety contributing to 70% of the total crop area. It is hardy and grows extremely vigorous, under perennial garden and wet land systems of cultivation. Easily recognized by its pinkish-purple midribs and big cylindrical bunches of tightly packed, short, plump, bottlenecked fruits. The fruits are of medium size and have a distinct tip. The rind is thin and pulp cream coloured with a

21

sub-acid taste. The bunches keep well, the fingers holding even at late ripeness, with attractive bright yellow colour. The plant is immune to Panama disease and is virtually immune to Leaf spot. It is also tolerant to poor soils and drought but susceptible to winds. Suitable for transport. Each bunch weighs 15-18kgs with 9-10 hands and 130-160 fruits. The duration is 12 months and the spacing is 2 x 2m. Tella Chakkarakeli (Godavari Chakkarakeli) This variety is considered the best of bananas in Circar districts. The plant is thin and medium size easily recognized by whitish petiolor margins. It is not a prolific clone. The bunches are small and loose with short stout slightly curved fruits glistening green and fairly rounded with a conspicuous apex. The rind is thick, pulp yellowish and too soft but tasty with characteristic pleasant aroma. The fruit is ripe inside, even when the rind is partially yellow and greenish at the tips. It is highly priced in the market for its characteristic taste, aroma and quality. The keeping quality is poor. The attachment of the fruit to the cushion is very fragile when raw and is very strong when ripe. It is tolerant to Panama disease but highly susceptible to Erwenia wilt and Sigatoka leaf spot diseases. Each bunch weighs 8-10 kgs with 5-6 hands and 60-70 fruits. The duration is 12 months and the spacing is 1.8 x 1.8m. Amruthapani (Rastali) This is a choice table fruit. It fetches premium price over Dwarf Cavendish and Poovan. The plant suckers moderately and is tall and does not bear heavily. The fruit is better in size to Poovan, more rounded with a glossy green colour and the tip is less pronounced. The rind is thin and develops and ivory yellow colour when ripe. The flesh is white, rather firm but tasty with a characteristic flavour. Occassionally hard lumps develop in the pulp which is a drawback. It is highly resistant to leaf spot but very susceptible to Panama disease. Each bunch weighs 20-23 kgs with 8-10 hands and 100-120 fruits. The duration is 12-13 months and the spacing 2 x 2m. Robusta/Grand Naine (Pedda paccha arati) It is semi-tall with a little more stature than dwarf varieties. The petiole margins are spread out and tinged purple. It is little less susceptible to wind damage. It has a slightly thicker and more rigid bunch stalk, it is a heavy yielder. The fruits are big, slightly angular, and curved. The ribs are not distinct. The rind colour continues to be light green. The pulp is creamy white, soft and buttery. The seed core is prominent. It is suitable for the entire state and occupying the major banana area in the state. It is very susceptible to Erwenia rot bunchy top and leaf spot but immune to panama disease.. Each bunch weighs 25-28 kgs

22

with 10-11 hands and 130-160 frutis. The duration is 10-11 months and the spacing 1.8 x 1.8m. Vamanakeli (Dwarf cavandish, Basrai, Chinna paccha arati, Potti arati, Gidda Vamanakeli, Bhushavali, Chitavali) This is the most wide spread clone in existence. It bears well under a wide range of conditions and is the basis of nearly all the sub tropical banana trades. It suckers sparsely. Its low stature makes it less susceptible to wind damage than most other banana. But in winter in the subtropics, the stature permits chilling which a taller clone may avoid, and it is susceptible to Choke. The petiole is short, thick and axial channel wide open. Bunches are heavy, compact and pendant. Persistant male flowers are noted. The fruit size is medium to big. The flesh is pale yellow and sweet. The fruit turns yellow on ripening in winter but remains green in summer. Its main defect is poor keeping quality. It is very susceptible to leaf spot and bunchy top but immune to Panama disease. It is suitable for the entire State but poor ratooner. Each bunch weighs 12-15 kgs with 8-10 hands and 120 fruits. The duration is 11 months and the spacing is 1.5 x 1.5 m. Cooking Varieties Bontha This is the foremost cooking variety of the State. The fruits are long, slightly curved with prominent ridges and blunt apex. The rind is thick and green with whitish pulp. The male bud is also used for culinary purpose. Suitable for entire State. It is resistant of Leaf spot but is susceptible to Panama disease. Each bunch weighs 15 kgs with 5-6 hand and 7080 fruits. The duration is 13 months and the spacing is 2 x 2m. Kovvur Bontha It is a cooking variety and a sport with heavier bunches of bigger size and superior quality fruits. Fruits are larger, stout with less prominent ridges and bottle neck apex. The rind is thick and green with whitish pulp. The plants are tall sturdy and sucker freely, waxy bloom is present over petioles and young regions, susceptible to rhizome rot disease. Tolerant to Sigatoka leaf spot,good cooking quality and it is the only cooking banana variety commercially cultivated in Andhra Pradesh Fruit bunches are heavy, pendent and not compact, suitable for the entire State. Each bunch weighs 16-18 kgs with 6-7 hands and 75-90 fruits. The duration is 13 months and the spacing is 2 x 2m. Season of planting Banana can be planted through out the year but planting during June to September is recommended. For Cavendish varieties and Tella chekkerakeli planting in the month of June is the optimum time to avoid leaf spot diseases. Propagation

23

Conventional bananas are propagated through sword suckers of 1.5-2 kg weight selected from healthy gardens. Tissue cultured plants are becoming popular among farmers as they are not only virus free but also results in uniform and synchronized harvest, gives 35-45% higher yields over conventional planting material. Healthy sword suckers of 3 months age having strong base, gradually tapering to slender point with one or two narrow sword like leaves at the tip are preferred for planting, since it grows faster and comes to bearing early compared to water suckers. Suckers from high yielding and healthy plant crop are selected. If the suckers are small the crop duration is longer but with more number of fruit. If the suckers are bigger the crop duration is shorter with less number of fruit but of better size. For traditional varieties corms weighing 1.5-2.0 kg and for Cavendish clone corms weighing 1.25-1.5 kg may be preferred. Selection of suckers and planting If any damage is noticed to the corm of the suckers at the time of separation of the sucker from the mother plant, the damaged portion of the corm may be clearly sliced off. The top portion of the pseudostem of the sucker may be given a slant cut leaving six inches pseudostem over the corm. This will facilitate easy draining of plant sap, rain water etc., leading to successful establishment of the sucker. But in coastal region the top portion of sucker is retained while planting and deheaded to 2/3 size in about 20 days when growth is visible to maintain uniform height of the plantation. All the old roots of the rhizome should also be trimmed. Sucker treatment The suckers thus prepared should be dipped in 0.25% Monocrotophos (2.5ml in 1 litre) and 0.5%Copper Oxy chloride (5g in 1 litre) solution for 15-20min and then planted. The selected field must be ploughed with mould board plough to a depth of 25-30 cm and allowed to dry for two weeks. Before planting the field should have fine tilth. The dug up pits may be allowed to dry for 10 days before planting. Just before planting of the suckers, the dug up soil or fresh top earth mixed with (compost) farmyard manure 10kg, 50g folidol may be filled to three quarters of the pit. Banana suckers should not be planted either too deep or too shallow. The suckers must be planted in the centre of the pit in such a way that the corm and another two inches of pseudostem over it should submerge in the soil. Press the soil around the sucker to avoid air spaces, to give firm stand to the stem and for better sprouting of the suckers. Sucker treatment

24

When sword suckers are used as a plant material the corms should be pared and dipped in a solution of 2.5 ml of Monocrotophos and 5g. of Copper oxychloride per litre for 15 minutes before planting. Planting Spacing

Karpura Chakkerakeli, , Amritapani, Kovvur Bontha Tella Chakkerakeli, Robusta, Grand Naine Dwarf Cavendish (Vamanakeli)

2.0 X 2.0 m

: :

1.8 X 1.8 m 1.5 X 1.5 m

While planting the pits of 45 cm3, should be filled with 5Kg FYM, 250 g Neem cake, 300 g of super phosphate. Gap filling Generally the banana suckers strike roots within 10 to 15 days after planting. Maintaining optimum population for unit area always leads to higher yields. So gap filling should be done within 20 days to ensure uniformity in the crop stand. Manures and fertilizers 200 250g of Single Super Phosphate should be applied per pit before planting. 200 g each of Nitrogen and Potash per plant has to be given as top dressing in 4 equal split doses for heavy soils .For light soils 300g each of N & K fertilizers per plant should be given in 6 equal splits. Green manuring with sunhemp or Cow pea may be done immediately after planting with 50 kg seed/ha and ploughed in after 35 days. The doses of fertilizers and time of application varies with the duration of variety and also soil type. Variety Fertilizers to be given N Karpura chekkerakeli, Kovvur bontha K No of splits Heavy soils 4 Light soils 6 Dose / Days after planting each split N K For Heavy For light soils soils 50 50 45,90,135, 30,60,90, 180 120,150,180 50 50 50 50 40,80,120, 25,50,75, 160 100,125,150 35,70,105,140,175

200 200

Grand Naine, Dwarf 200 200 Cavendish Tellachekkerakeli 250 250

6 5

25

Spraying of Sulphate of Potash (K2SO4) @ 0.5% at 5 and 20 days after last hand opening improves fruit grade and quality. Irrigation The plants are either pot watered or irrigated immediately after planting. About 3040 weekly irrigations (2.0 acre inches) are required for banana crop. When the summer temperature crosses 37.8OC irrigation on every 4th day is essential. Light irrigation after every manuring is essential. Inadequate irrigations to banana leads to delayed flowering, delayed maturity of fingers, reduced size in bunch and also poor keeping quality of fruits. Quality of fruit will also be reduced if inadequate irrigations are given in summer leading to sun scorching. Fertigation Fertilizer use efficiency is more with increased number of splits. Under fertigation, for heavy soils 50% of RDF and for light soils 75% of RDF is sufficient to harvest higher yield and also reduces the crop cycle by 20 days.

Under this 80% of the N&K fertilizers should be given in 20 split doses planting.

before

shooting at weekly intervals starting from 6 th week after planting to 25th week after

Remaining 20% of the N& K fertilizers should be given after shooting in 4 splits at weekly intervals from 33rd to 36th week after planting. Under fertigation 50% of the recommended dose (Applied at weekly intervals) is sufficient to harvest higher yield than RDF and reduces the crop cycle by 20 days.

Intercrops Short duration leguminous crops like blackgram, greengram variety onion and leafy vegetables can also be grown. Cowpea variety and lab-lab are grown as intercrops. Vegetable crops like ladys finger, ridge gourd tomato, In East Godavari, Visakhapatnam, Visakhapatnam, Vizianagaram and Srikakulam agency tracts, turmeric, ginger, sweet potato, colocasia, diascorea and amorphophalus are traditional intercrops in banana. With intercropping, the crop duration of banana is extended from 20 to 40 days but the yields are not affected. Amorphophallus alone or the association with colocasia under banana is profitable. Mulching Where pure crops are grown, it is desirable to mulch the garden immediately after planting with banana trash at the rate of 15 t/ha. Mulching controls weeds, conserves moisture, hastens growth and improves yields.

26

Desuckering Banana starts bearing suckers from 2-3 months after planting. Desuckering or pruning is the removal of unwanted suckers. These suckers have to be removed periodically as otherwise they compete with the mother plant for water and nutrients, resulting in lower bunch weight and therefore total yield. It may also lead to heavy incidence of leaf spot disease due to congestion in the interspaces, lack of aeration, sunshine, and high dampness, Desuckering with sickle at 15-20 days interval, right from the beginning till flowering is to be followed. The sucker thus removed may grow again. The improved method of desuckering is as follows, a flattened crowbar or an iron rod of 1.2m long and 1.25cm diameter flattened at one end and provided with wooden handle at the other end should be used for digging out the sucker with a bit of its corm, once in 35 days up to flowering. Once the plant starts to flower, the mother plant should not be disturbed. So, after shooting desuckering should be done by cutting suckers to the ground level with the help of sickle. This method has given good results in research and farmers fields. However for ratoon crop one good sucker should be left when the crop has attained 50 % flowering. Intercultivation In a young banana garden luxurious weed growth is seen as the crop is given heavy doses of organic and inorganic fertilizers, frequent irrigation and more of sunlight. Therefore in young plantation (upto 4 months age) weeding has to be done at 15-20 days interval. As the crop grows, the light intensity gets reduced and hence it is sufficient that weeding is done at monthly intervals from them on. Where problematic weeds like Cyperus rotundus is predominant split application of Glyphosate spray @ 2.0 lt/ha effectively controls nut grass and other weeds, as well as induced early shooting and superior yields. Apart from cultural practices, an integrated management of weeds by inter cropping cowpea, soil mulching with sugarcane trash or paddy straw or spraying of glycel (100 ml of glycel + 100 g Ammonium sulphate in 10/lit. of water) gives good results.. While spraying, care should be taken to avoid drift hazard. After care The dry and diseased leaves should be removed and destroyed regularly. Soil mounding is done in the eighth month, and a follower is left for ratoon. At flowering the plants are propped up with bamboos to protect from strong winds or gales in coastal region. After flowering is completed, the male flower bud is removed. An insecticidal cum fungicidal

27

spray at this stage ensures fruits. The flag leaf should be bent on the peduncle and tied to protect from sun scorching. Harvesting and Post harvest Technology Banana bunches are harvested in about 2 to 3 months time after flowering. Fully matured bananas are round and free from angular shape and produce metallic sound, when tapped. Bananas meant for long distances are cut at 75 to 80 per cent maturity. The bunches with long peduncles are cut to the maximum possible height on the plant. Immediately few green leaves are wrapped around and carried by carts, bicycles, rickshaws or lorries to the marketing yard, where they are sold either by auction or by bargain to the retailers through a mediating agency for commission. The retailers normally provide smoke to the bunches for 24 hours in airtight rooms to make them ripe. During ripening the chlorophyll gradually breaks down and the yellow pigments begin to develop until the whole fruit turns bright yellow. In this process of ripening starch is converted into sugar by the action of enzymes and the astringency disappears. The research findings show that banana fruits can be stored well under 62 to 65O F with 85 to 90% of moisture up to 3 weeks. By using polythene bags and potassium permanganate, keeping quality can be Fruits are harvested at the maturity when the angles become less prominent and fruits on upper hand turn light green in color. Yield The average yield of different varieties of banana ranges from 50-60t/ha. Plant protection Pests Rhizome Weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus) (Mukku purugu, Dumpa puchchu) It causes dead hearts in banana. The grubs of weevil burrow into the rhizome of the banana plant. The tunnels are mostly circular and increase in size with the growth of the grubs. Injury to corm prevents nourishment going to the plant. Leaves turn yellow, wither and die prematurely. In heavily infected plantations production is low. Later the corm will decay and the plant may die of. Adult weevil feeds on decaying and dried banana plants. The borers spread from plantation to plantation through planting material. Control Suckers must be selected from healthy gardens. The suckers thus selected may be trimmed and dipped in monocrotophos @ 0.2% solution and planted. Application of 10gm carbofuron granules per plant will keep away the weevil and also Phorate (10g) granules at 10g per plant to control the pest. increased.

28

Banana Rust Thrips (Chaetanaphothrips signipennis) (Tuppu Tegulu) The pest has yellowish white shaded wings. It causes smoky or red discoloration between individual fingers. The skin becomes reddish brown, roughened and dull in appearance, superficial cracks appear in the discolored skin. The fruits may also split. Control Dipping in monocrotophos 0.2% (2 ml/lit) solution to control the spread of the insect. Spray the bunches after emergence with Dimethoate @ 0.2% (2 ml/lit) for effective control of the pest. Root or Burrowing Nematodes (Radopholus similes) (Veru Toluchu Purugu) The first visible symptom is a small dark spot on the root. The nematode deposits eggs in the root tissue and when these hatch the larvae also feed on the root. The damaged tissue is reduced and individual fruits are small. Affected plants do not respond to fertilizers, irrigation or cultural practices. Nematode population is built up rapidly in ratoon crops. Decline is accompanied by leaf chlorosis. Control Phytosanitary measures are effective. Selection of suckers from infested areas should be eliminated. The land should be ploughed thoroughly and left fallow or planted with a crop not affected by nematode for atleast six months. Bananas should not be planted until the soil is free from nematodes for atleast six months. Sugarcane has been shown to be a good alternate crop. Corms of suckers used for planting should be trimmed carefully. Treatment of suckers with carbofuran 3g granules (45 g/sucker) is suggested as a control measure and this should be followed by post application twice at 3 monthly intervals in the filed. Fruit fly (Dacus cucurbitae, Coquillet) Banana fruit fly is minor and sporadic and will lay eggs into both green and ripening fruit. Adult female fruit flies lay their eggs in the fruit and the maggots develop as the fruit matures destroying the flesh. Oviposition sites can provide entry for rot producing organisms. The maggots destroy the flesh, and secondary rots, which enter through the oviposition puncture, cause fruit breakdown. The damage is usually concentrated on bunches suffering from physical damage or where mixed ripening of bunches is occurring because of poor plantation management. Control Avoid physical damage to bunches since damaged fruit will attract ovipositing females. Maintain good-growing conditions and healthy plants to prevent 'mixed ripe' bunches. Harvest fruit at the green mature stage. Cut up bunches left unharvested in the

29

field to speed up breakdown and prevent field breeding. Remove neglected plantings to reduce build up of fruit fly. Pheromone trapping with methyl eugenol and replenishing the traps every fortnight during fruit development stage. Diseases Panama Wilt (Fusarium Oxysporum) (Panama Tegulu) It is a soil born disease. The mycelium of the fungus spreads through the vascular bundles, leaving a brown or dark red strain in rhizome and pseudostem. First the lower leaves become yellow and at the lower parts of the petioles or midribs, the leaves collapse and hand down around the plant. In younger plants the unfurling leaf goes yellow first and dies off. The time for infection and wilting is about two months. The disease spreads to other gardens through planting material and also through irrigation or rain water. The variety Amrutapani is highly susceptible to this disease. Control Planting disease-free materials, avoiding ill-drained soils, growing resistant varieties like Dwarf Cavandish, Robusta and Karpura Chakkarakeli and growing wet paddy preceeding banana will ensure against incidence of Panama disease in banana plantations. Badly affected clumps should be destroyed after uprooting the corm. Leaf Spot (Sigatoga) (Mycospharella Musicola, Sigatoga Aakumacha Tegulu) Premature death of large areas of the plants, leaf surface and in some cases, the entire leaf is affected. In severe cases, the fruit does not develop or mature since the photosynthetic area is drastically reduced. In less severe cases, the size of the bunches drastically reduced. The fruit may also ripen pre-maturely with abnormal flavour. The earliest symptoms seen in the infested plants are small chlorotic spots or streaks on the leaves. Later on, they unite into bands, parallel to the leaf lateral veins. The streaks darken and expand laterally to form elliptical brown spots on leaves. When numerous spots form closely they all unit and form large dead patches. In warm humid weather they spread and form large dead patches. In warm humid weather the spread of the disease will be quick and severe. Control Cultural Proper sanitation should be maintained in the gardens. Dry and diseased leaves should be removed and destroyed. Proper drainage, clean cultivation, timely desuckering and optimum spacing should be followed.

30

Two pre-monsoon sprayings with Dithane M-45 @ 0.25% or Chlorothalonil @ 0.2% and two post monsoon sprayings at 10 days interval with Tridemorph or Propiconozole 0.1% will prevent the incidence and the spread of disease. Viral diseases Bunchy top virus (Transmitted by aphids) It is a virus disease. The first leaf affected shows green streaks, on the secondary veins, on the under side of the leaf lamina on the midrib and petiole. The streaks are about 0.75mm wide and vary in length upto 2.5cm. Powdery bloom covers the midrid and petioles. Subsequently the other infected leaves show the same symptoms. The leaves will be brittle and show maginal chlorosis and curling. The affected plants are highly stunted and the leaves are reduced in size and crowded at throat showing, rosette appearance. The infected plants may throw small bunches which will not develop or often fail to flower. The disease is transmitted by the insect vector aphids i.e., pentalonia nigronervosa. Affected plants are characterized by marked stunting and bunching of leaves. The crown leaves are undersized, narrow and chlorotic. Broken dark green streaks on pseudostem, sheaths, midrib and secondary veins are conspicuous. The disease causes total loss in yield as the affected plants do not flower. Control Rogue and remove diseased plants. Control insect vectors through insecticides. Fortnightly sprays of Dimethoate or Methyldemeton @2ml/lit reduce the aphid population. Diseased plants must be destroyed as soon as the symptoms of infection are noticed. But before removing the diseased plants they may also be sprayed with metacystox 0.05% (2 ml/lit) or dimethoate 0.06% (2 ml/lit) to keep the plants free from insect vector. Disease free suckers must be selected for planting new gardens. Streak virus (Transmitted by mealybug) Karpura chekkerakeli is highly susceptible to this disease. Early symptoms are discontinuous yellow streaks along the blade or midrib which turn into discoloured patches. Necrosis appears on the lower side of the sheath, eventually leading to drying of leaves, causing 30-40% losses in yield. Control Disease free suckers should be planted. Bract mosaic (Transmitted by aphids) The disease is characterized by the development of black streaks on the petiole, yellow or pinkish colouration on pseudostem and mosaic like purple spindle shaped streaks on the bract. In severe cases, pink streaks continue on the lower surface of the midrib.

31

Suckers show unusual reddish brown streaks at emergence and separation of leaf sheath from central axis. Clustering of leaves at crown with at travellers palm appearance, elongated peduncle and half filled hands are its characteristic symptoms. Yield losses are recorded to be 75-90%. Control Use disease free planting material. Infectious chlorosis Symptoms vary greatly from very mild streaking on the leaves to stunting, interveinal necrosis and death of the plant. Stunted plants have a rosette appearance due to bunching of leaves. The most invariable symptom is the presence of yellow streaking on the older leaves with the streaks usually running from the mid rib to the edge of the blade. The disease causes yield loss up to 50-60%. Control The disease can be checked by destroying the diseased stools and planting disease free suckers in the new areas. Weeds should be checked by spraying herbicides and growing cucurbits as inter crops should be avoided. Mosaic (Transmitted by infected suckers) The disease is characterized by mosaic or discontinuous linear or spindle shaped streaks on the leaf, either generally distributed over the leaf lamina or in bands of half in inch or more in width, extending from margin to midrib. Severely affected leaves show greenish-yellow mottled look. The infected plants remain stunted in growth. The disease is caused by a strain of TMV. It causes 5-10% losses in yield. Control Use virus free planting material. Infected plants must be rogued out from the field to avoid further spread. CITRUS (Citrus Sps) Sweet orange and Acidlime are the two chief commercial citrus fruits grown in Andhra Pradesh. Lemons, Pummeloes and Mandarins are cultivated in limited areas. Andhra Pradesh has and area of 2,53,261 hectares under citrus producing 3.53 million tones annually and holds first rank in acidlime production. Climate

32

The state provides congenial climatic condition for production of citrus fruits. Tropical climate with moderate rainfall i.e., 750 mm and absence of strong winds are ideally suited to kagzi lime and Sweet orange. They can be grown successfully even upto an elevation of 900m above mean sea level. Soils A well drained loamy soil of uniform texture upto depth of 2-3 m having good fertility is considered ideal for its cultivation. The plant is highly sensitive to water-logged situation. Heavy soils, if well drained, yield good crops but the cultivation becomes difficult pH 6.5 to 7.5 ideal. The water table should not rise within one metre from ground level. A high water table for permanent or fluctuating nature and low lying locations are unsuitable. Varieties Sweet Orange Sathgudi This variety is a high yielder and popular in South India. Individual tree bears 1000 to 2000 fruits. The fruit is almost spherical in shape and attractively coloured when fully manure. It weighs 140 to 150 g. The base and apex are evenly rounded. The peel is thin and ragrery little. The segments are 10 to 12. Number of seeds 14. Brix 8.5o to 9o. Juirce 49%, acidity 0.65% and ascorbic acid 47 mg/100 g of juice. Batavian Batavian variety (Bathayee) closely resembles sathgudi except for the green and yellow patches that develop due to basketing and mostly grown in coastal districts. Mosambi It is grown in some parts of Telangana. The fruit develops prominent furrows on skin and a circular grove at the stylar end. It is having rough and thick skin and tastes sweeter and has more seeds compared to Sahgudi orange. It lacks flavour and inadequate blending of acidity with sugars. It is found to grow well and produce yields equal to Sathgudi. The fruit is spherical, smooth and weighs about 200g. The segments 14, brix 8.5 O, acidity 0.44% and juice content 43%. The fruits are of good quality. Acidlime The variety commonly grown in the State is Kagzi lime which is susceptible to canker. Canker tolerant varieties, Balaji (By AICRIP, Tirupati) and Petlur selection (Prereleased variety by Citrus Research Station, Petlur) were developed. The annual yield varies from 3000 to 5000 fruits per tree. The fruit weighs 40 to 50g. It is spherical, smooth and develops attractive yellow colour when fully ripe. The peel is very thin, adhering to segments. The juice sacs are slender and spindle shaped, juice 47%, and brix 6 to 7O,

33

acidity 6.8 to 7% and ascorbic acid 25 to 27 mg/100 g of juice. The average number of seeds is 12. Pummelo Red Fleshed: Pulp is red in colour, brix 8%, acidity 0.7% and is sweet in taste. Propagation Generally acidlime is propagation by seed and sweet oranges by budding. For raising seedlings, freshly extracted seeds should be sown, 2.5cm X 7.5 cm apart on raised seed beds prepared from well pulverized and heavily manured soil with decayed leaf mold or well rotted cow dung. The seeds are sown in May-June or Septemebr-October and the seedlings will be ready for transplanting after 6 to 8 months of sowing. In case of aicd lime, when they attain pencil thickness. They are budded in case of sathgudi. Bud material should be procured from the virus free parent trees. The seedbeds are taken care of to be free from damping-off by drenching the soil with 1% Bordeaux mixture/metalaxyl 3g/lit of water. For Sathgudi orchards one year old, healthy and vigorously growing budlings have to be selected. Rangapur lime root-stock is recommended for Sweet orange. In the case of acidlime, pammelo and lemon (gajanimma) or rangapur lime rootstocks can be used. Planting Pits of 1 meter cube are dug in square system at a spacing of 6m for acidlime and 68m for sweet oranges and filled with a mixture of tank silt, red earth and farmyard manure. Two or three kilos of bone meal or super phosphate per pit need to ber applied. Planting of seedlings and budlings may be done after rainy season to avoid heavy rains and stagnation of water in the soil. The plants selected should be free from viruses, pests and diseases. While planting care should be taken to see that the bud-joint does not get into the soil. The plants have to be staked immediately to avoid wind damage. Manures and Fertilizers Age of the plant 1st year 2nd year 3rd year 4th year 5th year & above Sathgudi & Pummelo N P2O5 K2O (gms) (gms) (gms) 300 70 80 600 140 160 900 210 240 1200 280 320 1500 350 400 Acidlime & Lemons N P2O5 K2O (gms) (gms) (gms) 375 150 200 750 300 400 1125 450 600 1500 600 600 1500 600 800

34

Nitrogen is applied in the form of FYM and oil cakes each at 25% and the remaining 50% with chemical fertilizers. While P2O5 in the form of super phosphate and K 2O in the form of sulphate of potash. Manures are applied in 2 to 3 equal doses i.e. first dose in December-January, 2nd done in June-July, 3rd dose in September, Potash application can be reduced if the soil is rich in this nutrient. A mixture of zinc sulphate 0.5%, manganese sulphate 0.2%, boric acid 0.1%, urea 1% and lime 0.4% has to be sprayed two or three times in a year to control chlorosis in leaves. In severe cases of chlorosis, a composite spray of the micronutrients given below has to be sprayed on new flush. Zinc sulphate 5g Copper sulphate 3g Magnesium sulphate 2g Ferrous sulphate 2.5g Manganese sulphate 2g Borax 1g Lime 6g Urea 10g Water 1 lit Purning and Taining The plants should be trained to grow straight and to build a strong frame work. Root-stock sprouts, water suckers and dead wood should be removed periodically and the cut ends are smeared with Bordeaux paste. Intercrops During prebearing period short growing crops like groundnut, ragi, bajra wheat and vegetables (except solanaceous crops) can be profitably grown in the inter spaces. In the bearing orchards green manure crops like sunnhemp, greengram, cowpea etc., are raised and incorporated into the soil during the monsoon period. Irrigation Young trees have to be regularly watered throughout the year during the dry season. The practice of applying water close to the tree trunks should be avoided as it is conducive to the development of collar rot, gummosis and other fungal diseases. Double ring system of irrigation should be adopted for advantage. The basins may be enlarged from year to year so as to accommodate adequate irrigation water for growing tree. Under normal conditions citrus plants required 18 to 25 irrigation per year. Depending on the climate citrus requires irrigation once in 7 to 15 days interval. the plantation. Mulching But during the flowering and fruit maturity stage there must be sufficient moisture in the soil. Other wise there will be flower and fruit drop in

35

After weeding and manuring, application of dry-leaf mulch or paddy husk to a thickness of 8 cm in the basin keeps down the weed growth and decreases the number of irrigations, while improving the fruit quality. Intercultivation Shallow ploughing may be taken up during monsoon season to avoid damage to fibrous root-system. The soil in the basin is likely to become hard under continuous irrigation and therefore it should be given a light hand-digging with spade after every three irrigations so as to maintain porosity and tilth. Under no circumstances should weeds be allowed to grow rampant in the orchard. Control of Fruit drop Early and pre-harvest fruit drop is common in citrus fruits. To control this physiological disorder, it is a better to give three sprays of 2,4-D at 10 ppm (1g/100lit), one at the time of flowering, the second one month after fruitset and the third one month before harvest which is beneficial and increases the yield considerably minimizing the fruit drop. Harvesting and Post-harvest Technology Bearing starts from third year onwards in acidlime and 5th year onwards in Sathgudi. The sweet orange in South India produces two crops a year regularly with a variable third crop. Main harvest is from December to February and second one from June to September and third one, if there is, in March to June. Limes are harvested throughout the year, but mainly, May to August (80%), January-August (14%) and September-December (6%), Pummeloes, between August-December. Harvesting is done after fully maturity of fruits only. During fully maturing stage there is change of color of fruit, increasing in sweetness. Usually a fruit will take 8 to 9 months time from flower to fruit measure stage in sweet orange. Where as in acid lime it takes 4.5 months time. In sweet orange harvesting done once in change color from green to yellow indicated, where as the in acidlime harvesting is done, once the fruit reaches fully, size, green color and kept in the stroge till the fruit color changes to yellow and send to the market. During the harvesting care in taken to avoid damage to the fruit skin. Damaged fruits will have less price. Storage and Marketing Storage life of Sathgudi can be enhanced by dipping the fruits for 30 seconds in 2 to 3% wax emulsion mixed with 2,4-D at 50 ppm and air drying before packing. In the case of acid lime also the fruits can be similarly treated and packed in alkathene lined gunnies to

36

increase the storage life. The fruits are then packed in gunnies to increase the storage life. The fruits are then packed in gunnies providing paddy straw before transport to distant markets. The sweet orange fruits can be preserved for longer periods in cold storage at 0 to 2OC and acid lime at 7 to 9OC in a relative humidity of 85 to 90%. Uses The citrus fruits are valued for the vitamin C and phosphorus content. Several delicious fruit products like refreshing drinks, pickles etc., are prepared. They are the main source for preparation of peel oil, citric acid, citrate of lime and cosmetics which have international market value. Plant Protection Pests Leaf miner (Phyllocnistis citrella) The caterpillar mines into the leaves of young flush, showing glistening and zig zag mines on them. The affected leaves curl, deform and the plant appears sickly.

Control Spraying of chemicals like monocrotophos 1.6 ml or fenvalerate 0.2 ml or imidacloprid (confidor 100 SL) 0.5 ml or profenophos 2 ml per liter of water immediately after the appearance of fresh foliage and 2nd spray after a week period is recommended. But care should be taken that the same chemicals should not be sprayed repeatedly. Citrus leaf weevils (Myllocerus sp) The weevils cut the leaves from margins Control Spraying of monocrotophos 0.05% or carbaryl 0.15% two or three times at 10 days intervals. Citrus butterfly (Papilio demoleous) The caterpillar is severe in nursery and young plantations causing defoliation of the young plants. It is dark grayish brown in colour with whitish oblique patches when young. Control Spray fenetrothion 0.05% or diazonan 0.05% or phosphamidon 0.04% or monocrotophos 0.04% @ 10-20 litres/tree. Bark and Stem borer (Indarabela tetraonis) The caterpillar bores into stems and branches and forms long galleries of silk overlaid with small fragments of wood and frass. The larva comes out from this gallery and feeds on the barks.

37

Control The wooden particles, silk and bored holes plugged with excreta should be cleaned and poured with Endosulfan or Malathion or Kerosene or Petrol using an ink pillar. Then the hole is sealed with clay so that the larva dies within the tunnel. Green mites (Olygonychus citri, Tetramychus spp.) Infested leaves from upper side become stippled and later on turn grey on yellow. Infested fruits remain often small in size and drop. Control Spraying of water soluble Sulfer 3g or propargite 2ml or Dicofol 3.5 ml/lt of water 2 times in 10 days interval is recommended for mite control. Mangu mites or Pinkish Brown Blotch (Phyllcoptes oleiverus) The mite causes pinkish brown blotch on fruits, there by reducing the market value of the fruit.

Control Spraying with Wettable sulphur 3g or Propargite 2ml/ Dicofol 3.5ml or Propargite 2ml per liter of water in September, October and November months, 3 times at monthly intervals is recommended. The spraying should coincide with the marble stage of the fruit. Fruits sucking moths (Othreis maternal, O.fullonica, Achoea janata, O.ancilla) These moths pierce the ripening fruits and suck juice. The affected fruits rot and drop. The moths will be acitive during dusk. The larvae develop on the weeds. Control

1. 2.

Rotten and fallen fruits attract the adult moths. So affected dropped fruits should be collected and destroyed. Moths get attracted to light. So during fruit ripening period light traps along with basins containing fruit juice + 1% sugar + 1ml Malathion or kerosene bait solutions are to be arranged here and there in the field. So that the moths get attracted to light, fell down and die in the baited basins kept under the light traps.

3.

Bait prepared with 15g lead arsinate + 1kg jaggery or molassus + 5 liters of water with a little vinegar and kept in the field here and there to attract the moths.

4.

Just before the ripening period of the fruits itself bagging of fruits either with 300 gauge polythene bags or palm leaf bags helps to reduce the pest attack and in

38

the same way the bagged fruits with alternate green and yellow marking look attractive to the consumers. 5. The adult lives for 8 days, and it feeds only 6 days. In remaining 2 days it lays egg on Menispermaceae family weeds on the field bunds. The larvae feed on the weeds and pupal period is also completed on weeds itself. Only adults damage the sweet orange fruits. So, by destructing Menispermaceous weeds on field bunds and near by places we can reduce the pest attack. Aphids (Toxoptera citricidus and T.auranti) The pest attacks the tender shoots, as a result of which the shoots get curled and growth checked. They also transmit Tristetza virus which causes decline of citrus. Control Spray with Imidacloprid (confidor 200 SL) 0.5ml or Dimethoate 2ml per liter of water is recommended.

Citrus Psylla (Diaphornia citri) Adults and nymphs suck sap from flush as a result of which the leaf curls and flowers drop. Greening pathogen is transmitted by this insect. Control Spray with Imidacloprid (confidor 200 SL) 0.5ml or Dimethoate 2ml per liter of water is recommended. Mealybugs (Planococcus citri, P.pacificus, Icerya purchasi) The mealy bugs infest tender shoots and fruits. Severe infestation causes premature fruit drops and affects plant growth. Presence of sooty mould and white mealy bugs no fruits and shoots are the symptoms. Control Spraying of Methyl parathion 2ml or Monocrotophos 1.6ml per liter of water 2 times at 15 days interval is recommended. Snow scales (Pinnaspis aspidistrae) Small white insets in large Number colonize on all plant parts like fruits, leaves, branches, trunk etc. and suck sap from them, thus devitalizing the tree. Control It is recommended that the tree trunk is rubbed with pieces of gunny bags, then sprayed with Metasystox or Dimethoate 2ml per liter of water completely covering the damaged parts.

39

Termites (Odontotermes (Termes) obesus, Microtermes obesi) Feed on roots and stem bases near the ground level. The severely infested trees often dry Control Mud galleries on tree trunk should be scraped off and dusted with lindane powder or Chloriphyriphos solution @ 3-5 ml/liter of water should be well mixed with soil around the tree basins using hand hoes. Red tree ants (Oecophylla smargdina) Although these ants do not feed on any plants, they spread all over the trees and nests of leaves, thereby causing great nuisance. Indirectly harmful by protecting aphids and coccids and hinders fruit harvest. Control The ant nests on the tree should be disturbed and dusted with lindane powder to control the tree ants. Nematodes (Tylenchulus semipenetrans , Meloidogyne spp.,) Slow decline, die back, rootlets shortened, swollen and irregular. Soil adhere to gelatinous matrix of the egg mass, galls on roots, reduction in yield. Control 1. Seedlings should be selected from nematode tree nurseries.

2. During replanting of the nurseries neem cake or castor cake or pongamia cake
should be applied @ 60-80 kgs per one cent area. 3. Do not grow solanaceous crops or bhendi, banana crops in citrus orchards.

4. Apply 130-160g Furadon or 40-80g Thimmet granules per plant basin. After 3
months, based on plant age applies 15-25 kg neem or castor or pongamia cakes per plant for every 6 months. Dieseases Fungal diseases Leaf fall and Fruit rot (Akuralu or Kaya Kullu Tegulu) (Phytophthora palmivora) Water soaked leisions develop on leaves and fruits, resulting in their drop. Control Two sprays of 0.1% Bordeaux mixture, once before the beginning of monsoon and the other at the end of the monsoon are suggested. Gummosis or Root-rot (Banka or Veru kullu Tegulu) (Phytophthora citrophthora, Phytophthora parasitica, Phytophthora palmivora) The bark at the collar region peels off allowing gum exudation.

40

Control 1. 2. 3. Selection of proper site with adequate drainage. Graft union of the plant should be well above the soil (high budding: 30-46 cm or above). Double ring method, with an inner ring at about 45cm and an outer ring around the tree, should be followed. It prevents the irrigation water from coming in direct contact with the trunk. 4. Scrape the gum portions of affected bark and apply Bordeaux paste or copper oxychloride paste on the affected portions. Apply of Bordeaux paste to the tree trunks upto 2 feet height is recommended once a year.

5.

Spray Carbendazim (1%) on twigs and branches twice at 15 days interval to prevent Diplodia gummosis.

Diplodia Gummosis (Diplodia Banka Tegulu) (Diplodia natalensis) The affected branches show oozing of gummy substance out of bark splitting. Control Similar treatment as in rootrot is suggested. Dry Root rot (Fusarium solani) Infected roots become blackened and the bark portion of the roots easily peeled off from the root. Infected plant shows heavy flowering and fruiting and the plant dies before the fruits reach maturity stage. Control Root rot in acidlime and sweet orange can be controlled effectively when the plants are detected at early infection stage and by using integrated management practices.

1. 2.

For the diseased trees, apply 20 lit of 1% Bordeaux mixture or 0.2% Carbendizim (2g/lit of water) at the tree basin immediately after the next day of irrigation. Initial symptoms of root rot appear generally in summer season. Apply leaf mulches or agricultural wastes such as paddy husk, groundnut husk, dried leaves, black gram or green gram husk, saw dust to the infected trees at 2-3 inch thickness.

3.

Immediately after the start of rains (August- September), apply green leaf manures such as neem,

Crotalaria

juncea,

Cassia

auriculata,

Cissus

quadrangularis, Vigna species below the soil in the tree basin. On top of the
manure, apply single super phosphate (1kg/tree), mix thoroughly deep in to the soil. Green leaf manures helps in increasing the biocontrol agent populations such as Trichoderma in the soil and there by disease control.

41

4.

Apply 10 kg mixture of Trichoderma culture for each tree (mix 1 kg Trichoderma culture + 90 kg FYM + 10 kg neem cake, kept it aside for 4-5 days) at the trunk basins and mix it well. Repeat the same after 6 months. Application of 5 kg of this mixture every year to the healthy trees prevents root rot.

Ganoderma root rot (Ganoderma or Puttagodugu or Puttakokku Tegulu) (Ganoderma lucidum) The entire plant wilts and dies in extreme cases. The roots become weak and pliable. Numerous brackets like objects are produced at the base of the stem and also in the trunk to some height. Control These mushrooms also infect Coconut, Mango, Jackfruit trees. So, collect and destroy the mushrooms on these crops. Continuously watch for the mushrooms, particularly in rainy season and destroy them. Cut the diseased older trunk portions and apply Bordeaux paste. Apply 1 lit / Sq.m area of carbendazim (1gm / liter of water) or Aureofungin sal (1.5g / 5 liters of water) or Tridemorph (2.5g / liter of water).

Twig blight (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Botryodiplodia theobromae) Light brown to dark brown discolouration of leaves. They get defoliated. The naked twigs have profused black coloured fructification on grayish twigs. Control Pruning and burning of the affected twigs before the rainy season followed by spraying of 0.1% Carbendazim (10gm in 10 lit of water) or Copper oxychloride 3g / lit of water twice at monthly interval reduces the disease. Powdery mildew (Budida Tegulu) (Acrisporium tingitanium) White powdery growth is formed on the surface of the leaves. Control Spraying of Karathane 0.1% or Wettable Sulphur 0.2% twice at 15 days interval reduces the disease incidence. Felt disease (Septobasidium spp) Soft felt like leathery fungal growth encircles petiole, leaf base, twigs, branches and fruit stacks. The causal fungus grows over the surface and it does not penetrate the bark tissues. Control

42

Pruning and destruction of diseased twigs before the onset of monsoon. Spraying of Monocrotophos (1.6ml) with Mancozeb (2g) or Captan (2g / lt of water) controls the scale insects and the disease. Pink disease (Pellicularia salmonicolour) Whitish mycelial growth appears on the infected twigs. Later white or pink pustules appear on the twigs. When the bark is severely infected, it gets shredded, and the wood is exposed. Longitudinal cracking and gumming of the branches may also take place. Control Cut-off the diseased twigs, which are drying after rainy season and destroy them. Apply Bordeaux paste on the cut surface of the twigs. Pre harvest stem end rot (Gloeosporium limetticola) Brown colored round spot appears at the stem end of the fruit and the rotting spreads gradually throughout the fruit. As the disease advances, the color charges from brown to chestnut brown. The fungus spreads up to 2-3 cm in the stem and rots that portion. Some of the affected fruits drop off. Some rot and dry on the tree attached to the fruit stalk.

Control The infected and dried fruits should be pruned along with the fruit stalks and destroyed. Spray 10g of Carbendazim in 10 lit of water and apply three times at monthly intervals in June, July and August months. Spray should cover thoroughly the leaves and fruits. Greasy spot (Mycospherella citri) Symptoms include oily, chestnut brown spots or blister like lesions on underside of mature leaves. Smaller spots coalesce and become larger. The disease is severe in rainy and winter season. Heavily infected leaves drop off before reaching maturity and the twigs are defoliated. Control Spray Copper oxychloride 30g / 10 lt of water or 25g Zeneb (0.25% in 10 lt of water) twice in June, July at 20 days interval. Spray should cover the lower surface of the leaves thoroughly. Longitudinal bark and wood splitting disease (Botryodiplodia theobromae) The symptoms first appear as two longitudinal splits on trunk and branches. The splits gradually deepen in to inner woody portions of the stem and appear as a canal. The

43

tissue within the splits is dead and the branches above the split region dries up from top to bottom. Control Spray Carbendazim (10g/10 lt of water) twice at 15 days interval when the initial symptoms are observed. Spray should cover the trunk and branches thoroughly. Apply Bordeaux mixture (1lt / 1 sq.m area) the next day after irrigation. Cut and destroy dried up twigs and branches before spray. Bacterial diseases Canker and Greening are the two main bacterial diseases of citrus. Canker (Gajji or Bobbara Tegulu) (Xanthomonas auxonopodis Pv. Citrii) Corky out growths develop on the leaves, fruits and twigs. The disease is serious in acid lime. Control

1. Canker tolerant acidlime variety Balaji was developed by Citrus Research Station,
Tirupati. The variety is canker, tolerant and high yielding. Farmers can obtain the variety from Citrus Research Station, Tirupati. 2. Diseased twigs and branches should be pruned and destroyed before the rainy season.

3. Spray Streptocycline (1g) + Copper oxychloride (30g) in 10lt of water, twice on

young flushes in rainy season at 20 days interval. 4. Control of leaf miner in acidlime orchards can reduce canker. 5. To prevent canker on fruits, spray the above chemicals on small fruits twice at monthly interval. Spray should cover entire fruits. 6. If canker is present on trunk and main branches, scrap that portion and apply Bordeaux paste on the effected area. Greening disease (Leptobacterium asiaticum) Leaf patterns include chlorosis resembling zinc deficiency (some times dotted with green islands), and yellowing of veins. Reduction in fruit size and die-back of twigs are also noticed. The pathogen is spread by use of infected bud wood and by the citrus psylla (Diaphornia citri) Control 1. Selection of certified disease free budlings.

1. Application of Dimethoate to control psylla (as in case of psylla control).

Viral diseases Tristeza disease (Quick decline or die-back)

44

Decay of roots, die-back of twigs, diminished fruit-set, vein-clearing in leaves and stem pittings are symptoms of tristeza virus. The disease is transmitted by budding and by certain aphids including (Toxoptera citricida, Aphis gossypi and A.craccivora) The disease is distributed throughout the world. It affects mostly acidlime orchards. Symptoms are very clear in lime trees. Tristeza affected trees look chloratic and sickly in the early stages. Gradually the leaves drop and the defoliated twigs show die-back. The declining trees die gradually but some times apparently healthy trees die suddenly. Diseased trees usually blossom heavily. They bear small sized fruits. As the fruits develop, the tree wilts partly or completely. Vein clearing in young leaves of acidlime, which is seen intermittently when viewed against light is a characteristic symptoms. In sweet orange the specific symptoms of tristiza is stem pitting on the root stocks such as Jambhiri. It is fine pitting of inner face of bark in the portion of trunk below the bud union. The disease primarily spreads through the use of diseased bud wood by the nurserymen. Under field conditions, the disease is transmitted by the aphid, Taxoptera

citricida.
Control Tolerant rootstocks such as sweet orange, trifoliate orange, Cleopatra mandarin and Rangpurlime have to be used. Budded plants free from the virus are to be planted. Mosaic disease Symptoms appear on leaves and fruits. Affected leaves show irregular yellow or light green patches alternating with normal green areas. Reduction in leaf size and leaf drop is observed. Fruits show depressed yellow patches and elevated green areas. Reduction in fruit size is common. The disease is transmitted through infected bud wood. Bud union crease disease In the diseased plants stem looks swollen near the bud joint. When the bark near the bud joint is cut open, honey colored mark is visible on the wood. When the disease is severe and mark is visible around the stem, transport of food material is not possible and the roots may die. The disease is observed on sweet orange plants grafted on Jambhiri root stocks but not on Rangpurlime root stocks (in Ananthapur district). Yellow corky vein disease The disease occurs in sweet orange and acid lime trees. The disease initially produces yellowing of mid-rib and lateral veins. In advanced stages mid-rib becomes corky on the lower surface and the leaves finally curl. The disease is transmitted through infected bud wood. Control measures for viral diseases

45

There are no effective practical treatments to cure citrus trees once they are infected with viral diseases such as tristeza, mosaic, bud union crease, yellow corky vein etc., Propagation of the plants should not be done from diseased trees. Some times identification of viral diseases in the plants is difficult. So, farmers should buy the bud sticks from Citrus Research Station, Tirupati. At the center, the bud sticks are supplied after indexing the plants for viral diseases. When the farmers use such indexed bud sticks and graft them on Rangpurlime root stocks, they can minimize the viral diseases to maximum extent. Lime Bark Eruptions (Nimma Beradu Pokkulu) Yellowish brown corky bark eruptions develop around the branches. This disease has become serious in acid lime plantations. Control In the early stages, light scraping of such portions and application of Bordeaux paste can relieve the incidence. GRAPES (Vitis vinifera L.) Grape is one of the most remunerative crops of the present times. The total area under Grape in Andhra Pradesh is about 2.76 thousand hectares with estimated annual production of 58 thousand tons. It is mainly grown in the districts of Ranga Reddy, Hyderabad, Ananthapur and Chittoor. In Anantapur two crops in a year could be harvested due to favourable climatic conditions. Season and Climate The main cropping season in Andhra Pradesh is February to April. In Rayalaseema region, Ananthapur district, two crops of Anab-e-Shahi is taken per year once in November to December and another in May. Warm and dry weather is ideal for grapes. It is grown successfully in our country at a temperature range from 15O to 40oC and a rainfall to 50 to 60 cm. the total amount of rainfall is not the criteria but the distribution of rainfall in important for successful grape growing. There should be clear weather about 3-4 months during cropping period. Cloudy weather, high humidity, low temperature and rains during flowering and berry development are detriemental as they are congenial to the spread of diseases. Soils The soils should be well drained. It grows well at pH range from 6.5 to 7.5. The red soils of Telangana called Chalka soils and black loamy soils with more of coarse fraction are ideal for grape. Sticky clay soils should be avoided. Varieties

46

Important commercial varieties Seeded Varieties Anab-E-Shahi Vigorous, seeded, very heavy yielder, average weight of bunch 800g, bunch very large, slightly shouldered or conical, well filled, berries large to very large, oval, pale, excellent keeping quality, low total soluble solids (T.S.S) 16-17%, total titratable acidity 0.45 to 0.56%. Kalisahebi Medium vigour, seeded, medium yielder, bunch medium to large, well filled berries black, large and elongated, pulp firm high quality, T.S.S. 22%, good shipper, late maturity, uneven ripening. Bangalore Blue Grown in Penugonda area in Ananthapur district, medium vigour, seeded, medium yield, bunches small and compact, berries small to medium, spherical, thickf skin which separates, dark blackish purple, pulp pale green, T.S.S. 18-19%, titratable acidity 0.8 to 0.9%, good quality.

Gulabe (Karachi, Panneer drakhsa, Muscat) Mostly grown in Tamil Nadu, medium vigour, seeded, medium yielder, bunches small and loose, berries small, coloured, spherical with thich skin, good keeping quality, T.S.S. upto 28% early maturity, uneven ripening. Dilkush Vigorous seeded, moderately yielder, bunch medium to large elongated and cylindrical, well filled, berries large and elongated, pale green coloured, good keeping quality, late maturity. Regina Medium vigour, seeded, medium yielder, bunches small to medium and loose, colour purple to black, berries medium in size and spherical. T.S.S. 21.0%, acidity 0.79 to 0.81%. Resistant to anthracnose and downy mildew diseases. Pusa Navrang Zinpandel Shiraj Seedless Varieties Thompson seedless (Kishmish, Bedana)

47

Vigorous, seedless, bunch small to medium, conical to cylindrical, compact, berries small, ellipsoidal, pale, good quality T.S.S. upto 22%. Kishmish charni Medium vigour, seedless and black colour well filled berries, medium yielder, bunches moderate to medium, T.S.S. 22 to 24 per cent, total titratable acidity 0.4 to 0.6 per cent. Kishmish Rozoviz Medium vigour, seedless and coloured, medium yielder, bunch small to medium, conical with shoulders, compact, berries small, spherical, purplish black in colour, T.S.S. 22%, acidity 0.48 to 0.5% Thas-A-Ganesh Mutant of Thompson seedless. It has got all characteristics of Thompson seedless and yields more. Flame Seedless Propagation It is propagated by stem cuttings. Matured canes from productive vines should be selected preferably from the October prunings. Ideal canes are those which are medium in vigour i.e. 0.7 to 0.8 cm in diameter with internodal length of 8 to 10 cm cuttings of about 25 to 30 cm size with 4 to 5 nodes are selected and they are planted in well prepared flat beds, leaving two nodes above the soil surface. To control insect pests like termites in nursery beds at periodical intervals, treat the soil with heptachlor. The rooted cuttings will be ready for planting in about three months. Lay out The plot selected for planting grape should be well levelled. The land should be ploughed well and raise a green manure viz., sun hemp during monsoon and incorporate insitu in August and September. A bower is erected with stone pillars and galvanised iron wire before planting. Spacing Spacing to be adopted varying with variety, soil and method of training. The most commonly adopted spacing for Anab-e-Shahi around Hyderabad is 4.5 x 4.5 m (500 plants/ha) and for Thompson seedless 3.0 x 3.0 m (1.112 plants/ha). Planting The planting of rooted cuttings should be taken up only after erection of pendal or bower. One month in advance of planting, pits of 90cm x 90cm x 90cm are dug and allowed to weather. While digging the top half-depth of soil is separately heaped and some trash

48

may be burnt before filling. The top soil is mixed with 50 kg of farmyard manure, 5 kg of castor cake and 3 kg of super phosphate ande pit is filled with this mixture. After filling, water is given to pits. The soil in the pit will sink and it should be filled with some more mixture to make it to ground level. In the centre of pits 25 g of 2% folidor is dusted at the time of planting. The rooted cuttings are planted in pits without causing damage to roots. The best time for planting is October. Training Training is a very important operation in grapes. It helps to maintain the form and spread of the vine which facilitates to carry on operations like pruning, intercultivation and spraying and harvesting. The method of training system to be adopted depends upon the variety and its vigour, etc., many systems of training of grapes are adopted but the commons systems followed in India are bower, kniffin, telephone, trellis and head systems. Under Hyderabad climatic condition, the performance of the commercial varieties, Anab-e-Shahi and Thompson Seedless is excellent when trained on bower. Bower system is commonly followed system of training in tropical India fro most of the commercial varieties of grapes, since vines are vigorous and due to continuous growth habit, it facilitates the distribution of growing apex at many points and spread of branches horizontally. It is most expensie system of training. Bower of 2.1 m height is erected using granite stone pillars as supports and galvanished iron wire of 8 to 10 gauge thickness for mesh. One vigorous growing shoot is selected nipping off other shoots and this single shoot is allowed to grow up straight with the support of bamboo or plastic wire stake. Cut off all the auxillary shoots and the main growing shoot is pinched off at 15 cm below the pendal level. Two shoots arising from below the cut ar allowed to grow in opposite direction on the wires overhead. These two shoots develop into main Arms. On the main arm, side shoots are allowed to grow at regular intervals of 40 to 45 cm apart. These side shoots are called secondaries and tertiaries or canes, from which fruiting spurs develop. The arms and secondaries from which fruiting spurs develop. The arms and secondaries from the permanent frame work of the vine. The main arms should be trained towards East and Western direction, so as to reduce damage due to sunburn during summer months especially aftger February-march purning. The entire space allocated for each vine is covered in instalment by intermitant pinching of the primary arms and secondaries not allowing them to grow more than 60 cm at a time. As they grow the shoots are tied with jute twine and all tendrils are removed.. Pruning

49

Pruning is a vital operation in grape. Removal of any vegetative part is called pruning. It is done to concentrate the activity of vine in the parts left after pruning and to induce sprouting of the fruitful buds located in the middle portion of canes. In Andhra Pradesh grape vines are pruned twice in a year once in summer after the harvest of crop i.e. February-April and again in winter i.e. September to October. Summer pruning In summer pruning canes are pruned to 1 to 2 buds for vegetative growth. The fruit bud differentiation takes place on these shoots 40-60 days after pruning. This pruning is also called foundation pruning or back pruning or growth pruning. All the old leaves and dried shoots are removed. Winter pruning Vines which are about one year old can be subjected to this pruning. This is done in the month of September and October in Andhra Pradesh for fruiting purpose. All the mature current season canes are pruned and immature canes and leaves should be completely removed. The level of pruning differs with the variety for Anab-e-shahi Seedless varieties 5 to 7 buds 5 to 12 buds

Depending upon the thickness of canes pruning is done. If the cane is thicker (0.7 to 0.8 cm diameter) more number of buds and in thinner canes less number of buds are retained. After pruning the weather should be clear. Otherwise, the new leaves and flower panicles will be damaged by fungal diseases i.e. Downy mildew and Anthracnose which spread rapidly under rainy or cloudy weather conditions. Manures and Fertilizer Grape is a heavy feeder. The following manorial schedule is adopted in the different years of growth. The dose of fertilisers in kg per plant having 13.5 sp. Meter trailing space is given below. In both the seasons prior to pruning the top 15 to 20 cm soil in the basin is dug out and heaped around the trunk. Organic manures are spread uniformly in the basins and then fertilizers are applied and covered with soil. The efficacy of fertilizer is more if it is applied at root feeding zone i.e. at about 15 cm depth and 60 cm away from the trunk. Immediately after application, copious supply of water is to be given to the basins. NPK requirement kg/acre of the bearing orchards. Manures/Fertilizers Organic manures (40%) Inorganic fertilizers (60%) Nitrogen 80 120 Phosphorous Kg/acre 80 120 Potash 160 240

50

Total

200

200

400

Manurial requirement at different stages of growth Nutrients Kg/ha Nitrogen Phosphorou s Potash Summer pruning Before 1-30 60-120 pruning days days after after pruning pruning 40 60 40 Winter pruning Before 1-30 60-120 pruning days days after after pruning pruning 30 30 40 40 20

Collect about 200 random Petiole samples (fifth leave from the base) 45 days after summer pruning (flower bud initiation) and analyze for the nutrients. Spray the following nutrients for the correction of the deficiency. Zinc Magnesium Boron Irrigation spray Zinc sulphate @ 2g/lit. spray Magnesium sulphate @ 2g/lit or Magnesium oxide @ 1g/lit spray Borax @ 1 2 g/lit

In shallow red soils around Hyderabad, for Anab-e-Shahi grape about 30-40 irrigations are given in a year. Fully grownup vine requires about 1000 litres of water in winter and 2000 litres in summer season. Immediately after pruning and application of fertilizer, vines are given 2 to 3 successive irrigations at 3-4 days interval. In winter, irrigation is to be given when the top 5 cm soil (8 to 10 days) is dry while in summer 3.5 cm top goes dry (4-5 days). During berry development stage irrigations are given at weekly intervals and water is withheld 10 days before harvesting to improve quality. In the case of drip irrigation, water requirement per acre is as follows. After summer pruning 0 - 40 days 41 100 days 101 days to till winter pruning After winter pruning 0 - 45 days 46 - 75 days 76 - 110 days 111 days to till harvesting Intercultivation Water requirement (kilo litres/acre) 38.4 - 48.0 19.2 - 28.8 12.0 - 16.0 16.0 7.2 20.0 28.8 19.2 12.0 36.0 35.2

The vineyard should be kept clean, free from weed growth. Usually, a shallow digging of 8 to 10 cm depth is done once in 15 to 20 days interval with spade by manual

51

labour and weeds hand picked. A single bullock drawn implement, a three tyned harrow can be used for intercultivation for loosening the soil and to check weed growth. Pinching of Shoots During summer, on back pruned spurs more than 3 to 4 new shoots may be seen growing. Pinchoff weed shoots and allow to grow one or two vigorous shoots. When such shoots grow to a metre length the tips are to be pinched off and tendrils are removed. Pinching encourages the growth of sub-canes in Anab-e-Shahi which are more fruitful. Checking the growth by tipping helps in many ways i.e. it provides more light, early cane maturity and leaves become less susceptible to anthracnose disease after the onset of monsoon. Spraying of 50 ppm Urocil 45 days after summer pruning increases the bud fetility. Improving the size and quality of Bunches The fruit size and quality of Thompson seedless can be improved by use of growth regulators like gibberlic acid. The bunches are dipped in G.A. 60 ppm solution at capfall or decapping stage. The yield of this variety increased by about 30% with gibberlic acid. In addition to G.A. treatment, cane girdling is also practiced for improving the size and quality of bunches. Removal of a narrow strip of 0.5 to 1.0 cm around the cane is called cane girdling. It is done in the individual fruiting canes in the second and third internode immediately after fruit set. Harvesting and packing Grapes are harvested when they are fully ripe on the vine itself as there will not be any further ripening of berries after harvest. Time taken from fruit set to ripening depends on the variety, crop load on the vine and atmospheric temperature. Usually maturity of bunches is judged on the basis of the following conditions. The bunch is ready for harvest when the lower most berry of the bunch is soft and sweet. On ripening white grapes turn to amber colour while the coloured ones attain characteristic uniform colour with ashy bloom. Seed of the ripened berries becomes dark brown. Further total soluble solids also give the indicative of ripening. Anab-e-Shahi is harvested when it records a brix of 18.0O to 20.0O and Thompson seedless 21.0O to 22.0O. The bunches are harvested with secature or scissors. Then the immature and rotten berries are removed with the help of scissors. The bunches are packed in wooden or card board boxes or bamboo staked baskets. The paper strips are used to avoid damage to the berries. Uses

52

In India, almost all our produce is consumed as table fruit while in European countries 99% of their produce is used for preparation of wines and other products like raisins, fresh juice and jams etc. It is fairly a good source of minerals like Calcium, Phosphorus and Iron. The juice is a mild laxative and acts as a stimulant to kidneys. Plant Protection Pests Cock Chaffer beetles (Penku Purugu) (Adoretus spp.) Beetles appear soon after first monsoon shower, feed on leaf lamina leaving only midrib, severe cases defoliate the vine. Control Use light trap, spray Endosulfan or Quinalphos @ 2ml/lit. Flea beetles (Chita Purugu) (Scelodonta strigi collio) Heavy damage to sprouting buds after winter pruning. Beetles feed on tender shoots and leaves. Control Spraying Bordeaux mixture serves as a repellent. Remove the loose bark during rainy season. In summer ploughing in the inter spaces should be taken up. Spray Carboryl 3g/lit or Monocrotophos 1.6ml or Immidachlopride @ 0.3 ml/lit. Thrips (Rhipiphoro thrips cruentaus) Suck the sap and make the leaf fade and dry. Infested berries develop scab and quality of fruit affected. Control Spray Methyl demeton or Dimethoate or Endosulfan @ 2ml/lit or Thiomixicon @ 0.25 g or Fipronil @ 1ml or Spinosad 0.3ml/lit. Mealy bugs (Pindi Purugu) (Pseudococcus spp) Both nymphs and adults suck cell sap from plant parts and berries, affected parts coated with sticky honey over which sooty mould develops, affects shoot malformed and quality of bunch much affected. Control Rub the trunk with gunny cloth, remove the bark and Swab it with Carboryl 6g + 10g of COC + 1ml Neem oil + 1ml Sandovit/lit. Release predatory beetles such as Cryptolaemus sp. or Pallus sp. @ 8 10/plant. Remove the affected branches and bunches in spray Dichlorovos @ 2ml or Methomyl @ 1g/lit. Tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura) It feeds on tender leaves, in severe cases only the mid rib of the leaves remains and completely defoliate the platns.

53

Control Pick and destroy the egg masses on the leaves and prune the tips and collect the caterpillars manually. Keep at least 4 pheromone traps per acre. 1 - 1 feet above the pandals. Spray NPV 250 LE/acre or Chlorophiriphos 2.5ml or Methomyl 1g/lit. Grapevine Borer (Kandum toluchu purugu) (Sthenias gristor) The adult beetles lay eggs on the bark of trunk or arms by making a slit on bark, brubs make tunnel in the stems and weaken the vines. Control Mechanical removal of grubs in June-August. During March-April insert tablet of Aluminium phosphide or petrol or Dichlorovos into holes and plug to kill the grubs. Diseases Anthracnose (Pakshi Kannu Tegulu) (Gleosporium ampelophagum) On leaves small circular spots with grayish black centre and yellow margins are formed. On tendrils and shoots circular light brown and slightly sunken spots are produced. Control Cut off all infested plant parts in early stages. Spray Bordeaux mixture 1% or Carbandazim 1g or Thiophinate methyl 1g or Mancozeb 2.5 g or Copper Hydroxide 2g or Copper oxychloride 2.5g or Cropineb 3g or Iprodin 0.6ml or Dyfenconazole 0.6ml/lit

Downy mildew (Majjiga Tegulu) (Plasmopara viticola) All the tender parts of vine are infested. First small light pale yellow spots appear on upper surface and whitish downy growth on the lower side. In severe case the entire leaf is affected, turn brown and later drop off, infested panicles turn brown and drop off, fruit becomes grayish, hard and often mummified. Control Collect infested leaves, shoots, berries etc., and destroy. Spray Bordeaux mixture 1% or Mitalaxyl MZ 2g or Cymaxanyl MZ + Mancozeb 3g or Propineb 3g or Phosetyl Aluminum 2g or Phenomedan + Mancozeb 1g or Iprohelicarb + Propinate 2.5g. Dont use Nitrogenous fertilizers or gibbarellic acids during the severity of disease. Powdery mildew (Budida Tegulu) (Uncinula necator) White powdery patches are found on the upper surface of tender leaves, in severe cases entire leaf is covered with powder like substance and leaves become discoloured, stems become grey and turn dark brown, on fruit whitish growth appears which results in discolouration, cracking of fruit or shedding of fruits.

54

Control Remove affected plant parts and destroy, dust Sulphur 10-15 kg/ha. Spray Wettable sulphur 2g or Microcel 2g or Hexaconazole 1ml or Penconazole 0.5ml or Tridemophos 1g or Pyrochlostrobin 0.5g or Ajaxiprobin 0.5ml or Tevuconazole 0.7ml/lit. Export standards for grapes Thompson seedless is highly acceptable variety. Soil pH should be between 6 8 Chlorides should not exceed 3 m.e. in the irrigation water Bunches should be free from pests and diseases. Uniform bunches with light green colour Bunch weight should be 300 - 500 grams Berry should have 18 mm diameter It should have atleast 18O brix Bunches should be free from Pesticide residues. GUAVA (Psidium guajava L.) Guava is a popular fruit tree of tropical and sub tropical climate. Guava is considered as one of the exquisite and nutritionally valuable and remunerative crop. In Andhra Pradesh Guava is cultivated in an area of 9626 hectares with a production of 1.44 lakh metric tons. Guava is grown in Rangareddy (2125 ha), Krishna (1078 ha), Anathapur (800 ha), Prakasam (680 h), Medak (585 ha), West Godavari (557 ha), Mahboobnagar (550 a). Climate For maximum production in the tropics, guava crop requires 500 to 1000mm of rain, evenly distributed throughout the year. Guava is grown successfully in tropical & subtropical regions up to 1,500m above mean sea-level. Best quality fruits are obtained where low night temperatures (10o c) prevail during winter season. Temperatures between 23-28oc is ideal for flowering and fruit set. Soils Almost all soils are suitable for guava cultivation. However deep loams with good drainage are ideal for guava. Varieties Allahabad Safeda

55

It is the most popular variety in india and occupies the largest area under cultivation. Tree vigorous, medium tall, with dense foliage. Lucknow 49 (Sardar) The tree Semi dwarf, vigorous, with heavy branching habit. Fruits are roundish ovate and meaty pulp with soft seeds. The fruit tastes sweet (9-10 quality. Safed Jam (Hybrid) It is a hybrid between Allahabad Safeda and Kohir evolved at Fruit Research Station, Sangareedy. The tree is medium in size. The fruits are round with thin skin. Seeds semi hard and located at the core. The keeping quality of the fruit is good. Kohir safeda (Hybrid) It is a cross between Kohir selection and Allahabad Safeda evolved at Fruit Research Station, Sangareedy. The tree is large in size. The fruits are large, round and bears profusely. The fruit has hard seed. Arka Amulya (Hybrid) It is a cross between Allahabad safeda and Triploid released from IIHR, Bangalore .Fruits are medium in size with white flesh, high TSS (12.5 O Brix) and good keeping quality. Arka Mridula This is a seedling selection of variety Allahabad Safeda. The fruit size is medium with excellent quality. The pulp is white with few soft seeds. The plants are of medium vigour but high yielding. Allahabad Surkha Allahabad Surkaha is an outstanding variety of large, iniform pink fruits with deep pink flesh. The plants produce up to 120 kg fruits in its sixth year of fruiting. The fruit is sweet, strongly flavoured with few seeds and is slightly depressed at both ends. The plants are vigorous, dome shaped and compact. Lalit The variety is released from CISH, Lucknow. It is high yielder when compared to Allahabad Safeda. The fruits are red fleshed with good sugar acid blend. This is suitable for both table and processing purposes. The pink colour in beverage remains stable for more than a year in storage. CISH-G-1
O

Fruits round and medium in size with

smooth skin. Flesh is white, soft, firm with few soft seeded.

Brix) with good keeping

56

The variety is released from CISH, Lucknow. when temperatures are less than 10 Oc. Propagation

The fruits are deep red in colour

having attractive shape, few soft seeds. Fruit develops attractive peel colour during winter

Guava is commercially propagated by ground layers (embedded pot layering) and approach grafting. Disease free Guava grafts/layerings of desired variety should be selected for planting. Planting Planting is done in June- July or October- November months depending on rainfall and its distribution and the type of soil. The land is thoroughly ploughed. Pits of 60 x 60 x 60cm are dug at a spacing of 5-6m distance in summer season. The pits should be filled with 20-25 kg FYM, 500g SSP, 1 kg Neemcake, and 50g Lindane powder to control termites with top soil. Layers/grafts obtained from good pedigree plants should be planted to obtain good crops. Manures and Fertilizers Age of the tree (Years) 1 2 3 4 5 years and above Nitrogen (Urea) 100 (217) 200 (434) 300 (651) 400 (868) 500 (1085) Phosphorus (Single superphosphate) (grams /tree) 40 (250) 80 (500) 120 (750) 160 (1000) 200 (1250) Potash (Murate of Potash) 100 200 300 400 500 (170) (340) (510) (680) (850)

For one year old plants, 100g N, 40g P 2O5, 100 K2O should be applied. 50% recommended N, 100% P2O5 and 50% N, 50% K2O should be applied in September. Increase the dose by 100g N, K2O and 40g P2O5 every year until the plants are 5 years old and there after a dose of 500g N, (1085 g Urea), 200g P2O5 (1250g SSP) and 500g K2O (850g MOP) should be applied. 50% N should be given in the farm of organics. Spraying of 4g Zinc Sulphate + 2g Boric acid per liter of water and urea 2% during fruit develop will improve fruit size and yield. Inter cultivation The root suckers should be removed frequently. The tree should be trained and pruned to good shape with strong branches. Intercropping with pulses and vegetables is profitable in all soils in young orchards up to 4 the year which checks the weed growth and increases soil nutrient status. Crop regulation

57

There are two major flowering seasons, one during March to may ,the fruits of which are harvested in rainy season and the other in July /August with the fruits harvested during winter. The rainy season crop is poor in quality with watery insipid taste. The incidence of fruit fly is also high during rainy season. In guava the winter crop gives best quality fruit. The crop is regulated by holding water after harvest from February onwards and pruning of branches to half the length on entire tree in the month of May. The trees are irrigating in June with the application of manures and fertilizers. One of the following crop regulation methods may be followed for getting the winter crop. With holding irrigation With holding irrigation from February to May. The plant shed all the leaves. In the month of June the recommended dose of fertilizers are applied along with irrigation. After 20-25 days new leaves emerge which produces the winter crop. Pruning In the month of May 50 % of the terminal shoots should be pruned which induces new leaves which produces the winter crop. Bahar Treatment In black soils, crop regulation is done by bahar treatment. In the month of May the roots are dug and exposed to the sun. This bahar treatment makes the plant to shed all the leaves. After the leaf shedding, in the month of June, fertilizers are applied and the exposed roots should be covered with soil and irrigated. The new leaves which emerge will produce the winter crop.

Defoliation For proper leaf shedding in the month of May for crop regulation, the trees may be sprayed with 10 % Urea. The leaves will senesces and plant sheds the leaves. The plants are manured and irrigated in the month of June. The new leaves which emerge will produce the winter crop. Irrigation Young plants should be watered regularly during first year. To get better yield trees should be irrigated at flowering and fruiting stage. Irrigation should be withheld prior to ripening. Plants under drip irrigation perform well and 60-70% water saving will be there. Harvesting

58

The quality of guava depends on the season of the cropping. Winter crop gives better quality fruits then rainy season crop. The fruit comes to maturity 4-5 months after flowering. The maturity indices of the fruit are the change in dark green colour of the fruit skin to light green colour. As all the guava fruit does not come to maturity at a time, frequent harvesting should be done based of maturity. The frequency of harvest for rainy season crop is 2-3 days and for winter season crop is 4-5 days. The fruit harvested with two leaves will stay fresh for longer period and amenable for long distance transportation. The guava plant start commercial yield from 3rd year onward under good management practices. Under irrigated conditions guava yields about 100-150 kg fruit for 8 year and above age trees. Plant Protection Pests Fruit Flies (Bactrocera dorsalis, B. zonata, B. diversa) The fruit flies deposit eggs in the soft skin of ripening fruits. On hatching the maggots bore into fruit and feed on the soft pulp. The infested fruits show depressions with dark greenish punctures and when cut open, the maggots are visible. The infested fruits rot and fall. Control Pheromone trapping with methyl eungenol for Bactocera dorsalissp replenishing the traps with new wicks every fortnight during fruiting season. Bait sprays carbaryl (75% wp) @ 2g/lit + Protein hydrolysate @ 1.0g/lt or molasses @ 1.0g/lt (or) Malathion (0.1%) @ 1ml/lt. Spiralling white fly (Aleurodicus disperses) Severe infestation initially gives silvery appearance on ventral side of guava leaves. Affected leaves turn yellow, crackle and fall. Control Spraying of Neemoil @ 5ml/lt of water or Dichlorovos @ 1ml/lt or Triazophos @ 2ml/lit of water. Bark eating caterpillar (Inderbela spp) The caterpillars feed on the bark under webbed galleries of silk, chewed wood and excrete during night. The infested plants show the presence of such galleries on main stem and branches. Control

59

Field sanitation and removing excreta of caterpillar. It can be killed by injecting 5ml Dichlorovos or Kerosene or petrol into holes infested with caterpillar and closing the hole with clay. Stem Borer Attacks the trees between February and April months. The grubs bore into the bark and stem and can be identified form the saw dust coming from the bores and by the follow sound when the branch is tapped. In severe cases the plant dies. Control The grubs should be removed and petrol injected into the holes and plugged to kill any young ones remaining inside. Mealy bugs (Ferrisia virgata, Plannococcus citri, P. lilacinus) Severely infested fruits are covered by white mealy bugs and in severe cases sooty mould develops on the fruit surface. They affect fruit quality as well as size. Control These mealy bugs can be controlled by releasing predators like chrysopa and cryptolaemus sps. In case of non availability of predators the infested branches should be cut and destroyed. Acephate @ 1g or Dichlorovos 1ml per liter of water can be sprayed. Fruit borer (Virachola Isocrates) Larva bore into the fruits and feed the pulp. Control Collection and destruction of infested fruits. Spraying of Carbaryl @ 3g/lit of water can be used. Tea Mosquito Bug (Helopeltis antonii) The nymphs and adults puncture fruits of all sizes, tender shoots and leaves to suck sap. Feeding punctures on fruit result in brownish spots which develop into raised pustules. Severely infested fruits become hard and corky which crack and finally drop. Control Collect all infested and fallen fruits and destroy. Moderately resistant varieties like Sardar (Lucknow -49) and Saharanpur Seedless can be grown in endemic area. Aphids (Aphis gossypii Glover) Nymphs and adults colonize on tender shoots and leaves and suck cell sap. They excrete honeydew resulting in the development of sooty mould. Control

60

During primary stages of infestation branches should be cut and destroyed. Dimethoate 2ml/lt should be sprayed. Diseases Wilt (Fusarium oxysporium, f.psidi, Rhizoctonia spp.) Yellowing and browning of leaves at the tips of twigs is the characteristic symptom. Leaves dry and splitting of bark, drying of leaves on terminal branches is followed by complete wilting of plant in 10-15 days. Control The varieties like Lucknow-49 which are resistant to the wilt should be planted Application of 90 Kg. FYM + 10 kg. Neem Cake + 2 Kg. Trichoderma Viridi at the base of tree in the month of June.

Drenching the trees with Carbendazim/Benomyl @ 1g or COC @ 3g/lt. of water thrice at 10 days interval. In alkali soils where the wilt is sever, apply 1 kg lime in the basin of the tree along with the green manure. The guava plants should be irrigated thoroughly especially in summer months where the wilt incidence is severe.

Antracnose (Colletotrichum Psidii) Guava antracnose is caused by Colletotirchum, Botrydiplodia and Pestolotiasis fungus. The young shoots and leaves and fruits turn develop brown spots and later turn into black spots and the shoots completely dry up. The antracnose affected fruit rot during storage. Control Spray Bordeaux mixture (1%) or Carbendazim 1 g /l or COC 3 g/l. Fruit Canker (Pestalotiopsis psidi) Cankerous growth on fruit leading to cracking of fruits. Control Apply Dithane Z-78 (2g) or Cuman L (4ml/lit) and Rovral (2g/lit) during rainy season. Red Rust (Caphaleuros virescence) This is caused by Caphaleuros virescence algae. Red colour pustules 3-5 mm size appears on leaves both on upper and lower surface. Later the red pustules change to grey color. Control Spray COC @ 3g/l twice at an interval of 10 days SAPOTA

61

(Acharas zapota) The total area under sapota in Andhra Pradesh is about 18.73 thousand hectares with estimated annual production of 1.87 lakh tonnes. Climate Sapota is a tropical fruit crop and can be grown from sea level upto 1200m. At still higher elevations fruit qualtiy and tree health suffer. It prefers a warm and moist weather and grown in both dry and humid areas. Coastal climate is best suited. Soils Can grow on all types of soils with sufficient drainage, but light soils are preferable. It can tolerate high pH and EC and suitable for poor soils and sandy soils and should not contain high lime content and hard pan in sub-soils. Varieties Cricket Ball The leaves are light green. This bears the largest sized fruits which are round in shape. Pulp is gritty and granular and not very sweet. Kalipatti It has dark green, broad and thick leaves, spreading branches. Fruits are oval shapped, less seeded with a sweet, mellow flesh of excellent quality. Fragrance is mild. Each fruit has 1-4 seeds. Fruits appear singly. The main harvest is in winter. Calcutta Round Fruits large, fruit skin soft, pulp moderately smooth, with medium quality, susceptible to leaf spot diseases. Pala The fruits are small to medium sized and oval egg-shapped, with apex broadly pointed and are very sweet. The bearing is heavy and fruits are borne in clusters. The fruit has thin skin and of good flavour.

Kirthibharthi On the find 4-6 ridges are seen. Fruit skin is rough, medium thick and buff coloured, and pulp is sweet. Fruit apex is rounded. The fruits can be transported to distant markets. Dwarapudi The fruits resemble those of Cricket Ball but smaller in size, fruits have a sweet pulp. PKM-1

62

It is a clonal selection from Guthi. A mean yield of 3547 fruits (236 kg) can be obtained per tree per year. The tree is dwarf statured and adaptable to southern and central districts. Fruits are of two shapes viz., roung and oval. The skin is very thin and the pulp has a buttery consistency. High average yielder with medium size fruits. Average fruit weight is 100g. PKM-3 It is a hybrid between Guthi x Cricket Ball. The variety is adaptable to tropical plants of Tamil Nadu and yields 14t/ha. The fruits bear in clusters with oval shaped large fruits. The vertical growth habit of tree allows high density planting. The fruits mature earlier than other varieties in the season thus fetching higher return. The variety is tolerant to leaf spot and leaf webber. DHS-1 This is a cross between Kalipatti and Cricket Ball. Tree is vigourous, bearing oblong to oval fruits with high yield. The fruits are very sweet, having a soft, mellow flesh with TSS of 26O brix. The colour of the pulp is light orange. Average fruit weight is 154 g. Singapore The tree is broadly pyramidal with dense horizontal branching. The fruit shape is acron with average weight of 92 g. The flesh colour is brown, sweet in taste and granular. The TSS of the fruits is 23.0O brix. Virudhnagar Propagation By veneer grafting on Rayans or Khirnee (Manikara hexandra) rootstock. Spacing Light soils Heavy soils Planting Prepare land by ploughing and harrowing. Dig pits of above 1m x 1m x 1m at a distance of 10m x 10m or 13m x 13m apart. Fill the pits with top soil and mixed with 25 kg FYM, 2 kg Single Super Phosphate and 100 g Folidol dust. Plant the grafts in the middle of the pit keeping graft joint above the ground level. After planting staking should be done for proper support. The planting should be done during rainy or winter season. Manures and fertilizers Apply F.Y.M 50 kgs/plant before planting and every year after planting. Manure the plants in the beginning of rainy season. The fertilizers should be applied in 20-30 cm deep and 30cms wide along the drip line of the tree. ----10mx10m 13mx13m

63

Age of the Nitrogen tree 1-3 Years 4-6 Years 7-10 years 11 years onward Interculture

Phosphorus

Potash

and

(grams /tree) 50 25 100 40 200 80 400 160

75 150 300 450

Bromocil @ 3 kgs a.i /ha proved to be the best herbicide for controlling both broad leaved weeds and grasses and was effective for a period 6 months. Vegetables and other field crops can be grown as intercrops in the first 6 to 7 years. Application of SADU at 100ppm applied before flowering stage results in higher fruit set and NAA at 300ppm after set results in better fruit retention. Irrigation When plants are young, irrigation may be given throughout the year depending upon soil condition. In later stage, during summer, irrigation should be given at 20-25 days interval and in winter at 30 to 35 days interval. Excess irrigation results in flower and fruit shedding and also large number of misshapen fruits and fasciations of shoots. Harvesting Index The fruit nearing physiological maturity sheds off the brown scaly scurf from the skin. At this stage fruits become corky brown in colour with intermixed yellowish tinge. Such fruits a yellow steak when scratched with finger nail, and show practically no green tissue or later. The main harvesting season is March June. Fruits are obtained during SeptemberOctober and December if irrigated. Fully grown tree (>20 years age) can give >10,000 kg/ha

Yield Bearing starts from 4th year onwards and economical yields can be obtained from 7th year. Plants flower almost thoroughout the year. It takes about 4 to 6 months from flowering to fruit maturity. Although sapota flowers and fruits throughout the year, there are two distinct seasons of harvest viz., March to May and September to October. The fruits

64

harvested during March to may will be generally sweet. The fruits will have to be harvested when they develop dull brown potato colour. Yields increase gradually with age as follows. 4-5th year 6-7th year 8-20th year By 30th year 250 frutis per plant 800 fruits per plant 1500 to 2000 fruits per platn 2500 to 3000 fruits per plant.

Plant Protection Pests Sapota does not suffer from serious pests and diseases. Leaf webber (Nephopteryx eugraphella) It is a serious pest. Larvae generally feed on leaves, but also feed on buds and flowers and sometimes bore into fruits. They web together bunch of leaves and feed on chlorophyll leaving behind a fine network of leaf veins. A cluster of dried leaves hanging on webbed shoots is an indication of attack of the pest. Active throughout the year with peak acitivity during June-July. Control Remove leaf webs and spray Monocrotophos 1.6 ml or Endosulfan 2ml or Chloropyriphos @ 2ml/lit at regular intervals is recommended. Fruit borer (Anarsia achrasella Bradley) Damage is caused by boring into fruits and feeding inside the pulp Control Removal of fallen fruits and burning them. Spraying of Endosulfan @ 2 ml/l or Carbaryl @ 3 g/l Mealy bugs (Planococus citri, P. lilacinus) Damage is caused by sucking of sap from fruits near the stalk. Nymphs and adult females suck sap from tender leaves, shoots and inflorescence. Young leaves become curled, twisted and malformed, severe infestation affects its fruiting capacity. The insects excrete large quantities of honey dew which attacts ants and sooty mold. Control Spraying of Acephate @ 2 g/l or Spirotetramat @ 0.3 ml/l Diseases Leaf spot (Phleopheospora indica) Reddish brown circular spots. Control

65

This may be effectively controlled by monthly spray of Zineb at 0.2% or Cuman L or Rovral 2g/lit or Dithane M-45 @ 3g/lit of water during rainy season. PAPAYA (Carica papaya L) Papaya is one of the important quick growing fruit crops. It is a very rich source of vitamin A and a good source of vitamin C and minerals and compares favourably with oranges. On an average 100g of edible portion of ripe papaya contains 2500 I.U. of vit. A and 70 mg of ascorbic acid. It improves digestion and is said to cure chronic constipation, piles and enlarged liver and spleen. Papain is a valuable enzyme prepared from the latex of papaya. The total area under papaya in Andhra Pradesh is about 14.9 thousand hectares with estimated annual production of 11.96 lakh tonnes. Soils Papaya requires well drained fertile soils of uniform texture. Under water stagnated conditions and in soils with poor drainage, foot rot disease may cause heavy mortality, hence heavy clay soils should be avoided. A loamy soil with a pH 6.5 to 7.2 is considered idea. Climate Its a tropical fruit crop grows well in regions where summer temperature does not exceed 38oC. Varieties Dioecious CO-1 Plant dwarf. Fruit round or oval in shape with golden yellow skin and orange colorued flesh. CO-2 The plant is medium tall in height. Fruits obovate and large in size, skin yellowishgreen, flesh orange coloured, soft and moderately juicy. It is agood table fruit and also a high yielding variety. CO-4 Plant is medium tall. Fruit large, flesh deep yellow with purple tinge, taste sweet, good keeping quality. CO-5 It is a selection from Washington variety, cultivated mainly for papain production. It yields 1,500-1,600 kg/ha of dried papain.

66

CO-6 A selection from Pusa Majesty, it is dioecious having dwarf stature. It produces large sized fruits. It is recommended both for papain and desert purposes. Washington Plants are very vigorous, stem has purple rings at the nodes, petiole dark purple, flowers deep yellow, fruits large, ovate in shape and in large numbers, seeds few, pulp sweet with agreeable flavour. The fruit is very popular. Pusa Dwarf Plant is dwarf and precocious in bearing. The plants start bearing from 25 to 30 cm above ground level. The fruit size is medium and oval in shape. This variety is most suitable for high density orcharding, nutrition garden and kitchen garden. Honey Dew Tree of medium height, bears fruit, low on the trunk and heavily, fruits are elongated, the pulp is sweet and has very agreeable flavour, and seeds are very few in number. This variety is popular all over India. It is also called Madhu Bindhu. Pusa Nanha An extremely dwarf variety, it is suitable for kitchen gardens, pot and roof-top cultivation. This is ideal for high density orcharding. Pusa Giant This is a vigorous variety and is dioecious in nature. The plants are sturdy and tolerant to strong winds. The fruits are suitable for tooty-fruity and candies like petha. Gynodioecious Co-3 Plant is tall and vigorous. Fruit is medium sized, sweet with good keeping quality. Red lady (Taiwan 786) This is also gynodioecious variety with bolld-red coloured flesh and good taste. Solo This is one of the best known varieties from Hawal. Fruits are small. Deeply ribbed, pyriform, flesh yellow orange, keeping quality good.

Coorg Honey Dew

67

This is a selection from Honey Dew variety. This variety produces hermaphrodite and female plants. Fruits borne on female plants are almost seedless. The fruits are of excellent quality. Sunrise Sole This is a gynodioecious variety having pink flesh and good taste. Pusa Delicious It is a gynodioecious variety with 100% productive plants with good fruit yield and quality having excellent taste and good flavour. Pusa Majesty This is a gynodioecious variety with high productivity and better keeping quality of fruits. This is also one of the highest papain yielders. Propagation 500 g seeds will be required for planting one ha of dioecious papaya, for gynodiecious varieties 50-60 g of seed is required. Seedlings are raised in poly bags of size not less than 10 x 20 cm filled with a potting mixture made of 2 parts of sand, 1 part each of red soil and well decomposed FYM. Nursery Prepare raised seed beds of 2m in length, 1m in breadth and 10 cm heights. Apply 10-15 kg of FYM and kg of 15:15:15 mixes it well the soil. Drench the beds with ceresin wet (2g in 1 lit of water) solution. Sow freshly extracted seeds at a depth of 2-3 cm in rows, with a spacing of 5 cm in the rows and about 15 cm between rows. Sowing of seeds during March to April is desirable to facilitate plant in June-July. About 250 g. of seed is enough to raise sufficient seedlings for a hectare. Provide watering regularly during summer. In about three weeks time the seeds germinate. In another two months, when the seedlings attain a height of 15-20 cm they are ready for transplanting. Remove the seedlings with a ball of earth and transplant them in the main field. Papaya seedlings raised in seed beds. Perforated polythene bags of 20 x 15 cm size with 150 gauge thickness can be used for raising seedlings. Fill the bags with a mixture of manure, soil and sand in equal proportions. Sow two seeds in each bag and retain only one seedling after germination. Planting Prepare the land by ploughing and harrowing. Dig pits of 40 x 40 x 40 cm cube and fill them with top soil and compost. Plant the seedlings in the centre of the pit and provide support. Planting can be done both in rainy season and winter season. In areas where

68

rainfall is heavy, winter planting is preferable. In areas with moderate rainfall, planting can be done in both the seasons. Seedlings will be ready for transplanting when they are 45-60 days or when the seedlings attain 30-45 cm height. Papaya can be planted throughout the year, however the best time for planting is after end of the monsoon. Spacing Papaya is normally planted at a distance of 1.8 X 1.8m. in the pits of 45 cm 3 size which are filled with decomposed FYM and top soil in 1:1 ration. The seedlings should be watered preferably twice a day till they are established. Manures and fertilizers Before planting, for each pit 10Kg. of well decomposed FYM should be applied. The following fertilizers may be applied per plant at bi-monthly interval starting from 3rd month of palnting. Fertilizer Urea SSP MOP Quantity (g) 90 200 140

To correct micro-nutrient deficiencies, spray 5g. Zinc Sulphate + 2g. Mangnesium Sulphate + 2g. Mangenese Sulphate + 2g. Ferrous Sulphate + 2g. Borax + 6g. Calcium Carbonate + 10g. Urea in one liter of water at 3-4 months age. Intercropping When papaya is grown as a pure crop, vegetables can be profitably grown as intercrops for about six months from planting of papaya seedlings. Irrigation and water management Depending upon the climate, young papaya seedlings should be irrigated once or twice a week in irrigated orchards whereas, in older trees bearing with fruits, irrigation is given every 10-14 days. Papaya plants are irrigated 10-12 days interval in winter and weekly once in summer if there are no rains. Plants also perform well under drip irrigation when supplied with 20-25 1/day for bearing plants. Harvesting Papaya plants come to harvest 5-6 months after planting. The fruits can be harvested when they are still hard and green but turn slightly yellow.

69

Yield Papaya fruits will be ready for harvest about 9-10 months after planting. Fruits borne throughout the year. Yield varies from 75 to 100 tonnes per hectare. The economic life of papaya plant is only 2 to 3 years. Vale addition Whole fruit pulp is used for preparation of mixed fruit jam and immature fruit pulp bits are used for making tooty-fruity. Papain extraction Papaya fruits, which are about 90-100 days old (fully grown but not mature) are selected for tapping. In the morning hours before 10.00 am four longitudinal incisions are given on the four sides of the selected fruit from the stalk end to the tip. The depth of the incision should be about 3mm. On incising, the latex starts flowing and this is collected in suitable containers (arecanut spathes, aluminium trays or glass vessels). Care should be taken not to use any other container for papain collection, since it will react with papain rendering it unfit for any use. The latex that solidifies in the cuts should also be scraped carefully and added to the liquid latex. This process to making four incisions in the untapped fruit surface at 3-4 days interval is repeated thrice of four times over a period of 12 to 16 days. The latex thus collected every time should be dried in the sun or in driers at temperatures ranging between 50OC to 55OC. Potassium metabisulphite (0.05%) is added to the liquid latex in small quantities before it is dried, since this helps to extend the storage of papain. The drying of papain is continued until it comes off in flakes having a porousstructure. The dried papain is powdered, sieved in a 10 mesh sieve and stored in polythene bags or in any other suitable container. After papain extraction fruits can also be used for consumption. Plant protection Pests Fruit fly (Bactrocera cucurbitae, Tozotrypana curvicauda) The fruit flies damage ripe fruits of papaya. Maggots feed in the fruit pulp, causing rotting. Control Using of Methyl eugenol traps is effective in controlling fruit flies. If the problem is serious, spray Deltamethrin 0.003% or Dimethoate 0.045% when fruits are fully mature. Do not retain birds damamged fruits on trees because they attract fruit flies for oviposition. Collect all fallen infested fruits and destroyed.

70

Aphids (Aphis gossypii, Myzus persicia) Nymphs and adult aphids suck sap from leaves and while doing so, they transmit mosaic virus disease. The affected trees die gradually. Control Destroy virus affected plants. Give prophylactic sprays of Dimethoate 0.3% or Methyl Demeton 0.05%. Nematodes (Meloidogyne spp., Rotylenchulus reniformis) Leaf yellowing and shedding, reduction in leaf numbers. Premature dropping of fruits, root galling. Causes decline and reduction in yield. Control Nematodes can be controlled by application of Carbofuran @ 15-20 g/plant, Neem cake @ 250g per plant. Diseases Collar rot/Foot rot and wilt (Madima Kullu Tegulu) (Pythium aphanidermatum) The disease occurs both in nursery and in main field. The fungus attacks the collar region and causes soft rot. Externally the leaves turn yellow, and drop off. The plant may collapse with a break down at the bottom. The disease will be severe in ill drained conditions. Control Bordeaux mixture (1:1) or Metalaxyl + Mancozeb @ 2g/l or 3g. of Cooper oxychloride dissolved in 1 lit. of water may be used to drench the nursery bags to protect against wilting of young seedlings and also the main field. Water stagnation should be avoided. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) Dark brown depressed spots of chocolate colour. Control Good control of Anthracnose can be achieved by spraying Mancozeb @ 2.5 g/lit. or Carbendazim @ 1g/lit. Powdery mildew (Budida Tegulu) (Oidium caricae) Whitish patches appear on lower surface of leaves. Corresponding upper surface appears yellow. The patches coalesce and spread to the leaf blade. The affected leaves turn yellow and dry up. If young fruits are attacked they do not develop further and shrivel and drop off prematurely. Control

71

It can be controlled effectively by spraying Wettable sulphur @ 3g/lit or Kerathane @ 1ml/lit. Viral diseases Three major viral diseases namely mosaic, leaf curl and ringspot are commonly found in most of the regions of papaya cultivation. The plants must be watched carefully for the viral symptoms and removed and destroyed as soon as the symptoms appear. The virus is usually transmitted by aphids and white flies and these vectors should be controlled by spraying systemic insecticides viz Imidachloprid @ 0.3 ml/lit. or Dimethoate @ 2 ml/lit or Acephate @ 1.5g/lit. Leaf Curl (Aku Melika Tegulu) (Virus nicotiane virus 10) (Transmitted by whitefly) The disease characterized by severe curling, crinkling and deformation of the leaves. Mostly the young leaves are affected, other symptoms like vein clearing, reduced size inward rolling of the leaves and thickening of leaves are also common. Some times the petioles are twisted. The diseased leaves become thick and brittle. The plants are very much stunted. Fruit yield is much reduced and defoliation often results. Control Removal of infected plants, plants can be sprayed with 0.1% Malathion or Metasystox at an interval of 10-15 days for controlling the vectors. Papaya Mosaic (Boppai Verri Tegulu) The disease occurs on papaya plants of all age groups but mos serious on young plants. The top young leaves of the diseased plant are much reduced in size and show blister patches of dark green tissue alternating with yellowish green and puckering. The leaf petiole is reduced in length and top leaves assume an up right position. The fruits on diseased plants develop circular water soaked lesions with a central soild spot. The fruits are elongated and reduced in size. Control Removal of infected plants and destroying them. Controlling aphids, vectos by periodical spraying of systemic insecticides. Ring Spot (Transmitted by aphids) Infected plants initially show chlorosis on the youngest leaves followed by vein clearing, rugosity and prominent mottling of the laminae. Decided malformation and reduction of the lamenae which may become extremely filliform. Characterstically elongated dark green streaks develop on petioles and upper half of the stem, infected fruits show circular or concentric rings, causing up to 50-60% losses in yield.

72

Control Rogue infected plants and control aphid vectors. PINEAPPLE (Ananas sativus) Climate It is tropical fruit crop. It thrives well in a mild tropical climate. It grows well near the coast as well in the interior so long as the temperatures are not extreme. The optimum temperature ranges from 21O 23O C. It can be grown upto an elevation of 1100m above the sea level, provided they are free from frost. It requires an optimum of 150 cm which should be well distributed. Where the rainfall is less, supplementary irrigation must be provided. Soils Pineapple can be grown on any type of soil (expect heavy clay). However, sandy loam with a pH range of 5.5 to 6.0 is the best. The soil should have a depth of atleast 60 cm without hard pan beneath or water logging. Low lying areas with high water table are not suitable. Varieties Kew It is a leading commercial variety of India. It is the most suitable variety for canning. It is a prolific yielder. Fruits are large and each fruit weighs 1.5 to 2.5 kg. The eyes on the fruits are broad and shallow. The external colour of the ripe fruit is yellow. The flesh is firm, juicy and pale yellow in colour. It has almost spineless leaves. The variety is of shy suckering habit. This variety is grown in Tamil Nadu. It is a late maturing variety, ripening in August and September. Queen This is an early variety, earliest of all the varieties in Indai, ripens in June-July with a a very uniform ripening habit. The fruit cylindrical and of medium in size and weighs 0.5 to 1.0 kg. Eyes are prominent and deep, hence not suitable for canning. Queen is the best desert pineapple. The external colour of the ripe fruit is deep yellow. The flesh is firm, crisp, sweet and golden yellow in colour. As compared to Kew, Queen plants are smaller with a dwarf and compact habit of growth. They have spiny serrated leaf margins. It produces suckers freely. Mauritius This is a mid season variety ripening in July-August. Fruits are of medium size, weighing about 2-3 kg on an average. The fruit may be oblong or round in shape. External

73

colour of the ripe fruit is reddish yellow. The flesh is light yellow in colour and slightly fibrous. The plants of this variety resemble Queen plants in most of the vegetative and fruit characters. The leaves are serrated and spiny. Simhachalam This is a local variety, largely grown in Visakhapatnam area. Fruits are small and flesh is light yellow with fibre. Propagation Pineapple is propagated vegetatively through suckers, slips and crowns. Suckers are shoots arising from the axils of the leaves of from the base of plant near the ground. Slips are produced on the fruiting stem while crowns are borne on the top of the fruit. Suckers and slips are generally used, because suckers give the first crop in 14 to 18 months. Slips take 20-22 months for the first crop, while crowns take more than 24 months for the first crop. Because of shy suckering habit or Kew variety, crowns are used as propagating material in Kew variety. Planting Suckers of uniform size (400-450g) should be selected for planting, as they give best yields compared to higher or lower size categories of suckers. Planting materials should be collected from high yielding well maintained gardens, which are free from pests and diseases. At the time of planting, few basal scale leaves of the suckers should be stripped off to encourage the formation and entry of roots into the soil. Before planting, the sucker should be dried for one of two days, by spreading them upside down. Fresh suckers should not be planted in moist soil, otherwise they decay. The suckers should be dipped in Bordeaux mixture (1%) or Dithane Z-78 (0.3%) and Difolatan (0.2%) to avoid mealy bugs and heart rot. Planting may be done normally during the rainy season, avoiding periods of heavy rainfall. July and August are the best months, however, where irrigation facilities are available, planting can be taken up alround the year to ensure supply of fruits throughout the year. The popular method of planting pineapple is the double row system. The two rows are spaced 60cm apart and in each row the plants are planted 45cm apart in such a way that no two plants are exactly opposite each other. The double rows are spaced at 1.5 to 2.0m. In this method 15,000-20,000 suckers can be accommodated per ha. When it is desired to have more than two ratoon crops, the above method can be adopted. Otherwise, close spacing may be chosen. In this method, early and higher yields are obtained from an

74

unit area. In this method a spacing of 25 x 60 x 105 cm or 25 x 60 x 90 cm is adopted. This accommodates 49,000 to 53,000 suckers per hectare. Preparation of Land The selected site of land should be prepared very thoroughly by ploughing and cross ploughing or by forking or hand hoeing. If the land is undulating terracing should be practiced. The land should be dug upto a depth of 40-50cm till a fine tilth is obtained. At the last round of ploughing or digging FYM or compost is applied. After leveling, the land is laid out into trenches alternating with mounds for planting the suckers. For double row system of planting, two shallow furrows about 10-15 cm depth are to be opened. Manures and Fertilizers After plants have been established apply 16 g Nitrogen, 2g Phosphorus and 3g Potash per plant, two to three times. Application of 20-25 tonnes of FYM, 350kg Nitrogen, 130kg Phosphorusand 40kg Potash per hectare is recommended. FYM and P 2O5 may be applied as basal dressing at the time of last ploughing or digging. Nitrogen and Potash are to be applied in three split doses i.e. 60 th, 150th and 240th days after planting. Nitrogen may be supplied in the form of ammonium sulphate. Immediately after manuring, the crop should be irrigated and then earthedup to provide better anchorage to the plant. Intercultivation After planting, whenever weeds appear interculture should be done without digging of the soil deep. Mulching with dry grasses, straw, sawdust, coirdust, rice husk etc. will also help to suppress weed growth, conserve moisture, maintain the humus status of soil. Irrigation Though pineapple is a drought resistant crop, for getting high yields, it should be irrigated, atleast during the dry periods. Irrigations improve fruit size. Therefore, 4-6 irrigations in hot months at an interval of 15-20 days will ensure a good crop. Flowering and Harvesting To achieve uniform flowering in pineapple NAA in the form of Panofix at 10-20 ppm (1ml planofix in 9 lit of water) or a mixture of 10 ppm of Ethephon (ethrel) + 2% urea + 0.04% Sodium carbonate may be poured (50 ml) in the heart of the plants 15 to 16 month after planting on a clear sunny day. The Ethephon solution should be used immediately after preparation. The plant generally flowers 12 months after planting from February of April. The fruits take about 135 to 165 days to mature and ripen. The fruits ripen from June to

75

September depending on the variety. In our state fruits come to harvest from June to August. To achieve good fruit size and uniform cylindrical shape the crowns of fruits may be removed with a sharp knife, when they are 5 to 10cm long. In hot weather the fruits may be covered by wrapping the fruits with the outer leaves or dry grass or straw or banana leaves or paper covers for protection from sun scorch. When atleast 2 or 3 rows or eyes at the base have turned yellow, the fruit is ready for harvest. However, for distant markets less matured fruits are to be harvested. Harvesting may be done with a long, sharp knife, cutting the fruit stalk few centimeters below the base of the fruit. The fruit with the crown can be kept without damage of 3-4 days after harvest. The yield per hectare varies from 40-60 tonnes depending on the variety. Ratoon Crop Ratoon cropping is common in pineapple. After the harvest of the first crop, all the suckers borne on the plant should be removed leaving only one sucker on the monter plant. Similarly all slips should be removed. Then the plants are fertilized, irrigated, and earthed up so that the plants have good anchorage for ratoon crop. The crop is retained like this for four or five years and then removed. Uses It is one of the most delicious of the tropical fruits. The furit is a good source of vitamins A and B. it is very rich in Vitamin C. In addition, it constitutes an important raw material for the fruit processing and preservation industry. Pineapple is utilized in the fruit preservation and processing industries for preparation of canned pineapple in the form of slices, rings etc. The fruit juice is also canned, fruit is also used in the preparation of jam. The dried waste after extraction of juice, known as pineapple bran, is used as a stock feed. Pineapple juice is utilized in the manufacture of alcohol, calcium citrate, citric acid, and vinegar. Plant Protection Pests Mealy Bug (Dysimicoccus brevipes) The bug causes wilt and eventual death of plants. Control The pest can be controlled dipping the suckers in 10 ml Methyl parathion or 17ml of Dimethoaiate in 10 litres of water before planting by applying 1.7 kg ai/ha of Phorate

76

granules and by treating the soil either with 2.75 kg/ha of Chlordane or 2.25 kg/ha of Heptachlor to kill the attendants. Dieseases Heart Rot (Phytophthora parasitica) The disease is recognized by complete rotting of the central portion of the stem. The top leaves turn brown and basal portion of leaves shows sign of rotting with foul odour. It is more prevalent in high rainfall areas. Control Proper drainage is necessary to avoid this disease. Dip the planting material in 0.4% Difoltan at the time of planting. If the disease appears on plants, spray Difoltan @ 20g in 10 litres of water. Soft Rot and Black Rot (Ceratocystis paradoxa)) Most typical symptom is black rot of the butt in the field which is followed by wilting of foliage and breaking off of plants at ground level. Leaf spots are grey with dark margins later tuming olive-brown or white. Leaf tissues dry and leaves distorted. Water blisters are noticed as soft watery rot involving the flesh of fruit. Fruit sking becomes brittle and diseased portions disintegrate accompanied with a sweet smell. Infections occur through wounds and cut ends. Control Field sanitation, collection of suckers from disease free fields, exposing the planting material to sun for 2 hours, better drainage and periodical spraying with Bordeaux mixture from the time of flowering will control the diseases in the filed. Dipping the cut end of the fruit stalk in a 10% solution of Benzoic acid in alcohol and spraying the packing shed and packing cases or baskets lith a 3% solution of Formalin will also help to check the diseases. WATERMELON AND MUSKMELON (Citrullus lanatus/ vulgaris) and (Cucumis melo) The melons are vine crops and are grown for their fruits, which have typical thrust quenching characters with low caloric value and contain considerable quality of vitamin A and C. They thrive only in hot weather and will not with stand low temperatures. Climate Dry weather with high temperature (32C) is preferable. High humidity increases the incidence of diseases, particularly those affecting foliage. Plant growth is optimum under 2830C. The musk melon thrives best and develops the good flavour in hot, dry climate. In Andhra Pradesh the crop is mostly grown on river beds and garden lands under irrigation. In

77

humid regions foliage diseases are serious and if the weather is cloudy and rainy during the fruit maturity and ripening period, the fruits do not develop the best quality fruits. High temperature and susshine produce quality fruits. Soils Melons may be grown on a wide variety of soils. Sandy loams are best for early crop, while loams have high yielding potential. The soils should be well drained and should have ample organic matter. Generally they are cultivated in river beds by making trenches and sowing in hills or pits, pH of 6.5 - 7.0 is ideal. Melons do not thrive well in a strongly acid soil and if grown make very poor growth and the leaves develop yellowish green colour and is known as acid-yellowing. Needs good surface drainage. If the crop is grown under irrigated conditions the seeds are sown on the upper side of the ridge. Watermelon varieties (Citrullus vulgaris) Sugar Baby An introduction from America, early season variety, the fruits weigh 3-5kg/t, round, having bluish black rind and deep pink flesh. TSS 11-13%. The fruits ripe in 80-85 days. Arka Jyothi A mid-season hybrid (IHR 20 x Crimson sweet) with round fruits weighing 6 to 8 kg the rind colour is light green with stripes and the flesh colour is crimson. TSS 11 to 13%. Arka Manik A cultivar resistant to powdery mildew and tolerant to anthracnose. The fruits are round to oval with green rind and dull green stripes, the flesh is deep red, very sweet (1213% TSS) the average fruit weight is 6kg, it stands well in transport and storage. Ahahi Yamato It is a mid season, Japanese introduction producing medium size fruits of 5-7 kg. The rind colour is light green with deep pink flesh, TSS 11 to 13%. The fruits ripen in 95 days. Durgapur Kesar Also cultivar maturing in 125 days, fruits round with light green. Rind is thick with good keeping quality, flesh sweet, TSS around 11 per cent with dark red colour, average fruit weight 6 to 8 kg, seed with black tip and margin. Released by Agricultural Research Station, Durgapura and Rajasthan. Improved Shipper An introduction from the USA, a big-sized melon weighing 8 to 9 kg. The fruit is dark green with moderate sweetness (8 to 9% TSS). Released by Punjab Agricultural University, India.

78

Private hybrids became popular because of high yield and quality. Muskmelon varities (Cucumis melo) White flesh Arka Rajhans, Arkajeet and Lucknow safeda. The fruits of these varieties weighing 300-500g with big seed cavity and with average TSS of 12-14% bears 4-5 fruits per vine. Solman Orange flesh Pusa Sharbati, Pusa Madhuras, Punjab sunheri. These varieties have netted fruit surface, the average fruit weight is 600-800g with 10-12% TSS and can stand long distance transport. Green flesh Hara Madhu Fruits are round to flat with green and juicy flesh, very sweet (12-15% TSS) poor keeping quality, it is a late variety. Drugapurmadhu The fruits are oblong, weigh about 500g. Palegreen rind, light green flesh with dry texture, big seed cavity, very sweet (13-14% TSS) and is an early variety. Besides these varieties, hybrids of private companies are available in the market. Local varieties viz., Kanpur and sidhout are also popular. Season of planting Melons can be planted starting from 2nd fortnight of December to 1st fort night of January. Seeds and Sowing Melons are propagated by seed. For muskmelon, a seed rate of 1.5 - 2 Kg /ha for sowing in the field by dibbling method; watermelon - a seed sate of 3-3.5Kg/ha is required. High yielding varieties particularly hybrids need one-third seed rate. Beds of 3-3.5m wide irrigation channels and seeds are sown 30-50 cm. apart on either side of the irrigation channels. They should be sown 1.5 cm deep. To get an early crop, seeds can be sown in polythene bags (6 X 4") under protected area. The seedlings become ready for transplanting at 2-4 leaf stage. They should be transplanted along with the ball of earth. Manures and Fetilizers 4-5 tonnes of FYM should be applied per acre. 32-40 Kg of phosphorus, 16-24 Kg of potash should be applied basally. 24 Kg of Nitrogen should be applied in two splits while planting and once after 25 days. Irrigation Irrigation should be given especially during vine elongation and fruit development stage. Excess irrigation during fruit maturity leads to fruit cracking. Irrigation through drip gives better crop with low incidence of diseases.

79

Intercultivation Weed control can be done by using Metolachlor @ 1 lit. for light soils and 1.5 lit. for heavy soils in 200 lit. of water and spraying within one or two days after planting. At 2-4 leaf stage, 3-4 g/lit. of borax should be sprayed to promote more number of female flowers. In muskmelon the apical shoot of the vines should be pinched and 2-4 side shoots should be allowed to grow to get higher fruit yield. Harvesting The watermelons are ready for harvest in 90-120 days depending upon cultivar and season. A heavy dull sound when the fruit is tapped indicates ripeness. The drying of tendril at the base of the fruit is also a sign of maturity. The stage of maturity is generally judged by the change in the external colour of the fruit. As ripening advances a crack develops around the peduncle at the point of fruit attachment and when frully ripe, the fruit slips from the stem, leaving a large scar. This is known as fullslip stage. Generally fruits harvested at half slip stage withstand market handling with balanced sugar and acid blend. The other way of judging fruit ripening is change of ground spot colur from white to yellow. In case of muskmelon, the fruits for distant markets are harvested as they reach the half slip maturity and for local markets, harvesting should be done at full slip stage. The fruit skin colour changes to yellow with typical aroma of fruit ripening. Yield The average yield of watermelon ranges from 8-10 t/acre and muskmelon 4-5 t/acre. Plant protection Pests Red pumpkin beetle (Gummadi Penku Purugu) (Aulacophora spp.) Grubs damage the plants by boring into the roots. Beetle injure the colyledons, flowers and foliage by biting holes Control Spraying of Carbaryl 50% @ 3 g/lit. or Malathion 2ml/lit. controls the pest effectively. Fruit fly (Dacus cucurbitae and Dacus dorsalis) Maggots of this fly cause severe damage to young developing fruits. The adult fly lays eggs below the skin of the young ovaries. The eggs hatch into maggots which feed inside the fruits and cause rotting. The fly attack is severe especially after summer rains when the humidity is high. Control

80

Foliar spray of Endosulfan @ 2ml/lit. thrice in 10 days interval can be taken up. A mixture of 100 ml Malathion, 100 g Sugar or Jaggery in 10 litres of water can be used as bait and kept in plastic trays in the field. Powdery mildew (Budida Tegulu) (Erysiphe cichoracearum) A white powdery growth appears on the leaf surface mostly confined to the upper surface but also found on the lower surface and the stem. In severe infections the leaves and stem dryoff and further growth of the plant is arrested. Control Spray Dinocap @ 1 ml/lit. or Tridemorph @ 1 ml/lit. or Sulfex 0.2% or Calixin 0.1% or Karathane 0.2% or Bavistin @ 1g/lit of water 2-3 times at 10 days interval. Downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora cubensis) Purple spots appear on lower surface and yellow spots on upper surface of leaves. Fruits do not mature. Control Spray Mancozeb @ 2.5 g/lit. or Metalaxyl M.Z @ 2g/lit. or Dithane Z-78 0.2% i.e. 2g/lit of water at 8-10 days interval. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lagenarium) Reddish brown dry leaf spots are formed with often coalesce and cause shriveling and death of leaf. Lesions on petioles and stems are water soaked and yellowish. The leaf spots on watermelon are black and foliage presents a scorched appearance. Under moist conditions, the lesions are dotted with pink conidia. Control Spray Copper oxychloride @ 3g/lit. or Carbendazim @ 1 g/lit. at 10 days interval. CUSTARD APPLE (Seethephal) (Annona squamosa) Among the annonaceous fruits, only Seethaphal and Atemoya, hybrid between Seethaphal and Cherimoya (Annona Cherimola) are of commercial improtance. Soils and Climate The sandy, marginal and wastelands may be utilized for growing these fruits. Since waterlogging causes tree decline, heavy soils with poor drainage, sub-soil with hardpan or high water table should to be avoided. Sitaphal is capable of growing in soils having 50% lime 300ppm of chlorine in irrigation water. Areas with high humidity, occasional rains and warm temperature are ideal for Sitaphal in terms of fruit set and development.

81

Varieties Balanagar It is a local seedling variety collected from Balanagar area of Mahaboobnagar district of Andhra Pradesh. The fruit quality is good. Fruit size big with large tuberless and plenty of very sweet pulp.

Red Seethaphal The fruits are purple coloured and the leaves of the plant are purplish at the midrib. Sweet in taste but seeds is many. This variety has got the disadvantage of developing stone fruits. Its seedlings come true to type and are very prolific. Washington This is an introduced variety. The fruit is large, pulpy, few seeded and greenish white in colour. Bearing is sparse. British Guinea Fruit large, greenish white in colour, pulpy, few seeded quality good, bearing sparse. Fruits keep for about a week after ripening without spoilage. Island Gem This is an Australian variety. The fruit is very large in size, smooth surface, very large segments, very pulpy very delicious, few seeded, greenish white in colour, pulp very sweet, excellent flavour, bearing is sparse fruits irregular in shape, keeps for about a week. Pinks Mammoth This is a variety of Atemoya, introduced from Australia. The fruit is very large, ovoid, pulpy, delicious, veryfew seeded and greenish pink in colour, smooth surface, has very broad and round segments, excellent in quality, bearing is poor. Fruits are irregular in shape. Fruits keep for about a weak after ripening without damage. Hybrids Atemoya This is a hybrid between Seethaphal and Cherimoya. Atemoya grows to a height of about 5-6m and has luxuriant growth. Hence, planting distance must be 7m x 7m. Ripe fruits are whitish green in colour, juicy, delicious and pulpy with an excellent acidic flavour. Very few seeded. Keeping quality good, can be kept even upto 10 days. Bearing is erratic. For every 8-10 plants of Atemoya, one custard apple plant should be planted in the middle

82

to act as polleniser plant, otherwise the bearing of Atemoya will be poor and erratic. Atemoya fruits will come to harvest from October to December. Propagation By veneer grafting on its rootstock. Planting Pits (50 x 50 cms) are dug and filled with a mixture of 20 kgs of farmyard manure and 300 gms of fertilizers mixture of Urea, Single super phosphate and Muriate of potash in equal proportion at least a fortnight before planting. Planting is done in rainy season at a distance of 4m x 4m. Manures and Fertilizers The bearing trees of Sitaphal should be given 250 gms N, 125 gmsP205, and 125 gms K20 per plant before the commencement of rainy season. The Atemoya should be fertilized with 450gms N, 450 gms P205, and 450gms K20 per plant of about 5 years age. Interculture In the initial years of planting, intercrops like groundnut, minor millets and linseed can be grown rainy season oilseeds and gram during winter season. Sitaphal bears flowers on current season growth and very rarely on older wood. The early completion of season is essential for the initiation of new growth. Therefore manual defoliation during the mid summer is recommended. Irrigation Sitaphal does not require and prefers semi-arid conditions. irrigations will improve the fruit size and yield. Harvesting Harvesting should be done at proper stage of maturity. Fruits are harvested when the colour is light green, segments become flat, the interspaces between segments become yellowish white and initiated cracking of the skin between the carpel. Fully mature fruits ripen in 2-3 days after harvest. The temperature between 15-300C and low relative humidity accelerates the process of ripening. Post Harvest Technology The Sitaphal fruits can be stored at 15-20 0C temperature, 85- 90% relative humidity, low oxygen and Ethylene tension and 10% Co2, was emulsion at 8% also extends the storage life. Disorders Stone Fruits For Atemoya after manuring irrigation may be given. However, when the fruits are developing one or two

83

Some fruits instead of attaining full size remain very small and become brown and dry up. These are known as stone fruits which are retained on tree for a long period. Competition among the developing fruits and high temperature are supposed to cause stone fruit formation. Fruit Cracking This usually happens from a heavy rainfall or irrigation after a prolonged day spell. Evenly distributed irrigation schedule and constant and uniform moisture level in the soil will reduce this problem.

Plant Protection Pests Mealy bugs (Ferrisia virgata, Planococcus lilacinus, P. pacificus,Perissopnueumon ferox) Colonies of small reddish white mealy bugs infest leaves, shoots, buds and fruits. Due to sucking of sap by nymphs and adult female mealy bugs, fruits remain small in size and become shriveled. Presence of a large number of mealy bugs in grooves of fruits epicarp along with sooty mould affects its market value. Control Remvoe all infested fruits and destroy them along with mealy bugs. Spray Chlorpyriphos 0.05% or Dimethoate 0.045% at the initial stage of infestation. Exclude the ants by putting sticky bands or destroy their colonies in the orchard. Dieseases Leaf spot and fruit rot (Glomerella cingulata) It occurs as light brown to blackish spots on leaves and such leaves defoliate causing die back of plants. The fruit infection takes place both from blossom end as well as stem end side as dry brown spots. Control Apply Carbendazim/Thiophanate 1g/lit and Chlorothalonil/Mancozeb 2g/lit during rainy season. POMEGRANATE (Punica granatum) Pomegranate is indigenous to the Middle East and was first introduced in India from Persia or Afghanistan in the first century. Pomegranate fruit is very nutritious and refreshing. The total area under Pomegranate in Andhra Pradesh is about 4.9 thousand hectares with estimated annual production of 44 thousand tonnes.

84

Soil and Climate Deep fertile soils with good drainage are suitable. Can be successfully grown even in slightly calcareous and alkaline soils. Tolerant to severe hot, hence most suitable for dry arid climates. Varieties Bhaguva It is a selection from Arakta cultivar. Rind and arils are dark red, softer arils. Fruits weight about 250300 g. Mridula Fruits are medium sized (230270 g) with thick smooth dark red rind colour with blood red colour soft arils. Arils are juicy having TSS of 18 Brix. Ganesh Rind colour is yellow with pink spots. Aril colour pinkish, with soft seed. Average fruit weight 174g, TSS 13.1%, acidity 0.37%, yields about 12 kg per plant. Muskat Rind colour is yellow with pink spots. Average fruit weight 360g. TSS 15.5%, acidity 0.28%, yield 15 kg per plant. Jyothi Aril colour pinkish white with red patches, soft seed. Average fruit weight 22g, TSS 15%, acidity 0.50%. Jalore Seedless Rind colour yellow with red patches. Aril colour pinkish with soft seed. Average fruit weight 155g, TSS 15%, acidity 0.30%, yield 16kg per plant. Jodhpur Red Aril colour dark pink, Rind colour light green with red patches. Most prone to fruit cracking. Average fruit weight 140g, TSS 15%, acidity 0.30%, yield 15kg per plant. Propagation Pomegranate plants are mainly propagated by air layering (gootee) and cuttings, ground suckers can be used for cuttings. 15-20 cm long hard wood cuttings taken from 1-2 years old plant, should be treated with Seradex B rooting hormone or given a quick dip in 500 ppm Indole butyric acid. Nursery should be maintained with proper care from initial stages, spraying mancozeb (0.25%) or Chlorothalonil (0.25%) at 15 days interval. Before planting in main filed, spray the plants with Copper Oxy-chloride (0.25%) and Streptocyclin (250 ppm). Ideal age of air layered plant should be minimum 4 months after cutting from mother plant. Planting

85

Young plants can be planted at 33 m or 44 m or 4.53 m spacing. Pits (111 m) should be in the month of MayJune and kept open for atleast a month for sun exposure, drench pits with 0.1% Carbendazim in 5 l/pit and filled with 20 kg FYM, 0.5 kg SSP and 100 g of 2% Lindane powder along with loose top soil. Ideal time for planting is July to October. Watering must be done immediately after planting. Training and Pruning Training pomegranate plants to one or too many stems is not advantageous and uneconomical. The plant should be allowed to retain 4 main stems from the ground level. Prune ground suckers, water shoots, criss-cross, dead, dry and infected branches and twigs regularly. The main stem should be topped at a height of about 70 cm to induce branching. The tree is given a balanced shape during the initial 23 years by proper selection of secondary and tertiary branches. Downward growing branches and crossing branches should be removed. While pruning, care should be taken to disinfect the secateurs with dettol (1%) or sodium hypochlorite (1%), so that infection may not spread from on plant to other. After the tree is trained, much pruning is not required as the fruits are borne on one year old branches (short branches). However, water sprouts and the dry branches should be removed. After about 10 years, old main stems should be renewed by cutting back to make it more productive. Manures & Fertilizers Pomegranate can be grown in low fertile soils, however, it responds well to manures and fertilizers, greatly increasing its productivity. Best way is to apply fertilizers based on soil test and leaf analysis. Recommended Fertilizers Doses Age (Years) 1 2 3 4 5 and above FYM (kg) 10 20 30 40 50 Nitrogen (g) 250 250 500 500 625 Phosphorous (g) 125 125 125 125 250 Potassium (g) 125 125 125 250 250

During first year of planting, apply recommended dose in split application at monthly intervals, preferably dissolved in water or just before irrigation. Second year onwards till fourth year, manures and fertilizers should be applied to in split doses coinciding with growth flushes during January, June and September. Fruiting can be taken from 3rd year. In bearing trees, apply N in 2 split does, starting at the time of first irrigation after bahar

86

treatment and next at 34 weeks interval. Full dose of P and K should be applied as single dose with first irrigation. Foliar sprays of 0.25% each of ZnSO 4, FeSO4 and MnSO4 combined with 0.2% boric acid at flower initiation, increase yield, improves quality and reduces cracking of fruits. Intercropping During first 34 years, intercrops such as low growing vegetables, green manure crops, onion, etc can be taken. Rainy season is the best time for intercropping. During the crop period orchard should be kept weed free. For soil moisture conservation plastic or organic mulches can be used.

Bahar Treatment or Crop Regulation Although pomegranate can be grown throughout the year, a rest period of 34 months is necessary for prolific harvest and therefore, only one crop should be taken in a year. Three main bahars can be taken, each has its own advantages and disadvantages. Bahar Treatment or Flower Initiation Bahar Ambe Flower initiation months JanuaryFebruary Harvesting JuneAugust Advantages High flowering, high yield but fruits are more prone to sunscald and aril color development is poor. Summer showers may favor the spread of bacterial blight Assured rainfall, but more prone to bacterial blight and should be avoided Less incidence and spread of bacterial blight and it may be preferred

Mrig Hasta
Irrigation

JuneJuly SeptemberOctober

November-January FebruaryApril

Pomegranate can tolerate drought to a greater extent but, responds very well to irrigation. Irrigation frequency and water requirement varies with the season, crop age and stage. Drip irrigation is economical and saves 30-40% of water. Water quality also plays a major role on fruit production. High salinity in soils and saline irrigation water affects normal fruit production. In general the irrigation requirement as given under may be followed. Water Requirement Cropping Season Month Water Requirement Litres/Day/Plant

87

Ambe

Mrig

Hasta

January February March April May June July August September October November December

17 18 31 40 44 30 22 20 20 19 17 16

Plant Protection Pests Fruit borer or Pomegranate Butterfly (Deudorix isocrates) Adults lay eggs at the time of fruit setting in flowers. Larvae develop inside the fruit and these larvae bore out of the fruits. Black excreta of caterpillars are commonly seen on fruits Cotnrol Remove infested fruits and destroy. Spray Phosphamidon (0.03%) or Carbaryl (0.4%) or Endosulphan repeat the sprays with Fenvalerate (0.01%). First spray should be given at the time of fruit setting Thrips (Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus/Scirtothrips dorsalis) Feed by sucking sap from leaves, flower stalks, petals and result in leaf curl, drying of young shoots and shedding of flowers. On fruits discoloured areas are seen which later show rusty scars Control Affected plant parts should be removed and destroyed on observing the insect infestation. Spray chloropyriphos (0.02%) or imidacloprid (0.04%) or deltamethrin (0.15) or dichlorovos (0.05%) as prophylactic or on observing the symptoms. Aphid (Aphis punicae) Usually affects new flush and suck cell sap. The affected parts get discoloured and disfigured. These insects secrete copious amounts of honey dew, on which sooty mold develops.

88

Control Affected plant parts should be removed and destroyed on observing the insect infestation. Spray chloropyriphos (0.02%) or imidacloprid (0.04%) or deltamethrin (0.15) or dichlorovos (0.05%) as prophylactic or on observing the symptoms. Mites (Aceria granati/Oligonychus punicae/Tenuipalus punicae) Adults and nymphs feed on the lower leaf surface resulting in shiny white/brown patches and leaves may curl and dry. Control Affected plant parts should be removed and destroyed on observing the insect infestation. Spray chloropyriphos (0.02%) or imidacloprid (0.04%) or deltamethrin (0.15) or dichlorovos (0.05%) as prophylactic or on observing the symptoms. White fly (Siphoninus phillyreae) They severely infest on dorsal sides of leaves resulting in to curling, yellowing and drying. Control Affected plant parts should be removed and destroyed on observing the insect infestation. Spray chloropyriphos (0.02%) or imidacloprid (0.04%) or deltamethrin (0.15) or dichlorovos (0.05%) as prophylactic or on observing the symptoms. Mealy Bugs (Planococcus sp., Ferissia sp.) Adults bugs and nymphs are seen on all parts. Cottony appearance of mealy bug and sooty molds are the visible symptoms of mealy bug infestation. Control Affected plant parts should be removed and destroyed on observing the insect infestation. Spray chloropyriphos (0.02%) or imidacloprid (0.04%) or deltamethrin (0.15) or dichlorovos (0.05%) as prophylactic or on observing the symptoms. Bark eating caterpillar (Indarabeal tetraonis, I. quadrinotata) Its larvae feed on bark under webbed galleries of silk and excreta. The attacked plants show the presence of such galleries on the bark surface. Control Orchard should be kept clean and overcrowding of trees should be avoided

89

Whenever larvae holes are observed, inject larvae holes with quinaliphos (0.01%) or fenvalerate (0.05%) Give a prophylactic spray or on observing the symptoms spray with carbaryl (0.04%) or dischlorovos (0.08%)

Stem Borer (Coelosterna spinator) Grubs make holes and bore through the bark of main stems and branches, feed internally. Excreta and dry powdered material are usually seen near the base of plants. Control Treat the holes produced by borer with dicholrovos (0.25%) and seal holes with clay Spray quinolphos (0.05%) or chlorphyriphos (0.05%) Beetles bore holes in roots and trunks resulting in drying of trees. Their incidence increases in rainy season. Control When insect symptoms are observed (yellowing and drying of plants) soil drenching with chlorpyriphos (0.2%) in and around the affected trees is effective. As prophylactic, spray chlorpyriphos (0.2%) and carbaryl (0.2%) Catterpillars feed voraciously on leaves and adults suck juice from fruits. Control Spray crop with chlorpyriphos (0.1%) as prophylactic spray or on initiation of insect infestation. Fruit sucking moths (Othreis ancilla, O.cajecta, O.fullonica, O.materna, Achaea janata) It punchers mature fruits at dusk by inserting proboscis and suck juice. Through feeding punctures secondary pathogens enter and cause fruit rotting. They lay eggs on weeds. Control Destroy weeds and keep the orchard clean. Collect and destroy infested fallen fruits. Harvest mature fruits little early. Put poison bait containing malathion 1 ml + 100 g jaggery + 5ml vinegar in small tins during night. Generate smoke in orchards during dusk time. Leaf eating caterpillar (Achaea janata)

Shot hole borer (Xyleborus fornicates/X. perforans)

90

Termites (White ants) (Odonyotermis obesus) White ants feed on many crops and more serious in light or light loamy soils and dry areas. It is more serious in Rabi season. Control Use well decomposed organic manure Remove dead decaying matter or dry stubbles from the field to avoid termite infestation. Treat soil with quinolphos 1.5% or methyl parathion 2% dust @ 25 kg/ha before planting. In standing crop apply chlorpyriphos 20EC @ 4L/ha with irrigation water for effective protection of crop against termite infestation. Nematodes (Eudocima fullonia, E. maternal, E. homaena, E. cajeta) The roots of infested plants form knots, resulting in weakening of plants. Control Apply phorate @ 40gm/plant or carbofuron 2kg a.i/ha Diseases Bacterial Blight (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. Punicae) Water soaked lesions are formed on leaves, twigs, branches, flowers, calyx and fruits. The lesions coalesce to form big spots as a result the infected leaves and flowers drop, twigs and branches break at the point of infection. Y or L shaped cracks are formed on lesions and in severe cases entire fruit split opens. Control Plant orchard with disease free planting material Keep proper row to row and plant to plant spacing and follow proper pruning and training to avoid plant to plant contact. This will also help in proper aeration and distribution of solar light, which helps to reduce diseases. Do not leave infected plant material (leaves, flowers, fruits & twigs) in orchards nor dump near orchard or thro in irrigation channels. The orchard should be swept clean to collect all fallen plant parts and burnt. Drenching of bleaching powder @ 150g/5-7L of water per plant or dusting of copper dust (4%) @ 20 kg/ha on soil below canopy at the time of bahar treatment reduces the bacterial inoculum due to left over plant debris in orchards. Prune twigs and branches 2 inches below the canker followed by 1% Bordeaux mixture spray. Cut ends should be applied with Bordeaux paste (10%) immediately after pruning.

91

During pruning secateurs should be sterilized with dettol (1%) or Sodium hypochlorite (1%) People handling diseased plants/orchards should avoid entering/touching disease free orchards/plants without changing clothes and washing. Educate neighboring growers about the significance of sanitation and clean cultivation and to follow recommended spray schedules as well as doses strictly and in all the orchards effectively checking the spread of the pathogen.

Adopt the following spray schedule First spray be given with 1% Bordeaux mixture immediately after pruning Second spray at foliage initiation with Streptocycline (250ppm) + Copper oxychloride (0.25%) Third spray at 15 days interval with Bordeaux mixture (0.5%) Fourth spray with Streptocycline (250ppm) + Carbendazim (0.1%) Under favourable weather conditions of overcast sky and rains and high disease pressure higher concentrations of Streptocycline (500ppm) should be used. Also spray interval can be reduced to 8 10 days. Rest period of 3 4 months should be practiced and during this period Bordeaux mixture (1%) should be sprayed at 1 month interval. Streptocycline (250ppm) should be sprayed once during the rest period. Leaf and fruit spots Colletotrichum and Sphaceloma spots On leaves the spots are brown-black spots with light center and purplish-brown borders. On fruits initially spots are small with dark purplish brown borders with light centers which later enlarge to form larger spots with light center and dark edge. Control At flower initiation or disease appearance spray the crop with carbendazim (0.1%) or mancozeb (0.25%), or copper oxychloride (0.25%) or Thiophanate methyl (0.15%)

Cercospora Spots
Small irregular reddish brown spots are formed on leaves, which may be few or numerous. On fruits these spots resemble much to oily spots but donot have cracks. The disease is more severe in warm climates and in summer. Control At flower initiation or disease appearance spray the crop with carbendazim (0.1%) or mancozeb (0.25%), or copper oxychloride (0.25%) or Thiophanate methyl (0.15%)

Alternaria Spots

92

Isolated irregular round blackish-brown spots on leaves which may enlarge to cover large area. Sometimes the affected leaves appear blighted, turn yellow, dries and fall off. On fruits the spots are dark and cover large area, mostly mature fruits are attacked. Stressed plants are more prone to this disease. Control At flower initiation or disease appearance spray the crop with carbendazim (0.1%) or mancozeb (0.25%), or copper oxychloride (0.25%) or Thiophanate methyl (0.15%)

Drechslera Spots
The fruits develop small irregular spots surrounded by yellow border. In severe cases these blotches result in discoloration of inner tissue or even extend up to the seeds, where arils turn brown.

Control At flower initiation or disease appearance spray the crop with carbendazim (0.1%) or mancozeb (0.25%), or copper oxychloride (0.25%) or Thiophanate methyl (0.15%) Wilt complex (Ceratocystis fimbriata, Fusarium oxysporum, Rhizoctonia solani and nematodes) Affected plants show yellowing of leaves in some twigs or branches, followed by drooping and drying of leaves. The entire tree dies in few months or a year. When affected tree is cut open lengthwise or cross-section dark grayish-brown discolouration of wood is seen. Disease is more in heavy soil and increases with soil moisture. Control Plant at spacing 4.5 m 3.0 m in the orchard Plant pomegranate in sandy loam soil with proper drainage Soil drenching with carbendazim (0.2%), or propiconazole (0.15%) or Tridemorph (0.15%) + Chlorpyriphos (0.25%) before planting in diseases prone areas. Spray with carbendazim (0.1%) or propiconazole (0.15%) or tridemorph (0.15%) as soon as first sign of disease are seen. The completely wilted plants should be uprooted and burnt and drench the plant basin as above. Phytophthora Blight (Phytophthora nicotianae) Affects seedlings, foliage as well as fruits particularly during rainy season, when humidity is high. Affected leaves and twigs show typical blighted appearance. Fungus also attacks flowers and fruits at all stages and cause fruit rot.

93

Control At disease appearance, spray the crop with metalaxyl 8% + mancozeb 64% (0.25%) or mancozeb (0.25%). Fruit rot (Cercospora punicae/Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) Fruit spot pathogen also result in fruit rots. Pathogens enter through calyx or stem end and results dark brown depressed spots on fruits. Control At flower initiation spray the crop with carbendazim (0.15%) or mancozeb (0.25%) thiophanate methyl (0.15%) FRUIT DISORDERS Fruit cracking Apart from cracking due to bacterial blight, fruit cracks are also due to improper irrigation, boron, calcium and potash deficiency. When after a long dry spell there is rain or irrigation water is given fruits tend to crack. Hence regular watering during fruiting period should be practiced. Since abiotic cracks are directly related to moisture imbalance, maximum cracking is in Ambe bahar followed by Hasta and lowest in Mrig. Control Irrigate the plants with adequate quantity of water at regular intervals. Spray Boron @ 0.2% (2 g/l). Apply calcium and potash as per soil test values. Sun scald Develop good canopy by proper pruning and plant nutrition. To reduce sun scald spray Koalin thrice at 15 days interval during hot summer months. First spray is of 5% and next two of 2.5%. If heavy rain or wind occurs spray interval can be accordingly reduced. Internal break down of arils Disintegration of arils in matured pomegranates known as an internal breakdown or blackening of arils, is a serious malady. This disorder cannot be identified externally, whereas the arils become soft, light creamy brown to dark blackish brown and unfit for consumption. It is increasing rapidly in the pomegranate growing pockets in western Maharashtra. The incidence of internal breakdown occurs 90 days after anthesis. Its intensity increases if the fruits are left on the tree for 140 days onwards. It is evident in evergreen and deciduous cultivars. The incidence is more in ambe bahar, it increases with increase in weight of fruits from 150-200g (26.60%) to more than 350g (60%). No insect or organism is associated with this malady. The TSS, acidity, ascorbic acid, reducing sugars, starch,

94

tannins, nitrogen, potassium, magnesium, boron and enzyme polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase increase in the affected arils compared with the healthy ones. The exact causes are not known and remedial measures are difficult to advocate. Therefore pomegranates should be harvested at 120-135 days after fruits set. Control Harvest as soon as the crop matures. BER (Zizyphus mauritiana L.) Climate Though ber is said to be a sub-tropical fruit, it thrives well under varying climatic conditions. Low temperature conditions below freezing point are injurious to the fruits as well as to the young shoots. It can, however, withstand severe hot conditions, by shedding its leaves and becoming dormant during MayJune. The ber prefers dry atmosphere for its ideal performance, high atmospheric humidity is disadvantageous particularly during fruiting. Soils It adapts to a wide variety of soils, varying from shallow to deep and from gravelly and sandy to clayey. Ber can also withstand alkalinity and lightly water logged conditions. It can also be grown on marginal lands which are unfit for growing other fruit crops. However, deep sandy loam soils which are neutral or slightly alkaline provide best media for its excellent growth and fruiting. The ber tree is drought hardy and grow under the most hazardous conditions of soil, water and climate. Varieties Gola The fruit is greenish yellow, round, medium to large and weighs 20g on an average. It has good keeping quality. It yields about 100 kg/tree. Umran Fruits are large, oval with a roundish apex, and have an attractive golden yellow colour which turns to chocolate brown at full maturity. The fruit weighs on an average 30 35g. It is tough and firm, surface smooth and glossy. It can withstand transporting and has good keeping quality. It is a prolific bearer and yields about 200 kg/tree, ripens during December-January. Banarasi Karaka

95

Fruits are fairly large, oval with thin skin. On maturity fruits turn yellow. The fruit on an average weighs about 25g, it is regular and a prolific bearer, yields about 150 kg/tree. Kaithili The fruit is medium with an average weight of 25g. Fruit is oblong, with pointed apex, smooth surface and greenish yellow skin. It is a medium to heavy yielder, yields about 120150 kg/tree. It has poor keeping quality and does not stand transportation. Suitable for local markets. Mundia Fruits are oblong in shape medium sized, weighs about 1418g. It is a medium yielder, 3035kg/tree. Seb Fruits are apple shaped, each fruit weighs about 30g. Tree grows upright, yields about 4045kg/tree. Gangiregu This variety belongs to Andhra Pradesh, fruits are oblong with pointed tip small to medium sized with less pulp to stone ratio. Propagation The popular method of propagation of ber is by budding. Though different types of budding are adopted the common methods is by shield and patch budding on suitable rootstocks. Preparation of land The land is ploughed on both ways to uproot the stumps and stubbles and these are removed. Finally the land is leveled. Planting Budlings are planted either during spring (FebruaryMarch) or during the rainy season (AugustSeptember) the latter being more preferable. Pits of 606060 cm are dug one month before planting at a spacing of 66m. After a fortnight the pits are filled using a mixture of good soil plus 25kg FYM plus 1kg superphosphate per pit. To avoid termite infestation 30g of folidol 2% dust is mixed with the soil. After filling the pit it is watered to allow the soil to settle. Then the budlings are planted in the pit, by scooping out soil in the middle of the pit and pressing the soil round the ball of earth of the budling. Then it is watered. After care

96

The young budlings are watered regularly at weekly intervals by basin method for a couple of summers. The budlings are protected from scorching sun by erecting thatches or covering the plant all-round, leaving a gap on the south-western side with palmyra leaves. Any sprouts arising on the rootstock portions are removed promptly. The young budlings should be staked to avoid breakage at the bud union. Training and pruning The ber is a spreading type of tree. If left uncared it spreads and becomes unmanageable. So training and pruning of ber trees are highly desirable to build a strong frame work and to obtain regularly profitable yields. For developing a strong frame work it is essential to train them right from the nursery stage, when the scion bud sprouts, only one upright growing shoot should be removed. Training of ber is carried out during the initial three years after planting. During the first year an upright and vigorous main trunk is developed upto a height of one meter from the ground level, by removing all the sprouts. From this trunk, 34 well spaced and favourably located main branches should be allowed, while the rest are removed. These laterals form the framework of the tree. During the second year, the above process should be repeated to develop the tree upto tertiary branching level. During third year, final balancing and correction of the tree framework is done, along with first pruning. All the criss crossing and week shoots should be removed. The ber fruits are borne in the axils of leaves on the young shoots of the current season. Hence, a regular annual pruning is necessary to induce maximum number of new healthy shoots to provide maximum fruit bearing area and to produce quality fruits. Heading back of 25% growth together with removal of diseased, broken or criss-crossing branches is also necessary to avoid crowding. The best time for pruning is AprilMay, when the trees are in dormant condition. Manures and Fertilizers The productivity of the ber trees can be improved by proper manuring annually. The manurial schedules vary from place to place. Application of 10kg of FYM and 15 kg of Ammonium sulphate per tree of 4-5 years old is recommended. A fully grown tree should be given 20-30 kg of FYM and half kg of Nitrogen to obtain good yields. The fertilizers are applied in two equal split doses once in rainy season (July-August) and next at the time of fruit set (September-October). Age (Years) 1 2 FYM (kg) 10 20 Nitrogen (g) 100 200 Phosphorous (g) 50 100 Potassium (g) 50 100

97

3 4 5 Above 5 Irrigation

30 40 50 60

300 400 500 750

150 200 250 300

150 200 250 300

Though ber is drought resistant, it responds well to irrigation and to improve the productivity irrigation is a must. However, ber trees need not be irrigated during the most period of the year but irrigation during the period of fruit development (September December) is very essential and is beneficial. Irrigation is given at 7-10 days interval depending upon the prevailing agro-climatic conditions. Mostly grown as rainfed fruit crop, initial first 2 to 3 years irrigation should be provided using pitcher method where 20 liter capacity pitchers (mud pots) with drain hole plugged with cotton are arranged near tree drip circle. Drip irrigation and fertigation also a common practice saving 5060% water and 20 30% fertilizers. Irrigation should be regulated at the time of flowering and fruiting. Intercultivation One ploughing in September-October is desirable to keep the weeds under control. Ploughing in summer helps to check the insects and weeds. Intercropping The ber trees take about 5 years to occupy the interspace in the orchard. Till then, the interspaces can be profitably used by growing intercrops. Leguminous intercrops are preferable as they enrich the soil. Harvesting Ber trees are regular and heavy bearers. Budlings start bearing with in three years of planting. There after it gives regular yields. Under the prevailing conditions of Andhra Pradesh, ber flowers in the months of June-August and the harvesting of fruits begins by November onwards and lasts upto the end of January. All the fruits on the tree do not ripen at one time and therefore, 4 to 5 or more pickings have to be done in the season. Fruits are harvested with hand or a pole with a hook. The fruit should be harvested at the right stage. The best index is the characteristic maturity colour and softness of a particular variety after the fruit has attained full size. After harvesting, the fruits should be graded according to the size and colour, for getting good profits. The average yield per tree varies with the variety. However, the average yield per tree ranged from 100 to 200 kg. Uses

98

Although ber is often referred as Poor mans fruit, yet it is not a Poor fruit. It excels many important fruits in vitamins and minerals. The ber fruit are rich in nutritive value. They contain considerable amounts of protein, minerals, vitamin C and carotene. Viramin C content of the ber fruit is more than that or citrus fruits. The ber fruit is mostly eaten as fresh fruit but it can also be dried and kept for use in the off season. Ber fruits can also be preserved in the form of murabba, candy and chutney. Besides the fruits, the ber tree also yields other economic products. Leaves are used as fodder in the dry regions of Punjab and Rajasthan. Its wood is used for making agricultural implements. As fuel, the ber wood has a high calorific value and makes excellent charcoal. The most important use of ber tree, other than providing fruits is, it gives lac, when infested by the lac insect. Plant Protection Pests Fruit Fly (Carpomyia vesuviana) This pest is recorded throughout the country and is the most serious pest of ber, making the ber cultivation uneconomical. Almost all the cultivated varieties are susceptible to this pest. Infestation of the pest starts with the onset of fruit setting. The adult female lays eggs singly in the developing fruit. On hatching the maggot starts feeding on the pulp inside the fruit. Infested fruits become deformed and their growth is arrested and they drop off. The maggot, when fully grown comes out of the fruit, drops to the ground and pupates inside the soil. Several generations of pest are seen in the season. Control To minimize the pest infestation, orchard soil should be ploughed during March-April, May-June and August, to expose the hibernating pupae to the bright sun and birds. The dropped fruits infested with fruit fly should be collected and buried deep in the soil, to destroy the pest. During the fruiting season, spraying should be done with 0.06% dimethoate 30 EC (2ml/L) or 0.125% malathion (2.5ml/L) or dichlorovas 0.1% (1ml/L). Fruit borer (Meridarchis scyodes) Very serious pest. Eggs are laid on fruits at pea stage. On hatching caterpillars bore into fruits and feed on the pulp near seed. The extent of damage may vary from 20 80%. Control Destroy the infected fruits. Foliar spray with polytrine @ 1ml or Endosulphan @ 2ml/L for 2-3 times at 10 days interval initiating first spray at pea size. Leaf Eating Caterpillars (Euprocitis fraternal, Thaicidas postica)

99

Young caterpillars initially remain gregarious and scrape leaves and tender fruits. Later instar caterpillars disperse and devour leaves, fruits and tender shoots. Control Foliar spray with Quinolphos or Endosulphan @ 2ml or carbaryl @ 3g/L Diseases Powdery Mildew (Oidium sp.) The fungus attacks young developing leaves. The affected leaves drop off. It also attacks the fruits, and causes heavy fruit drop. The affected fruits become corky, cracked, misshapen and under developed. When the attack is severe, entire crop is lost through fruit drop or rendered unmarketable. Control Spraying 0.25% wettable sulphur four times or 0.05% Karathane four time times or three foliar sprays with 0.1% Dinocap or 0.1% Triademorph at 20 days interval, initiating spray after the first appearance of the disease i.e.during July, September, November and December will control the disease effectively.

AONLA (Emblica officinalis) Aonla or Indian gooseberry (Emblica officinalis) is an indigenous fruit to Indian subcontinent. Owing to hardy nature, suitable to various waste lands, high productivity/unit area (15-20 t/ha), nutritive and therapeutic value, aonla have become an important fruit. Its fruits are a rich source of vitamin C. Aonla, fruit is highly valued among indigenous medicines. It is acrid, cooling effect, diuretic and laxative. Dried fruits have been reported to be useful in haemorrhages, diarrhea, dysentery, anaemia, jaundice, dyspepsia and cough. Trifia and chavanprash are well known indigenous medicines in Ayurvedic system using aonla. Besides fruits, leaves, bark and even seeds are being used for various purposes. The total area under Aonla in Andhra Pradesh is about 4,991 hectares with estimated annual production of 9,982 tons. Soil and Climate Any type of soils with good drainage. It can be successfully grown in saline, acidic and alkaline soils. Tolerates sodium levels up to 30% and pH up to 9.5. Tolerant equally to severe cold and hot climates up to 46 C. Leaf fall start in summer and trees enter in to dormancy from March to May. Most suitable for dry arid climates

100

Varieties Balawant (NA-10) Fruits are medium to large size, round with little warty skins weighing about 40g. Fruits are attractive with light green having pinkish tinge. Five to 6 six year old tree yields about 42 kg/tree. Vitamic C content is about 528 mg/100g pulp. Neelam (NA-7) A seedling selection of Franchis, it is precocious, prolific and regular bearer (9.7 female flowers/branchlet). This is an ideal variety for preparation of products and has a great promise. Amrit (NA-6) A seedling selection from Chakaiya, it is prolific and heavy bearer (10.8 female, flowers/branchlet). It is ideal for preserve and candy, owing to low fibre content. Kanchan (NA-4) Fruits are light yellowish green, medium sized fruits (3032g). Vitamin C content is about 711mg/100g pulp. Five to 6 year old tree yields about 3538kg/tree. Suitable variety for pickle purpose. Chakaiya Fruits are greenish white color, medium size (3335g). Fibre content is high, Vitamin C is about 789mg/100g pulp. Five year old tree bears yields about 30kg/tree. BSR-1 Variety is released from Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. Fruits are pinkish coloured and small sized (1214g). Vitamin C content is about 650mg/100g pulp. A five year old tree yields about 4045kg/tree. Suitable variety for pharmaceutical use. Propagation and Planting Propagated mostly by budding, wedge and approach grafting also practiced. Young plants should be planted at 88 m or 66 m spacing. Pits of 111 m should be dug in the month of May-June and filled with 15 kg FYM, 1 kg SSP and 100 g Furadon granules along with loose soil. Ideal time for planting is July to October, while planting bud or graft union should be at least 1020cm above the ground level. Plants should be staked and shoots arising from rootstock should be removed promptly. Since fruit set is mostly by cross pollination, more than one variety should be planted for better yields. Irrigation Aonla tolerates well to drought conditions, mostly grown as rainfed fruit crop, however initial first 2 to 3 years assured irrigation is essential for good growth. During summer irrigation interval should be every 45 days. In case of bearing trees irrigation

101

should be stopped in the months of NovDec for better flowering in the following season. Drip irrigation and fertigation also a common practice saving 3040% water and 2030% fertilizers. Rainfed Aonla orchards should use organic mulching in basins to 8 cm thick with either wood shavings or groundnut shells to conserve moisture. Manures and Fertilizers During first year after planting, 100 g N, 50 g P, and 100 g K plus 10 kg FYM should be applied. Later on every year fertilizers should be applied in increments of 100 g N, 50 g P, and 100 g K and 5 kg FYM up to the age of 10 years. For trees of more than 10 year old, 1kg N, 0.5kg P and 1kg K plus 60 kg of FYM should be applied. Trees start bearing fruits from 3rd year onwards. Fertilizers should be applied in 2 split doses in bearing trees, first dose at new flush and second dose during monsoon (June-July). Micronutrients foliar spray should be applied at fruit set stage. Intercropping During first three years, intercrops such as groundnut, horsegram, pulses and other leguminous crops or medicinal and aromatic crops can be grown. Flowering, Fruit set and Yield Flowering occurs on new shoots in the month of JanuaryFebruary. Indeterminate shoots are produced on main shoots, later on flowers are borne on new definite branches. Male flowers are produced first at the bottom and later female flowers at the tips of these branches. Fruit set occur by cross pollination and later fruits enter in to a prolonged dormancy for up to four months (MarchJune), during this periods tree basins should not be disturbed. By commencement of monsoon, dormancy is released and fruits start developing rapidly and will be ready for harvest in October. A fully grown tree of about 10 year old yields up to 100 to 150 kg/tree. Plant Protection Pests Bark eating caterpillars (Indarbela quadrinotata, I.tetraonis) Feed on the bark under silken ribbon shaped webs. Control Inject with dichlorovos (1ml in 10ml of water) or Kerosin or Endosulfon (2ml/L) of water and seal holes with clay. Sucking pests Thrips Attack mainly fruits at pea stage resulting in poor fruit development. Control Foliar spray with dimethoate @ 2ml/L or Phosalone 0.05%

102

Aphids (Schoutedenia emblica) Infestation is severe on young flush and flowering stage. Nymphs and adults suck sap from tender shoots, secrets honey dew all over the branches and leaves. Sooty mold develops on these secretions that hinder photosynthesis. Control Foliar spray with dimethoate @ 2ml/L or Phosalone 0.05% Mealy bugs (Nipaecocus vastator (maskell)) Nymphs develop in soil near tree basins and crawls on trees. Both nymphs and adults infest near stalk end portion of fruits and suck sap resulting in poor fruit development and premature fruit drop. Control Intercultivate during summer. Foliar spray with neem oil @ 5ml/L. Apply 2% Follidol dust in the tree basins. Foliar spray with Chloropyriphos @ 2.5ml/L Diseases Rust (Ravenelia emblica) Conspicuous black coloured rust pustules on leaflets and fruits. Affected fruits drop off prematurely. Control Foliar spray with Chlorothalonil @ 2g or Mancozeb @ 2.5 g/L or Sulphur 2g/lit or Bitertanol 1g/lit during December. Black Spot Initially small black spots are formed on fruits and later enlarges. Control Foliar spray with Copper oxycholoride 3g/L or 1% Boredeaux mixture immediately after receival of rain during fruit development and repeat it after 15days interval. Fruit necrosis Necrosis a physiological disorder, has been observed in aonla fruits. Francis variety is highly susceptible followed by Banarasi. Incidence initates with browning of mesocarp which extends towards the epicarp resulting into brownish black appearance of flesh. Control Foliar spray with Borax @ 6g/L at 15 days interval for three times during fruit development stage. TAMARIND (Tamarindus indica L.)

103

Tamarind, Tamarindus indica L., is a multipurpose tropical fruit tree used primarily for its fruits, which are eaten fresh or processed, used as a seasoning or spice, or the fruits and seeds are processed for non-food uses. The species has a wide geographical distribution in the subtropics and semiarid tropics and is cultivated in numerous regions. The total area under Tamarind in Andhra Pradesh is about 6,099 hectares with estimated annual production of 46,962 tons. Soil and Climate The tamarind tree can grow in a wide range of soils and have no specific soil requirement. With little or no cultivation it can flourish in poor soils and on rocky terrain. It tolerates sodic and saline soils where it grows in ravines and on degraded land. Tamarind is adapted to a wide range of ecological conditions, reflecting its wide geographical distribution in the sub and semi-arid tropics. The maximum annual rainfall which tamarind can tolerate is up to 4000 mm, provided that the soil is well drained. Tamarind grows under these conditions in the wet tropics but does not flower. In fact, dry weather is important for flower initiation and if heavy rains occur during flowering tamarind does not bear fruit. Varieties There are only few varieties of tamarind. Important varieties in India are PKM-1 A clonal selection from the gene bank, it is early variety yielding 263 kg pods/tree with a pulp content of 39 %. It can give 26 tonnes of pods/ha if transplanted at a spacing of 10 m x 10 m. Urigam This is another local type providing very long pods, having sweet pulp Pratisthan Variety released from Marathwada Agricultural University. Pulp has acid sweet taste, 60% pulp. 8% tartaric acid in pulp. Yogeshwari Variety released from Marathwada Agricultural University. High yielding type with red pulp, regular bearer, 11.00% acidity. Propagation and Planting Tamarind can be successfully propagated by root and stem cuttings or air and stemlayering or by budding and grafting. However, commonly practiced method is by wedge and approach grafting. Young plants should be planted at 1010m or 99m spacing. Pits of 111 m should be dug in the month of May-June and filled with 15 kg FYM, 1 kg SSP and 100 g Furadon granules along with loose soil. Ideal time for planting is July to October,

104

while planting graft union should be at least 1020cm above the ground level. Plants should be staked and shoots arising from rootstock should be removed promptly. Irrigation Tamarind tolerates well to drought conditions, mostly grown as rainfed fruit crop, however initial first 2 to 3 years assured irrigation is essential for establishment. During summer irrigation should be at every 710 days interval. Pruning and Training Initial training and pruning of young plants during the first years is essential for the development of well-formed trees. Tamarind is a compact tree and produces symmetrical branches. Young trees should be pruned to allow 3-5 well-spaced branches to develop into the main scaffold structure of the tree. Bearing trees require very little pruning other than maintenance pruning to remove dead, weak and diseased branches and water sprouts. Intercrop Tamarind allows intercropping with a variety of annual crops. Vegetables and legumes can be grown during the rainy season in the interspaces in the first three to six years to augment farm income and improve soil fertility. Manures and Fertilizers The nutritional requirement of tamarind has not yet been studied and standardized recommendations are therefore not available. Trees are known to fruit well even without fertiliser application, due to their deep and extensive root system. Inorganic fertilizers are not normally applied to tamarind trees, but 5 kg of farmyard manure is applied to the planting hole at the time of planting. Every year thereafter 5 kg of farmyard manure and 5 kg of neem cake are applied per tree in the months of March and April. Irrigation Irrigation is not normally practiced in tamarind cultivation, but promotes better growth during establishment and the early stages of growth, especially during the dry seasons. Where irrigation facilities are available watering should be done and repeated as the need arises in the early stages of growth. In later years as the deep tap root system develops, the need for watering becomes less. Flowering and fruiting is promoted by irrigation. In dry areas the use of water harvesting techniques during the rainy season should be considered as it encourages subsequent growth and fruiting. Mulching during the dry season will also help to reduce water losses from evaporation. Mulches around the trees also help in weed control and water conservation. Flowering and Fruit set

105

In tamarind, terminal vegetative shoots which bear flowers only in the following flowering season are produced annually. Two types of terminal shoots have been observed, short ones with an erect habit and long ones with a drooping habit. It is reported that production of flowers varies considerably between selections in India. Those with longer vegetative terminal shoots produce more flowers. In general, flowering and fruiting of tamarind takes place in the dry season. An extended spell of dry weather may be essential for fruit development. The period from flowering to pod ripening is 8-10 months. Ripe fruits, however, may remain on the tree until the next flowering period. In most of the tamarind producing countries the fruits are harvested from February to March/April, but sometimes the harvesting period may extend to June. In India, fruits are harvested from April to May. Plant Protection Pests Fruit Borer (Lasioderma serricorne, Virachola isocrates) The larvae infest ripening pods on the tree and persists in the stored fruits, larvae feed internally on the pulp and seeds and makes unmarketable. Control Destroy the infected fruits. Foliar spray with polytrine @ 1ml or Endosulphan @ 2ml/L or Carbaryl @ 3g/L for 23 times at 10 days interval. Mealy bug (Planococcus lilacinus) The mealybug, is a leading pest of tamarind in India, causing leaf-fall and sometimes shedding of young fruits. Control Foliar spray with chloropyriphos (0.02%) or imidacloprid (0.04%) or deltamethrin (0.15) or dichlorovos (0.05%) as prophylactic or on observing the infestation. Diseases Powdery mildew A mildew caused by Oidium sp. is a common occurrence in nursery seedlings. The disease causes defoliation and early growth is severely retarded. Control In order to have effective control foliar sprays of wettable sulphur @ 3g/L at 15 day intervals is the most economical method. ***

106

107

VEGETABLE CROPS

TOMATO (Lycopersicon esculentum) It is the worlds largest vegetable crop after sweet potato. It is the one of the most important protective foods. It is cultivated in 81,069 hectares with an estimated annual production of 14,08,000 tonnes in Andhrapradesh. Climate It is mostly grown as winter vegetable. It cannot tolerate high temperature and heavy rainfall conditions. In summer it is also grown around Madanapalli, Palamaneru areas of Chittoor district and in Arakuvally areas of Visakhapatnam district. Soils

108

It is successfully grown as winter in almost all types of soils ranging from sandy loams to heavy clay soils and also during the onset of monsoon in kharif in light soils of Telengana as rainfed crop. Varieties Pusa Ruby Suitable for cultivation in our State. This variety is determinate and erect in nature. It comes to fruiting in about 60-65 days after transplanting. Fruits are medium sized, uniform red, oblate with deeper furrows than Pusa Early Dwarf. Crop duration about 130135 with 30 tons/ha yield. Pusa Early Dwarf Suitable for cultivation in our State. Earlier than Ruby, comes to harvest in 60 days after planting. It is dwarf but branches freely, fruits are medium in size with slight furrows, uniform red smooth and slightly larger fruits than Pusa Ruby and withstands better to rains. Crop duration is 125-130 days. Yield about 30tons/ha. Pusa Selection-4 Released from Indian Agricultural Research Institute. New Delhi Tall and moderately sturdy plants. Fruits medium in size and round, attractive red color. Crop duration is about 140-150 days, yield 35-40 tons/ha. PKM-1 Released from Tamil Nadu. Plant small in size, more number of plants can be transplanted per acre. Suitable for cultivation in all seasons. Duration 135 days, yields 32 tons/ha. Arka Saurabh The plants are semi-determinate in growth habit, bearing firm fleshy fruits of deep red color, each weighing on an average 70g. It is a dual purpose variety suited both for fresh market and processing into juice and ketchup. It is resistant to fruit cracking and produce 35 tons/ha in 105/110 days after transplanting. Arka Vikas This variety was developed from an American variety Tiptop. The plants are semideterminate bearing oblate fruits weighing 80-85g. Fruits are attractive, red, ripening uniformly. Suitable for fresh market. It produced 35-40 tons/ha of fruits in 105-110 days after transplanting. Arka Meghali This variety is suitable to dry lands. It produced the yield of 20t/ha. Maarutham

109

This variety released from Tamilnadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Plant small in size, sturdy, heavy branching with dency leaves. Suitable for all seasons. Specially recommended for summer. Fruits round medium in size. Duration 135-140 days. Yield 32-35 tons/ha. CO-1 Released by Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Determinate, freely branching habit. Fruits are medium to large, oblate to round, with slight furrows. Comes to harvest in about 65 days with a total duration of 32-35 tons/ha. Hybrids Naveen An early, determinate hybrid, fruits medium sized, smooth, intense red coloured;plants resistant to Fusarium and Veticillium wilts; fruit setting is excellent even during hot summer months, hybrid widely adopted. Rashmi A determinate and widely apated processing hybrid, it produces excellent round, firm fruits with good colour and high TSS; ideally adopted for hot and dry climate. Rupali Plants determinate, compact growing, early with good foliage cover. Fruits medium sized, deep red with high TSS, suitable for processing; very productive, and can be grown in hot and dry weather. Vaishali It is produced by Indo American hybrid seeds, Bangalore. It gives high yields. Avinash-2 A heavy yielder, determinate, compact growing hybrid. Fruits semi oblong, medium sized, good coloured, uniform ripening, suitable for processing, tolerant to TLCV. Preparatory Cultivation Plough the land 4-5 times to attain a good tilth, incorporate the Farmyard manure in the last ploughing. If the crops are to be raised in Kharif, prepare ridges and furrows at 60 cm spacing for convenient irrigation channel. For winter and summer crop, prepare the field into convenient beds of 4x5 m size. Spacing Varietes Hybrids Seeds and Sowing 60 x 45 cm 90 x 45 cm

110

Seed rate 500g/ha for high yielding varieties and 150g/ha for hybrids or a nursery of 25-30 beds of the size of 1x4 m would be adequate to transplant one hectare. Summer crop requires 1kg of seed/ha. Before preparing nursery beds, well decomposed Farm Yard Manure may be applied to soil. These beds may be sprinkled with Bordeaux mixture 0.5% or Dithane Z-18 or Dithane M-45 2-3g/lit as a prophylactic measure against damping off. Seed beds should be raised 6 above the ground level. The Seedlings with 3-7 leaves which are approximately 25-30 days old should be transplanted at variety soil fertility. Treat the seed, before sowing with Thiram 2-3g per one kg of seed. Manures and Fertilizers Application of farm yard manure to an extent of 20-25 tons/ha is desirable in the final ploughing. For high yielding varieties A basal dose of 50kg/ha each. of P2O5 and K2O have to be applied and 100/ha. Of Nitrogen is to be applied in three split doses, 30th, 45th and 60th day after transplantation. For hybrids 250 kg N: 150 kg P2O5: 150 kg K2O/ha. (A basal dose of 150kg/ha each. of P2O5 and K2O have to be applied and 100/ha. Of Nitrogen is to be applied in three split doses, 30 th, 45th and 60th day after transplantation). Intercultivation Weeding hoeing and earthing up is to be done along with fertilization. Nipping of terminal shoots will improve the branching and fruit set. Stalking is prepared for the development of good size quality fruits. Apply 15 or 20mg. Parachlorophenoxy acetic acid or 2mg. 2,4-D per lit of water at flowering and fruit setting to avoid flower & Fruit to get better yield. Irrigation Irrigate the field at 7 to 10 days interval depending upon the soil moisture. In summer irrigate every 5-6 days. Harvesting Harvesting of fruits commences in about 85 to 90 days after transplantation and continues for about 45 to 60 days. Yields 30 to 40 tons/ha in the high yielding varieties 5060 t/ha in hybrids. Plant Protection Pests

111

Fruit Borer (Kaya Toluchu Purugu) (Spodoptera litura, Heliothis armigera, Utetheisa pulchella) This is a serious pest on tomato. The caterpillar crawis over the leaves and feed on the vegetable parts. It cuts the branches of the plant and also forms holes and burrows in the fruits and destroy them. Control Spray Carbaryl 50% w.p. 0.1% @ 2g per lit of water or Quinalphos (0.05%) 25% EC @ 2 ml/lit of water Epilachna beetle (Akshintala Purugu) (Epilachna vigintioctopunctata) Both grubs and adults feed on the leaves. The feeding is irregular and gives a characteristic lace like appearance to the leaves. Control Spray Carbrayl 50% w.p. 0.1% @ 2g per lit or water or Endosulfan (0.05%) 35% EC 1.5ml per lit of water. Jassids (Pach Doma) (Sundapteryx biguttula) The nymphs and adults stay underneath the leaves and suck the sap, resulting in the wilting up of the leaves. Control Spray Dimethoate (0.06%) 30% EC @ 2ml per lit of water mixed with Metasystox 25% EC or Monocrotophos @ 1.5ml per lit of water Disease Control Damping off (Narukullu Tegulu) (Pythium spp.) The seedlings re mostly attacked in the nursery bed at the ground level and as a result they topple. Control Treat the seed before sowing with Thiram 2-3 g/kg seed.

Wilt (Vadalipovu Tegulu) (Fusarium Oxysporum fsp lycopersici) The lower leaves become yellow and the petioles droop. The affected plants wilt and die. Control Use of seeds from healthy plants. Crop rotation and using resistant varieties Early blight (Akumadu Tegulu) (Alternaria solani) Brown spots with concentric rings appear on leaves, stems as well as on fruits. In severe cases the fruits drop off and the whole plant dries up.

112

Control Spray Captan or Dithane Z-78 or Dithane M-45 @ 3g/lit of water. Seed from infected plant should not be used. Mosaic virus (Verrikullu Tegulu) Interveinal mottling and yellowing of the leaves with scattered patches ongreen areas. The leaf surface appears to be crinkled and britte Control Diseased plants should be removed as and when noticed. Spray insecticides to control the insect vectors. Tomato spotted wilt virus (Tomato Machalu Madu Virus) Bronze colour markings on the upper side or young leaflets accompanied by downward curling of leaves. Control Diseased plants should be removed as and when noticed. Spray insecticides to control the insect vectors BRINJAL (Solanum melongena L.) It is one of the most common vegetables grown throughout the Country. This can be grown successfully under the climatic conditions prevailing in South India and the Deccan Plateau. It comes up well even in hilly regions where the temperature does not come down below 5 C. In Andrha Pradesh it is cultivated in an area of 28.548 hectares with annual production of 5,31,000 tons. It is rich in Vitamin A and E. Seasons It can be grown in plains throughout the year but rabi season is the best Rainy Season Winter Season Summer Season Soils A well drained soil with medium to high fertility is best suited. Vareities Bhagyamathi It was released by APAU. It is freely branching, erect type compact in habit. The emerging leaves are Purple in color, with slightly purple stem. Fairly resistant to fruit borer and little leaf virus. Fruits are borne in clusters of 3-6, deep purple with oblong shape and without spines. It comes to harvest in about 45-50 days after planting. Duration of the crop June July October November February March

113

is 140-160 days. This variety withstands better for drought. Also performs better in upland rainfed cultivation. Yields range from 30-35 tons/ha. Pusa Purple Cluster Crop comes to harvest in 66-75 days, tall, erect, compact habit. Leaves and stem are purple. Fruits borne in clusters of 3-6 fruits deep purple oval shape, 10-12 cm long. Heavy yielder 30-40 tons/ha. Resistant to bacterial wilt. Duration is 135-140 days. Pusa Purple Long It is an early variety. Comes to harvest in about 45 days after planting. Semi erect habit, medium height, leaves and stem are green in colour, spines are absent. The leaves are with cut edges. Fruits long, purple, glossy, 25-30 cm long. Pusa Purple Round Tall, erect, and sturdy in habit. Leaves and stems are dark green colour and without spines. Leaves are with entire margin. Fruits round weighing 130-150gm purple glossy, smooth and large. Resistant to little leaf disease, 135-150 days duration, yields moderate i.e. 20-25 tons/ha. Pusa Kranti Tall, vigorous and study in habit, leaves and stem are mild green. Spines are absent. Fruits oblong purple with shining gloomy appearance with attractive green calyx. Fruits are borne in singles, medium to large in size heavy yielder 35-40 tons/ha. Duration is 135-150 days. Gulabi Fruits medium in size, light pink colour with cluster bearing habit. One cluster has 34 fruits. This variety suitable for Telangana and Coastal region. Syamala It is best suitable for Telangana region. Generally used for masala curries.

Arka Sheel The fruits are medium long tender and possess an attractive deep purple skin colour. The fruit contains more edible flesh and less number of seeds. It is a very high yielding and produces on an average 394 q/ha in 110 to 120 days after transplanting. Arka Kusumakar The fruits are small finger shapped and light green in color. The fruits are borne in clusters of 5-7. It is a very high yielding and dwarf plant bears about 70-75 fruits per plant with an average yield of 397 q/ha in about 110 to 120 days after transplanting.

114

Pusa H-5 Early muturing, long, dark purple in colour, yields 50 t/ha. Pusa H-6 Early maturing, round, dark purple in colour, yielding 45 t/ha. Suphal An early maturing vigorous hybrid which produces long, oval, glossy, deep purple fruits. Ravaiah Purple coloured, cluster bearing variety. Utkarsha The fruit is round, dark purple in colour. Spacing Varieties Hybrids Seeds and Sowing 650 g/ha or nursery of 25-30 beds of the size 1x4 m would be adequate to transplant one hectare. The seedlings with 3-4 leaves with are approximately 30-35 days old should be transplanted with a spacing of 50x50cm. or 75x50 cm. For hybrids 300 g of seed is required for one hectare Manures and Fertilizers A basal dressing of 50kg of P2O5 and 50kg K2O are to be applied/ha in the last ploughing. Application of Farm Yard Manure upto 25 tons/ha is desirable. 100kg of Nitrogen per hectare is to be applied in three split doses at 30th, 60th and 75th day after planting. For hybrids 20-25 tons of FYM, 200kg N, 100kg P2O5 and 150kg of K2O/ha. Interculture Weeding, Hoeing and earthing up is to be done along with fertilization. Irrigation The crop requires adequate moisture during the first 70 days. It can withstand drought later to some extent and still revive upon the soil moisture. In summer interval of 45 days and in winter 7-10 days. Harvesting 50 x 50 cm 75 x 50 cm

115

The harvesting starts from 50th day onwards and continues for 50 days in the first phase and a second phase con be obtained after 20-25 days if adequate nutrition and irrigation are provided. The crop can be removed after 110 days if the 2 nd flush is not desired, otherwise it can be retained for 150-160 days. The size of the fruit reduces during the summer. The calyx is purple blue and is soft and edible too. During summer the calyx tends to become green. Yield High yielding varieties 20-25 t/ha Hybrids 35-50 t/ha. Plant Protection Pests Epilachana beetles (Akshintala Purugu) (Epilachna viginti octopunctata, E.dodecastigma) Both adults and grubs skeletonize the leaves which present a lace like appearance. These leaves dry up and plant presents an unhealthy appearance. Control Spray of Malthion 0.16% @ 3 ml per water of Methyl parathion 0.03% @ 1ml per lit. of water @ 1ml per lit. of water Shoot and fruit borer (Muvva, Kaya Toluchu Purugu) (Leucinodes orbonalis) In nursery no damage is done by this pest. Pest affects young shoots of tansplanted seedlings. They wither and droop. At fruiting stage fruits are bored. They form galleries. Control 3 sprayings of Carbaryl 50% w.p. 2.5 g or Monocrotaphos @ 1.25 ml per lit of Water. A safe period of 10 days should be maintained between spraying and harvest. Ready mixture Betacyfluthrin + Imidaclopride 21% @ 200 ml/ha is effective. The trade name is Solomon 300 OD which is available in the market. Mealy bug (Pindi Purugu) (Centrococcus insolitus) Stunted growth of plant. Plants appear as though covered with white wash. Control Malathion 0.15% @ 3ml/lit of water or Monocrotophaos @ 0.4% 1.25 ml/lit of water. Mite (Doma) (Tetranychus telarius) Leaves present a blotching appearance, become whitish and brown patches develop. Control Spray Wettable Sulphur @ 3 to 5 g/lit or Dicofol @ 2.7 ml/lit of water or dust. Sulphur @ 20 to 25 kg/ha.

116

Diseases Early blight (Akumadu Tegulu) (Alternaria solani) Scattered dark brown spots on leaflets showing concentric rings, may cover large areas of the leaf blade. Severely affected leave may drop off. The infected fruits turn yellow and drop off prematurely. Control Spray with Bordeaux mixture 5:5:50 or Zineb 0.25% Little leaf (Verri Tegulu) (Mycoplasma like organisms) Affected plants produce tiny leaves, which are pale green in colour. Plants become bushy due to stimulation of axillary buds in to numerous shoots of small leaves. Flowers are virescent and sterile. Control Rouge out diseased plants. Spray any insecticide to control the vector. Mosaic Virus (Virus Tegulu) Infected plants show malformation and yellowing of leaves, stunted growth and some times show concentyric rings on the leaf lamina. Infected plants bear less number of flowers and fruits. Control Rouge out diseased plants. Spray insecticides to control the vector. BHENDI (Abelomoschus esculentus L) Bhendi is cultivated in an area of 29,315 hectares producing about 4.4 lakh tons of fruits throughout the state for its immature fruits which are used as vegetable. The stems of the crop is used in paper industry and also for the extraction of fibre. Climate The Bhendi is a warn season crop and is cultivated through out the state. Chilled and frost weather is not suitable. The seeds do not germinate when the temperature is below 20OC. It will not thrive when there is a continuous cold spell. Soils It can be grown in all types of soils, but grows best in frible, well drained soils. Season The rainy season crop is sown in June-July and the summer crop is sown in February-March. The growth being restiricted in summer season the seeds are to be sown at a closer spacing. Varieties

117

Parbhani Kranthi It is a widely adopted variety highly resistant to yellow vein mosaic. Released from Marathwada Agricultural University leaves are dark green, lobed and hairy. Fruits are dark green. Smooth, thin, long five ridged. Arka Anamika The plants are 100cm, upright, open and slightly pigmented on stems, petioles and lower leaves. Fruits are dark green with 5 prominent ridges and comparatively less smooth surface. It takes 50 days (6th node) to first flowering and 55 days to first picking of tender marketable fruits. It is excellent yielder in south but with a lower performance in northern Indai. It is resistant to yellow vein mosaic, the yield being 125q/ha. Arka Abhaya Resistant to yellow vein mosaic virus, its plants and fruits resemble to those of Arka Anamika in appearance. It is tolerant to fruit borer and may suit pruning to tame the plant for a ratoon crop. It is a sister line of Arka Anamika. Hybrids Lam Hybrid Sel-1 (Harita) Developed by ANGRAU and released for cultivation in the state during 1983. Plant height 120-150 cm with occational branching tendency. Fruits are slender, long, green and five reidged. Tolerant to yellow vein mosaic virus (YVMV) Vijay Mhyco hybrid no.6 Mhyco hybrid no.7 Mhyco hybrid no.8 Mhyco hybrid no.10 Priya Supriya Aswarya Mystic S-7109 Tulasi

Export varieties Panjab Padmini Varsha Vishal Nath shobha Seeds and Sowing

118

The seed rate for summer crop is 18-20 kg/ha and for rainly season crop 12-15 kg/ha. Treat the seeds with Immidachloprid @ 5g/kg followed by 4g of Tricoderma viridii The soil is ploughed thoroughly 4-5 times to gety a fine tilth. The seeds may be dibbled on ridges in Kharif at 60 cm spacing between ridges and 20 cm within the rows, whereas in summer the seeds can be sown at 45 cm between rows and 15-20 cm within the row. Irrigate the field immediately after sowing and again 4-5 days after sowing. Manures and Fertilizers About 30 tons of farm yard manure per hectare should be applied two weeks before sowing and 50 kg each of P2O5 AND K2O per hectare incorporated in the soil at the time of final ploughing, 100 kg of nitrogen/ha is applied 1/3 as basal and the remaining 2/3 in two split doses at 30th and 45th day. Intercultivation The crop should be weeded regularly and earthing up in rows should be done at 2530 days especially during rainy season. Apply Pendimethylene 30% @ 1.5lit/acre immediately or one day after sowing. Spraying 1% Urea during flowering increases the yield. Spraying 5mg of Micronutrients/lit. will also increases the yields. Irrigation The crop should be irrigated every fifth or sixth day during summer and whenever required in rainy season. Harvesting Harvesting of fruits commences from 40-45 days and the fruits are continuously harvested every second or third day. The best time of picking is 6-7 days after the opening of flowers. If the harvesting is delayed, the fruits become fibrous and loose the market value. Yield The yield vary from 5-6 tons/ha in summer to 8-10 tons/ha in rainy season. The average seed yield is 12q/ha. IPM in Bhendi

Seed treatment with Immidachloprid @ 5g/kg followed by 4g of Tricoderma viridii. Apply 100 kg/ha of Neem cake during last flowering. Keep yellow traps in the field @ 4/acre. Release Tricograma @ 20,000/acre 4 times at weekly intervals at the time of flowering.

119

Dont spray insecticides during this time. Spray HNPV, SNPV @ 250 larval equalence/acre. Spray Phasolone or Fipronil or Dimethoate @ 2ml/lit to control sucking pests. Spray 1.5g/lit Acephate for the control of White flies. Spray Endosulphon 2ml or Carboryl 3g or Profenophos 2ml/lit.

Plant Protection Pests Shoot and fruit borer (Movva, Kaya toluchu Purugu) (Earias vittella, E.insulana) The infected shoot and fruit is plugged with excreta. Control The affected shoots and fruits should be clipped along with the insect. Spray Quinalphos 2ml/lit or Carbaryl at 3 g/lit or Endosulphan or Profenophas 2ml/litat 10 days interval. Before flowering spray Thaidocarb @ 1g/lit. NOTE: ENDOSULPHAN AND MONOCROTOPHOS SHOULD NOT BE SPRAYED AT HARVEST Jassids (Deepapu Purugulu) (Sundapteryx biguttula) Bothe nymphs and adults suck the sap. Hopper burn symptom is noticed Control Spray Malathion 3ml/lit or Methyl Demeton or Dimethoate or Fipronil @ 2ml/lit. Red mites (Erra Nalli) It is a problem in summer crop. It affects the crop by sucking the sap. Control Spray Dicofol 2ml/lit or Wettable sulphur 3g/lit. White Fly (Bemisia tabaci) Suck sap from leaves and transmit yellow vein mosaic virus, particularly during summer. Losses may be even 80-90%.

Control Spray twice Dimethoate @ 2ml/lit. at 10 days interval. In severe cases spray Acephate 1.5g/lit. and keep yellow traps in the field. Diseases Powdery mildew (Budida Tegulu) (Erysihe cichoracearum) Greyish powdery growth on either side of leaves. Control

120

Spray Wettable sulphur 3g/lit. or Dinocrab or Hexagonazole at 2ml/lit. Yellow Vein Mosaic or Vein clearning disease (Pallaku Tegulu) The disease is characterized by yellowing of veins and veinlets of the leaves. In severe infestations, the younger leaves turn yellow, become reduced in size and the plants are stunted. If the crop is affected at harvesting stage, the fruits become small and whitish in colour. Control Grow resistant varieties like Arka Anamika, Arka Abhay. Spray Dimethoate 2ml or Acephate @ 1.5g/lit. Sown the seeds before July 15th for rainy season crop. Wilt (Fusarium vasinfectum )

The conspicuous symptom is a typical wilt, beginning with a yellowing and stunting of the plant, followed by wilting and rolling of the leaves as if the roots were unable to supply sufficient water. Finally, the plant dies. If a diseased stem is split lengthwise, the vascular bundles appear as dark streaks. When severely infected, nearly the whole stem is blackend. The fungus has mostly three-septate spores. It is soil organism that enters the host through the roots and is disseminated in any way in which soil is transported from one field to another. Once the inoculum enters a field, it slowly increases until Okra crops become unprofitable.

Control Seed treatment with Immidachloprid @ 5g/kg followed by 4g of Tricoderma viridii. Drench with Croper Oxychloride @ 3g/lit. near the base of the plant. Apply 100 kg/ha of Neem cake during last flowering. Follow crop protection.

GOURDS (Cucurbitaceous Sp.) The important cucurbit vegetables grown in Andhra Pradesh are Bottles gourds (Anapakaya) Pumpkin (Gummadikaya) Snake gourd (Potlakaya) Ridge gourd (Beerakaya) Bitter gourd (Kakarakaya) Cucumber (Dosakaya) Ash gourd (Boodida gummadi), covering in an area of 28,902 hectares producing about 4.67 lakh tons.

121

These crops are generally growing in hot and warm weather and have almost similar cultural requirements. It can be grown on varied types of soils, garden lands or light loams soil with good water holding capacity is more suitable for obtaining higher yields. Seasons Bottle gourd, Bitter gourd Cucumber, Pumpkin Snake gourd, Ridge gourd Ash gourd June-July and December-January May-July and December-January June-August and December-February June-July, December-January

Varieties BOTTLE GORUD Pusa Summer Prolific Long Its fruits are long, uniform, light green, neck generally bent, suitable for springsummer as well as rainy season crop but on trellis. The edible fruit yield is about 30 t/ha. Pusa Summer Prolific Round A selection from local cultivates, it grows vigorously with prolific bearing habit. Fruits are round, 15-18 cm in girth. Pusa Manjari (Hybrid) A high yielding hybrid, its fruits are round, green, tender and attractive. It has been recommended for cultivation preferably for spring sowing. Pusa Meghadoot (Hybrid) A high yielding hybrid, it gives comparatively more early yield and is suitable for both spring and summer sowing. Fruits are long, light green, tender and attractive. Arka Bahar The fruits are straight, not crook necked, medium sized, weighing about 1kg each at edible stage, skin light green. Yields high in mild climate. APAU-LS-21 (Rajendra) BITTER GOURD Pusa Do Mausami Furits dark green in colour with 7-8 continuous ribs, each fruit weighing 100-120g. Crop duration is 120 days, the yield being 120-150 q/ha Coimbatore Long Fruits are extra long and green, 40-45cm in length. A local cultivar of Coimbatore. The yield is 80-100 q/ha. Arka Harit

122

Fruits are short, spindle shaped, glossy green with smooth, regular continuous ribs and thick flesh. Crop duration 120 days, the yield being 130q/ha. Pusa Vivek VK-1 Priya A selection from Kerasa Agricultural University. Vellanikkara. The fruits are extra long, around 40 cm, first picking in 61 days and heavy bearing, 50 fruits per plant. RIDGE GOURD Jagital Long Pusa Nasdar An early variety with light green, medium sized club shaped fruits. It flowers in 60 days. About 15-20 fruits are borne on each vine. Coimbatore Long Co-1 Fruits are 45-50cm long with broader stylar and than stalk end and green in colour, each fruit weighing 700g at harvestable maturity. Yield 140 q/ha in 125 days. CUCUMBER Jyothirmai Japanese Long Green A temperate cultivar, it is suited for cultivation in hills and lower hills. Its extra early fruits mature in 45 days. Fruits are 30-40cm long, with light green and crisp flesh. Straight Eight Early cultivar suited to hills, white spined, fruit medium long, thick, straight with round end, colour medium green, released by IARI Regional Station, Katrain (Kulu Valley). Sanyoue Pusa sanyog (F1 Hybrid) It is an early and high yielding hybrid. Fruits are 28-30cm long, cylindrical and dark green with yellow stripes and crisp flesh. Fruits mature in 50 days. It performs well in temperate regions only.

SPONAGE GOURD Pusa Chikini

123

It is a high yielding, early maturing variety. It bears flowers 45 days after sowing. Its fruits are dark green, smooth surfaced and cylindrical. It is suited for both spring summer and rainy season cultivation SNAKE GOURD APAU Sweta Fruits long with whitish background and green stripes. Yields 280-300q/ha in 125130 days. Co-1 Fruits long (160-180cm), dark green with white stripes. Yields 180 q/ha in 135 days. Arka Sheetal Seeds and Sowing Irrigation channel of 60cm wide is prepared, sowing is done on either side of the channel and seed pits are prepared on the upper side of each ridge. Each pit prepared is about 15-20 cm wide and is filled with FYM and about 50-100 g of superphosphate. Then space between rows is as follows: For all these gourds, about 3-5 seeds are dibbled in a 45 X 45 X 45cm pit at 1 to 2cm deep. Give a light irrigation. Seeds germinate in 3-7 days. Keep 1 to 2 vigorous plants per basin. Between rows in Meters 1.0 - 2.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 On pendal only (1.5 1.8) Between plants in Meters 0.60 - 0.90 0.60 0.90 0.75 0.90 0.75 0.90 1.50 1.80 1.50 1.80

Bitter Gourd and Cucumber Ridge Gourd Bottle Gourd Pumpking Snake Gourd Manures and Fertilizers

Add 15 to 20 tons of FYM/ha and mix well in the soil before planting. P2O5 4050 kg/ha may be applied as a basal dose. Apply 80100 kg of Nitrogen/ha in tow equal doses, first 2530 days after sowing and the second 50 days after sowing. The fertilizer should not be applied close to the plant irrigation immediately after fertilizer application. Intercultivation Weeds should be removed frequently, one or two light hoeings around the plants are to be given after 2 to 3 irrigations.

Irrigation

124

Irrigation when the top 3 to 5 cm of the soil goes dry in the basins and see that the water should not stagnate near the plants for long time. Staking/trailing Cucumber, pumpkin, ash gourd and ridge gourd do not need any staking. The vines may be allowed to trial on the ground. Bottle gourds, bitter gourds are trailed either on pandal or on brush wood. Snake gourd should be trailed on pandal as otherwise the fruits do not grow longer. Plant Protection Pests Pumpkin beetles (Gummadi Penku Purugu) (Aulacophora spp.) Grubs damage the palnts by boring into the roots. Beetle injure the cotyledons, flowers and foliage by biting holes. Control Dust carbaryl 5% or spray Methyl parathion 50 EC (0.05% 1ml/lit) or Dimethoate 0.06% (2ml/lit) or Malathion 0.1% (2 ml/lit water). Dusting the plants with ash temporarily repels the beetles. Snake gourd semilooper (Potlaku Purugu) (Phusia peponis) Defoliates the plants Control Spray endosulphan 0.07% at the rate of 2ml/lit or Monocrotophos at 0.04% (1.25 ml/lit) or Quninalphos 0.05% (2ml/lit). Diseases Downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora cubensis) Purple spots appear on lower surface an yellow spots on upper surface of leaves. Fruits do not mature. Control Spray Dithane Z-78 0.2% at the rate of 2g/lit or Dithane M-45 0.3% at the rate of 3 g/lit of water. Powdery mildew (Budida Tegulu) (Erysiphe cichoracearum) A white powdery growth appears on the leaf surface mostly confined to the upper surface but also found on the lower surface and the stem. In severe infections the leaves and stem dryoff and further growth of the plant is arrested. Control Spray Sulfe 0.2% or Calixin 0.1% or Karathane 0.2% Bavistin at the rate of 1 g/lit.

Mosaic virus (Verri Tegulu)

125

The disease is characterized by the formation of streaks in the interveinal regions of the leaves. The entire plant may look stunted and sickly even from a distance. Under severe conditions the plants show irregular, light and dark green areas on leaves giving a mosaic appearance. Control Rouge out diseased plants. Spray any insecticide to control the vector. BEANS The total area under Beans in Andhra Pradesh is about 26,146 hectares with estimated annual production of 313.75 thousand tonnes. FRENCH BEAN (Phaseolus vulgaris L) Climate French Beans can be grown throughout the year in cold temperature regions. It is sensitive to both frost and very high temperatures. It is mostly grown in winter in our State. Season October to January In hilly regions: March to May Soils Beans are grown on all types of soils from light sandy to heavy clay. Fertile loamy soils are preferred. Varieties Bush type Contender Crops early in 50-55 days, bushy habit, flower colour pale purple turning white, bears profusely, pods round and thick dark green, stringless, long curved at the tip. Some pods may become purple or bear purple streaks as they mature. Seeds light brown comparatively resistant tyo mosaic and powdery mildew. Bountiful Heavy yielder, fleshy-walled pods with less fibre. Crops early, pods are green in colour

Arka Komal

126

Released by IIHR. It is an early variety bushy habit, bears profusely. Pods are straight, tender fleshy, dark green, stringless excellent for transplantation, yields 18-20 tons/ha. Pusa Parvati It is a mutant variety released by IARI. Pods are fleshy dark green. Early variety with light cream coloured seeds. Premier Early variety. Crops in about 45-50 days. Bushy in habit. Fruits are flat, fleshy, light green in colour. Seeds are dark brown in colour. Pole type (Vine type) TKD-1 KKL-1 Seeds and Sowing About 60 kg of seed is required per hectare. Plough the land thoroughly to a fine tilth. Bush varieties The seeds are dibbled on the ridges at a distance of 30-45 cm between the row and 25-30 cm with in the rows i.e. from plant to plant, see that the soil should have optimum moisture content at the time of sowing of seeds. Vine varieties 2 x 1m spacing is adopted. Manures and Fertilizers Apply 20-25 tons of farmyard manure per hectare and incorporate it in the soil and then apply 25 kg Nitrogen, 60 kg P2O5 and 50 kg K2O per hectare in the last ploughing, one week earlier, before dibbling of the seeds. Inoculation If beans are being sown in a field for the first time, it is advisable to inoculate the seed with nitrogen fixing bacteria before sowing. This helps in quick nodulation on the roots and fixes the atmospheric nitrogen. Intercultivation There should not be any weeds in the field. 1 or 2 hand hoeings are necessary to control the weeds. Di-nitro materials are sprayed on the soil at 5-8 kg per hectare before flowering. Irrigation

127

Irrigate the crop when the top soil goes dry upto a depth of 5 to 8 cm. the plants are shallow-rooted and sensitive to excess watering. Good crops can be produced with little moisture applied during the season. Application of water just prior to blooming, however, help in setting pods and another irrigation should be given soon after pod set. An additional irrigation is given when needed. It is essential to maintain required moisture above 50 per cent during flowering and pod development stage. Spray Schedule

1. Spray the crop with 5 ml phosphomidon or 17 ml dimethoate or 17 ml Oxydemeton

methyl or 15 ml monocrotophos with 30 g copper oxychloride or 27 g difoltan in 10 litres of water two weeks after sowing. Use 360 litres of spray mixture per hectare.

2. Repeat the same spray 5 weeks after sowing. Use about 450 litres of spray mixture
per hectare.

3. Spray the crop with 30 g copper oxychloride or 27g difoltan in 10 of litres of water. 7
weeks, after sowing. Use 540 litres of spray mixture per hectare.

4. Spray the crop with 40g carbaryl or 20 ml malathion or 10 ml methyl parathion in 10

litres of water if pod borer damage is noticed. Use 540 litres of spray mixture per hectare. Harvesting Green pods are usually harvested before they are fully grown and while the seeds are tender. Pods are usually ready for harves 2-3 weeks after the first blossom. Yield of green pods varies from 6-8 tons/ha in vine types and 10-12 tons/ha in bush types. Plant Protection Pests Agronomyzid fly (Ophiomyia phaseoli) One or two leaves on the plant turn yellow while the other leaves remain green. The petiole often shows dark streaks where the maggots have moved through and damage tissue. Aphid (Aphis fabae) Mites (Tetranychus cinnabarinus (Boisd.), T. luden) Control Spray Monocrotophos 0.05% @ 1.5 ml/lit or Phoshamidon 0.5% @ 0.5 ml/lit or Dimethoate 0.06% @ 2 ml/lit or Malathion 0.1% @ 2 ml/lit Pod borer (Maruca testualis, Helicoverpa armigera) Control Spray Endosulfan 0.07% @ 2 ml/lit or Monocrotophos 0.5% @ 1.5ml/lit. Diseases

128

Yellow mosaic (Transmitted by aphids and whitefly) The infected leaves exhibit chlorotic bands along the major veins and line pattern. Severe mosaic mottling, puckering and distortion of leaf are symptoms of advanced stage. It caused 30-40% losses in yield. Bright yellow patches interspersed with deep green areas on lamina of leaflets. It causes 30-40% losses in yield. Control Select seeds from apparently healthy plants. Apply Carbofuran @ 1.5kg/ha at the time of sowing. Two to three foliar sprays of Dimethoate (0.05%) or Phosphamidon (0.02%) at 10 days interval. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum) Most characteristic symptoms appear on immature pods although leaves, cotyledons and stems are also infected. Black sunken cankers with light coloured or grey central area appear on pods. The central portion of the spot shows pinkish masses of the fungus in wet weather. It causes more damamge in cool temperate regions. The pathogen infects all types of vegetable beans and lowers yield considerably. Control Use disease free seed and treat with Carbendazim 2g/kg seed before sowing. In disease prone areas spray right from beginning at 8-10 days intervals with Mancozeb 0.25% or Carbendazim 0.05%. Rust Characteristic rust pustules are formed mainly on the underside of leaves, though often they may be found on leaf petiole and stem. In severe infections, the leaf withers. Control 1. Spray Benlate (0.1%) or Dithane M-45 (0.2%) or Plantvax (0.2%) + Vitavax (0.2%) at 15 days inferval. 2.Use resistant varieties Angular leaf spot Small angular, dark brown leaf spots giving the leaf a chuck board appearance. Favourable conditions leads to complete defoliation. Control 1. Seed treatment with Benlate (0.1%) 2. Spray Benlate (0.1%) or Dithane Z-78 or Dithane M-45 (0.2%).

COMMON BEAN

129

(Dolichos lablab L.) The common bean is one of the most ancient among the cultivated plants. This bean is used both as green pods and dry beans as a pulse crop. Varieties There are two types of common beans, the bushy field type and the twining garden type. There is a great range of varieties with different plants and pod characters grown all over the country. Garden type Pusa Early Prolific A vine variety, bears early, long and thin pods in bunches suitable for both earlyspring and autumn crops. Bushy type CO-8 It is a short duration (115-120 days) variety, comes to flowering in 45 days. It bears tender pods which are fleshy and tasty with no odour. The pods are long, short beaked, tubular, non-septate, slightly curved. Average yield is 45 q/ha. CO-9 It is a compact, bushy variety. Pods are light green, fleshy, flat and 8-9 cm long. Seeds are bold and chocolate coloured. Average yield is 75q/ha. CO-10 Ir is a bushy, erect and photo insensitive variety. It comes to flowering in 40 days. Pods are greenish, white tubular, and curved. Average yield is 72 q/ha. Besides the above, several local varieties like Bhadrachalam variety, Rajolu Chikkudu, Balaji Bean etc., are commonly grown in our State.

FIELD BEAN (Dolichus lablab var.typicus) Sowing Time Sowing is usually done with the onset of south west monsoon in June-July. Seed Rate 45-60 g/ha of seed is used for drilling depending on the type of crop grown. Spacing Pure crop 60 x 15 cm Mixed crop 90 x 15 cm

130

When it is sown as a mixed crop in sorghum or bajra, it is drilled at regular intervals of two rows and when the ear heads of cereals are cut, late as the bean is, it twines on the sorghum/bajra stalks, flowers profusely in November-December and gives a crop both green and dry. Harvesting The pods are harvested in January-February at 7-10 days intervals for green pods seed or dry seed the pods are left till maturity and threshed to gather seed. Its vines when cut with sorphum/bajra straw give a mixed feed of good fodder value. Yield The yield of dry seed varies between 200-500 kg/ha depending on mixed or pure crop. GARDEN BEAN (Dolichus lablab var. ) Sowing Time June-July is the best period Seed Rate 5-7 kg/ha Spacing 2m x 2m Seeds are sown in circular pits of 0.5m cube, two to three seeds are dibbled in each pit. Since the cultivated strins are vine types, they need to be trained on trallies. Manures and Fertilizers The soils in the pits are mixed with 10-15 kg of FYM and 0.2 kg of Super phosphate, at eht time of sowing. Top dress with 100g of Ammonium Phosphate in each pit at the time of flowering and irrigate. Harvesting The vines comes to flowering in November-December three to four weeks after flowering the tender pods are picked for vegetable purpose, at regular intervals of 7-10 days. The pickings may continue up to end of March. Plant Protection Same as in French bean Yield 50-75 q/ha.

131

PEAS (Pisum sativum L.) Peas are highly nutritive and contain a high percentage of protein, carbohydrates and vitamins and high proportion of mineral matter. The total area under Peas in Andhra Pradesh is about 20 thousand hectares with estimated annual production of 3 lakh tonnes. Season and Climate The peas are cool season crop and as such it should be grown in the plains only in winter season. This is possible only in our State in Deccan plateau of Telangana region where the minimum temperature during winter ranges between 10O-17OC for over 30-35 days. Hot weather upsets pod setting and lowers the quality of pods. Peas grow best in those areas where there is slow transformation of cool weather to warm weather in spring. Soils Well drained loamy soils are desirable. All soils except those having very high pH and alkalinity are suitable. Variety Early varieties Early Badger It is an early variety, crops in 55-60 days. Peduncles bear usually white flowers. Pod 6-7 cm long, light green, well filled and sweet. Arkel A wrinkle seeded high yielding dwarf variety, takes 60 days to be ready for green pod harvest. Meteror Smooth seeded variety, suitable for early sowing, takens 60-65 days to be ready for green pod harvest. Medium duration varieties Perfection new line Mid-season variety, crops in 70-80 days. Medium tall in habit, peduncles bear two white flowers. Pods are 8 cm long, well filled, dark green and sweet. Foliage and pods are dark green. Bonne Velle It is a mid season variety. Medium tall in habit, peduncles usually bear white flowers. Pods well fille, 8 cm long and sweet in taste. Pods and foliage are light green in colour. Seed wrinkled takes 85 days to be ready for green pod harvest.

132

Late maturing varieties Np-29 Tall plants, wrinkle seeded, takes 100 days to harvest. Seeds and Sowing The long duration varieties may be spaced at 45cm x 20cm in the line with a seed rate of 80-90 kg/ha. Short duration types can be grown at 30cm x 15cm with a seed rate of 100-120 kg/ha. Sowing can be started from 15th October to 15th November, towards the end of December when the temperatures begin to rise at pod setting and the pods become less sweet and develop slight bitterness resulting in poor quality. Through ploughing bring the soil into aggregate structure is necessary. In the last ploughing well decomposed faryard manure to an extent of 20 tons per hectare may be applied. The crop can be grown in beds and channels. A thorough preparation of soil is necessary for perfect germination. Uneven germination of seed results in variation in maturity at harvest. Seed Treatment To control root diseases and mildews treat the seed with 1gm Bavistin/kg of seed. Manures and Fertilizers Peas do not require heavy Nitrogenous fertilizers as they are legumes. However, a starter dose of 25 kg of Nitrogen, 70 kg P2O5 and 150 kg K2O/ha at the time of sowing is beneficial. This is to be applied after the soil is prepared and seeds sown. Phosphorus and potash increase the nitrogen fixation capacity of peas crop. Intercultivation 1 or 2 hoeings can be given to put down weed growth. They begin to flower from 30-35 days. Pods are ready for picking from 45th day to 75th day. Irrigation Irrigate the field before sowing of seeds. Irrigate every 10-15 days. Especially flowering, fruit setting stages one or two irrigations improves the crop yield. Yield A yield of 3-4 tons/ha can be expected in a good season, in case of early varieties. 67 tons/ha in case of mid season and late varieties can be obtained. Plant Protection Pests Gram pod borer (Heliothis armegera) Eats the tender foliage, later they bore into the pods.

133

Control Spray Endosulfan 0.07% @ 2 ml/lit or Monocrotophos 0.5% @ 1.5ml/lit. Pod borer (Kayatoluchu Purugu) (Etiella zinckenella) They initially feed inside the developing seeds, but later feed freely inside the pods. The partly grown caterpillar may leave the original pod and penetrate one or more fresh pods before reaching maturity. Control Spray Endosulfan 0.07% @ 2 ml/lit or Monocrotophos 0.5% @ 1.5ml/lit. Aphids (Penu banka) (Acythosiphon pisum, Aphis craccivora) Nympths and adults suck the sap from tender leaves and shoots resulting into attack of saprophytic the fungus, ultimately leading to devitalization of plants. Control Spray Monocrotophos 0.05% @ 1.5 ml/lit or Phoshamidon 0.5% @ 0.5 ml/lit or Dimethoate 0.06% @ 2 ml/lit or Malathion 0.1% @ 2 ml/lit Jassids (Deepapu Purugu) (Amrasca bigutella) Suck the sap the devitalize the plant. Plant turns yellowish. Control Spray Monocrotophos 0.05% @ 1.5 ml/lit or Phoshamidon 0.05% @ 0.5 ml/lit or Dimethoate 0.06% @ 2 ml/lit or Malathion 0.1% @ 2 ml/lit. Diseases Damping off or seedling (Kullu Tegulu) (Pythium spp.) Pre-emergence and post emergence damping off seedlings is very common and in severe cases fibrous roots are also infected. Disease Treat the seeds with Thiram 2-3 g/kg seed Downy mildew (Majjiga Tegulu) (Peronospora pisi) White, cottony growth is seen on the lower surface of leaflets. In advanced stages upper surface turns yellow to brown and dries up. Control Spray Dithane M-45 0.2% @ 2 g/lit of water or Maneb 0.2% @ 2 g/lit. Powdery mildew (Budida Tegulu) (Erysiphe polygoni) Faint or slightly discoloured steeks are seen initially and under favourable conditions white powdery growth is seen on leaves, stems and pods.

134

Control Spray Wettable sulphur (3 kg/ha) at 7 days interval or Bavistin 1 g/lit of water. Mosaic virus (Verri Tegulu) Clearing of veins followed by chlorosis or severe yellowing of the leaves withnumerous dark green areas dispersed over the leaflets. Control Grow resistant varieties Wilt (Endu Tegulu) (Fusarium oxysporum f.pisi) Yellowing of leaves which wilt and die. The infected roots become brown and rot. Control Late sowing and using resistant varieties is found to be effective.

BELLPEPPER (Capsicum fruitesens) The bell pepper belongs to the family Solanaceae and genus capsicum. The bell peppers are mild types and mostly used as green vegetable commonly known as Simla Mirchi. They are rich in Vitamin A and C. Season The bell peppers are successfully grown in rabi season in the Telangana region of our State particularly in Medak, Ranga Reddy Districts and around Hyderbad city, where the minimum temperatures range between 10-17OC for over 30-40 days. The seeds are generally sown in 2nd fortnight of September and 5-6 week old seedlings are transplanted. Soils Well drained fertile soils are most suitable for this crop. Salty or saline soils are not suitable. Varieties The varieties differ in colour and shape ranging from dark green to yellow in colour and 5 cm to 30 cm in length. The important varieties recommended by IARI are California Wonder, Yolo-Wonder and King of North. I.I.H.R.,Bangalore has released the following three promising varieties. Arka Gaurav (Sel-16) It is an improvement over the capsicum variety California Wonder from U.S.A. The plants are indeterminate in the growth habit, bearing dark green, 3-4 lobed, erect fruits each weighing on an average 180g. It produces 15-18 tons/ha of fruits in 140 days.

135

Arka Mohini (Sel-13) The variety was evolved from the variety Titan from Florida. The plants are determinate in habit bearing dark green 3-4 loded blocking fruits each weighing 280g. It produces 15-20 tonnes of fruits per hectare in 125 days. Arka Basant It is an improvement over the Hungarian variety Sorokan capsicum. The plants are indeterminate in growth habit bearing cream coloured conical and erect fruits. This variety has very good cooking quality and yields 15 tonnes of fruits per hectare in 130-160 days. Seeds and Sowing About 500-650g of seed should be sown uniformly in 30 sq meter beds. Three such beds are required for planting in hectare. Treat the seed with thiram or dithane M-45 at the rate of 3 g/kg of seed before sowing and apply 100g of Furadon-3 granules per 30 sq meters of nursery beds and sufficient quality of organic manures. Drenching of nursery beds with copper fungicides at 12th and 19th day of sowing will prevent wilting of seedlings due to damping off. Transplant 35 to 40 days old seedlings, 2 seedlings per hill may be planted at 60 cm x 45 cm spacing. Manures and Fertilizers A basal dose of 25 tonnes of farmyard manure per ha is to be applied in final ploughing. Sheep penning can be done if available. Apply neem cake at 4-5 quintals/ha., preferably mixing with fertilizers at the time of final ploughing. A balanced dose of NPK fertilizers is necessary to get a good crop. A basal dose of 60 kg P 2O5 and 30 kg K2O is to be applied at the time of final ploughing. After 45 days of planting three split doses of 20 kg N plus 10 kg K2O each at 15 days interval followed by irrigation. Foliar application of 1% urea along with insecticidal or fungicidal spray can be given and each time only 8-10 kg of urea may be required. In the soils where zinc deficiency is noticed, application of 50 kg/ha of zinc sulphate or zinc sulphate spray at 2 g/lit of water using 1250g of zinc sulphate per hectatre will rectify the deficiency. Intercultivation 3 to 4 times intercultivation is to be done either by a junior hoe or light plough after each irrigation. Intercultivation is to be followed by hand weeding to check weed growth.

136

Irrigation Bell pepper can not with stand heavy moisture. Hence irrigation should be given as and when it is necessary. The number or irrigations and intervals between irrigation depend on soil and climatic conditions. If the plants show symptoms of dropping of leaves at 4.00 P.M. it is an indication that irrigation is needed. Harvesting 15-20 tonnes of bell peppers can be harvested in about 135 to 150 days. Plant Protection Pest Thrips (Scrtothrips dorsalis H.) Both nymphs and adults damage the crop. They lacerate the leaf tissue and suck the sap. The infested leaves develop crinkles and curl upwards. The severely infested plants develop bronze colour. If the plants are affected at early stage they remain stunted in growth and flower production and pod set are arrested causing severe loss in yield. Control Spray carbaryl 0.15% @ 3 g or Phosalone 0.1% 3 ml or Methyl demeton 0.05% @ 2ml or Acephate 0.75 1-1.5 g/l or Fipronil 2 ml or Spinosad 0.25ml or Chlorfenpyl 2ml, Difenthurion 1.5 g or monocrotophos 1.5 ml of water. Mites (Polyphago-tasonlmus latus b.) The affected leaves curl down ward along the margins of the leaf and attains on inverted boat shape. The pedicles of the leaves get elongated and the young leaves at the tip of the branch cluster. The affected plants develop dark green colour. In the affected plants the vegetative growth is inhibited and flower production is ceased and yields ar considerably reduced. Control Spray Phosalone 0.1% @ 3ml or Dicofol (kelthane) 0.09% 5ml or Wettable sulphur 3g or Micronised sulphur 2.5g/litre of water. The bottom sides of leaves are also to be sprayed. Aphids (Aphis gossypi g. Myzus persicae) Aphids appear on the tender shoots, leaves and on the lower surface of the old leaves. They suck the sap and reduce the vigour of the plant. They secrete sweet substance which attract ants and develop sooty moulds. The pods that develop black colour due to sooty moulds loose quality and fetch low price. The yields are also reduced by aphids directly and more through the spread of virus diseases acting as vectors.

137

Control The winged forms of aphids migrate from one field to another rapidly. Hence, spraying is to be done as far as possible within a day or two by all the cultivators of a particular locality. Spray 0.1% Dimethoate 3ml/l of Methyl demeton 0.05% 2ml/l of Acephate 0.075% 1g in 1 lit of water. Spray alternating the chemicals at 10 days interval till the aphids population is checked. Avoid spraying when predatory beetles are seen in sufficient numbers. Monocrotophos 0.07% 2ml plus Nuvan ml/lit of water can also be sprayed to control aphids. Pod borers (Spodoptera litura, Heliothis armigera, Uthesia pulchella) Pod borers are polyphagaous and appear on chilli crop both in vegetative phase and at the time of pod formation. The caterpillars are pale greenish brown and smooth with dark markings. They enter chilli pods by second and third in star by making a hole near calyx and feed on chilli seed. The affected pods drop off or develop white colour on drying. The fully grown caterpillars enter the soil for pupation. Control Spray Endosulfan 0.07% 2 ml/l or Carbaryl 0.15% 3 g/l or Chloropyriphos 0.05%, 2.5 ml/l or Thiodicarb 1 g or Spinosad 0.23ml or Acephate 1.5g of water. When the borer attack is severe. Monocrotophos 0.07% 2 ml/l or Quinalphos 2.5 ml/l can be sprayed. The dosage of these chemicals should not be increased as they cause flower drop. Diseases Damping off (Pythium aphanidermatum, Phytophthora spp.) The shrinking of the cortrical tissue of the hypocotyl and toppling over of the infected seedlings takes place. Affects germination and stand of seedlings in nursery beds preemergence damping-off. Cotnrol Treat seed with Captan (2g/kg seed) before sowing. Drench the nursery beds with Captan (0.2%) or Mancozeb (0.25%) and Carbendazim (0.05%) or 1% Bordeaux mixture or Copper oxychloride 0.3%, 2-3 times at weekly intervals starting from 13 th day of sowing on appearance of symptoms. Rise seedlings on raised nursery beds and practice the rotation of seed-bed. Choanephora blight (Choanephora cucurbitarum) The disease causes damage to the crop during rainy season. It occurs in nursery as well as in main field. Brown water soaked lesions occur on the middle of the stem gradually the lesions become black, coalesce and leads to rotting of tissue. The damage spread to

138

upward and downward direction and leading to drying of effected plant or branches. In the field, the disease can be identified based on the appearance of a stiff silvery mass of whisker like or hairy strands of the fungus growing out of the affected tissue topped with a ball made of great number of spores. Control Spraying 1 g streptocyclin mixed with 30g of Copper oxychloride per 10 lit of water twice at one week interval Bacterial leaf spot (Xanthomonos vesicatoria) It occurs in October to December months. In the beginning small brown spots are seen on leaves which turn into grayish or black spots. In severe cases the affected leaves turn yellow and drop-off. Stem infection results in wilting of tender branches and twigs. Control Spray Poshamycin or Plantomycin or Agrimycin or Streptocyclin 1g plus 30g Blitox in 10 lit of water at fortnightly intervals. Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora capsici) It is a fungal disease appears on the crop from October to February. The disease first manifests as small brownish spots on the leaves and gradually develop in to the big circular grayish spots with whitish center. Later they form in to large lesions due to coalescing of the spots. Infection on fruit stalk and calyx is also very common in severe cases. Affected leaves become yellow and defoliated. Control Spray Carbendazim @ 1g/l or Mancozeb @ 3g/l of water 2-3 times at one week interval Dieback or Fruit rot (Colletotrichum capsici) It is a seed as well as air borne disease. It makes its appearance in OctoberNovember at the time of flowering. Individual flowers get infected and dry up. The infection gradually spreads to the stem also. In the affected stem, the bark first turn brownish and then turn to shiny whtite in long and narrow strips containing several black dot like fructification. Affected twigs get with red and dry up from tip downwards, after on, the disease spreads to the fruits also. Circular to oval, black spots occur on the ripe pods. Severally affected pods turn straw coloured instead of normal red, shrivel and dry up. Control The seed from disease free crop only should be used for sowing. Seed treatment with Thiram Captan or Dithane M-45 at 3g per kg of seed should be taken up. Early removal of isolated cases of die-back will be helpful in checking further spread.

139

Spray Captan 1.5g/lit or Dithane M-45 at 2.5 g/l or copper oxychloride 3.0g/l or Propiconzole @ 1 ml, Difenconazole 0.5ml/l, Copper hydroxide 2.5g/l of water at the time of flowering i.e, in October-November and repeat the spray after 15 days if the disease in seen. Powdery mildew (Oidiopsis taurica) This disease occurs in December-February. Whitish powdery patches are seen on the lower surface of the leaves. Inabvanced stages, the leaves turn yellow and drop-off. Further flower production is ceased. Control Spray Karathane 1ml or Sulfex 2g/lit of water of dust sulphur at 20-25 kg/ha. Mosaic (Transmitted by contact) Leaves show greenish mottle and may slightly curl and become irregular in shape. At times, leaves show cream coloured patches and become yellow. Furits are yellow, wrinkled and withered, causing 10-15% losses in yiled. Mosaic (Transmitted by aphids) Mosaic motting of leaves. At times yellow rings are produced on leaves and fruits. The disease causes 50-60% yield loss in case of early infection. Leaf curl (Transmitted by whitefly) Symptoms consist of abaxial and adaxial curling of leaves accompanied by puckering and blistering of interveinal areas and thickening and swelling of veins. It causes 60-70% losses in yield. Spotted wilt (Transmitted by thrips) Infected leaves show mosaic and necrotic spots, older leaves show small concentric rings. Initial infection may cause yield loss up to 70-80% Control of Virus complex Treat the seed with Imidacloprid @ 8g/kg seed against thrips to prevent PBNV Control vector by applying Furadon granules 3 G @ 30 kg/ha or Fipronil Granules @ 20kg/ha twice at 15 & 45 days after transplantation. Select virus resistant varieties like LCA 334, G 4, LCA 235 and LCA 305 Sowing of barrier crops like jowar, maize or sunflower Destroy alternate weed hosts n field bunds. Package of Practices for Paprikas under Protected Cultivation Under protected cultivation package practices are similar as in the case of open conditions of cultivation except in some operations like

140

Raised beds Seedlings are planted in raised beds of 1 m width and 0.3 m height along the polyhouse. Spacing between the rows is 60 cm and with in the row is 45 cm. between plants. Staking Staking should be done before first picking or 30 days from the day of transplanting. Pinching Pinching is done to induce branching and to get higher yields. Fertigation Fertigation is carried through drip. Fertigation (Nitrogen and potash) is done at the rate of twice a week through out the season from flowering stage. Fertilizer doses are as recommended in open conditions of cultivation. Micro nutrients deficiencies are corrected by spraying Multiplex or Agromin @ 3g/liter of water. Physiological disorders Sun scorch Due to high temperatures during the summer scorching occurs on the direct exposed part of the fruit. It is controlled by regulating the poly house temperatures by operating the foggers and also cover the side walls of the poly house with shade net. CAULIFLOWER (Brassica oleracea L. Var-botrytis) Cauliflower is an important winter vegetable and a good source of Vitamin-C. Climate It requires cool temperature and is mainly grown in winter season and to some extent in later part of the rainy season. High temperatures results in the production of poor quality of curds. Season Early and mild season varieties can be grown during later half of rainy season i.e. from August-September and main season varieties during October-November. Soils Well drained loamy soils are best suited. The soils should be fertile, rich in nutrients, hold adequate soil moisture with good drainage and plenty of organic matter. Acidic and ill drained soils are not suitable.

141

Varieties Pusa Katki and Pupa Deepali Early varieties suitable for planting early in the season. Crops in about 90-100 days. Medium sized stem. Leaves are bluish colour, not incurred and at curding stage seen well above the ground. Curds small to medium, compact and white. Pant Shubra and Himani Early variety crops in 90-100 days. Medium sizeb stem, leaves are grayish green, curds are medium, compact white, 15 tons of curds per hectare. Improved Japanese Mid season variety, crops in 90-95 days. Plants are tall with a longish stem. Leaves are not curved, curds are medium to large, compact and white when first formed, soon becoming loose and yellowish when harvesting is delayed. Snow-Ball + 16 Variety suitable for October-November plantings in the season. Crops in 100-120 days. Leaves are greyish green and incurved. Curds are medium, compact, white. Pusa Synthetic Creamy white coloured, compact curd, yielding 22-24 t/ha. Hybrids Pusa Hybrids Indian Early Namdhari Hybrids Seeds and Sowing Seeds of 700-800g sown in 100saq meters area will be sufficient to transplant in one hectare area. 600-800g for early varieties and 400-500g for late varieties and for hybrids 300-500 g/ha of seed is required. To prevent seed borne disease treat the seed with Agroson at the rate of 3 g per kg of seed. Plough the soil 4 to 5 times to get a fine tilth. Apply 5-6 tons of farmyard manure in 100 sp. mt area incorporate in the soil. Prepare raised seed beds of 10-15 cm height from the ground level with 4 meters length and 1 metre width. Mix the seed with thin sand of FYM and sow the seeds on the nursery bed uniformly and thinly. Cover the seeds with dried leaves. Due to this covering, seeds will not be gathered at one place while sprinkling water. Irrigate daily till the seeds germinate. Remove the dried leaves/material after the plants attain 1 cm height with 2-3 leaves. Drench the soil twich with 0.2% Fungi copper to prevent diseases. Spray Malathion at the rate of 2 ml/lit of water to control the leaf eating caterpillars.

142

Transplanting Prior to transplanting, plough the soil 4-5 times till a fine tilth is obtained. Incorporate 40-50 tons of farmyard manure in the last ploughing and form ridges at 60 cm distance. The seedlings of 25-30 days old are used for transplanting. Early varieties are transplanted at 45 x 45 cm while late varieties are planted at 60 x 40 cm spacing. Manures and Fertilizers Apply super phosphate 150-200 kg/ha and muriate of potash 100 kg/ha in the last ploughing as a basal dose. Then apply 60-80 kg of Nitrogen/hectare in three uniform split doses, first dose at 30-40 days after transplanting, second dose 50-60 days after transplanting and third dose 75-80 days after transplanting. Generally Boron deficiency is noticed which can be rectified by spraying 0.3 to 0.4% boric acid in two sprays 1) About two weeks after transplanting 2) two weeks before head formation. Intercultivation Plants will be established well within 15 days, weeding and hoeing and earthing up operations should be taken up twice on 25th and 50th day after tansplanting. Deep hoeing should be avoided. To obtain perfect white heads, it is necessary to exclude the sun light to the growing heads. It is done by bringing the outer leaves up over head and typing them with a twine or a coloured rubber band. By using a different colour twine or rubber band each day, it will be easy at the time of harvest to select those tied earliest. Irrigation Irrigate the crop whenever the top soil upto 5-6 cm depth finds dried up. Irrigating once in a week in light soils and at 10 day intervals in heavy soils is good. Harvesting It is harvested when the curds attain a proper size and before they begin to discolour. Plant protection Pests Diamond Back Moth (Plutella xylostella) Caterpillars feed on under surface of leaves and bite holes on leaves and cause serious damage. Affected leaves present a withered appearance. In severe cases the leaves are skeletonised.

143

Control Spray Malathion 0.1% (2 ml/lit of water) or 50 WP carbaryl 0.15% (3 g/lit of water) or 40 EC Monocrotophos 0.04% (1.0 ml/lit of water) or 35 EC Endosulfan 0.05% (1.5 ml/lit of water) or 50 EC fenetrothion 0.05% (1.0 ml/lit of water). Borer (Hellula undailis) The larva webs the leaves or bore into stem, stalk or leaf veins and cause damage by making the produce unfit for consumption. They also bore into the cabbage head. Control Spray Malathion 0.1% (2 ml/lit of water) or Carbaryl 0.15% (3 g/lit of water) or Endosulfan 0.05% (1.5 ml/lit of water). Mustard Sawfly (Athalia lugens proxima) Grubs alone are destructive. The bite holes into leaves and prefer young growth, leaves are skeletonised completely heavy defoliation takes places in severe cases. Control Spray Dimethoate 0.06% (2 ml/lit of water) or Endosulfan 0.07% 2 ml/lit of water. Painted Bug (Bagrada cruciferarum) Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from leaves, shoots, resulting into wilting and affect the vigour of the plant. Control SprayMalathion 0.1% (2 ml/lit of water) or 30 EC Dimethoate 0.06% (2 ml/lit of water) or 35 EC Phosalone 0.05% (1.5 ml/lit of water). Leaf Webber (Crocidolomia binotalis) Leaves are skeletonized by the larvae which remain on the under surface of leaves in webs and feed on them. They also attach flower buds and pods. Control Spray Monocrotophos 0.04% (1.0 ml/lit of water) or Malathion 0.1% (2 ml/lit of water). Green Semilooper (Trichoplusia ni) Larva bites holes and cause severe damage by skeletonising the leaves. Control Spray application of Endosulfan 0.07% (2 ml/lit) or Quinalphos 0.05% (2 ml/lit) Aphids (Brevicolvne brasssicae, Lipaphis erysimi) They suck the sap from the under surface of leaves and cause damage.

144

Control Spray Melathion 0.1% @ 2 ml/lit of water, or Dimethoate 0.06% 2 ml/lit of water. Tobacoo Caterpillar (Spodoptera litura) Caterpillars are active during night time and feed on leaves fresh growth. Young caterpillars skeletonise the tender leaves. Later broad leaves are completely eaten. Control Before head formation spray 100 EC Phosphamidon 0.05% (0.5 ml/lit of water) or endosulfan 0.05% (1.5 ml/lit of water) or Carbaryl 0.15% (3 g/lit of water) after head formation spray Malathion 0.05% Carbaryl 0.15% (2 ml/lit of water). Diseases Bacterial Blackrot (Xanthomonas campestris) Blighting of leaves from margin to midrib in V shape and blackening of vascular bundles are the main symptoms of this disease. Control Seed treatment with hot water 50-52OC for 20 minutes or soaking in streptocycline (100 ppm) for 2 hours effectively control the disease under field conditions, rouge out infected plants and drenching the soil with Formalin (1 part in 250 parts of water) is also effective. White Rust (Albugo candida) Located white rust like pustules are seen on leaves and stems. When fully developed these pustules have a powdery consistency and hypertrophy or stems and flowering parts takes place. Control Spray Dithane M-45 0.2% at 10-14 days intervals or 2 to 3 sprays of 0.4% Blitox or any other Copper Oxychloride preparation at 10 days interval after disease appearance. Club Rot (Plasmodiphora brassical) Roots enlarge to form Clubs (Spindle shaped). This is followed by secondary invasion of soft rot bacteria forming materials toxic to plant and finally wilting takes place. Control Avoid infected fields. Treat the seedlings with Mercuric Chloride solution (1:1500) at the rate of 125 ml per 100 seedlings at the time of transplanting. Damping Off (Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia spp.) Stem of seedlings softened at the ground level, due to infection, the infected plants collapse and finally die.

145

Control Treat seedfs with thiram 2-3 g/kg sees. Drench seedlings in nursery beds with Captan (1:1500) in water. CABBAGE (Brassica oleracea L. Var-Capitata) In Andhra Pradesh cultivating in an area of 8,953 hactares producing 1.34 lakh tons (including Knol-khol) Climate The cabbage thrives in a relatively cool moist climate. It is grown mainly as a winter crop. Yields good between the day minimum temperature 5OC to 30OC. Season Early crop August-September. Late crop September-October. Soils It is grown under varied soil conditions. Sandy loam soils considered best for early crop. But where a higher yield is the main criterion, caly or silt loam soil is preferred. It does not grow well in highly acidic soils. The optimum pH range for cabbage is between 5.5 and 6.5. Varieties Goldedn Acre Head compact and round (Ball head) early variety. Crops in 60-65 days. Small and compact in habit, stem is short with few outer leaves, leaves cup shaped. Early Drum Head Heads are flat, big in size, early sowing variety. Crops in 60-70 days. Pride of India Heads big sized round shaped. Weighing 1.5 to 2.0 kg. Comes to harvest with 60-80 days. Early cropping variety. Pari Rani Gole S1 hybrid. Head compact and hard. Shelf life more crops in 85-90 days. Pusa Drum Head Curds are compact, flat in its middle. Mid season variety Late Drum Head Head big in size, round, comes to harvest with in 100-200 days. Pusa Mukta It has short stalk, flattish round medium sized heads and light green outer leaves. It is resistant to black rot.

146

Hari Rani Gol Bajrang Hybrids Nath 501 Uttam Sri Ganesh Gol Seeds and Sowing 700-800g of seed for varieties and 300-500g of seed for hybrids are required to transplant one hectare or a nursery raised in 100 sq meters with a seed rate of 700-800 g will be sufficient to transplant one hectare. Treat the seed with Triram 3 g/kg of seed. Plough the soil 4-5 times to get a fine tilth. Apply 5-6 tons of farmyard manure in 100 sq meters area and incorporate it in the soil. Prepare raised nursery beds (10-15 cm height) with 4 metres length and 1 metre width. Mix the seed with sand or compost and then sow the seed uniformly on the nursery bed. Then cover the seed bed with dry leaves, to avoid shifting of the seeds from one place to another while giving irrigation. Remove all the dried material from the nursery bed, after plant attains 1 cm height with 2-3 leaves. Drench the soil with 0.2% Copper fungicide as against the diseases. Spray Malathion @ 2 ml/lit of water to control leaf eating caterpillar. Transplanting Plough the land 4 or 5 times till to get a fine tilth, 10-15 days before transplanting of seedlings. Prepare furrows and ridges at 60 cm distance for long duration varieties and 45 cm for short duration varieties. Plant to plant distance 45 cm and then transplant 25-30 days old seedlings. Manures and Fertilizers Basal Dressing Apply farmyard manure @ 40-50 tons/ha, 150-200 kg/ha Superphosphate and 100 kg/ha muriate of potash in the lat puddle and incorporate in the soil. Top Dressing Apply 60-80 kg N/ha in three equal split doses i.e. first dose 25-30 days after treansplanting, second dose 50-60 days after transplanting and third dose 75-80 days after transplanting. Irrigate the crop immediately after fertilizer application.

147

Intercultivation The plants will establish within 15 days. Weeding and hoeing should be done once within 20-25 days after transplanting and second time 45-60 days after transplanting. Deep hoeing should be avoided. Irrigation Irrigate the soil whenever the top soil moisture finds dried up upto 5-6 cm depth. Light soils weekly once, heavy soils 10 days interval irrigate the crop. Physiological Disorders Browning (Brown Rot or Red Rot) This is caused by Boron deficiency. The trouble first appears as water soaked areas in the stems and on the surface of the curd. Later, these areas change into a rusty brown colour. Browning is associated with hollow stems, other symptoms are changes in colour of foliage, thickening, brittleness and downward curling of older leaves. Application of Borox at the rate of 10-15 kg/ha on acid soils controls browning. On alkaline and neutral soils larger quantity should be used. Buttoning Development of small heads or buttons is called buttoning. Deficiency of nigrogen is the main cause of bottoning. So care should be taken in selection of the suitable varieties in the season and timely application of nitrogen.s Blindness Bling cauliflower plants are those without terminal buds. The leaves which develop are large, thick, leathery, dark green. Blindness is due to low temperature when the plants are small or due to damamge to the terminal bud during handling of the plant or injury by insects and pests. Harvesting It is harvested when the head is of suitable size, firm but tender. In case of delaying of harvest protect the heads from sunlight by covering the heads in the lower leaves. Yield 10,000-15,000 kg/ha. Plant Protection Pests Diamond Back Moth (Plutella xylostella) Caterpillars feed on under surface of leaves and bite holes on leaves and cause serious damage. Affected leaves present a withered appearance. In severe cases the leaves are skeletonised.

148

Control Spray Malathion 0.1% (2 ml/lit of water) or 50 WP carbaryl 0.15% (3 g/lit of water) or 40 EC Monocrotophos 0.04% (1.0 ml/lit of water) or 35 EC Endosulfan 0.05% (1.5 ml/lit of water) or 50 EC fenetrothion 0.05% (1.0 ml/lit of water). Borer (Hellula undailis) The larva webs the leaves or bore into stem, stalk or leaf veins and cause damage by making the produce unfit for consumption. They also bore into the cabbage head. Control Spray Malathion 0.1% (2 ml/lit of water) or Carbaryl 0.15% (3 g/lit of water) or Endosulfan 0.05% (1.5 ml/lit of water). Mustard Sawfly (Athalia lugens proxima) Grubs alone are destructive. The bite holes into leaves and prefer young growth, leaves are skeletonised completely heavy defoliation takes places in severe cases. Control Spray Dimethoate 0.06% (2 ml/lit of water) or Endosulfan 0.07% 2 ml/lit of water. Painted Bug (Bagrada cruciferarum) Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from leaves, shoots, resulting into wilting and affect the vigour of the plant. Control SprayMalathion 0.1% (2 ml/lit of water) or 30 EC Dimethoate 0.06% (2 ml/lit of water) or 35 EC Phosalone 0.05% (1.5 ml/lit of water). Leaf Webber (Crocidolomia binotalis) Leaves are skeletonized by the larvae which remain on the under surface of leaves in webs and feed on them. They also attach flower buds and pods. Control Spray Monocrotophos 0.04% (1.0 ml/lit of water) or Malathion 0.1% (2 ml/lit of water). Green Semilooper (Trichoplusia ni) Larva bites holes and cause severe damage by skeletonising the leaves. Control Spray application of Endosulfan 0.07% (2 ml/lit) or Quinalphos 0.05% (2 ml/lit) Aphids (Brevicolve brassicae, Lipaphis erysimi) They suck the sap from the under surface of leaves and cause damage. Control Spray Melathion 0.1% @ 2 ml/lit of water, or Dimethoate 0.06% 2 ml/lit of water.

149

Tobacoo Caterpillar (Spodoptera litura) Caterpillars are active during night time and feed on leaves fresh growth. Young caterpillars skeletonise the tender leaves. Later broad leaves are completely eaten. Control Before head formation spray 100 EC Phosphamidon 0.05% (0.5 ml/lit of water) or endosulfan 0.05% (1.5 ml/lit of water) or Carbaryl 0.15% (3 g/lit of water) after head formation spray Malathion 0.05% Carbaryl 0.15% (2 ml/lit of water). Diseases Bacterial Blackrot (Xanthomonas campestris) Blighting of leaves from margin to midrib in V shape and blackening of vascular bundles are the main symptoms of this disease. Control Seed treatment with hot water 50-52OC for 20 minutes or soaking in streptocycline (100 ppm) for 2 hours effectively control the disease under field conditions, rouge out infected plants and drenching the soil with Formalin (1 part in 250 parts of water) is also effective. White Rust (Albugo candida) Located white rust like pustules are seen on leaves and stems. When fully developed these pustules have a powdery consistency and hypertrophy or stems and flowering parts takes place. Control Spray Dithane M-45 0.2% at 10-14 days intervals or 2 to 3 sprays of 0.4% Blitox or any other Copper Oxychloride preparation at 10 days interval after disease appearance. Club Rot (Plasmodiphoria brassical) Roots enlarge to form Clubs (Spindle shaped). This is followed by secondary invasion of soft rot bacteria forming materials toxic to plant and finally wilting takes place. Control Avoid infected fields. Treat the seedlings with Mercuric Chloride solution (1:1500) at the rate of 125 ml per 100 seedlings at the time of transplanting. Damping Off (Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia spp.) Stem of seedlings softened at the ground level, due to infection, the infected plants collapse and finally die. Control Treat seedfs with thiram 2-3 g/kg sees. Drench seedlings in nursery beds with Captan (1:1500) in water. ***

150

TUBER CROPS

151

POTATO (Solanum tuberosum L) Potato is a short duration tuber crop. It is grown in Andhra Pradesh in a limited area i.e. about 6,637 hectares producing 1.33 lakh tons. It is cultivated in Hyderabad, Medak, Chittoor and Visakhapatnam districts. It is a high caloric valued tuber. Climate It requires cool climate i.e. 32OC maximum for growth and night temperature below 20OC for tuber development. At high temperatures it grows luxuriously but fall to tuberize. Season It is grown in Rabi only. Sowings are to be done well at the starting of winter. Normally under Hyderabad conditions it would be ideal to sow between 15th October to 1st week of Novermber. Soils Sandy or red loamy soils with good drainage and irrigation facilities are the best. Avoid saline or heavy soils which hinder the development of tubers, slighty in soils is considered favourble. Varieties Kufri Chandramukhi Plant semitrailing wider leaves. Tuber big, long, skin brown with shallow eyes and good creamy flesh colour. High yielding 20 to 24 tons/ha, duration 90 to 100 days. Kufri Chamtkar Plant trailing and smaller leaves. Tuber medium size, spherical; few and deep eyes. Skin brown, flesh-creamy white, 18-28 tons/ha, 90-100 days duration. Kufri Alankar Plant semi trailing and wider leaves. Tuber medium, oblong, brown colour skin, creamy flesh, few eyes and shallow 18-20 tons/ha, 90-100 days duration. Kufri Sindhuri Plant erect and medium size leaves. Tuber red medium, spherical eyes few and deep. Flesh pale yellow coloured. Yield 22-26 tons/ha 100 to 110 days in duration. It is ideally suited for cultivation in our State. Keeping quality very good. Preparatory Cultivation Plough the land well 4-5 times and apply heavy dose of well rotten organic manure 25 to 30 tons/ha. Incorporate FYM evenly in the last ploughing and form ridges and furrows

152

50 cm apart. In last ploughing apply Aldrin or heptachlor @ 45-50 kg/ha, to control tuber infested pests. Breading of Dormancy in Potato Sprouted tubers establish better and gap filling can be avoided. Treat tubers with carbon disulphide (20 cc/100 kg of seed) 90% of tubers sprout in a period of 40 days. Seeds and Sowing Select Disease free tubers (obtain from reliable source) of about 35-40 g in weight and with 2-3 eyes which have already sprouted. If the tubers are big in size, they may be cut into 2-3 bits having 2-3 eyes i.e. sprout. About 1.5 to 2 tons of the cut seeds are required per hectare and tubers should be kept for 2-3 days under shade so as to form callus on the cut end. The tubers are to be treated with Agallol 25 to 50 g/10 lit of water for 2-5 minutes to check seed borne fungal disease. The planting is to be done on one side of ridge with sprouts upwards. A spacing of 20 cm x 50 cm should be adopted. The land should be irrigated immediately after planting. Manures and Fertilizers 100 kg of N + 60 kg P 2O5 + 100 kg of K2O/ha is recommended. The entire P2O5 and half K2O and 40 kg of N is applied as basal dose and 40 kg of N and 50 kg K 2O at 30 days at first earthing up and remaining 20 kg of N at 50 days after planting. Irrigate the plot after application of fertilizers. Intercultivation The developing tuber should not be exposed to sun as they turn green. Earthing up is to be done by 50 dyas after sowing and the exposed tubers are covered with soils. Irrigation Irrigation requirements are to be determined keeping the soil and climate in view. Generally under chalka soils in winer 7-8 days interval in the beginning during sprouting and 4-5 days during tuber formation. Harvesting The stems of the plant turn pale yellow to brown and collapse. This indicates the time for harvest of tubers. The crop is ready in about 90-120 days after planting in winter depending on variety. Harvest the crop carefully by digging with a pick-axe without damaging the tubers. Allow the tubers to dry under shade and harden, before they are stored. Plant Protection Pests Tuber Moth (Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller))

153

The larval stage of the moth damages bud and later on the tubers.

Control Spray 50% EC Sumethion or Endosulfan 35% EC at 2 ml per litre of water at an interval of 10 days. Cut Worm (Agrotis ipsilon ) Cut worms damage the base of the plants particularly during night time. During day time, they hide under the leaves and clods. Control Spray Endosulfan 35% EC 0.07% at 2 ml/lit of water. Epilachna Beetles (Epilachna vigintioctopunctata (Fab.)) The grubs of this beetle scrape the green matter on the leaves and damamge the crop. Control Spray 50% Carbaryl W.P. at 2 g/lit of water or Malathion 50% EC at the rate of 2 ml/lit of water at an interval of 10 days. Aphids (Myzus persicae), Jassids (Empoasca devastans Dist.) and White Flies (Bemisia tabaci) Nymphs and adults of their insects suck sap from the leaves and growing shoots resulting in puckering and yellowing of leaves. Control Spray Monocrotophos 1.5 ml/lit of water or Metasystox 25% E.C. 2 ml/lit of water at 10 days interval. Diseases Early Blight (Alternaria solani) Black spots are formed on the surface of leaves and branches. If the attack is severe the whole plant will dry and fall on the ground. Control Spray 0.2% Dithane Z-78 or 1% Bordeaux mixture or Chloromatonil (0.2%) 30 days after planting at an interval of 8 days. Spray 5-6 times during crop period. Ring Disease (Corynebacterium sepedonicum) This disease spreads through seed tubers making them unfit for seed purpose. Control

154

Before planting the tubers, treat the seed tubers in Agallol solution prepared by mixing 25 g of Agallol in 10 lit of water. Immerse the seed tubers for thirty minutes in the Agallol solution before planting. ELEPHANT FOOT YAM (Amorphophallus paeniifolius) Elephant foot yam is an important crop grown in Srikakulam, Visakhapatnam, East and West Godavari, Krishna and Nellore districts. It is rich in carbohydrates, minerals and vitamin A and B Climate It requires well distributed rainfall with fairly high temperatures during sprouting, warm and humid conditions for vegetative growth and cool dry conditions are favourable for corm development. Heavy rainfall or water stagnation are detrimental to growth and cause rotting of tubers and wilting of the plant. Season It is generally planted from April to June. Soils It can be grown from well drained light loams to heavy soils. It thrives best in heavily manured sandy loam soils. Varieties Gajendra (Theepi Kanda) Released from Horticultural Research Station ,kovvur Propagation Propagated by corms. Usually 500-750g (small size) tubers should be used as seed material . If the corms are big, cut the tubers into 2 to 4 bits keeping atleast a part of the central sprout. Preparatory cultivation Deep ploughing (20 to 25 cm depth) Seeds and Sowing Use the corms 2 to 2 months after harvest as the corms do not sprout immediately due to dormancy. Plant the corm at a distance of 60 x 60 cm. The corms have to be planted at 10 15 cm deep with the main sprout facing upwards. Planting early in summer i.e., 1st week of April is preferred. A mulch with paddy straw or banana trash or for four to five times to get fine tilth. Beds of convenient size are formed (50 x 50 x 30 cm pits with a distance of 60 cm apart. and is high yielding (50-60 tons/ha). It has less oxalate content and delicious with good cooking quality.

155

paddy husk would be beneficial to conserve moisture in summer and weeds.

also controls the

Manures and Fertilizers It is a heavy yielder and as such a heavy feeder too. 30 to 35 tons of FYM/ha is to be applied with 60kg of P2O5 as basal dose and 250 kg/ha of N and 250 kg of K 2O in 3 equal doses at 30,75,120 days after planting. The fertilizers are placed in pockets on either side of the plant. Intercultivation Frequent weeding and 2-3 hoeings has to be done to keep the plots free from weeds. Irrigation Irrigate the field immediately after planting and later on at weekly interval till the south west monsoon breaks. If dry spell prevails, the irrigation may be given at least for every 10 days in chalka soils. Harvesting Crop is ready for harvest within 6-8 months. The leaves turn yellow and fall on the ground. Harvesting of the corms is done by digging with crow bar without damaging the tuber and separating the root. Post-harvesting Technology The corms can be retained in the soil for 1-2 months even after maturity. In such a case irrigate at a long intervals to avoid desiccation of corms in the soil. The harvested tubers can also be kept under the shade of the tree for 1-2 months. Plant Protection Pests Aphids (Aphis gossypii) Yellowish speckling and curling of leaves. In severe case sooty mould develops, reducing vitality of leaves. Control Spraying of Dimethoate or Quinalphos or Fenthion 0.05% or 0.20% Captan at 30 and 60 days after planting. Thrips (Callothrips indivus) Characteristic silverfish white specks with black dots develop on leaves. Drying of leaves takes place.

156

Control Spray of Dimethoate 0.2% (2ml/lit)

Mealy bugs (Pseudococcus citriculus, Rhizocecus spp.) Tuber surface is covered with nymphs and adults with its powdery meal. Leads to poor germination and affect cooking quality. Control If pest infestation is severe. Spray Dimethoate 0.2% Dieseases Soft rot or Collar rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) Water soaked lesions on stem, yellowing at the tips of leaves which moves downward. Collapse of stem due to rotting at collar region. Rotting of stems takes place causing 20-100% yield losses. Control Grow crop in rotation for 2-3 years, keep the field clean. Drench soil around the plants with 0.3% Copper oxy Chloride as soon as incidence of disease noticed. Mosaic (Amorphophallus mosaic virus) Mosaic mottling and distortion of leaf lamina. In severe cases leaf strapping, shoe string, puckering and upward curling of leaf lamina are symptoms. Reduction in chlorophyll content results in yield losses. Control Use healthy corms for planting. Rogue out infected plants from field. COLOCASIA (Colocasia esculenta L) Colocasia is an important tuber crop in Andhra Pradesh. It can be grown all over the State both in Coastal and Telangana districts. It is generally cultivated for its tubers which is used as vegetable. The tubers has wide acceptance when compared to other tuber crops. Climate It is a warm season crop requiring high moisture content. Temperature 21-27 OC, 1000 mm rainfall with high humidity ideal for crop. Season

157

In Telangana area it is generally planted from February-April where as in Coastal districts there are two seasons i.e. February-April and June-July under irrigated conditions with a duration of about 150-210 days. Soils Fertile and well drained black loamy alluvial soils and deep sandy loams. Variety Satamukhi A Variety released from Horticultural Research station, Kovvur, a free budding type with round medium sized tubers. It is suitable to grow in Andhra Pradesh. The duration is 67 months .The tubers are low in oxalate with excellent cooking quality and good market with an yield of 22 tons/ha. Pancha Mukhi A high yielding variety with tuber yield of 23 tons/ha. Leaves are also used as vegetable. Sripallavi (C-266) It is also a high yielder with 23 tons of tubers/ha. Leaves used as vegetable. NDC-2 Yield 18 t/ha, round and oblong, less in oxalate content, good cooking quality. KCS-2 It is a long Duration variety ( 8 months ) with good quality tubers and an yield potential of 35 t/ha. KCS-3 Short duration variety with (5 months) good quality tubers and an yield potential of 24 t/ha . Land Preparation One deep summer ploughing and 3 4 times with Cultivator Propagation Propagated commercially by daughter or mother corms. Generally daughter corms are preferred. Seed rate : 750-1000 kgs/ha Seeds and Sowing Sow the sprouting tubers (40-50g) in the bed at a distance of 30x45 cm spacing for short duration varieties and 45x45 cm for long duration varieties. Seed tubers should be treated in 0.3% copper oxychloride for 30 minutes before planting to prevent seed borne diseases. For good establishment, irrigation should be given after planting.

158

Manures and Fertilizers Apply 25.0 t. of FYM/ha in last ploughing. The recommended dose of fertilizers is 120:60:80 Kg. of NPK/ha. Total phosphorus is to be given as basal and Nitrogen and Potash to be applied in 3 equal doses at 30, 60 and 90 days after planting.

Intercultivation The plot is to be kept free of weeds for the first three months till the plant cover the inter spaces. Pre emergence herbicides like Butachlor or Pendimethalin@ 5.0 lit/ha or fluchloralin2.5 lit/ha mixed in 500 litres of water may be sprayed imeediately after sowing to control the weeds during the initial months. First earthing up is to be given by 2nd month of planting. A subsequent earthing up can be done lightly to prevent exposure of the growing tubers which would otherwise turn green. Irrigation Irrigations at 7 15 days interval depending on soil type and season Harvest The crop is harvested when the leaves turn yellow brown and dry up. Harvesting is carried out by ploughing carefully to avoid damage of the tubers or manual digging by pickage. Post harvest Technology The freshly harvested tubers (daughter corms) are sorted out from the mother corms, cleaned and send to the market. It has a shelf life of 2-2 months, but sprouts in February. The seed material can be stored under shade for the next planting season. Plant Protection Aphids They suck the sap from the under side of the leaves and the leaves become chlorotic and in severe cases the leaves become dry and the yield will be reduced. Control Spraying of Dimethoate or metasystox @ 2ml/lit of water can control the pest . Diseases Leaf Blight (Phytophthora colocasiae) This disease is more severe during rainy season. Small dark round spots on upper surface enlarge, coalesce together, forming characteristic rings of yellow and brown zones.

159

Infection in petioles leads to collapse of plants. It destroys chlorophyll and reduces photosynthetic area, causing 25-50% yield losses. Control Spraying of Mancozeb 0.25% or Ridomyl 0.2% in 20 days interval can control the disease.

DIOSCOREA (Dioscorea alata L.) Dioscorea is mainly grown in Srikakulam and coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh. It is a rich source of carbohydrates and has significantly high source of iron and vitramin A. Some of its species are useful as medicinal plants. Climate It comes up well in warm climate. Continuous water stagnation is detrimental to growth and cause tuber rot. Season It is usually planted in April-June Soils Well drained deep sandy loams are the best suitable. Varieties Kovvur A local collection from West Godavari is found to be high yielding (30-35 tons/ha). It is very delicious with good cooking quality. It has a shelf life of 2-3 months. Srikeerthi Released by CTCRI. Duration 9 months, yield 25-30 tons/ha. Tuber conical in shape, 1-2 tubers per plant, skin brown in colour, white flesh with good quality tubers. Sri Rupa Duration similar to Sri Keerthi (9 months duration) 2-3 tubers per plant, skin brown in colour, flesh white with good taste and quality. Propogation Mature tubers of previous crop weighing 100-125g are selected as planting material Preparatory Cultivation The land is ploughed up to a depth of 12-20 cm. pits are of 45 x 45 x 45cm deep at 60 x 60cm spacing. Pits are filled with FYM. Seeds and Sowing

160

The tubers are treated with wettable sulphur or Dithane M-45 (0.25%) for half an hour. Plant the tuber in the pits at a distance of 60 x 60cm with the buds facing upwards and cover them with soil. Mulch the soil with paddy straw for promoting quick germination. Manures and Fertilizers Apply 25-30 tons of FYM with 60kg P2O5 as basal dose while 100kg N and 80kg K2O in two equal split doses applied by pocketing method at 30 and 60 days after planting.

Intercultivation Weeding is done 3-6 times to check the weeds. Earthing up of tuber is done. The tubers sprout with in 20-25 days after planting. In 60 days the vines can be trained on poles of 6 height. Irrigation Irrigate the field immediately after planting and frequent irrigations are given during dry weather. In dry spell irrigation at least once in 10-12 days is to be given. Harvesting Crop is ready for harvest within 8-9 months, when the leaves turn yellow. The tubers are dug without injuring. Dried root hairs are removed before storing and marketing. Post harvest Technology The corms can be retained in the soil for 1-2 months even after maturity. It should be lightly irrigated to avoid drying of corms. The cured tubers can be stored in shade for 2-3 months. Plant Protection Tuber rot is occasionally observed other wise the crop is almost free from pests and diseases. Avoid water logged areas. To control leaf spot disease, crop rotation, seed treatment of tubers, spray mancozeb 0.25% 4 times with an interval of 10 days. TAPIOCA (Manihot esculenta Crantz) Tapioca also known as Cassava is cultivated mostly in East Godavari and to a lesser extent in Srikakulam, Vizianagarm and Visakhapatnam districts covering an area of 25,000 to 30,000 hectares in Andhra Pradesh. It is mostly grown as rinfed crop in the uplands and agency areas where a number of sago and starch mills are existing. Its fresh tubers are used commercially in Sago industries. In addition, industries make use of tapioca tubers for producing starch, glucose and bio-fuel(Ethanol). The boiled tubers are consumed as staple food largely on the West Coast. The dried leaves of Tapioca are rich in protein, serving as

161

an excellent cattle feed. Of late the fresh leaves are being used for rearing Eri Silk warms. Dried chips and outer peel of tubers are used as an ingredient in cattle and poultry feeds. The fresh tubers and leaves contain harmful Hydrocynic acid(HCN) and hence are to be either sun dried for 5-7 days or boiled for 15 mintues for human consumption or cattle purpose.

Climate Tapioca is a tropical crop requiring warm humid climate. It requires well distributed annual rainfall when grown under rainfed conditions. It is known for its drought tolerance and hence being grown as rainfed crop successfully. Season June-July Soils Light soils viz., sandy loam or red loam of laterite with pH between 4.5 to 6.6 best suited. Soils of low fertility status can also be used. Varieties H-226 Semi-branching hybrid and bears medium sized tubers with light brown skin having purplish patches. The flesh is white. It possesses good quality tubers. It can be harvested 78 months and contains 29% starch, suitable for industries. Average yield ranges between 25-30 t/ha. H-165 Non-branching and bears short, conical tubers with golden brown sking. It can be harvested after seven months. Contain 23-24% starch. Average yield 25-30 t/ha. Sree Sahya Semi branching and the tubers are light brown, white fleshed, encased in a creamish rind. The starch content is 30.0% with a yield potential of 30 t/ha. Well suited for human consumption and for sago industry. Sree Prabha Semi spreding and the tubers are light brown, white fleshed, encased in a creamish rind. The starch content is 29.0% with a yield potential of 35-40 t/ha. Suitable for both upland and low land conditions. Sree Prakash

162

Sparsely branching, short duration (7 months) selection. The tubes are brown, stout and medium sized having white flesh, yield ranges between 20-25 t/ha. The starch content is 20.0% Sree Jaya Sparsely branching, short duration (7 months) selection. The tubes are brown, stout and medium sized having white flesh, yield ranges between 26-30 t/ha.

M4 Non branching table variety. It can be harvested in 8-10 months. The tubes are brown, linear and medium sized having white flesh, yield ranges between 18- 23 t/ha. Propagation Tapioca is propagated through stem cuttings taken from mature healthy and disease free plants. Around 6-8 cuttings of 20 cm can be obtained from mature stem, rejecting the tender growth at the top and thick woody portion at the base. Preparatory Cultivation The land should be ploughed 4-5 times to a depth of 30-35 cm. Apply FYM 12.5 t/ha, in the last ploughig along with 375 kg Super phosphate (60kg P2O5 ) and 50kg Lindane dust (to control termites) and incorporate in the soil by ploughing. Prepare the land into flat beds with good drainage channels. Planting of Rooted Cuttings The mature stems should be made into 20 cm cuttings using any sharp implement (country knife or Kattipeetha) without damaging the buds. The cuttings are to be immersed in a solution of Dithane M-45 (3 gram) + Dimethoate 2 ml/lit of water for 5 minutes and then planted in a raised nursery bed, side by side for 7-10 days with daily watering to allow them to initiate rooting.The rooted cuttings are to be planted in the main field at 90 x 90 cms to a depth of 5cm inside the soil. There should be optimum moisture at the time of planting. There should be 12,345 plants per ha. For which about 13,000 rooted cuttings are to be maintained including those for gap filling. Manures and Fertilizers A fertilizer dose of 60:60:60 kg of NPK/ha has to be applied along with FYM 12.5 t/ha. Whole P2O5 is to be applied as basal dose in the last ploughing. N and K2O are to be applied in three equal split doses at 30, 60 and 90 days after planting. They are to be applied around the plant by making a ring at 10-15cm distance from the palnt and cover with soil.

163

Intercultivation It is an important operation in Tapioca cultivation. Light digging or hoeing should be given at least thrice during early stages to remove weeds. Two healthy shoots per plant have to be retained on opposite side by removing the rest. Irrigation Each rooted cutting has to be given pot-watering at the time of planting if there is no adequate rain or moisture in the soil. Later on, if dry spell prevails, irrigate the crop at 15-20 days interval in chalka soils. Intercropping Intercrops like Greengram, Blackgram, Groundnut and Maize can be grown to derive an additional income of about Rs. 1500/- per ha. with in 2 -3 months. The intercrops have to be sown along with planting of Tapioca and fertilized separately as per their fertilizer requirement. They are to be harvested before 90 days. The practice of growing intercrops is seldom followed in Tapioca in East Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh as it comes in the way of frequent operations of local gorru in between the rows by the farmers for checking weed growth and to make the soil prous for better growth and development of tubers. Harvest Tapioca becomes ready for harvest by 7-8 months after planting in East Godavari District. Harvesting is done by digging with crow bars. The fresh tubers are highly perishable and can be stored only for 2-3 days. Tubers may be cut into chips and sun dried for a week and stored with 12-13% of moisture content for 2-3 months in air tight containers. Post harvest Technology The palnting material is to be stored as whole stem under the shade of trees with stems in vertical position for next planting season. They should be treated with fungicide like Dithane M-45 (3 g) /) + Malathion (2 ml) or Chloripyriphos (2 ml) per litre of water to prevent the incidence of diseases and pests during storage.The planting material can also be stored safely in Zero energy cool chanber method. Plant Protection Pests Scale insect (Aonidomytilus albus) White scale colonics appear on stems. Drying of stems takes place under storage. Stem becomes weak and dry, causing side branching to give bushy appearance. Viability of planting material is reduced, resulting in the poor establishment.

164

Control Scale free stems should be collected for storing and planting. Staking stems in horizontal position encourages multiplication of scales due to the development of higher temperature and humidity. Therefore healthy stems are to be kept in vertical position under shade to facilitate easy aeration and diffused dry light. As a prophylactic measure the stems may be sprayed with Dimethoate 0.05% at the time of storing. If further infestation is observed, one more spraying may be done. The infested stems should be rejected and burnt at the time of palnting. In case of acute shortage of planting material and the scale attack is mild, sets can be given a dip in the above insecticidal solution for 10-15 minutes before planting. Spidermites (Tetranychus cinnabarinus, T.neocaledonicus) This group of spidermites colonizes on lower surface, causes elongated yellowish streaks, chlorosis, withering and drying of leaves. Depletion of chlorophyll content of leaves affecting photosynthetic efficiency and yield. Control Spray Dimethoate or Methyl demeton 0.05% in severe infestation January-April. Sprayng water at run off level is also effective. This has an added advantage of preserving the biotic agents of mites. Foliar application of urea followed by spraying of Dimethoate 0.05% in severe case to contain the pest out break is recommended as an IPM approach. Diseases Cassava mosaic disease (Indian cassava mosaic geminivirus) The most important disease of Tapioca is Cassava mosaic in Andhra Pradesh. Only stem cuttings from mosaic free plants should be used for planting to minimize the spread. The mosaic disease is transmitted by a vector called white fly (Bemesia tabaci). Chlorotic areas intermixing with normal green tissue gives mosaic pattern. In severe cases leaves are reduced in size, twisted and distorted, reducing chlorophyll content and photosynthetic areas. It causes 25-80% yield reduction. Control Use disease free planting material. Grow field tolerant varieties H165 and Sree Sahya. Rouge out infected plants and follow strict field sanitation. Spraying 0.03% Dimethoate 3-4 times at monthly intervals for the first four months of the crop, controls the vector and there by the spread of the disease. SWEET POTATO (Ipomea batatas L)

165

In Andhra Pradesh it is cultivated in an area of 697 hectares producing 13,940 tons mainly in Visakhapatnam, East Godavari, Guntur, Nellore and Telangana areas. It is mainly cultivated for vegetable purpose. In addition it is also utilized as animal feed and also for the preparation of starch and alcohol. Climate It is a tropical crop and requires plenty of sunshine and moderate rainfall with cool nights and days for the growth.

Season The main season for sweet potato is Rabi (October-November) but can also be grown in Kharif (June-July) and summer (February-March). Soils Well drained light loams are best suited. Rich soils, heavily manured soils tend to produce much vegetation at the expenses of tuber formation. A soil pH of 5.6-6.6 is preferred. Varieties Samrat (S-30) The tubers are white with pink streaks and can be cultivated in all the three seasons of the year with an yield potential of 15-20 tons/ha in a period of 120-135 days. Kiran This variety released by APAU. Tubers are orange in colour with grayish streaks High yielder of Medium duration (120 days). Can be cultivated round the year, moderately tolerant to sweet potato weevil and yields 18-20 tons/ha. S30/21 White skinned short duration type can be cultivated through out the year, with an yield potential of 15-17 tons/ha. Propagation Semi matured vine cuttings are utilized for commercial propagation. Small tubers can also be used for raising nursery. Preparatory Cultivation Plough the land 4-5 times to get fine tilth. If ploughed deep, there is a tendency for the roots to grow deeper. Therefore deep ploughing is avoided, plots of covenient size are being formed and separated by irrigation channels.

166

Seeds and Sowing 30-40 cm long cuttings preferably from the top with 5-6 leaves intact is selected. The cuttings are planted vertically by pushing atleast 2-3 nodes in the soil at a distance of 60 x 20 cm in the flat beds. A nursery of 20-25 cents is sufficient to platn one ha. Manures and Fertilizers Apply 10-15 tons of FYM/ha. Incorporate 60kg of P2O5 in the soil as basal dose. 60 kg/ha each of N and K2O is applied in two split doses at 30th and 60th day after planting.

Intercultivation Two or three weedings and light hoeing may be given at 15-20 days after planting. Occasional lifting of vines and gently turning them is necessary to break and disconnect the roots formed at their nodes 45 and 75 days after planting. Irrigation Irrigate at weekly interval in the early growth period and increase the frequency at the time of tuber formation (60 to 90 days after planting). Late on irrigation at 10-15 days interval should be given. Harvesting and Post harvesting Technology The crop will be ready for harvest in about 4 to 4 months after planting as indicated by yellowing of leaves. Do not keep the mature tuber in the soil longer than necessary as they would be severely affected by weevils. Cut the vines and lift the tuber with crow bar or pickaxe. In light soil, plough with country plough and collect the tubers. The tubers are cleaned and send to the market. The tubers can also be stored under the shade for 15-20 days without getting sprouts. Plant Protection Sweet Potato Weevil (Cylas formicarius) Adult weevil makes puncturing on vines and tubers. The grubs bore and feed by making tunnels. Feeding and adult emergence holes can be seen on vines and tubers. In severe infestation the collar region of the plants shows unusual thickening due to proliferationa dn hypertrophy of tissues casing of a characteristic terpenoisd odour. Even the slightly damaged tubers are unsuitable for consumption due to bitterness. Yield loss may go up to 100% in severe cases. On an average, 20-55% tuber loss occurs. Control Remove and destroy alternate hosts. Use pest free planting material. Use weevil free tender planting material. Earthing up or reridging the crop 30 and 60 days after planting is

167

essential. Adopt crop rotation. Spray Fenthion, Fentrothion or Endosulfan 0.05% at one month interval. Use synthetic sex pheromone Z-3 dodecen-l-ol-E2-buterate) 1 mg dose. Apply carbaryl 20 to 25 kg/ha (5% dust) before planting. Avoid using infected vines. Dipping of vines before planting in 0.5% fenitrothion for 5 minutes. Spray fenitrothion 0.1% (2ml/lit) at 15 days interval. Adopt crop rotation

CARROT (Daucus carota L) Carrot is an important root vegetable commonly grown in the State. It is rich in viramin A and some of the major minerals. The total area under Carrot in Andhra Pradesh is about 4,954 hectares with estimated annual production of 88,925 tonnes Season August-November (15 days gap) Soils Well drained deep loamy soils are best suited for its cultivation Varieties Pusa Kesar It has red coloured roots and self coloured core. Suitable for early sowing (from August to early-october), it matures in 90-110 days and yields 30 t/ha. It contains 7,753 mg carotene/100g fresh weight. Nantes Half long Cylindrical, stumpy roots, well shaped with abrupt tail, orange scarlet with self coloured core, flesh sweet, fine grained with good flavour and orange scalet in colour. It takes about 110-120 days for root formation. Glant Chanteney Early Gem Early Nantes Almost cylindrical roots terminating abruptly in small, thin, tail, 12-15cm long, fine textured, orange flesh with self coloured core, maturity 90-110 days. Chanteney An excellent variety for canning and storage. Roots are conical to near conical, thick, attractive orange, smooth, thick at the shoulders with gradual tapering towards the distinct stumpy end. Core indistinct, flesh tender, sweet and fine textured. Pusa Yamadagni

168

Orange flesh, self coloured core, earlier by a week to 10 days than Nantes. Seeds and Sowing 5kg of seed per hectare may be dibbled at a spacing of 30cm x 5cm Manures and Fertilizers Apply farmyard manures at the rate of 25 tons/hectare in the last ploughing and incorporate it in the soil. Nitrogen 50 kg/ha. Phosphorus 40 kg/ha. Potash 50 kg/ha. Nitrogen is applied in two split doses i.e. 25kg N ones with last ploughing as basal dose and remaining 25kg N next 6 weeks after sowing as top dressing. All P2O5 and K2O as basal. Intercultivation Irrigate the field once in 7-10 days depending upon soil type and weather conditions. Keep the land free from weeds. Spray Schedule Spray the crop with 20ml Malathion or 40g Carbaryl with 24g to control the leaf hoppers, weevils and aphids. Wettable sulphur and 30g Copper oxychloride in 10 litres of water 4 weeks after sowing. About 360 lit of spray mixture is required per hectare, for the control of leaf spot, blight and powderymildew. Repeat the same spray 7 weeks and 10 weeks after sowing. Use about 450 and 540 lit of spray mixture per hectare respectively. Harvest and Yield The crop will be ready for harvest in about 3 months. About 20,000 kg tubers may be expected from one hectare. Plant Protection Pests Leaf hopper (Empoasca punjabensis) Both adults and nymphs suck sap and deviatalize the plants. Control Apply Monocrotophos or Phosphamidon or Dimethoate or Oxymethyl demeton (0.05%) Weevil (Listronotus oregonensis) Control Spraying of monocrotophos 0.05% or carbaryl 0.15% two or three times at 10 days intervals. Aphids (Cavariella aegopodii) Control

169

Spray 0.1% Dimethoate 3ml/l of Methyl demeton 2ml/l of Acephate 1.5g in one litre of water. Spray alternating the chemicals at weekly interval. Diseases Leaf spot (Cercospora carotae) Control Seed treatment with hot water at 50OC for 15 minutes. Spray Copper oxychloride or Mancozeb @ 3g/lit water for 2-3 times at 7 days interval Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni) Control Spray Dinocap @ 1ml/lit. ***

LEAFY VEGETABLES
170

AMARANTHUS (Totakura) (Amaranthus blitium and A. tricolor)

Amaranthus blitium and A. tricolor are mostly grown in South India. The tender fresh
green leaves are rich source of calcium, iron and vitamin A and C. The soft fibrous matter provides the roughage in the diet. The dieticians recommended daily consumption of atleast 116g of leafy vegetables for balanced diet. Climate Amaranthus is a warm season crop, good quality crop is produced in summer. A.

tricolor can be grown in summer and Kharif season. This plant is taller with thick stems and
larger leaves. Soil Loose and friable soils with high organic matter are most ideal for an early and heavy yield. The crop cannot withstand water logging. The crop goes to seeding under drought conditions. Varieties There are two varieties based on leaf colour i.e. green leaf and red leaf. The improved varieties are RNA-1 (A.tricolor) It was developed by Vegetable Research Station, ANGR Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. It is rich in vitamin C & A. Leaves and stems are tender and green in colour. First picking can be done 15-20 DAS. Average yield of 6-7 tonns per acre can be obtained. It is tolerant to drought and leaf spot disease. Co-1 (A.dubius)

171

It is suitable for growing for tender greens and immature stems which are thick and fleshy. It produces 7-8 tonnes of green matter from hectare in 25 days after sowing. The leaves are broad, thick and dark green in colour. Flowering starts at 50-55 days and seeds are available in 90 days. The seeds are very small and black in colour. Co-2 (A.tricolor) Leaves are lanceolate and dark green. The stems remain tender and succulent. Hence, it is suitable to be harvested even 30 days after sowing as Thandukkeerai in Tamilnadu. Both leaves and stems are used as vegetable. It produces 10-11 tonnes of green matter on 25th day of sowing. Seeds are bold and black in colour. Co-3 (A.tristis) It is also called as Arakkeerai or Killukeerai in Tamil. The cultivar lends itself for ten clippings commencing from 25 days after sowing and provides a continuous supply of luscious tender green for a period of three months at weekly interval. The total green matter yield would be 10 to 12 tonnes/ha. Choti Chaulai(A.blitum) Plants are dwarf in stature with succulent small leaves, suitable for greens, responds well to cutting. Flowers are borne in clusters in leaf axils suitable for both summer and rainy season. Badi Chaulai (A.tricolor) Plants are tall, stem is thick, tender green in colour, leaves large and green in colour, responds well to cutting and can be grown for longer period of time. It is suitable for summer and crop may prolong up to the end of rainy season. Seeds and Sowing About 2-3 kg seed is required to sow one hectare. The seed sowing is done by broadcasting after mixing with equal quantity of fine sand for uniform distribution. Give light irrigation immediately after sowing, if the soil is dry. Seed sowing in ridges and furrows will facilitate weeding and manuring practice. Manures and Fertilizers Application of 15 tonnes of FYM per acre is recommended during the last ploughing. Small quantity of Ammonium sulphate is applied in the beds as basal dose. Foliar spray of one per cent urea after two weeks of sowing will increase the leaf yield. 50kg of Nitrogen, 50kg of Phosphorus and 20kg of Potash per hectare is recommended. Irrigation In sandy soils 4-5 days irrigation frequency is maintained in summer season, while in rainy season the irrigation frequency is based on soil moisture level.

172

Harvesting Harvesting usually starts around 4 weeks after sowing. About 8 to 9 cuttings can be taken at weekly interval. In some parts of the state the crop is harvested by pulling out the plants along with roots, after 3-4 weeks of sowing. The seed rate required for this type of harvesting is 3-5 kg/ha. An average yield of fresh green leaves is about 8,000 kg in a span of 60 days. Plant Protection Pests Defoliators (Helicoverpa armigera, Spodoptera litura, S. exigua) Larvae feed on leaves by making holes in the lamina. These are nocturnal in habit, remain hidden in soil during day. Control Poison baiting with bran, jaggery and chlorpyriphos (8:1:1 W/W) is very effective. Leaf Webber (Hymenia recurvalis) Caterpillars initially feed on leaf epidermis, later web the leaves together with silvery silken secretion and feed within. Leaves become devoid of chlorophyll and dry up. Control If infestation is severe spray Endosulfan or Carbaryl. Leaves should not be harvested for about a week after spray. Stem Weevils (Hypolixus truncatulus) Grubs bite their way into stem, as a result the affected part bulges. Gurbs feed on pith making irregular turnnels, which are filled with excreta. Affected stem becomes weak, may split longitudinally, plants get dried. Adults feed on tender leaves and stems but cause negligible loss. Control Removal of wild amaranthus prevents simultaneous and off season multiplication of the pest. Remove and destroy affected plants with grubs and spray Dichlorvos. Leaves should not be harvested for about a week after spray. General Control of Pests As Amaranthus is regularly grown for leaf type, avoid spraying insecticides. In case of severity, spray Malathion 2ml/lit. For grain purpose spraying with neem oil can be taken up. Diseases Leaf Spots Cercospora Leaf Spot (Cercospora bertrandii) Phyllosticta Leaf Spot (Phyllosticta chenopodii)

173

Anthracnose (Colletotrichum spinaciae) Small brown spots appear on the leaves. The spots are roundish with concentric rings in the beginning which later increase in size and may coalesce. Control Usually no fungicidal sprays are required. In case of severity spray Carbendazim @ 1g/lit. Leaves should not be harvested for about a week after spray. SPINACH (Spinacea oleracea) It is a cool season annual vegetable. The rosette of leaves produced during vegetative phase is used as vegetable. Leaves are rich in Vitamin A (5,580IU) and C (28mg), folic acid (123mg) and minerals-iron (17.4mg), calcium (190mg) and phosphorus (42mg)/100g. Climate This crop can withstand frost and tolerate warm weather but high temperature leads to early bolting without giving sufficient cuttings. It performs well during winter months. During hot weather leaves pass edible stage quickly. Soil Palak can be grown in any type of soil having sufficient fertility and proper drainage but does best in sandy loam soils . Acidic soils are harmful, the optimum pH is 6.0 to 6.5. Varieties In spinach, 4 sex types exist. They are externarlly male, vegetative male, female and monoecius. Male plants bloom early and hence are poor yielders. Female plants give failry high yield because they flower late and have longer vegetative phase. There are prickly seeded varieties and smooth seeded varieties. Similarly savoy (Wrinkled), semi savoy and smooth leaved varieties exist. Virginia Savoy and Early smooth leaf are improved exotic varieties. Banerjees Giant, Banarasi (Katvi palak), Khara Lucknow and Khara palak are popular desi types. Seeds and Sowing About 37 45 kg seed is required to sow one hectare. If proportion of male seed is more in the seed lot, a higher seed rate is required. Planting The seeds can be sown either in beds or on the ridges and furrows at a spacing of 60cm x 2.5 cm. sowing should be done not more than 1- 2 cm deep otherwise poor germination may be resulted.

174

Manures and Fertilizers As palak is a leafy vegetable it requires more Nitrogen for crown growth. Apply 30 tons of farmyard manure, 20kg Nitrogen 40kg Phosphorus, 20kg Potash/ha is applied as basal dose and 30kg Nitrogen in the form of urea as foliar spray starting from first cutting. Intercultivation Since the crop duration is short, keep the soil loose and friable and free from weeds. Irrigation Leafy vegetables need more water for good growth and quality leaf production. Therefore assure good water supply at regular intervals based on soil moisture. Excessive irrigation leads to certain pests and diseases. Harvesting Tender and succulent leaves are cut from the base when they are 20-25 cm long at an interval of 10 to 15 days. Yield Average yield of fresh green leaves is 8-10 tons/ha. Pusa Jyothi gives about 25% higher yield. Plant Protection Pests Aphids (Lipuphis erysimi, Myzus persicae, Hyadaphis indobrassicae) These are small insects attacking tender growing leaves. They suck the sap from foliage and excrete honey dew and resulting in yellowing of the leaves. They also transmit the mosaic disease from one plant to another. Plant becomes stunted and weak. Quality of the leaves is reduced. Control Cut and destroy infested leaves along with colonies of aphids and spray Dichlorvos. Do not harvest leaves for atleast one week after spray. Leaves should not be harvested for about a week after spray. Leaf Eating Caterpillars (Helicoverpa armigera, Spodoptera litura, S.exigua) They feed on leaves and make holes. The quality of the leaves is deteriorated. Yield is reduced. Affected leaves are not acceptable to consumers. Control Spray Malathion at 0.1 percent. Harvesting of leaves should not be done for 6-8 days after spray. Leaves should not be harvested for about a week after spray. Diseases Damping off (Pythium sp., Fusarium sp., Rhizoctonia solani)

175

The young seedlings are attacked soon after emergence. Many of them are killed and fall over the ground. Control Avoid excess moisture and provide adequate drainage. Seed treatment with thiram or captan is recommended. Leaves should not be harvested for about a week after spray. Leaf spot Cercospora Leaf Spot (Cercospora bertrandii) Phyllosticta Leaf Spot (Phyllosticta chenopodii) Anthracnose (Colletotrichum spinaciae) On lower leaves, small circular spots appear with ash colour in centre and deep violet or reddish purple border. Later the spots coalesce, leaves wrinkle and ultimately dry and fall down. Formation of new leaves remains continued.

Control Remove all the plant debris. Treat the seeds with carbendazim @ 1g/kg seed. Follow the long crop rotation. Spray the crop with Mancozeb at 0.2 percent. INDIAN SPINACH (Beta vulgaris var. bengalensis)

Climate

It is a cool season crop requiring mild climate. It tolerates frost and high temperature under good irrigation. Under high temperature conditions, early bolting occurs and leaves pass edible stage quickly with poor yield. Soil Though palak can be grown on a wide range of soils, well fertile, sandy loam soil with good drainage is ideal. Palak is tolerant to slightly alkaline soils and is highly tolerant to salts also. Varieties All green It is a small leaved, uniformly green, tender leaves and gives about 6-7 cuttings in 15-20 days intervals with an average yild of 125 q/ha. Pusa Jyoti It is a gaint leaved strain evolved at I.A.R.I. It has thick tender succulent leaf with late bolting qualities. Plants are vigorous, quick growing and regenerate quickly after each cutting. It gives 6 to 8 cuttings with an average yield of 450 q/ha.

176

Jobner Green It produces uniform green, large, thick succulent, tender leaves with strong flavour. It is a prolific, yielder and yields about 29.6q/ha. This variety can be successfully grown in soil even at pH 10. Pusa Harith It was developed by hybridization between sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) x local palak (B.vulgaris var. bengalensis) at IARI Regional Research Stration, Katrain, H.P. Suitable for hilly areas. It tolerates alkaline soils. Leaves thick broad in size, late bolting and high yielder. Banerjees giant It is a popular variety of West Bengal developed by S.P. Banerjee by crossing palak x Beetroot. It produces large thick leaves with succulent stem and fleshy root. Season October Under south Indian conditions, the best crop can be taken by sowing during November/ December. It can be sown throughout the year in places like coimbattore where mild climate prevails. In North Indian plains , the crop is sown in June-July and SeptemberOctober. In the hills, it is sown from April- June. Seed rate 8-15 kg/ha. Spacing 60 x 60cm Sowing Each seed ball contains 2-3 seeds. Hence during sowing only one seed is sown in each hill. Beds of convenient size are prepared and lines are drawn 20 cm apart. Along these lines, seeds are sown at a spacing of 10 cm and covered with top soil. The depth of sowing should not be more than three to four cm. Otherwise, there will be difficulty in germination of seeds. The seeds will germinate in 8-10 days after sowing. To sow one hectare, a quantity of 25-30 kg of seed would be required. Manures and Fertilizers Application of 25 tonnes of FYM is recommended during last ploughing. Nitrogen 60kg per hectare should be top dressed after every cutting, it will enhance quick and luxuriant growth of leaves. Phosphorus 60kg and 40 kg potash per hectare should also be applied as a basal dose for better yield. Intercultivation

177

Weeding and hoeing have to be done two or three times from 20 days after sowing once in a fortnight. A quantity of 25 kg of nitrogen has to be applied after each cutting and the crop is irrigated. Irrigation A light irrigation is given immediately after sowing. Again on the third day and subsequently once in 7-10 days depending on the soil moisture, watering is done. Harvesting Well grown green succulent leaves are cut along with petiole. The crop comes to first cutting three to four weeks after sowing. Yield On an average, a total green yield of 8-10 tonnes can be harvested from one hectare in four to six cuttings.

MINT (Mentha arvenis L) Climate Can be cultivated both under tropical and sub tropical climate. A temperature of 2025oc is optimum for the crop growth. For oil purpose, high altitude areas are preffered. Temperature more than 30 oc results in more oil content. Soil All type of soils are suitable for cultivation. Fertile soils with more organic content, sandy to clay loam soils with proper drainage are preffered. Ill drained soils are to be avoided. Varieties No improved varieties are available for vegetable purpose. Season Year round Propagation Stem cuttings of 4-5 cm lenth having 2-3 nodes are used for propagation. Spacing 45 x 10cm Planting

178

Dipping of stem cuttings with carbendazim 1gm/lit or captan 3gm/l is done prior to planting. Planting is done on ridges at a spacing of 30-45 cm between the rows and 10 cm within the row at a depth of 1-2 cm. Manures and Fertilizers Application of 10 tonnes of FYM is recommended during last ploughing. Nitrogen 50kg per hectare should be applied twice 20 and 40 days after sowing. Phosphorus 40kg and 50 kg potash per hectare should also be applied as a basal dose for better yield. Intercultivation Weeding is done regularly at 25, 50 DAP and after the first picking. Irrigation As the crop is shallow rooted frequent light irrigations are given. Depending upon the soil moisture, irrigations are given at 8-12 days in winter and 3-4 days interval in summer. Harvesting The crop comes to first cutting three months after planting leaving 4-5 cm from the ground level. Subsequently after a month second cutting is done near to the ground level. Yield In two pickings, an average leaf yield of 10-12 t/ acre can be obtained. 65-70 kg of oil can be extracted per acre. Plant Protection Pests Defoliators Aphids These are small insects sucking the sap from tender growing leaves. They transmit the mosaic disease from one plant to another. The growth of the plant is checked, they become weak. Quality of the leaves is reduced. Leaf Eating Caterpillars They feed on leaves and make holes. The quality of the leaves is deteriorated. Yield is reduced. Affected leaves are not acceptable to consumers. Control Avoid insecticides Spray Malathion at 0.1 percent . Harvesting of leaves should not be done for 6-8 days after spray. Diseases Leaf spot

179

On lower leaves, small circular spots appear with ash colour in centre and deep violet or reddish purple in border. Later the spots coalesce, leaves wrinkle and ultimately dry and fall off. Formation of new leaves remains continued. Control Usually no fungicidal sprays are required. In case of severity spray Copper Oxychloride @ 2g/lit or Carbendazim @ 1g/lit. Wilt Wilting of plants are observed which reduce the yield of the crop. Control Application of Trichoderma culture 1 kg along with 10kg Neem cake and 90 kg of FYM. Adopt crop rotation.

***

SPICES
180

AND CONDIMENTS

CHILLIES (Capsicum annuum L.) Chilli is an important commercial crop that gives a range of processed products such as chilli powder, oleoresins etc, there by offering excellent potential for export. Chillies constitute about 20% of Indian spice exports in quantity and about 14% in value. Andhra Pradesh is the largest chilli producing state constituting a major portion of the total production. It is grown in an area of 2.37 lakh ha with a production of 7.48 lakh tonnes and productivity of 316 kg/ha. In Andhra Pradesh, it is largely grown in Guntur, Khammam, Warangal, Prakasam and Krishna districts. From Guntur, chillies is being exported to USA, UK, Japan, France, Srilanka etc to a tune of Rs100 crores annually. Composition of green chillies (per 100 g of edible portion) (Aykroyd 1963) Moisture Protein Fat Minerals : : : : 85.7 g 2.9 g 0.6 g 1.0 g Nicotinic acid Phosphorus Iron Sodium : : : : 0.9 mg 80 mg 1.2 mg 6.5 mg

181

Fibre Carbohydrates Calories Calcium Magnesium Riboflavin Oxalic acid Season Sowing of seeds Direct Sowing Soils

: : : : : : :

6.8 g 3.0 g 29 30 mg 24 mg 0.39 mg 67 mg

Potassium Copper Sulphur Chlorine Thiamine Vitamin A Vitamin C

: : : : : : :

217 mg 1.5 mg 34 mg 15 mg 0.19 mg 292 I.U 111 mg

Kharif/Rabi July-August/Sept-October July 15th to August 15th

Black soils are best suited for chilli cultivation. If irrigation is available can be taken up in light and alluvial soils. Soils with poor drainage are not suitable for chilli cultivation Seeds and Sowing For open pollinated varieties, raising 1 cent nursery 650 g seed was optimum, which was sufficient to transplant one acre. For hybrids raising 1 cent nursery 100 g seed was optimum, which was sufficient to transplant one acre. Preparation of raised beds with dimension of 1 m width, 40 m length, 15 cm height (40 m ) is required for transplanting in an acre of main field. Leave 30 cm gap between two beds for irrigation, weeding and spraying. Application of 80g of fipronil granules per 40m2is recommended against sucking pests. Seed treatment with Thiram or Dithane M-45 is done at the rate of 3g/kg seed. Spraying copper fungicide on 12 th day and 19th day of sowing to prevent damping off disease. Six weeks old seedlings are to be used for transplantation. Direct sowing of chillies @ 2.5kg/acre behind the seed drill / gorru is recommended in first fortnight of July for reaping high yield. Thinning is to be done in direct sown chilli crop maintaining a distance of 60 cm between plants Transplanting Seedlings are ready for transplanting five to six weeks after sowing. Recommended spacing varies depending on cropping system, soil type, and variety. Transplant in the late afternoon or on a cloudy day to minimize transplant shock. One seedling in case of hybrid and two seedlings per hill in case of varieties are transplanted according to spacing. Rainfed Irrigated Varieties G1 : : 56 x 15 cm 75 x 30 cm (or) 90 x 60 cm
2

182

Released during 1938. Pods lengthy, sickle shaped, tip pointed, calyx persistent, resistant to thrips. Yield 18-20 q/ha. G2 Released during 1954. Calyx cup shaped, tip pointed, wide adaptability. Yield 20-25 q/ha. G3 Released during 1962. It is cosmopolitan in habit and comes up well both under irrigated and rainfed conditions. Ideal for foreign export. Recommended for all the districts. Fruits are medium in size with 44% seed to pod. Calyx cup shaped and persistant. Average dry chillies yield in rainfed 10-12 q/ha and under irrigation 25-30 q/ha with a maximum yield potential of 40q/ha. G 4 (Bhagya Lakshmi) Released during 1968. It gained extensive spread throughout the state particularly under irrigated areas. Fruits are medium with 40% seed to pod and olive green colour turning to bright red on ripening. Recommended for all the districts under irrigation. Suitable for green chillies and tolerant to virus disease. Average dry chillies yield in rainfed 12-13 q/ha and under irrigation 30-35 q/ha with a maximum yield potential of 50q/ha. Average green chillies yield is about 200 q/ha. G5 (Andhra Jyothi) Released during 1971. Fruits are short and stout with conical shape. Seed content 42%, calyx semi cup shaped, suitable for Nellore and Chittoor districts. Average dry chillies yield in rainfed 11-12 q/ha and under irrigation 30-32 q/ha with a maximum yield potential of 50q/ha. Sindhur (CA-960) (Hot-Portugal) Released during 1977. Early in bearing by two to three weeks. Plants tall growing fruits long and stout with cup shaped clayx and blunt tip. Pericarp light green turning to bright red on ripening. Seed content 38% and pungency is mild. Recommended for green chilli production in Cuddapah, Ananthapur, Kurnool, Prakasam and Krishna Districts. Recommended for dry chillies in Krishna, West Godavari, Warangal and Karimnagar Districts where there is liking for stout and mild pungent types. Average dry chillies yield in rainfed 12-14 q/ha and under irrigation 30-35q/ha with a maximum yield potential of 60 q/ha. Average green chillies yield is about 250 q/ha. Kiran (X-200) Released during 1972. Fruits are long and thin with light green pericarp and srosey red colour on ripening. Fairly tolerant to thrips, mites and aphids. Calyx persistent and

183

cupshaped. Seed content 42%. Average dry chillies yield in rainfed 12-14 q/ha and under irrigation 30-35 q/ha with a maximum yield potential of 50 q/ha. Aparna (CA 1068) Released during 1982. Plants tall growing and late in bearing by two weeks when compared to other strains. Fruits yellow in colour on ripening. Fruits medium long and stout with semicup shazped calyx and blunt up. Seed content 42%. Recommended to yellow chilli zone of East Godavari, Visakhapatnam, Vijayanagaram and Srikakulam districts. It is tolerant to salinity and can with stand drought as well as high moisture conditions. Average dry chillies in rainfed 12-14 q/ha and under irrigation 30-35 q/ha with a maximum yield potential of 50 q/ha. Bhaskar (LCA 235) Released during 1885. This varieties characterized by compact plants with short internodes, small leaves and flowers with yellow anthers. Pods are olive green (5-6 cm long) with high seed content (45%) and high degree of pungency. Fairly tolerant to sucking pests like thrips, mites and aphids. The yellow another colour which is a rare character serve as a marker gene in maintenance of purity. Recommended to all the districts. Fairly tolerant to virus. Average dry chillies in rainfed 20-25 q/ha and under irrigation 40-45 q/ha with a maximum yield potential of 70 q/ha. Prakash (LCA 206) Released during 1991. Plants tall grown with light green leaves, fruits long and slender, fruits shining, red colour on ripening. Seed content 40%, suitable for both rainfed and irrigated crop in all the districts of A.P. Average dry chillies in rainfed 22-23 q/ha and under irrigation 40-42 q/ha with a maximum yield potential of 60 q/ha. LCA 305 (Lam 305) Released during 1993. Pod larger than Bhaskar 235 with shining red colour plant bushy in type. Fruits 7-8 cm long and fairly tolerant to virus disease. Average dry chillies in rainfed 20-25 q/ha and under irrigation 40-45 q/ha with a maximum yield potential of 65 q/ha. S.A.-46 Plants dwarf and spreading with light green and broad leaves. Pods thin, 9-10 cm long and wrinkled. Suitable for green cillies to be grown round about Hyderabad. Seed content 35%. Average green chillies yield is about 200 q/ha. Jwala

184

Similar to N.P. 46 A, but pods are longer (10-12 cm). Suitable for green chilli production round about Hyderabad and to export to Hyderabad city. Average green chillies yield is about 180 q/ha. LCA 334 (Lam 334) Released during 2006. Medium to late maturing variety. Plants are erect and semi spreading, pods slender, medium size with bright red colour suitable for export. Moderately tolerant to viruses and abiotic stresses. Yield 60-65 q/ha. LCA 353 Released during 2008. Early to medium maturing variety. Plants semi spreading, pods slender, medium size with bright red colour suitable for export. Moderately tolerant to viruses. Yield 60-65 q/ha. PAPRIKA VARIETIES LCA 424 Early variety. Less pungent, suitable for export. Fruits are long and stout. Yield 40-45 q/ha. Ready for release. LCA 436 Less pungent suitable for export. Plants are spreading, medium tall with medium bold fruits. Yield 45-50 q/ha. Ready for release Manures and Fertilizers Apply a basal dose of 25 tonnes of Farm Yard Manure per hectare in the last ploughing. Sheep penning of 2500 to 3000 sheep per hectare is advisable, if available. Apply neem cake at 3-4 q/ha preferably mixing with basal dose of chemical fertilizers at the time of final ploughing. In the main field where chilli crop will be transplanted in the forthcoming months, short duration green manure crops like pillipesara/greengram /sunhemp may be raised and incorporated into the soil before flowering. For quick decomposition of the incorporated green manure crop, apply 200 kg of Single Super phosphate/ha. A recommended dose of fertilizer i.e., 300N:60P:120K ha-1 can be applied as N in the form of 50% Urea and remaining as Ammonium Sulphate/ Calcium Ammonium Nitrate and K in the form of 50% as Muriate of Potash and remaining 50% as Sulphate of Potash was found to give enhanced seed yield and profitable returns per unit area in chilli Intercultivation Chilli requires frequent intercultivation. worked starting from 30th day of sowing. In the direct sown crop blade harrow is Four intercultivations are needed at 10 days

intervals alternated with blade harrow and tyned harrow. Final inter cultivation is given by the country plough. For an irrigated crop, intercultivation is either by junior hoe or light

185

plough after each irrigation. Intercultivation is followed by hand weeding to check the weed growth. Application of pre-emergence weedicide Pendimethalin 30% @ 1.3 l/acre was found effective when applied 1-2 days immediately after sowing in direct sown crop. Post emergent weedicide Quizalofop-P-ethyl @ 400 ml/acre was found effective for grassy weeds except Cyprus. Irrigation Chilli can not with stand heavy moisture, hence, irrigation should be given only when necessary. Frequent and heavy irrigations induce lanky vegetative growth and cause flower shedding and spread of diseases. The number of irrigations and interval between irrigations depend upon soil and climatic conditions. If the plants show symptoms of drooping leaves at 4.00 PM, it is an indication that irrigation is needed. Flower drop Flower drop is natural in chillies. Only 30-40 per cent flower set into pods. Flower drop will be high during cloudy days. To minimize flower drop and to increase pod set, Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) at 10ppm can be sprayed thrice at fortnightly intervals starting from November. Spraying of 0.125% Tricontanol and IAA 10ppm significantly increased yield by reducing flower drop and increasing fruit set. Harvesting Green fruits will be ready for picking from 2 months of planting and red ripe fruits can be harvested 3-4 weeks later. For better quality and higher yields, the red riped fruits are harvested immediately. For rainfed crop 3-4 pickings and for irrigated crop 6-8 pickings are necessary. Avoid application of pesticides just before picking i.e follow waiting period to prevent pesticide residues in the produce. Dont allow the fruits to over ripe/ dry on the plant itself and periodical picking is recommended to get quality produce. The harvested fruits are dried in sun light on a drying floor. After drying, insect bored and diseased fruits (White coloured fruits) are separated and bagged. Post Harvest Technology Dry the ripe pods till the moisture content reaches 8-10%.Dry the ripe pods in Poly house solar driers or tarpaulins or cement floor or polythene sheet to avoid aflatoxin contamination. Store the produce in clean & dry gunny bags and stake them on wooden plank 50-60 cm away from the walls to prevent contamination. Sort out the damaged and white spotted fruits to market the graded quality produce. Do not use any chemical for improvement of color like Sudan R-I as they are hazardous (toxic) and are prohibited for

186

use. Do not write with ink on chilli field gunnies to prevent contamination of toxic chemical Rhodomine B which will be absorbed by the dried and packed chillies. Plant Protection Pests Root Grubs (Holotrichia consanguinea) Eggs laid in soil /compost dumps / manure pits during pre-monsoon showers. Grubs damage the chilli plants by cutting the roots and several plants die in standing crop rows as it bores in to root system also. Adults feed on leaves. The attacked plants die and can be easily identified. Their damage can be seen in the field up to the end of November. Control Deep summer ploughing and destruction of grubs, pupae. To prevent root grubs, use only well rotten farmyard manure. Apply 250-500kg Neem cake/ha maxing with farmyard manure. In severe cases apply 25kg Phorate (10G) or 33 kg Carbofuran (3G) granules/ha.

Thrips (Scrtothrips dorsalis H.) Both nymphs and adults damage the crop. They lacerate the leaf tissue and suck the sap. The infested leaves develop crinkles and curl upwards. The severely infested plants develop bronze colour. If the plants are affected at early stage they remain stunted in growth and flower production and pod set are arrested causing severe loss in yield. Control Application of Fipronil 0.3% granules @ 8 Kg/ha at 15 and 45 days after transplanting Spray carbaryl 3gr or Phasalone 3ml or Fipronil @ 2 ml or or Chlorfenpyr @ 2ml, Difenthurion @1.5g or Spinosad@ 0.25ml per one liter of water. In severe conditions repeat the spray with 4-6 days interval Mites (Polyphago-tasonlmus latus) The affected leaves curl down ward along the margins of the leaf and attain an inverted boat shape. The petiole of the leaves gets elongated and the young leaves at the tip of the branch cluster. The affected plants develop dark green colour. Severely affected plants show distorted leaves with brownish patches leading to drying up of entire foliage. In the affected plants the vegetative growth is inhibited and flower production is ceased and yields are considerably reduced. Control

187

Spray Dicofol (kelthane) 5ml or Wettable sulphur 3 g or Micronised sulphur 2.5g/litre of water. In severe conditions repeat the spray with 4-6 days interval with thorough coverage of bottom side of leaves. Aphids (Aphis gossypi) Aphids appear on the tender shoots, leaves and on the lower surface of the old leaves. They suck the sap and reduce the vigour of the plant. They secrete sweet substance (Honey dew) which attract ants and develop sooty moulds. The pods that develop black colour due to sooty moulds loose quality and fetch low price. The yields are also reduced by aphids directly and more through the spread of virus diseases acting as vectors. Control Spray 0.1% Dimethoate 3ml/l of Methyl demeton 2ml/l of Acephate 1.5g in one litre of water. Spray alternating the chemicals at weekly interval. Blossom midge (Asphondylia capsici) Damage occurs only to flower buds and flowers. Adults lay eggs on unopened flower bud. Maggot feed on developing ovary resulting in ovary bulging prominently to wards one side with white discoloration. Pupation takes place with in ovary. As a result infested flower drops off. But those retained develop in to abnormal fruits with poor seed set and quality in infested fruits is effected. Damage causes severe flower drop, deformed, twisted pods and dropping of pods.

Control Spray Trizophas @ 1.25 ml followed by Chloropyriphos @ 2.5 ml/l in an interval of 4 days. Pod borers (Spodoptera litura, Spodoptera exigua, Heliothis armigera) Pod borers are polyphagous and appear on chilli crop both in vegetative phase and at the time of pod formation. The caterpillars are pale greenish brown and smooth with dark markings. They enter chilli pods in second and third instar by making a hole near calyx and feed on chilli seed. The affected pods drop off or develop white colour on drying. The fully grown caterpillars enter the soil for pupation. Control Deep ploughing of the filed in summer to expose resting stages of insect pests to hot sun Grow castor and marigold in chilli field as trap crops against Spodoptera and

Helicoverpa pod borers.

188

Growing sorghum/maize as border crop two to three rows around chilli field as barrier crop to limit immigration of insect pests and to encourage build up of beneficial insects like predators and parasites to take care of the key pests that occur on chilli crop.

Erecting bird perches @ 10/ac to promote predation of pod borers Spray Acephate 1.5g or Chloropyriphos @ 2.5 ml or Thiodicarb 1 g or Spinosad 0.25ml

Diseases Damping off (Pythium aphanidermatum, Phytophthora spp.) It is the nursery disease caused by soil borne fungi under favourable conditions. Affected plants usually die in patches in nursery beds or low parts of fields. Seedlings may be infected before or after emergence. If infected before emergence, the germinating plants become soft, brown and decompose. If infected after emergence, water soaked lesions form about 1cm above or below the soil line. The stem softens and cannot support the seedling which collapses and die. Excessive moisture, high relative humidity, over crowding, poor drainage and applying excessive levels of nitrogen in soil are favourable for the disease development and spread in the nursery. Control Treat seed with Mancozeb (3g/kg seed) before sowing. Raise seedlings on raised nursery beds to avoid ill drained conditions and practice the rotation. Optimum seed rate (650g/cent) is to be used to avoid over crowding of the seedlings.

Drench the nursery beds with Copper oxychloride 3g/litre, 2-3 times at 4 days intervals starting from 9th day of sowing as a prophylactic measure.

Choanephora blight (Choanephora cucurbitarum) The disease causes damage to the crop during rainy season. It occurs in nursery as well as in main field. Brown water soaked lesions occur on the middle of the stem gradually the lesions become black, coalesce and leads to rotting of tissue. The damage spread to upward and downward direction and leading to drying of effected plant or branches. In the field, the disease can be identified based on the appearance of a stiff silvery mass of whisker like or hairy strands of the fungus growing out of the affected tissue topped with a ball made of great number of spores. Control

189

Spraying 1g Streptocyclin mixed with 30g of Copper oxychloride per 10 lit of water twice at one week interval. Bacterial leaf spot (Xanthomonos vesicatoria) It occurs in October to December months. In the beginning small brown spots are seen on leaves which turn into grayish or black spots. In severe cases the affected leaves turn yellow and drop-off. Stem infection results in wilting of tender branches and twigs. Control Spray Plantomycin 2g or Streptocyclin 1g plus 30g Blitox in 10 lit of water at fortnightly intervals. Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora capsici) It is a fungal disease appears on the crop from October to February. The disease first manifests as small brownish spots on the leaves and gradually develop in to the big circular grayish spots with whitish center. Later they form in to large lesions due to coalescing of the spots. Infection on fruit stalk and calyx is also very common in severe cases. Affected leaves become yellow and defoliated. Control Spray Carbendazim @ 1g/l or Mancozeb @ 2.5g/l of water 2-3 times at one week interval Dieback or Fruit rot (Colletotrichum capsici) It is a seed as well as air borne disease. It appears in October-November at the time of flowering. Individual flowers get infected and dry up. The infection gradually spreads to the stem also. In the affected stem, the bark first turn brownish and then turn to shiny white in long and narrow strips containing several black dot like fructification. Affected twigs get with red and dry up from tip downwards, after on, the disease spreads to the fruits also. Circular to oval, black spots occur on the ripe pods. Severally affected pods turn straw coloured instead of normal red, shrivel and dry up. Control The seed from disease free crop only should be used for sowing. Seed treatment with Captan or mancozeb at 3g per kg of seed should be taken up. Early removal of isolated cases of die-back will be helpful in checking further spread. Spray Captan 1.5g or Mancozeb at 2.5 g or Copper oxychloride 3.0g or Propiconzole 1 ml, Difenconazole 0.5ml, Copper hydroxide 2.5g or Azoxystrobin 1ml per litre of water at the time of flowering i.e, in October-November and repeat the spray after 15 days if the disease in seen. Powdery mildew (Laveilula taurica)

190

This disease occurs in December-February. Whitish powdery patches are seen on the lower surface of the leaves. In advanced stages, the leaves turn yellow and drop-off. Further flower production is ceased. Control Spray Karathane 1ml or Wettable sulphur 3g/lit of water two to three times at 10 days interval. Virus complex Viruses have become most serious causing extensive damage. The wide spread virus diseases in Andhra Pradesh are given below. Leaf curl (Transmitted by whitefly) Symptoms consist of abaxial and adaxial curling of leaves accompanied by puckering and blistering of interveinal areas and thickening and swelling of veins. It causes 60-70% losses in yield. Peanut bud necrosis virus (Transmitted by thrips) Infected leaves show mosaic and necrotic spots, older leaves show small concentric rings. Initial infection may cause yield loss up to 70-80% Cucumber mosaic virus (transmitted by aphids) Stunted plant growth, leaves become narrow and show foliar mottling. Mosaic mottling of leaves. Yellow rings are produced on leaves and fruits. The disease causes 5060% yield loss in case of early infection Drop prematurely. Control of Virus complex Select virus tolerant varieties like LCA 334, G 4 and LCA 235 Treat the seed with Imidacloprid @ 8g/kg seed against thrips to prevent PBNV Control vector by applying Furadon granules 3 G @ 30 kg/ha or Fipronil Granules @ 20kg/ha twice at 15 & 45 days after transplantation. Sowing of barrier crops like jowar, maize or sunflower The vectors of viral diseases viz., thrips (PBNV), aphids (CMV & Poty viruses) and white fly ( Gemini virus/ leaf curl) should be regularly monitored and should be kept under check as a prophylactic measure to avoid the incidence of viral diseases Virus infected plants if noticed, have to be uprooted and destroyed immediately to avoid further spread

Main field and bunds of the fields should be kept weed free to avoid the incidence of viral diseases. CHILLI- EXPORTS

191

India exports chillies in the form of dried chillies, chilly powder, pickled chillies and chilly oleoresins. Indian chili is mainly exported to USA, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, the Middle East and the Far East. The highly pungent "Sannam" & the mildly pungent 'mundu' chilies are internationally popular varieties. Chillies are exported as whole, with or without stalks & with clipped stalks and fresh and dried capsicum and as powder, oils and oleoresins. Byadgi chilli grown in Dharwad district of Karnataka and Tomato chillies of Warangal, Andhra Pradesh are demanded for their high colour value. The value added products from chilli have wide export demand in the world market under WTO scenario provided the quality standards are maintained. Chilli importing countries and consumers over the world today places much emphasis on quality aspects. Pesticide residues, Aflatoxins and other microbial contaminations and mixing of undersirable chemicals like "Sudan R-1" for imparting colour caused great damage for exports of chilli products from India to other countries particular to European countries. In view of this, utmost care shall be taken to meet the international quality standards besides reducing the cultivation cost to enhance the export potential under the situation of extreme competition among different countries and WTO scenario. QUALITY STANDARDS FOR CHILLIES EXPORT There are mainly three quality standards that are followed for chilli and chilli products. They are (1) Agmark standards (2) ASTA standards (3) European standards. Description of quality factors Length of Pod The length of the pods shall be reckoned with from the tip of the fruit to the pedicel point where the stalk is attached. For accidental errors in grading, tolerance upto 5% for pods not conforming to the specified length will be allowed in all grades. Whole pods Pods which are intact lengthwise to the extent of 75% or more of the whole pods. Broken Pods Pods which are broken into places of size not included under whole pods. Loose Seeds Seeds out of chilli pods will be considered as loose seeds. Damaged and discoloured Pods

192

Damaged pods are those pods, which are damaged materially, affecting the quality. Pods having brown, black, white and other coloured patches covering 25% or more surface area of pods will be considered as discoloured pods. Foreign matter Extraneous matter, calyx, pieces and loose stalks will be treated as foreign matter. Tolerance for moisture Though the optimum moisture level is 12% an additional tolerance of 0.5-1% will be allowed during monsoon season i.e. 1st June to 30th September. Chillies in International market Importing from India Chillies producing countries Export competitors for India Varieties suitable for export Maximum pulp yielding varieties Maximum colour yielding varieties : Pusa Jwala, Badigadabbi, LCA-235, 334, 324, Sindhur : LCA-206, 304, 305, 357, 424, Sindhur Sri Lanka, U.S.A., Canada, England, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Malasia, Germany. India, China, Pakistan, Moracco, Mexico, Turki, Bangladesh China, Pakistan, Bangladesh

Maximum pungent yielding varieties : LCA-235, 324, 334, Pusa Jwala, Aparna, PKM-1 Importing standards set by American Spices Board Insect residues Excreta 4/lb. 1/lb.

Part Chilli pods Chilli Powder

Content Other material Insect damage Ash Fiber Oil

Limit 5% 5% 1.3% 3% 2%

Classification based on the Capsicin content Range (%) > 1.00 0.76 0.51 0.26 0.10 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25 Content High Medium to high Medium Low to medium Low Varieties Foreign chillies, white foreign chillies, Nigirian chillies (Aferica) K-2, Jawahar G-4, Jwala, Musatwadi LCA-235, G-4, G-5, LCA-334, LCA-353 Sindhur, LCA-206, LCA-424, LCA-436

193

ONION (Allium cepa L) Onion is an important crop used widely both as a condiment and vegetable. It occupies an area of 28,000 ha. in Andhra Pradesh. Kurnool, Mahaboobnagar and Cuddpah are important districts. Onion is rich in riboflavin and calcium. Season There are two main seasons. Rabi (Main Crop) December to April Kharif June-July to October-November Onion crop is propagated mostly by seed and in some parts bulbs are also used. Soils Loamy soils are highly suited for proper development of bulbs. Good drainage and irrigation facilitates better crop growth. Alkalinity or water loggings are not tolerated by onion. Varieties Bellary Red Big bulb, 1-2 split under each buld. Less pungent, suitable all over the state. Rampur Red Similar to Bellari red, popular in North India. White Onion Big size, not very high yielder, more pungent. Naisk Red Medium size, red colour bulbs, pungent tubers, popular in Maharashtra. Small Red Onion One or more splits small in size, sweetish, the bulbs are pungent, grown extensively in Visakhapatnam area. Pusa Red A very popular short to intermediate day long variety. Bulbs medium, flat to globular red average weight 70-90 gram and less pungent. It has less bolting. Gets ready in 125140 day seed yield 4-6 q/ha. Agrifound Dark Red Bulbs round globular in shape with tight skin, moderately pungent and dark red with bulb diameter of 5-8 cm. Takes 150-160 days for maturity. Better keeping quality and storing capability. Seed yield 4-7 q/ha. Agrifound Light Red

194

Small size, solid, light red colour bulbs with more pungency. Suitable for transport to longer distances. Good export value. Useful for direct sowing. TSS 13%, Takes 162-165 days maturity. Best suitable for rabi season. Seed and Sowing Kharif Sow nursery during June-July. 7-8 Kg seed sown on raised beds in 500 m 2 will be sufficient to transplant one hectare. The seedlings will be ready within 45 days. Plant on both the sides of ridges or beds with a spacing of 30 x 10 cm. Dip the seedlings in 1% Bordeaux mixture before transplanting. Rabi Nursery has to be raised during December, 7-8 kg of seed ha is sown in 500-600 sp.m area to transplant one hectare. Plough thoroughly and add 100 kg of well rotten FYM for 10 sp. meters area raised in nursery beds of 120 cm width and 3 metre lenth are formed. Seeds are sown in lines. The beds are to be not watered and hand weeded. In the nursery 0.5% Bordeaux Mixture is to be sprayed at 10 days intervals to prevent damping. The seedlings will be read with in 45 days. The land is prepared in to ridges and furrows or beds and channels depending upon the conditions. The ridges are to be made at 30cm apart. The seedlings are planted on both sides of the ridges at half way on the slope at 7.5cm distance. In black soils, they can be placed at a little wider space up to 10cm. For seed production spacing up to 30cm either way is given. At the time of transplanting, the seedlings are to be dipped in 1% Bordeaux Mixture.

Manures and Fertilizers Kharif Incorporate FYM at 25 t ha-1 during preparatory cultivation and apply fertilizers @ 100:50:60 NPK Kg/ha. Apply entire P,K and half of the N as basal and the remaining 50 N has to be top dressed in two equal doses at monthly intervals. Rabi In addition to the FYM, 50kg N, 40-50 kg P2O5 and 60kg K2O per hectare are to be given. Nitrogen is applied in one or two doses at monthly intervals after transplanting as top dressing. Split application is recommended for light soils. Harvesting and Post-harvest Technology The seedling transplanted crop comes to harvest in about 100 days, while raised from bulbs it takes 120 days. The last irrigation is to be given 3 days before harvesting to

195

facilitate pulling of bulbs. The yields, in case of Bellary variety ranges from 20-25 t/ha and the smaller bulbs range 10-15 t/ha. In case of seed production the flower heads are to be harvested as and when ripe and dried under shade. About 500 kg of seed can be obtained/ha. Seed Production Two methods are used most commonly for the production of onion seed. The most common is bulb to seed method, which involves first producing bulbs for the market and then replanting them for seed production. Medium sized bulbs are selected (2.5 to 3cm diameter) about 1500 kg/ha of bulbs are required to transplant. The bulbs are planted by the first fortnight of October at a spacing of 30cm with in the row and 45cm between the rows in ridges. About 850kg of seed can be produced from one hectare. If large sized bulbs are planted more seed yield can be obtained (about 1000kg) but it requires more seed rate and larger space. For nucleus and foundation seed production, the bulb to seed method should be followed. The storing and transplanting of bulbs provide an opportunity for selection and rouging. However seed to seed method may produce a higher quality of seed but roughing becomes problem. Intercultivation Manual weeding followed by earthing up at 30, 45 days after transplanting Weed management Spraying pendimethalin 3.5 l/ha one week after transplanting onion seedlings.

Plant Protection Pests Thrips (Thrips tabaci) Both nymphs and adults remain at leaf bases and whorls and feed by sucking. The infestation causes pale whitish blotches on leaves and in case of severe attack, the leaves dry from tip downwards. The development of onion or Garlic bulbs is affected to a great extent. Cotnrol Spray dimethoate @ 2.0 ml/l or methyl dematon @ 2.0 ml/l or moncrotophos @ 1.5 ml/l Mite (Aceria tulipae) Infested leaves show yellow patches. Plants get stunted.

196

Control Apply Dimethoate/Ethion (0.05%) at initial stage of infestation. Onion Fly (Delia antiqua) Maggots feed on developing bulb underground. Secondary infection by fungus causes soft rot of onion. Control Cultivars of Allium fistulosum are resistant. Apply arbofurean/Phorate (0.5 kg/ha) ro neem cake (500 kg/ha) to soil while sowing only Cut-worm (Agrotis ipsilon) Seedlings are cut from the base at night by cut-worms. Control As and when observed soil application with Chlorpyriphos (0.1%) may be done. Groundnut earwing (Euborellia annulipes) Bores into onion bulbs Control As and when observed soil application with Chlorpyriphos (0.1%) may be done. Leaf Eating Caterpillar (Spodoptera exigua) Caterpillar bores in to Onion leaves. The early instar larvae feed on surface of leaves in group and later instar larvae form irregular holes. At bulb maturing stage larvae feed on the internal content of the bulb. Control Spray Endosulfan 0.07% 2 ml/l of water.

Diseases Leaf Blight (Alternaria perri) This is the most common and devastating disease of onion in the state and is noticed at all stages of the crop from November to May. Purple to dark coloured spots appear on the leaves and at the spots increase in size and colour, the leaves turn yellow and whither. In severe cases the leaf gets girdle out at the infected region, and dry up. Incidence up to 48% has been observed. Spray mancozeb @ 2.5g/l or ziram @ 2g/l or carbendazim @ 1g/l four to five sprays at 7-10 days interval starting from first symptom appearance. Leaf spot (Cercospora sp.)

197

It is noticed in the off season crop in the form of large oval and grey spots on the leaves. In this case the affected leaves gradually turn pale and dry up. The leaf infection was found up to 3%. Control The incidence of the above two leaf diseases can be minimized by timely sprays of Bordeaux mixture 1% fortnightly intervals. Damping Off (Corticium solani) This affects the germinating seeds and seedlings in the nursery beds. The important commercial varieties like Bellary big, Sattenapalli, Devanapalli and Rayaduraga are found susceptible. Control Drenching the soil with 1% Bordeaux mixture or wettable Ceresan 0.3% reduces the disease incidence. Storage Rot (Erwinia spp.) The onions while in storage are subject to rotting caused by abactirium and fungus resulting in a loss upto 30%. Control Storing of the bulbs in proper aerated and well ventilated storage structures and elminating the rotted bulbs by periodical turning of the storage heaps are recommended in minimizing the losses during storage. Remove debris and disinfect walls of warehouse with Formaldehyde (1% in 10 gallons of water) or copper sulphate 0.5kg in 25 lit of water.

GARLIC (Allium sativum L) Garlic has been considered as a rich source of carbohydrates, protein and phosphorus. Garlic having various medicinal uses is used as a gastric stimulant, which aids in digestion and absorption of food. It is also reported to be useful in reducing the cholesterol concentration in human blood. The inhalation of garlic oil or garlic juice has been recommended in cases of pulmonary tuberculosis, rheumatism, cough and red eyes. Apart from medicinal uses garlic has been reported to contain certain insecticidal, fungicidal and bactericidal action also.

198

Nutritive composition of fresh peeled garlic cloves and dehydrated garlic powder (Pruthi,1979) is as given below. Particulars Moisture Protein Fat Mineral Matter Fibre Carbohydrates Calcium Phosphorus Potassium Iron Niacin Sodium Vitamin A (I.U.) Nicotinic Acid (mg/100g) Vitamin C (mg/100g) Vitamin B (mg/100g) Vitamin B2 (mg/100g) Fresh peeled garlic cloves (%) 62.80 6.30 0.10 1.00 0.80 29.00 0.03 0.31 0.001 0.40 13.00 Dehydrated garlic powder (%) 5.20 17.50 0.60 3.20 1.90 71.40 0.10 0.42 1.10 0.004 0.70 0.01 175.00 12.00 0.68 0.08

Garlic has originated from Central Asia. This is a crop of the tropics, grown extensively in India. This is a common spice in Indian house hold and has several medicinal uses. Climate Garlic prefers mild temperatures and does not stand either drought or ill-drained conditions. It will not tolerate excessive humidity or rainfall. It is generally grown as a cool season crop in our State. Season It is normally grown in rabi season. Soils Loamy soils with good drainage and adequate irrigation facilities are ideal for development of bulbs. Varieties There are hardy any recognized variety in our state. Local varieties are common. Ramnagar variety of Rajasthan It produces bold cloves and popular variety in Rajasthan and other areas in the country. Desi or Local Variety

199

Cloves are white in colour and have fairly big cloves. Agrifound White (G - 41) Bulbs are compact, silvery white with creamy flesh, bigger elongated cloves with 2025 in number and high yielder. Yamuna Safed (G -1) Bulbs are compact, silvery white with creamy flesh, sickle shaped cloves with 25-30 in number and high yielder. Yamuna Safed 2 (G -50) Bulbs are compact, attractive white with creamy flesh, with 35-40 cloves in number and high yielder. Yamuna Safed 3 (G -282) Bulbs are creamy white and bigger in size with 15-16 cloves per bulb and medium storer and the variety is suitable for export. Yamuna Safed 4 (G -323) Bulbs are silvery white and bigger in size with 20-25 cloves per bulb. Agrifound parvathi (G-313) Bulbs are bigger in size creamy white colour with pinkish tinge, 10-16 cloves per bulb and tolerant to common diseases. Planting material and Sowing The garlic is propagated by the segments of the bulb which are known as cloves. It may be sown by broadcasting or planted in furrows or dibbled at a distance of three inches within the row and 6 to 9 inches between rows. The cloves are put down at a depth of 1 to 2 inches. The field is irrigated immediately after sowing to facilitate sprouting of the cloves. Gap filling is done within the first fortnight. Manures and Fertilizers The field is made into small beds and channels for convenient size and 15 to 20 cart loads of farmyard manure is incorporated in the last ploughing. The Fertilizer requirements are 60 kg N, 35 kg P 2O5 and 60 kg K2O/ha for chalka soils or light sandy soils. But this is to be adopted according to the soil and local conditions. The P 2O5 may be given in the last ploughing before forming the beds. Irrigation Crop should be irrigated at an interval of 8-10 days during vegetative growth and 10-15 days during maturation.

200

Interculture First weeding is done after one month planting and second weeding is done after two months of planting. Hoeing the crop and earthing up just before the formation of bulbs (about two to two and half months after sowing) loosens the soil and helps in the setting of bigger and well filled bulbs. Harvesting Garlic crop is harvested when the tops turn brownish and shows signs of drying up. The leaves of the bulbs are tied together and after curing them in shade for 3 to 4 days they are stored in ventilated rooms. The tops are separated before marketing. Yield The normal yield is about 100 150 q/ha, under proper culture and yields upto 200 q/ha can be obtained. Plant Protection Pests Thrips (Thrips tabaci) Both nymphs and adults remain at leaf bases and whorls and feed by sucking. The infestation causes pale whitish blotches on leaves and in case of severe attack, the leaves dry from tip downwards. The development of onion or Garlic bulbs is affected to a great extent. Cotnrol Spray dimethoate @ 2.0 ml/l or methyl dematon @ 2.0 ml/l or moncrotophos @ 1.5 ml/l Mite (Aceria tulipae) Infested leaves show yellow patches. Plants get stunted. Control Apply Dimethoate/Ethion (0.05%) at initial stage of infestation. GINGER (Zingiber officinalis L) Ginger is an important spice crop cultivated in India in an area of 1,766 hectares. India is the largest producer of dry ginger in the world accounting for more than half the total world production. In Anhra Pradesh, it is cultivated in an area of 2508 hectares mainly in Visakhapatnam ( 1931 ha), Medak (311 ha), Rangareddy (91 ha), Nizamabad (77 ha), Guntur (58 ha), Srikakulam (25 ha) and limited areas in other districts lke Krishna East and West Godavari. Climate

201

Warm humid weather is congenial Season The seeds will be sown from the end of April to first fortnight of May. Delayed sowing increases, the rhizome-rot disease and reduces the yield. Soils It can be grown in a wide range of soils with good drainage like sandy or clayey loams and red loams to laterite loams. Garden soils rich in humus content are idea. However, well drained soils are most suitable. The site selected should not have any impervious hard rock or heavy clay layer within 45 to 60 cm depth impending drainage. Varieties Siddipet Local - Suitable for Telengana region Bhyrl Tuni Narsipatnam Rio-de-janeiro (Brazil) - It can be used as a fresh ginger, high in fibre prefixed for extraction of oleoresin. Susceptible to diseases. V1 S1-8 V3 S1-8 V2 E5-2 (171) - Less fibre content tolerant to leaf spot diseases. Good quality with high yield potential. Seeds and Sowing Prepare beds of 1.2 m x 1.8 m sizes. These beds should be provided with alternate irrigation andf drainage channels. The irrigation channels can be 20 to 25 cm depth but the drainage channels should be 45 cm deep. Procure healthy seed rhizomes from disease free crop. They should be well matured, plumpy and hard when pressed. Before planting, cut the sprouted rhizomes into pieces, weighing about 10-25 g and treat them with 0.3% Dithane M-45 for half an hour plant the seed pieces with sprouted buds in the first fortnight of May. Plant the seed 45 cm apart and 10 to 15 cm with in the line. 2250 rhizomes sufficient per hectare of palnting. Sowing of cowpea at the rate of 50-60 kg/ha as mulch crop to provide shade, conserve moisture and ensure better germination of ginger. Showing of castor on bunds alround the ginger field (and also at 9 meters intervals within the field) to serve as wind break and also to provide some shade. Remove cowpea 60 days after sowing and earth up ginger forming ridges and furrows spaced 45 cm apart. Manures and Fertilizers

202

Farmyard manure 50 t/ha and P2O5 60 kg/ha should be applied as basal dressing. 30 kg of Nitrogen and 30 kg of Potash/ha apply near the rhizomes at 40th day after planting. 60 kg Nitrogen and 60 kg Potash/ha at 80th day and a final dose of 30 kg Nitrogen and 30 kg Potash/ha should be applied at 120th day followed by eating up of the crop. As and when micro-nutrient deficiencies like Zinc, manganese etc., are observed they may be applied by foliar spray. Intercultivation The beds are mulched immediately after planting. Field is hand weeded three or four times and plants earthed up once or twice. The rainfed crop is given a second and a third leaf mulch at the time of weeding, hoeing and earthing up. In coconut and young coffee and orange gardens, ginger is grown as an inter crop. Irrigation Irrigate the crop during the different seasons according to the soil and climatic conditions and crop needs. Irrigations may be given a 4 days interval in summer, 7 days interval in post monsoon period. During the rainy season, it may not be necessary to irrigate ginger crop if there is more than 2.5 cm rain in 12 days. During heavy rains, care should be taken to see that there is no stagnation of water in the field after the rain. Harvesting and Post-harvest Technology The crop gets ready for harvest from November onwards when the leaves turn yellow and stems begin to dry. A part of it may be harvested a little early, if there is a good demand for green ginger. Complete drying of leaves and pseudostem indicate the maturity of the crop. Leaves are cut close to the ground. Underground rhizomes are dug out by manual labour. In case of poor growth or dull market, the crop can be left unharvested for a year to make up in growth and yield. Curing After reserving a small quantity of rhizomes for seed, the ginger is cleaned of adhering earth and soaked in water to facilitate removal of skin. The skin is scraped off with pieces of sharpened bamboo or bits of sea shells. Scraped produce is washed, dried in the sun for three or four days and hand rubbed. It is again steeped in wate for two hours, dried and then rubbed with coarse cloth to remove all remaining bits of skin. Sun drying also bleaches the produce. Plant Protection Pests

203

Rhyzome Fly (Chalcidomyia atricomis) These maggots are white in colour and stay in decayed rhizomes. Good cultivation practices should be adopted to avoid decaying of rhizomes. Proper drainage should be ensured. If the infestation is high apply phorate 10 g @ 1.00 kg a.i/ha (10 kg/ha). Skippers (Udaspee folus) These larvae fold the leaves and feed on the chlorophyll. Control Spray 0.1% carbaryl 50% W.P. i.e. @ 2 g/l of water once in 10 days intervals depending on necessity. 500 l of spray fluid is required per hectare. Shoot Borer (Dichocrosic punctiferalis) These larvae bore on shoots, resulting the death of central shoot. Control Spray endosulfan 0.07% of 35% EC @ 2 ml/l of water about 625 l of spray fluid is sufficient for one hectare. Root Grubs At the time of germination these grubs cuts away the growing shoots. Control Dusting of BHC Carbarg 5% dust 25 kg/ha. Diseases Soft Rot (Pythium spp.) Symptoms like drying up of the shoot and decaying of rhizomes will be noticed. Control Treat the seed with Thiram 0.25% i.e. @ 2.5 g/l of water. Afterwards, spraying on the main field is also good to some extent. Leaf Spot (Phyllosticta zingiberi) In Andhra Pradesh the disease is common during monsoon months. Initially disease appears as small, yellowish oval to elongated spots on the leaves measuring 0.5-1.0 mm. The spots enlarge, turn to white and papery at the centre with dark brown margin surrounded by ayellow halo. Spots are usually isolated but under humid conditions they coalesce with one another developing towards the margin forming a big lesion. Black minute pycnidia develop in the white papery centre of the spots which is conspicuous in the later stages of the3 disease. Control Spray Dithane M-45 @ 0.20%. TURMERIC

204

(Curcuma longa L) Turmeric is an important spice crop grown on a commercial scale and is in great demand in India and other oriental countries. India occupies a pride of place with an area of 5.71 million hectares producing 7.93 million tones. Andhra Pradesh stands first in the country with an area of 67.78 thousand hectares producing 420.19 thousand tones. It is mainly cultivated in Krishna, Guntur, Cuddaph, Kurnool, East and West Godavari, Nizamabad, Karimnagar, Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam districts of Andhra Pradesh. It is widely used in food as a spice and condiment and also used in Indian medicines and cosmetics. Climate Humid climate is congenial. Hence, there is a practice of providing shade to the crop by inter-planting castor. Optimum time of planting is last week of May for short duration varieties, first fortnight of June for medium duration varieties and second fortnight of July for long duration varieties. Soils Turmeric is a tropical crop. It grows on light black, ashy loam and red soils in irrigated and rainfed areas. However, it thrives best in a welled rained sandy soil or clayey -loam soil. The crop can't stand waterlogging or alkalinity. Rich loamy soils having natural drainage and irrigation facilities are ideal for this crop. Varieties Long Duration Types (9 months) CLL-326 It is a selection form Mydukur type. Plant grows to 60cm height. Rhizomes are long, stout, smooth and hard with pale yellow colour, with a curcumin (colour) content of 1.46%. Yield ranges from 25 to 37 t/ha or raw rhizomes with curing percentage of 19.3. It has been found to be the highest yielder in all Zones of the State and resistant to leaf blotch. CLL-327 It isa selection from Telkurpet type and resembles Mydukur type. Curcumin content of rhizomes is 3.0%. Yields equal to that of CLL-326. Curing percentage is 21.8 and this is resistant to leaf blotch diseases. Duggirala This variety is popularly grown in Guntur district. It is requted for fast yellow coloured rhizomes. Yields upto 25 t/ha.

205

Armoor Popular Nizamabad district, yields range from 25-30 t/ha and matures in nine months. Rhizomes are reputed for fast yellow colour. Yield ranges from 12-18 t/ha. Medium Duration Types (8 months) CLL-317 It is a selection from amruthapani Kothapeta type. Plant grows upto 57cm. Rhizomes are medium long. Thick with narrow constructions. Cucurmin content is 3.8% yield ranges from 25-35 t/ha and curing percentage is 19.6%. It is resistant to leaf spot and susceptible to leaf blotch. Kesari This variety is popular in Cuddapah and Kurnool districts and a medium duration type (8months). Rhizomes are thick and wrinkled. Yields range from 15-25 t/ha. It is susceptible to leaf spot. Short Duration Types (7 months) CA-69 It is a selection from Dindrigam type of Orisaa and matures in seven months. Plant grows to a height of 50 cm with dark green toliage. Rhizomes are long. Thin with shiny skin and aroma and curcumin content is 1.46%. Yield ranges from 15 to 20 t/ha. Curing percentage is 26.7%. Crop is tolerant to leaf spot and resistant to leaf blotch disease. Kasturi It is popular in agency and Godavari districts. Yields upto 15-20 t/ha and rhizomes are reputed for aromatic flavour. Among the clonal selections Cls NO.2A, Cls NO.9A and G.L. Puram selections (Ca 66J, Ca 66A). Yield 23-25 tons per hectare. Suguna (PCT-13) Suitable for rhizome rot effected areas, 190 days duration yield 29 t/ha curing percentage 20.4.

Sudarsana (PCT-14) All characteristics similar to that of Suguna yield 28 t/ha and curing percentage 20.6. Propagation Finger rhizomes are found to yield better crop than mother rhizomes. Healthy finger rhizomes of 7 to 8 cm length with sprouting buds have to be selected. Preparation of land

206

Turmeric crop requires clean cultivation and fine tilth and to achieve this 6 to 8 ploughings have to be given. Before the last ploughing basal dose of 25 t/ha. Farmyard manure is applied. Preparation of Planting Material Healthy finger rhizomes with sprouting buds are selected and distinfected by dripping in 0.3% Dithane M-45 and 0.5% Malthion for 30 minutes and subsequently air dried. Planting About 2,500 kg of finger rhizomes are required per hectare and rhizomes are dibbled along with the country plough. In loamy soils rhizomes are dibbled at 15cm apart in the plough furrows spaced 30cm aprt. Land is leveled and flat beds of 3 x 1.8m size are prepared providing necessary irrigation channels. In heavey soils ridge and furrow system is adopted and rhizomes are sown at 15 to 20 cm spacing behind the plough and ridged by breaking the adjacent ridge. Spacing between ridges is 45 to 60cm in low lying areas and in stiff black clay soils planted on raised beds of 1.7m x 1.2m x 0.2m length with 30cm wide channels in between. Planting is done in lines on these raised beds with 30 x 15cm spacing. Yields are higher in this method than the ridge and furrow method. Seeds and Sowing Healthy, well developed well-dried and disease -free whole or split mother rhizomes and fingers of 2500Kg. per hectare are used for planting. The crop can be sown during MayJune with the receipt of Pre-monsoon showers. Planting is done by dibbling rhizomes in furrows behind the country plough. The seed rhizomes are treated with Metalaxyl + Mancozeb @3g/lit before sowing. Manures and Fetilizers Turmeric needs very heavy manuring during the four months period after planting. Crop requires 300kg N, 125 kg P2O5 and 200 kg K2O per hectare in organic and inorganic forms. A minimum of 25 t of farmyard manure need to be applied in the last ploughing and the rest of the nutrients have phosphorus requirement has to be applied in two or three splits. First split dose of potassic fertilizer can be applied before planting. Nitrogen also has to be applied in three of four split doses. The first dose has to be applied before plant in and the rest applied at regular periods just after each weeding at monthly intervals. Fertilizer application should be completed within 120 days from the time of planting. Chemical fertilizers should be applied along with FYM and organic cakes as detailed below.

Time of apply Basal

Fertilizer FYM

Qty./ha 25 T

207

40 Days after Planting 80 Days after Planting 120 Days after Planting

Castor/Neem cake 500 Kg. SSP 375 Kg. MOP 62.5 Kg. Neem cake 500 Kg. Urea 125 Kg. Urea 125 Kg MOP 62.5 Kg. Urea 125 Kg. MOP 62.5 Kg.

Mulching The crop may be mulched immediately after planting with green leaves at the rate of 12-15 tonnes per hectare. Intercultivation Hand hoeing and weeding are necessary at 60, 90, 120 and 150 days after planting in light soils. Immediately the plants have to be earthed up. In black soils where ridge and furrow method of planting and wider spacing are adopted country plough can be worked for earthing up and removal of weeds and followed by weeding in the lines. Spray Attrazine @ 500-800 grams in 2001it. of water a day after sowing of rhizomes when there is sufficient soil moisture in the soil. Irrigation The number of irrigations given depends on the condition and type of soil. Fifteen to twenty irrigations are required for clay soils and upto forty irrigations in sany loams. Harvesting and Post-harvest Technology The main season of harvest fall during February-April depending on the duration of the variety. Complete drying of leaves and speudostem indicate the maturity of the crop. Leaves are cut close to the ground and the fields are irrigated two days before harvest. Underground rhizomes are dug with pickages by manual labour. Subsequently clumps are gathered and feed of roots and adhering soil. Fingers and other rhizomes are separated. In ridge planting crop can be harvested by polughing and then the rhizomes are gathered. Curing of fresh Rhizomes Within a week of harvest rhizomes are subjected to curing process to get the turmeric of commerce. Mothe and finger rhizomes are cured separately. Curing process consists of boiling the rhizomes in water till frothing occurs, with emission of characteristic turmeric odour and fingers becoming soft. Material is subsequently allowed to sun dry for 10-15 days on hard and smooth drying floor till the rhizomes produce metallic sound. Polishing

208

For better appearance of the produce the dried produce can be polished in rotaing drums. Storage The cured produce can be stored in pits of 4 x 3 x 2m size. Pits are dug in elevated place and dried for two days. Bottom and sides of the pits are thickly lined with grass or palmyrah mats. Subsequently cured produce is filled in pits and is covered with mats and finally with earth. The materials can be stored for one year. For preservation of seed rhizomes the material is stored by heaping them under the shade of trees. Heaps are covered with turmeric leaf and plastered with earth and cow dung mixture. It can be left undisturbed for 2 ro 3 months until sowing. Micro-nutrient deficiencies Spray Ferrous sulphate @ 5.0 g along with lime salt @ l.Og per litre of water to control 'Fe' deficiency. To control 'Zn' deficiency, apply Zinc Sulphate @ 20Kg/ac or spray Zone Sulphate @ 5.0 g + 0.5 ml sticking agent per litter of water. Yield Under optimal conditions, 30-35tonnes of fresh rhizomes and 4-5 tonnes of cured rhizomes can be expected per hectare. Plant Protection Pests Rhizome fly (Mimegralla cocruleifrons) Maggots feed on rhizomes by boring and result in dead hearts. Rhizomes also rot due to the infestation. Control Selection of healthy rhizome for planting proper drainage should be provided. Application of Phorate 10 G 10 Kg or Carbofuran 3 G 33 kg/ha (1kg al/ha) or spray with Monocrotophos 0.05% 2 ml/l water twice. Beetle pest This pest causes damage on cured produce in storage by making small holes in rhizomes and feeds on central portion resulting in loss or rhizome weight. Control Pest can be controlled by dusting lindane (0.63% gamma isomer) once in two months on foliage or Endosulfan 4% dust. Leaf mite (Pogachuru tegulu) It is caused by eriophyid mite which eats away the chlorophyll. Control

209

These mites can be controlled by spraying the foliage with Methyl Parathion 50 EC 0.05% 1 m/l or water Scale (Aspidiella hartil C.) Damage the rhizomes both in field and in storage sucking the sap. Control The pest can be controlled by dipping the seed rhizomes in 0.5% Malathion for 30 minutes prior to storage and at time of sowing. Nematode Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) Burrowing nematode (Radopholus similes) Root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.)

Meloidogyne incognita
Affected plants show stunted growth, yellowing, marginal and tip drying of leaves, reduced tillering and galling and rotting of roots. High population of M. incognita causes yellowing and severe stunting and withering in large patches. Plants die prematurely leaving a poor crop stand at harvest. Infested rhizomes lose their bright yellow colour.

Radopholus similes
The infested plants show tendency to aging and dry faster than healthy plants. Infested rhizomes are of yolk-yellow colour copared with the golden yellow colour of healthy rhizomes and have shallow water-soaked brownish areas on the surface. Roots show rotting and most of the decayed roots are devoid of cortex and stellar portion. Control Wherever nematode problems are common, use only healthy, nematode free planting material. Increasing the organic content of the soil also checks the multiplication of nematodes. Pochoma chlamydosporia can be applied to the beds at the time of sowing @ 20g/bed (at 106 cfu/g) for management of nematode problems.

Diseases Rhizome Rot or Early Wilt (Dumpa Kullu Tegulu) ( Pythium graminicolum, P. aphanidermatum, P.myriotylum, Fusarium sp.) In early stages of crop growth disease causes decay of pseudostem, resulting in the death of the plant. Control

210

Treating the seed rhizomes with Metalazyl + Mancozeb @ 3g./lit prevents disease. Apply cultured Thichoderma Viridi to the soil. When the disease is noticed in the field, the soil around the plants should be drenched with Metalaxyl + Menozeb @ 2.0 g/lit. Leaf spot (Aaku Macha) (Colletotrichum capsici) The incidence commences from 40 to 50 days after planting and spreads rapidly in humid weather. Oval shaped spots with greenish colour in the centre are developed. Affected leaves eventually dry up and yields are reduced. Control The disease mainly appears during August - October when there is countinous humidity in atmosphere. Spray Mancozeb @ 2.5g or Carbendazim @ l.Og or Thiophenate Methyl @ 1.0 g/lit. along with sticking agent when the incidence is severe. Leat blotch (Taphrina maculans) This disease appears on leaves as small, rectangular or irregular brown spots on either side of the leaves and the spots turn to dark brown. In severe cases, crop gives a scorched appearance and the yields are reduced considerably. Control Disease can be controlled by giving 4 to 5 sprays with Dithane M-45 0.25% or Dithane Z-78 0.25% at 15 days interval. CORIANDER (Coriandrum Sativum L) Coriander is one of the most important minor seed spices produced as well as exported from India. It is a very popular cheap and versatile spice used in Indian and foreign dietary and is one of the chief ingredients in Indian curry powder. The green leaves are used to flavour, seasoned chutney and salads. Coriander seed are also known for its medicinal properties. In Andhra Pradesh coriander is cultivated in an area of about 56 thousands hectares contributing about 32% of the area and 42% of the production in the country. On an extensive scale it is cultivated in Rayalaseema (Kurnool and Ananthapur), Coastal Andhra (Guntur, Prakasam and Krishna districts) and in parts of Telangana (Medak, Adilabad and Ranga Reddy districts). Climate Cool climate with low temperature and good amount of dew fall are favourable for the crop growth. Soils

211

Black cotton soils with good moisture retention are suitable for coriander cultivation under rain fed conditions. It is not cultivated on an extensive scale in light soils under irrigated conditions except in garden soils of Tadipatri area (Ananthapur District). More saline or alkaline soils with water stagnation are unfit for this crop. Season The best season for coriander cultivation is rabi depending upon the fainfall and soil moisture, the best time for sowing is between October 15th to November 15th. Varieties Sadhana (CS-4) Medium duration variety suitable for grains as well as leaf purpose because of its bushy nature and grows up to a height of 70 cm. Resistant to aphids and performs well in moisture retentive black soils. Yields range 1000 to 1100 Kg/ha. Swathi (CS-6) Short duration variety (80-85 days). Escapes powdery mildew and gives and yield of 900 Kg/ha Sindhu (CS-2) Medium duration variety with 95-100 days. Grain is medium in size with an yield of 1050 Kg/ha. Sudha (LCC-128) Medium duration variety with 80-98 days duration. Grain is bold, oblong shaped. Yield potential is of 1000 1500 Kg/ha. This variety is having high volatile oil content (0.36% to 0.40%) C.S-5 (Small grained) It is a Cosmopolitan variety with 100 days duration yielding 10-12 q/ha. C.S-7 (Late mainly for leaf and also for grain) This variety yields more leaf and bushy type with 130 days duration yielding 8-10 q/ha. The above varieties were developed at all Inida Coordinated Spices Improvement Project, RARS, Lam, Guntur. Seeds and Sowing The seeds are sown as split or whole seed between 15 th of October to 15th of November, depending upon the rainfall and soil moisture using about 12-15 kg of

212

seed/hectare, with a spacing of 30cm x 10/15 cm in between and along the rows. Split seed germinates in 2 to 3 days. Manures and Fertilizers Azospirillum seed treatment @ 1.5 kg/ha and five FYM/ha and half the Nitrogen (15 Kg/ha) gives maximum yields. In the last ploughing well rotten compost (10-15t/ha) is incorporated along with 30kg of N, 40kg P2O5 and 20kg K2O as a single basal dose in the black cotton soils and levelled. 10kg N and 10kg K2O at 30 days after sowing when irrigation is available. In light soils under irrigated conditions 45kg of N, 30kg of P2O5 and 30kg of K2O can be applied. Nitrogen is applied in two equal split doses i.e. (1 st dose in the last ploughing and second dose 30 days after germination and total quantity of phosphorus and potash as a single dose in the last ploughing and irrigated for getting higher yields. Intercultivation Two intercultivations before flowering. Broad-leaved weeds can be successfully controlled by spraying pendimethalin 30 EC @ 1 to 1.5 l/ha immediately after sowing. Irrigation 2 to 3 irrigations in light soils. Harvest Depending upon the variety the crop comes to flowering in about 40-45 days and matures in 80-130 days. The crop is harvested when 60% to 80% seeds mature and turn to light straw colour (90-100 days). Harvesting is done by pulling out the whole plants. These are kept in the field for 2-3 days and dried in partial shade to get good colour and aroma from the grain. After threshing, the seeds are cleaned properly dried, and stored in gunny bags. Post-harvest Technology The seed after careful drying and packing should be stored in shade and insect and rat proof godowns. Dusting of insecticides like Malathion dust on bags will ward off the insect damage. Marketing is done when the price is favourable.

Plant protection Pests Aphids (Hyadaphis coriandri, Myzus persicae)

213

Wilting of tender shoots, leaves and flowers and shriveling of fruits. Adults and nymphs feed on plant sap and cause wilting of tender shoots, leaves and flowers and shriveling of fruits. Pest infestation leads to formation of sooty mould. Control Spray Endosulfan 0.05% or Dichlorvos 0.05% or Thiometon 0.03% or Methylo demeton 0.05% or Monocrotophos 0.1% at 10 to 15 days interval. Mites Suck sap from under side of the leaves, severely infested leaves turn yellow to brown colour and dry. Control Spraying with Dicofol at 3 ml/L of water. Tobacco caterpillar Caterpillars feed on leaves, flowers and grains. Control Spraying with Monocrotophos 1.5ml/L of water. Diseases Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni) Infection occurs as whitish circular patches on leaves and stems and later white powdery mass appears. Affected inflorescences dry up or get shriveled. Total loss of crop in case of death of plants. When partially infected plants appear stunted. Occasionally plants become sterile, if seed set noticed seeds are light and immature. Control Spraying with 0.3% wettable sulphur or Carbendazim 0.1%. Used disease tolerant lines like Sindu, Swathi, CO3 etc., Grain discoloration (Alternaria, Fusarium, Curvularia, Helminthosporium) Fungal infestation occurs in the semi mature and mature grains when they are still intact on panicles. Reduction in the yield, quality and appearance take place. Control Spraying with Carbendazim or Mancozeb 0.25% twice at weekly interval after seed set.

AJWAN

214

The crop is becoming important recently in Andhra Pradesh. It is due to the crop is suitable to all Districts of our state, apart from that there is good market demand and very few problems while growing this crop. The total area under Ajwan in Andhra Pradesh is about 4013 hectares with estimated annual production of 2,007 tons Climate It is suitable for cool climate and dew also favours for good growth of the crop. Soils Black cotton soils (Rainfed) and light garden soils under irrigated conditions. Season Late Kharif to Rabi Varieties Lam selection-1 Comes to maturity in 150 to 160 days with 400 Kg/ha yield potential under rainfed conditions. Sowing August to September (rainfed) Septemeber to October (irrigated) Seed rate 2.5 to 3 Kg/ha Planting Planting must be done with gorru Manures and Fertilizers 20 Kg N, 40 Kg P2O5 and 20 Kg K2O as basal application Intercultivation Thinning has to be done after sowing and 2-3 weedings followed by intercultivation with gorru within 50-60 days of crop duration. Broad-leaved weeds can be successfully controlled by spraying pendimethalin 30 EC @ 1 to 1.5 l/ha immediately after sowing. Irrigation 3 to 4 irrigations at 50, 80 and 110 days after sowing. Harvesting When grains turn to straw yellow colour, plants can be harvested.

Plant protection Pests

215

Tobacco caterpillar and gram caterpillar The young caterpillars skeletonise the tender leaves by feeding the chlorofil, advance stage instars feed on leaves and flowers. Control Spraying with Chlorpyriphos 2.5ml or quinolphos 2ml/L of water. Mites They suck the sap from the under surface of the leaves. In severe infestation leaves become yellow and dry. Control Spraying with wettable sulphur at 3g/L of water. Aphids Both the nymphs and adults, suck the sap from leaves. Control Spray Monocrotophos 1.6 ml/L of water. Diseases Powdery mildew Whitish powdery patches appear on the lower surface of the leaves. Control Spraying with Karathane 1 ml or carbendazim 1g/L of water FENUGREEK (Trigonella foenumgrecum L) Fenugreek is one of the important minor spices in the Country occupying an area of about 32600 hectares, producing nearly 35710 tonnes of grain. The major Fenugreek producing. States are Rajasthan, Gujarath, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. In Andhra Pradesh it is grown mainly for leaf for flavouring purposes of dhals and curries when cooked. In Telangana even the tender plants with cotylendons and 2-3 leaves are removed and sold in the market for seasoning purposes. For grain it is grown in very small pockets here and there in circars particularly in lanka areas. The leaves are very rich in proteins ranging from 18 to 40% on dry weight basis depending upon the age of the plant. The seeds too contain proteins, minerals and vitamins and are used for improving taste of food stuffs and has rich medicinal properties. The seeds contain about 0.8% to 1% diosgenin which is the main ingredient in oral contraceptives. Climate It requires cool climate with low temperature and good amount of dew fall. Soils

216

It can be cultivated in a variety of soils. The best soils are clay and sandy loams and light garden type of soils with assured irrigation facilities. In black cotton soils under rainfed conditions the growth will be tardy. The crop can be grown throughout the State. Better yields can be obtained with 2-3 light irrigations at flowering and pod development stages. Season The best time to cultivate fenugreek is in rabi season. For leaf when raised on beds it can be grown throughout the year. Varieties Lam Selection-1 Bushy type with 75 to 80 days duration with an average yield of 750 kg/ha under rainfed conditions. The yields can be doubled if cultivated under irrigated conditions. APHU Methi 1 It is a medium duration (80-0 days) variety with an yield potential of 700 900 kg/ha under rainfed conditions and 1200-1500 kg/ha under irrigated conditions. Preparatory Cultivation The land is prepared well by ploughing 3-4 times to a fine tilth and levelled. Seed and Sowing Seeds are sown with gorru in the 2nd fortnight of October depending upon the rainfall and soil condition and can be extended to middle of November. When the crop is cultivated under irrigated conditions in light soils the field is prepared into small beds of convenient size depending upon the slope of the land and the seeds are dibbled at 30 x 6 cm spacing in between and along the rows. The seed rate/ha when sown with gorru is 30-35 kg while for dibbling 12-15 kg of seed is sufficient. Germination of the seed starts in 3-4 days and will be over in about a week. Thinning is to be done, if necessary, to avoid over crowding of plant population in the field. If the crop is meant for leafy vegetable top dressing with N is to be done 10-15 kg/ha after each cutting. About 2 cuttings can be taken for green leafy vegetable. Flower initiation starts in about 5 to 6 weeks after sowing and the crop will be ready in 10-11 weeks. Irrigations are given as and when necessary in light soils. Manures and Fertilizers 25 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 and 50 kg K2O as basal application. Rhizobium seed treatment @ 1.5 kg/ha and five t FYM/ha and half the Nitrogen (12.5 kg/ha N) given maximum yields. Intercultivation One hand weeding followed by working with tyned harrow.

217

Broad leaved weeds can be successfully controlled by spraying Pendimethalin 30 EC @ 1 to 1.5 lt/ha immediately after sowing. Irrigation 2 to 3 need based irrigation in light soils. Harvesting When 60% to 80% of pods turn to straw yellow colour, the plants are pulled out and dried in the fields. After drying, the seed is obtained by beating the pods with sticks. The seed is perfectly dried, cleaned and stored in gunny bags. Yield The yield of seed ranges from 750 to 1500 kg/ha depending upon the type of cultivation (a) rainfed or irrigated and the yield of green matter ranges from 10,000 to 12,000 kg/ha under irrigated conditions. The green leaf is some times dried and the dried leaf is used in flavouring curries and cooked mixed with dhal etc. The average yield of dried leaf ranges from 1000-1500 kg/ha. This can be properly packed stored and used upto 6 months without loosing its flavour. Plant Protection Pests Leaf eating caterpillar and pod borer Caterpillars eat away the young foliage resulting in herbage loss. Control Spraying with Monocrotophos 1.6 ml per liter of water or Quinolphos 2 ml/lt at 10 days interval depending on pest population. Aphids (Hyadaphis coriandri, Myzus persicae) Wilting of tender shoots, leaves and flowers and shirivelling of fruits. Adults and nymphs feed on plant sap and cause wilting of tender shoots, leaves and flowers and shriveling of fruits. Pest infestation leads to formation of sooty moult. Control Spray Endosulfan 0.05% or Dichlorvos 0.05% or Thiometon 0.03% or Methyl o demeton 0.05%

Heliothis, Prodenia, Grass hopper and leaf eating insects Control

Spray 0.1% of Folidol or Monocrotophos or Coroban at 10 days interval. Diseases Powdery Mildew (Erysiphe polygoni, Leveillula taurica) On leaves it appears as discoloured patches and later spreads to whole plants as a powdery mass. Yield is reduced.

218

Control Spraying 0.3% Wettable Sulphur or Carbendazim 1 gm/liter of water at weekly intervals or dusting Sulphur dust of 300 mesh twice at fortnightly intervals when the crop is one month old. FENNEL (Foeniculum vulgare) Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) is a stout, aromatic, annula herb (biennial with potency of regeneration). The volatile oil is used for manufacturing cordials and enters into the composition of fennel water, which is commonly given to infants as medicine. The root is regarded as a purgative. The fruits are used as stimulant in carminative and in cure of colic pains. The essential oil extracted from seeds is used for scenting soaps and flavouring material for cakes. In Inida, seeds are used for mastication and chewing alone or with betel leaves. It is mainly cultivated in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana. Climate Fennel requires cool and dry climate for its cultivation. Dry and moderately cool weather conditions during seed formation increase seed yield as well as quality of produce. Soils Except sandy soil, fennel can successfully be cultivated in all types of soils having sufficient amount of organic matter. Black cotton soils, alluvial to sandy loams and other light soils containing lime with proper drainage are better suited for its cultivation. Varieties Lam Selection 1 Crop matures in 150 -155 days with an yield potential of 1000-1100 kg/ha Lam Selection 2 Crop matures in 150 -165 days with an yield potential of 1000-1200 kg/ha Sowing Under rainfed cultivation sowing must be taken up in the last week of August to first fortnight of September. Under irrigated conditions September first fortnight to October second fortnight. Land preparation Land should be prepared to fine tilth with two ploughings followed by harrowing for direct sowing. Better yield can be obtained by transplanting 40-45 days old seedlings on ridges made at 60 cm wide with 20 cm spacing from plant to plant. Seed Rate

219

2.25 kg/ha Spacing 60 x 20 cm. Manures and Fertilizers 30 kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 30 kg K2O along with 25 t/ha FYM as a basal dose. Topdressing with 30 kg N and 30 kg K2O at 30 DAS and 60 DAS by placement. Intercultivation Thinning has to be done 15-30 days after germination with in the row (for direct sown crop) to have a spacing of 20 cm from plant to plant. Fennel faces severe weed competition at early stages because of slow germination, wider row spacing and frequent light irrigations. Keep the field free from weeds with 2-3 hoeings. For transplanted crop weeding at 20th, 40th day followed by earthing up. Pre emergence application of Pendimethalin @ 1kg/ha supplemented with one hand weeding 50 days after sowing controls weeds effectively. Irrigation Fennel is long duration crop, requiring more irrigation than other seed spices. Seed germination in fennel requires one or two light irrigations. It is irrigated at an interval of 1525 days. Water stress during flowering and seed formation may adversely affect the seed formation and grain yield. Harvesting Depending on maturity of variety (150-170 days). All the umbels do not mature at the same time. The physiologically matured umbels to be plucked 4-5 times shadedried and threshed. Yield On an average, fennel yields 8 10 q/ha. Post Harvest Technology Dried and clean seeds should be stored in jute bags in free aerated store. The seeds are cleaned with the help of vacuum gravity separator or spiral gravity separator. To get good price and easy marketing, the produce should be graded and stored properly. Plant Protection Pests Aphids (Hyadaphis coriandri, Myzus persicae) Wilting of tender shoots, leaves and flowers and shirivelling of fruits. Adults and nymphs feed on plant sap and cause wilting of tender shoots, leaves and flowers and shriveling of fruits. Pest infestation leads to formation of sooty moult.

220

Control Spray Endosulfan 0.05% or Dichlorvos 0.05% or Thiometon 0.03% or Methyl o demeton 0.05% Caterpillars (Helicoverpa sp. and Spodoptera sp.) Spray 1.6 ml Monocrotophos or 2 ml Quinolphos or 2.5 ml of Chloripyriphos in one liter of water twice in 10-15 days interval. Diseases Damping off Severe damage in nursery stage affected plants will die in groups. Control Drenching with Copper oxy chloride @ 3g/lit of water Powdery mildew(Erysiphe polygoni) Infection occurs at flowering stage in cloudy weather. In initial stages whitish powdery patches appear on leaves and on stems. Control Spray 3 gm Wettable sulphur or Kerathane 1 ml or 1 gm Carbendazim per litre Rumularia blight (Rumularia foeniculi) The symptoms appear on lower leaves in dark brown spots. It affects the quality and yield of crop due to poor seed formation. Alternaria blight (Alternaria tenius) The symptoms appear on inflorescence and in top of young leaves in the form of brown patches. Flower buds turn yellowish and dries up. in dark brown spots. It affects the quality and yield of crop due to poor seed formation Control Spraying of 1 gm Carbendazim or Mancozeb @ 2.5 g/lit at weekly intervals.

***

221

PLANTATION CROPS

222

CASHEW (Anacardium Occidentale L) Andhra Pradesh has an area about 1,82,000 hectares under cashew with annual production of 1,10,000 tons of raw nuts. Important cashew growing districts in A.P. are Guntur, Krishna, East and West Godavari, Srikakulam, Visakhapatnam, Vizianagaram, Nellore and Prakasam. Climate It requires a warm humid climate, with a minimum of 600 mm rainfall, but well distributed rainfall is more important. Cashew thrives under a wide range of temperatures from 15 OC to 40OC. Cashew does not grow well in areas subject to frost and cold waves. It is also drought resistant. Soils It has a high degree of adaptability and can be raised on any soil free from rocky strata or hard pan and water stagnation. The best soils for cashew are deep friable, well drained sandy loam soils. Hilly slopes up to an elevation of 700m above mean scale level can also be utilized for cashew cultivation. Varieties The following improved varieties have been released for commercial cultivation from the Cashew Research Station, Bapatla. BPP-1 (H2/11) A hybrid between Tree No.1 and 273 of Cashew Research Station, Bapatla produces 15% bisexual flowers. Nuts are medium in size weighing about 5g with a shelling percentage of 26. It yields on an average about 12kg of raw nuts per tree per year BPP-2 (H2/12) This is another hybrid obtained from the same above parentage. Produces about 8% bisexual flowers. However the nuts are smaller, weighing about 4g with a shelling percentage of 26. On an average, it yields about 15kg of raw nuts per year. BPP-3 (SCH 3/3) It is a moderate sized tree. A late bearer with about 15 percent bisexual flowers. The nuts are of medium size (5 g) with shelling percentage of 25. It also yields about 25 kg of raw nuts on an average per year. BPP-4 (EPM 9/8)

223

This is a vigorous growing tree and produces about 8 percent bisexual flowers. On an average it gives an yield of about 10 kg per annum. BPP-5 (TR. No. 1) Highly intensive branching type tree. It produces about 10 percent bisexual flowers and is a prolific yielder. The nuts are medium in size (5 g.) with a shelling percentage of 25. It gives an average yielding of 42 kg per year at an age of 40 years. BPP- 6 (TR. No. 56) It is a vigorous and high yielder. It produces about 8 percent perfect flowers. Nuts are of medium size (6 g) with a shelling percentage of 26. At an age of 40 years it gives an average yield of 57 kg. per year. BPP-8 (H 2/16) This is a hybrid with 18 percent bisexual flowers. Nut size is medium bold weighing 8.2 g. and the shelling percentage is 29. It gives 21.5 kg. yield per tree per year. BPP-9 (H 3/28) This is also a hybrid with 15 percent bisexual flowers. Nut size is medium bold weighing 6.7 g. and the shelling percentage is 28. It gives 24.6 kg. yield per tree per year. VRI-2 (M 44/3) This is a selection from Tamilnadu suitable for Andhra Pradesh. Nut size is medium weighing 5.1 g and shelling percentage is 28. It gives mean nut yield of 7.4 kg per tree. Preparation of land If the selected site is a jungle area, all the vegetation on the site has to be cleared. If the land is undulating, bunding and terracing are done to check soil erosion. Then the land is ploughed on both ways to uproot the stumps, stubbles, which are removed promptly. Finally the land is levelled. Propagation Cashew is commercially propagated by soft wood grafting which has been standardized and commercially utilized for large scale production of plant material in the country. Seedlings raised from the raw nuts should not be used as planting material as it gives lot of variation in growth and yield. Grafts are recommended for precocity, uniformity in quality and for higher yields. Spacing Normal spacing recommended for cashew is 8 m x 8 m for poor soils to 10m x 10m for rich and deep soils and sandy coastal areas. On lands with steep slope, the rows may be

224

spaced 10-15m apart with a spacing of 6-8 m between the trees in a row. High density planting wit 4mx4m spacing (625 plants/ha) was found to give increase in yield by 2.5 times over normal density planting in the initial 10 years. After 11 th year, alternate plants need to be thinned out in order to avoid overlapping of canopy. Planting Grafts of above 6 months age with 10-12 leaves can be planted in pits of 60 X 60 X 60 cm size during June to January months by providing irrigation or pot watering. During planting the graft joint must be at least 10-15 cm above the ground level and the ball of earth should not be disturbed. Pits has to be filled with FYM, need cake, red soil, tank silt and rock phosphate or SSP After care For the first two or three years, regular watering is necessary for the better establishment of the young grafts. The grafts are stalked and protected from scorching sun in summer by providing shade with palmyra leaves and from cattle damage by fencing. The allies are ploughed to suppress weed growth. The basins of young plants may be mulched with dry leaves to conserve moisture in summer and also to suppress the weed growth in the basins. Manures and Fertilizers Cashew responds well to manuring. Manuring is very essential to get early and high yields in new plantations and to get regular high yields in mature plantations. The following fertilizer schedule is recommended in grams per tree. Since cashew is grown under neglected conditions, application of nutrients is not usually done. Cashew responds well to fertilizer application. Application of organic manure at 30 kg/tree along with in organic fertilizers i.e., NPK at 500 g + 125g + 125g /tree in two splits during June-July and September- October based on soil nutrient status increases the yield. In red soils recommended dose can be applied in single split. Improving the soil fertility through application of organic manures and raising of green manure crops. Being a deciduous tree cashew provides approximately 5.0 tonnes of cashew biomass in the form of fallen leaf, twigs, flowers and apples. Use of earth worms for the production of vermicompost from cashew biomass is a low cost technology. About 3.5 tons of vermicompost can be produced from an area of 1 ha of grown up cashew orchard. Age of tree Firtst year Second year June-July 1st Dose N (g/tree) P (g/tree) K (g/tree) FYM, Neem cake, SSP in pits 85 20 20 September-October 2nd Dose N (g/tree) P (g/tree) K (g/tree) 85 20 20

225

Third year 170 40 40 170 40 40 Fourth year 250 60 60 250 60 60 onwards The above fertilizers are to be applied in two split doses. The first dose may be given in July-August, while the second dose in October-November. Fertilizers are applied in trenches (10-15 cm deep) dug about 100-150 cm away from the trunk. Intercropping Inter crops like groundnut, black gram, cowpea, ragi, gingelly, vegetables, fruit crops such as pineapple, spices such as turmeric, pepper, ginger are found profitable inter crops where increase in total returns from unit land is high during early stage of cashew plantation. Irrigation Grafts needs regular watering for initial establishment. Irrigation during nut development (March, April and May) will increase the nut size and yield. Cashew is mostly cultivated under rain fed conditions in many parts of the country. By providing protective irrigation of 200 Lt/tree once in 15 days from flowering to fruit development doubles the yield. Application of water through drip irrigation @ 80Lt/tree at 4 days interval also increases the yield by two folds since the cashew is predominantly grown under rain fed condition it is essential to conserve the water as well as soil. In flat to medium sloppy lands terraces have to be made with crescent bund for efficient utilization of the available water during pre and post monsoon periods. Pruning Majority of the cashew plantations are established without proper pruning, training and canopy management. Such plantations become unmanageable due to erratic branching and un even spreading of canopy. Lower branches die due to shading effect resulting in poor flowering and fruiting branches per unit area there by reducing the yield. Pruning as to be taken up alternate years by removal of dried and criss crossed branches and branches crawling close to the ground in the month of June to July. Top Working Top working is a technique evolved to rejuvenate the unproductive and senile cashew trees. Poor yielding trees of 5-20 years of age can be successfully rejuvenated by top working. The unproductive trees are to be headed back to a height of 0.75 to 1.00 m from the ground level. The stem should be sawed off to avoid stump splitting. The best season for beheading trees is May-September. Soon after beheading, the stumps and cut portions should be given a swabbing with blitox and sevin 50% WP (50 g. each per litre of water). Sprouts emerge 30-45 days after beheading. Sprouting will be profuse in young

226

trees. On 20-25 day old new shoots, graft scions of high yielding varieties following soft wood grafting technique. 10-15 graftings are to be done on every tree to ensure at least 6-7 successful grafts per tree. The best season for grafting is July-November. Thinning of the extra shoots arising from the stumps should be done to obtain better growth of the grafts. Removal of sprouts below the graft joint and removal of polyethylene strip from the graft joint should be done. Top working is simple and can be done by farmers themselves after getting proper training. The top worked trees start yielding right from the second year of top working. Early bearing can be treated as one of the best advantages of this technique. attack. The major As such disadvantage associated with top working is the huge casualty of trees due to stem borer Intensive care and management to ward off stem borer is essential. adoption of top working on a larger scale would be difficult. Harvesting Cashew trees (Grafts) normally come to bearing in 3-5 years after planting, but economic yields can be expected only after 7th year and by 10th year the yields will be stabilized. Cashew flowers in January-February in A.P. Harvesting commence from April and ends by May-June. The nuts take 45-60 days to mature and for complete development and hardening and when the growth of the nut ceases the apple starts growing and ripens in 20 days, requiring about 60 days for complete development. The fallen ripened apples with matured nuts are collected and after separation of the nuts from apple, the nuts are sun dried for 2-3 days before storing to bring the moisture content down to 10-12% and stored in tins or gunny bags. The tree yields in cashew vary very widely. An ideal cashew tree should give an yield of 20kg of raw nuts per tree per year. However, majority of the trees yield 2 to 3 kg per tree in the existing plantations. Uses Cashew nut is the most versatile of all nuts. The kernels are rich in nutrients and are put to use in a variety of ways. The kernels are used in cocktail parties, in confectionaries. They are mostly salted. The kernels are low in carbohydrates but rich in proteins, fats and vitamins. The kernel oil is reported to be superior to olive oil and almond oil. The testa of the kernel is rich in tannins and hence mainly used in leather industry. It is also used as poultry feed.

227

The cashew nut shell liquid is extracted from the hard shell. It is a by-product of the cashew industry. It is a versatile industrial raw material being used in preparation of resins, varnishes, paints, plastics, insecticides, brake linings, wood preservatives, cosmotics etc. The brightly coloured, swollen peduncle of cashew furits is cashew apple. The apple is fleshy, juicy and is rich in vitamin C. However, at present most of the produce is not at all being utilized. From cashew apple, tasty drinks can be prepared by mixing with juice of lime, pineapple, grapes etc. Jam, chutney and pickles can also be prepared out of cashew apple. Feni is most popular wine prepared from cashew apple in Goa. Plant protection Cashew plantation should be kept weed free, the lower and dried branches should be cut and removed for allowing sunlight to the base of the tree. At the time of pruning the cut ends of branches should in variably be treated with neem oil 5% mixed with carbaryl 0.2% immediately to avoid oviposition by cashew stem and root borer. Stem and root borer (Plocaederus ferrugineus L.) The pest is common in old and neglected plantations. It occurs throughout the year, but more prevalent during the rainy season. The adult lays eggs in crevices and cracks of bark on the trunk and exposed roots. The hatched grubs bore in to the bark. As a result the vascular tissues are damaged, the ascent of the plant sap is arrested, leaves turn yellow and are shed and finally the tree dies. The grubs pupate in a calcareous cocoon in the feeding tunnel. The symptoms of infestation include the presence of small holes in the collar region, gummosis and extrusion of fross. Control Periodical monitoring of the crop is very essential to prevent the infestation by cashew stem and root borer. Neglected management is the root cause of cashew stem and root borer problem. Trees with symptoms of yellowing, dried and dead trees should be removed immediately along with roots by digging pit of 2 feet around the base of the trunk and disposed off. The cocoons present around the trunk and root system 1 to 2 feet below the soil surface should be destroyed mechanically. Tree base must be kept clean and weed free so as to observe the gum exudation which is the early symptom of borer attack. Extraction and killing of the grubs & cocoons by chiseling the affected portion of bark of trunk or root followed by spraying the chiseled portion with neem oil 5% or chlorpyriphos 0.2% or carbaryl 1.0% and earthling up on to the chiseled portion.

228

More than 50% of the bark circumference on the trunk/root should not be removed while extracting the grubs and or cocoons. As prophylactic measure the tree trunk up to a height of 1 m.and the exposed roots should be sprayed with neem oil 5% thrice during the year at an interval of 4 months starting from June onwards or onset of monsoon.

Swabbing the pest infested portion after removal of different stages of pest and drenching the root zone with chlorpyriphos 0.2% as post extraction prophylaxis effective in reducing re infestation up to 70.7%

Tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis antonii. S) The tea mosquito bug is one of the serious pests of cashew tree. The nymphs and adults attack the tender shoots, leaves, inflorescence, tender nuts and apples. Sucking of the plant sap by the bugs results in different types of symptoms. Crinkling, distortion and drying up is the common symptom on tender leaves. On tender shoots there is oozing out of a resinous substance which later on hardens into a gummy substance. The spots later on turn to black lesions and gradually the shoots dry up. Feeding on the inflorescence results in black patches on the axils and later on the whole inflorescence turns black and dries up resulting in heavy crop losses. The scorching and drying up of inflorescence is also called as blossom blight. When tender nuts are attacked, blackish depressions appear on the nuts and the nuts shrivel and dry up. Trees heavily attacked cashew trees by Helopeltis present a scorched appearance which can be made out from a distance. Control Spraying with monocrotophos (1.4 ml/litre), Chlorpyriphos (2.0 ml/litre) and carbaryl (2 g/l) during flushing, flowering and nut formation stages respectively are essential to control the pest. Leaf and blossom webber (Lamida moncusalis W.) This is a major pest in the state, appearing regularly throughout the year particularly at the time of emergence of new flush. Generally young trees suffer more. The adult moth lays eggs at the growing point. The caterpillar on emergence webs the terminal leaves as well as panicles and feeds inside, by scrapping the epidermal layers. The pest can be identified by such webs on the plants. As a result flowers fail to open and there will be no crop. It also feeds on tender, developing nuts and apples by scraping the epidermal layers, which drop prematurely. Control

229

Spraying with monocrotophos (1.4 ml/litre), Chlorpyriphos (2.0 ml/litre) and carbaryl (2 g/l) during flushing, flowering and nut formation stages respectively are essential to control the pest. Apple and nut borer (Thylocoptila panrosema M.) This pest causes direct loss to the crop. It appears at the time of fruiting. The larvae bore into either apple or nut at the joint and feed inside. As a result the development of kernel is arrested, the nuts get shrivelled, apples get hallowed and shrivelled and they drop prematurely. As the caterpillars reside inside the apple and nuts, they are out of reach for the chemicals. As such preventive measures are more important. Control All the foliage, floral and fruit & nut feeders [ from (ii) to (vi) above] can be kept under control by application of the insecticides as per the schedule which consists of sprayings with monocrotophos (1.4 ml/litre), Chlorpyriphos (2.0 ml/litre) and about one month. Flower Thrips (Rhynchothrips raoensis, Scirtothrips dorsalis) They cause immature shedding of flowers. Scabs on floral branches, apples and nuts are affects. Control Spray Monocrotophos @ 1.5 ml/litre or Chlorpyriphos 0.05% Leaf miner (Acrocerops syngramma M.) This pest appears regularly at the time of emergence of new flush. The caterpillars mine into the young and developing leaves and cause blisters on the leaves and feed on the tissues. Control Spray Monocrotophos (1.4 ml/litre), Chlorpyriphos (2.0 ml/litre) and carbaryl (2 g/l) during flushing. Shoot and Infloresence tip borer (Hileria haligramma. M) The pest appears throughout the year, particularly at time of flowering and fruiting . The caterpillar feeds on leaves, tender shoots, inflorescence stalks, apples and nuts. At the time of new flush the caterpillar folds the tender leaves from one margin and feeds inside. Then it enters the tender shoots by making a hole at the tip and feeds inside, causing drying up of twigs and panicles. At fruiting time, the larva enters the fruit at the joint of the apple and nut and feeds inside, causing premature fruit drop. carbaryl (2g/litre) during flushing , flowering and nut formation stages respectively at an interval of

230

Control Spray Monocrotophos (1.4 ml/litre), Chlorpyriphos (2.0 ml/litre) and carbaryl (2 g/l).

Damping off seedlings (Fusarium spp, Phythium spp, Phytophthora palmivora spp, Cylindrocladium scoparium) The fungi attack either root or collar region of the tender seedlings. In case of

P.palmivora attack, affected seedlings become pale, showing water soaked girdles of dark
tissues around the stem and seedlings droop and die. In case of C.scoparium wilting and withering of seedlings and presence of necrotic lesions leading to rotting of underground parts occur. The disease occurs in the nursery stage, causing mortality of seedling. Control Drenching of seedlings/grafts at fortnightly intervals with Bordeaux mixture 1% during rainy season and cloudy weather conditions. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporiodes) Reddish brown, shiny, water soaked lesions along with the resinous exudation. Control Removal of effected leaves, spraying of Carbendazim 1g/l or 1% Bordeaux mixture as soon as the disease appears. Monitor for the disease particularly during rainy season and cloudy weather conditions which enhance the disease very fast. COCONUT (Cocos nucifera L) The coconut palm is a versatile plant with a variety of uses. Every part of it is useful to manking in one form or the other. It supplies food, drink and shelter and also raw materials for a number of industries. Coconut is frequently used in various ceremonies like wedding, dedication of buildings and sacrificial occasions. Mature dehusked nut possesses three district raw materials i.e., wet meat or Kernel (50%), water (17%) and shell (33%) by weight approximately. The Wet meat or Kernel The Kernel or endosperm of the matured coconut is an important food in all the coconut growing countries. Apart from being used for culinary purposes, the milk or cream obtained by sqeezing the grated kernel goes into preparations of commercial importance. The chemical composition of fresh coconut meat (percentages) Meat Protein Fat Carbo Fibre Mineral CaO P2O5

231

36.3 Fe2O3 Per 100g Coconut Water

4.5

41.6 A I.U. Per 100g

hydrates 13.0 B I.U. Per 100g

3.6 C I.U. Per 100g

Water 1.0 E I.U. Per 100g

0.01

0.24

The liquid endosperm of tender coconuts (seven months old) makes a popular refreshing drink. The tender coconut water is recommended incases of gastroenteritis, diarrhea and vomiting against dehydration. It is also urinary anticeptic and eliminates poisons through kidneys in case of mineral poisoning. It has a caloric value of 17.4 per 100 gm of water. The following is the composition of water of the tender nuts. Water Protein Fat Mineral matter Carbohydrates Calcium Phosphorus Iron Shell Coconut shell as it is used for antiques, i.e. preparation of various attractive articles. It is also used for making activated charcoal. industries. Apart from the kernel, coconut water and shell, the trunk of mature palm is used for house construction and furniture making, leaves to thatch house in coconut growing areas and woven into baskets. Area in India and Andhra Pradesh India, with 1.9468 million hectares under coconut cultivation and 15,840 million nuts production is one of the largest coconut producing countries in the world. Andhra Pradesh ranks third in India both in area and production with 102.5 hectares and 1,092.7 million nuts respectively. The important coconut growing districts in the state are East Godavari, West Godavari, Srikakulam, Chittoor, Visakhapatnam and Vizianagaram. Climate The coconut palm is essentially a tropical crop which grows best in a warm humid climate. It does not tolerate extremes of temperature and fails to come up well in places where long dry spell and severe cold conditions prevail. In well drained soil, a high precipitation of 2000 to 3000 mm can be of better advantage. If the precipitations are Shell has a variety of uses in the organic 95.5% 0.1% < 0.1% 0.4% 4.0% 0.02% < 0.01% 0.05% mg/100g

232

comparatively well distributed, even a low rainfall of 1000 mm is sufficient for commercial yields. Season June-July in upland areas and October-November in low lying and heavy rainfall areas for planting. Soils Coastal alluvial, sandy and sandy loam soils of Godavari delta and other areas with rich porous soils where rainfall is not less than 100 cm are suitable. Areas away from seacoast are also suitable for coconut if sufficient irrigation facilities are available. Varieties East Coast Tall (ECT) It is a commercial variety, grown extensively in Andhra Pradesh, commonly called Desavali variety. This is a tall variety with fairly stout trunk. It is long living, hardy and yields economically for about 75 years. They normally come to bearing in about 6 to 8 years after planting. The average annual yield ranges from 75 to 100 nuts per palm. The copra content per nut is 154g, oil percentage ranges from 62-65 per cent Chandrakalpa (Laccadive Ordinary) This type resembles the ordinary tall variety. The average yield under ordinary conditions is about 127 nuts/palm/year. The copra content is 155g and oil content is 72%. This variety is recommended at National level for commercial cultivation as it is very high yielder compared to all other tall varieties grown in the country. Double Century (Philippines Ordinary) It is a tall cultivar which comes to bearing in 6-8 years after planting with an average yield of 130 nuts per palm/year. The nuts are big in size with 200g of copra having 66 per cent oil content. It was released from HRS, Ambajipeta as Double Century in 1993 for cultivation in Andhra Pradesh. Gangabondam This is a semi dwarf variety, comes to bearing in about 4 years. The nuts are medium sized and have elliptical shape, with good sweet water content. The mean yield is about 60 nut per palm/year. It is mainly intended for hybridization. Hybrid Godavari Ganga (E.C.Tall x Gangabondam) This hybrid was released from HRS, Ambajipeta during 1992 for A.P. It is a cross between East Coast Tall as female parent and Gangabondam as male parent. It comes to

233

bearing within 3 to 4 years. The mean annual yield is 150 nuts/palm/year. The copra content is 150g with an oil content of 68%. Nursery Select seed nuts from high yielding middle aged mother palms giving not less than 100 nuts per year. Collection of seed nuts should be done from January to May for planting in June. Fully matured nuts of 12 months old should be collected. Keep them in shade, arrange them in layers, cover with sand and sprinkle water on the heaps regularly to prevent drying of nuts in storage. Planting of nuts horizontally in the nursery may be done in June or July after the onset of monsoon at a spacing of 30 x 30cm. Selection of Seedling Select only vigorously growing seedlings characterized by early germination, good girth at the collar, more number of functional leaves and early splitting of leaflets, at the age of about nine to twelve months. Planting Use 9-12 months old seedlings for planting, in pits dug to a dimension of 1 x 1 x 1 metre and filled with a mixture of top soil, farmyard manure or compost in equal proportions. Add sand to this mixture if the soil is heavy black clay. Give a spacing of 8 x 8m for hybrids and tall varieties in the main field. Give protection to newly planted seedlings against grazing by cattle and provide shade in hot weather. Manures and Fertilizers Sow green manure crops like sunhemp or diancha with the onset of rains in June and plough the crop as soon as it comes to flowering. Cattle and sheeop penning and application of neem cake @ 2kg/palm/year in winter would also be advantageous. Apply 1 kg Urea (460 g N), 2.0 kg single super phosphate (320 g P 2O5) and 2.5 kg Marinate of Potash (1500 g K2O) per bearing palm, per year should be applied in two equal splits in June-July and October-November. The second dose can be given even in December-January if irrigation facilities are available. For young palms , and of this dose may be given during 1st, 2nd and 3rd year, respectively after planting and the full dose from the 4th year onwards. The fertilizer should be applied between 0.5 to 2.0 m away from the trunk in the basins after making 2.0m basin around the trunk. Irrigation Irrigate the gardens 3 to 4 times through basins during the dry period from January onwards till the monsoon sets in. Depending on the soil conditions the frequency has to be increased. If the summer is severe irrigation should be given through basins, once in 7-10

234

days. Irrigate the gardens at 15 days interval in black and heavy soils and once in a week in red loams during the dry period from January onwards till the monsoon sets in. Intercultivation Coconut garden may be ploughed 4 times a year two times in rainy season and two times in winter season. To prevent button drop, and bud and fruit rot, 3-4 sprays of 1% Bordeaux mixture in rainy season may be given.

Intercropping Grow inter and mixed crops like banana, turmeric, elephant foot yam, colocasia and other vegetables etc., in the inter spaces of young gardens upto 7 to 8 years of age and Pepper, Pineapple, Cocoa and other tree spices, in the old gardens of over 20 years age. Cropping Systems Coconut seedlings are planted 8m apart and hence the wider space available in between offers opportunity for additional income through raising other crops. Diversified multi species of crops are grown to generate ample cash, food, fruit, fodder, fuel etc. Annuals of seasonal crops when grown in the inter space of coconut palm, it is called as inter cropping. When inter crops and mixed crops are raised in combination, it is termed as multistoreyed cropping. The common intercrops grown during pre bearing (upto 4 years) period of the palms are Elephant Foot Yam, cassava, colocasia, sweet potato, ginger, turmeric, banana, vegetable etc. and crops such as pepper, pineapple and cocoa could be successfully raised as mixed crops in aged coconut garden. A multi storeyed crop combination with Banana, Cocoa, Turmeric and Elephant Foot Yam appears promising under Andhra Pradesh conditions. A mixed farming involving coconut fodder live stock in order to integrate animal in the plantation can also be practiced to suit the needs of small farmer. Similarly, fish ponding also can be taken up in coconut gardens. Button drop Prevent button drop by giving 3 to 4 spraying of 1% Bordeaux mixture during rainy season. If the drop is severe spray 60 ppm, 2, 4-D or NAA solution (2 ml/10 L) on the spadices at brown stigma stage of buttons. Ensure adequate moisture in the soil throughout the year and prevent prolonged water stagnation during rainy season by providing adequate drainage facilities and can be managed through judicious Nitrogen fertilization (500 g N/palm/year). Barren nuts

235

This problem can be managed by the application of Borax @ 75 100 g/palm/year in the rainy season. Harvesting Harvesting is normally done at 30 days intervals during summer and 45 days intervals during rainy season. In some parts of the state harvesting is done three times a year. Harvesting is usually done by experienced climbers who climb the palms with the help of a rope ring round the feet or ankles. Nuts are harvested by cutting down after examination for maturity. In Srilanka harvesting is done from the ground with a knife, tied to a bamboo pole. In Malaysia and Thailand trained monkeys are used for harvesting or nuts. Storage of nuts After the harvest, the nuts are to be stored in heaps under shade for few days. Storing of nuts in heaps facilitates husking easier, shelling cleaner, obtaining higher out put of superior quality copra. Post harvest Technology Coconuts are popularly traded as the dried nuts which are dehusked and marketed as whole nuts or as copra after removing the shell. The nuts to be made into two halves by cutting across, water drained off and spread the cups on the floor for sun drying. After the moisture content of the endosperm comes down to 5-6% the endosperm is scooped out of the shell and sent to market. In unfavourable weather conditions, smoke drying and klin drying is also being practiced. Plant Protection Pests Black headed caterpillar (Opisina arenosella) Larval galleries made of silk and excreta seen on the lower side of the leaflets, loss of chlorophyll leaving only epidermal layer of leaves are symptoms of damage. Burnt appearance of infested garden, button drop and reduction of nut yield are also associated with the infestation. Control Cut and burn the severely pest infested non-functional lower leaves leaving onemeter midrib portion. Release parasitoids sequentially depending on the stage of the pest as follows. Larval: Bracon hebetor and Goniozus nephantidis Pupal: Brachymeria nosatoi

236

The parasitoids may be obtained from Horticultural Research Station, Ambajipeta (E.G.Dt.). If larval population is high, the pest can be managed with root feeding of monocrotophs (10 ml + 10 ml water) duly observing 45 days safety period. Rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) Beetles bore into the soft tissues of the crown by cutting and chewing the tender unopened leaves and inflorescences. The affected leaf appear like a fan with geometrical cut. It breeds in manure pits and dead palm trunks. Control Release of baculovirus @ 10-15 inoculated beetles/ha at 3 months interval. Spraying of Metarhizium solution on manure heaps @ 1 lt of spray fluid for 3 mt3 of heap. Establishment of rhinolure traps @ 1 trap/2ha. Mechanical hooking of the beetle from palm crown. Destruction of dead logs and boles of palms in the garden. Red palm weevil (Rhychophorus ferrugineus) Dark brown gummy liquid oozes from the site of infestation on the stem. From small holes on the stem chewed fiber pieces protrude. Due to continuous larval feeding, tunnels will be formed within the stem making it weak and ultimately palm dies. Control Root feeding of monocrotophos 10 ml with 10 ml water/palm would be effective. Remove and destroy pest affected dead palms. Avoid injuries to the stem. Slug caterpillar (Macroplectra nararia) and Phalaera sp. Due to feeding of leaf lamina by larvae only midribs remain and leaf spots appear during the early stages of larval feeding. Leaves dry up and results in yield loss. Small pellets of faecal matter will be observed near the base of the trunk. Control Monitoring of the pests by keeping light traps from the second fortnight of January would help to forecast the pest. Mass trapping and destruction of moths by placing light traps would be an efficient method of pest management. Spraying of carbaryl 50% wp @ 3 gm/lt. of water in the young gardens will check the pest. Root feeding ofmonocrotophos 36% WSL @ 10 ml + 10 ml of water/palm by observing 45 days safety period will control the caterpillar stage of the pest. Cutting and burning of severely infested and dried leaves will reduce the pest population to a greater extent.

237

Collection and destruction/cleaning of pupal cases from the crown/leaf axils would help in the reduction of pest population to a great extent. Checking the pest on non target intercrop also helps to keep the pest under check. Immediate application of recommended dose of fertilizers [1 kg Urea, 2 kg Single Super Phosphate and 2 kg Muriate of Photos] and irrigation will boost the palms to recovery early.

Eriophyhid mite (Aceria guerreronis Keifer) Due to feeding of mite colonies, white streaks/triangular yellow and brown patches appear near the perianth region on nuts of 2 to 4 months age. These brown patches increase on the nut surface in the advanced stage causing longitudinal cracks. Button drop or reduced nut size and thereby decreased copra yield are associated. Control Collection and destruction of mite infested dropped nuts. Root feeding with Azadiractin 10000 ppm @ 10 ml + 10 ml of water/spraying of Azadiractin 10000 ppm 5 ml/lt of water. Application of neem cake @ 5 kg/palm/year along with other organic manures including green manuring. Application of recommended dose of fertilizers (1 kg U, 2 kg SSP, 2.5 kg MOP/palm/year) Providing regular irrigations. Growing of intercrops like banana, yams, cocoa and turmeric or vegetables. Termites (Odontotermes obesus) Seedlings are attacked through the nut or at the base of the young shoot. Older palms through trunk to crown. Affected seedlings wither and die. Control Location of termitoria, and their destruction mechanically. Adoption of field sanitation by disposal of organic matter in nursery soil and covering germinating nuts with a layer of river sand. Drench the nursery with 0.05% chlorpyriphos twice at 20-25 days interval. Swab the affected trunk with the same chemical. Rats (Rattus rattus) The rodents damage immature nut and young palms. Control Recommended spacing @ 8 x 8 m should be followed in plantations, Bromodiolone bait cake should be kept in the palm crown and live burrows in nurseries. Use of smoke generators in nurseries. Keeping rat traps in the stores where nuts and copra are stored. Adopt periodical crown cleaning. Diseases

238

Ganoderma wilt or Basal Stem rot (Ganoderma lucidum) This is a soil borne disease prevalent in all types of light soils. The disease affects the underground roots causing root rot. Oozing of dark brown liquid from the cracks on the stem nearer the ground is the initial symptom. Outer whorls of leaves droop slowly and within a period of two years after the palm succumb to the disease, the entire crown collapses and the palm dies. Control The diseased part of the garden should be isolated from healthy area by digging isolation trench (1m. deep and 0.5 m. width). Injury or damage to roots and pruning or cutting of roots should be avoided to prevent infection through injured roots. Tale formulation of Trichoderma viride (50g) in combination with 5 kg neem cake/palm/year should be applied to all trees in a garden where diseased palms are noticed. Even if one diseased palm is noticed in a garden, talc formulation of T.viride (50 g) in combination with neem cake (5 kg) per palm/year should be imposed to all the palms in the garden. Frequent watering/irrigation should be done during summer months. While irrigating, care should be taken to avoid flow of water from diseased trees to others. Basin system of irrigation to individual palms should be adopted. Bud rot (Phytophthora palmivora) The disease affects mostly plants from seedling stage to the age of 25 years. The spindle leaf and its neighboring 2 to 3 leaves are affected. The affected leaves show withering and turn pale green. Later the leaves dry out. The leaf if pulled, comes out easily emitting foul smell. Later the surrounding leaves also are affected. The rot extends to the meristem and kills it leading to the death of the plant. The immature nuts in many cases grow to maturity but the buttons drop. The three fourths mature nuts in middle aged trees are commonly affected. Initially water soaked spots develop on the nuts and coalease forming big spots. These spots slowly turn grayish. The mesocarp, meat and water rot completely and give foul smell. The meat loses its consistency and separates out from the shell. Due to the wet rot condition and increase in weight the nut drops. Initially one or two nuts in a bunch are affected, later spreading to other nuts and other bunches. Under favourable conditions the disease spreads to nuts on other trees and also other gardens. Control Spraying of copper oxy chloride @ 3g/lt of water twice at 15 days interval is recommended. Since bud rot disease is common during rainy season, prophylactic dusting

239

with Pseudomonas fluorescens talcum powder @ 10 g/palm twice at 15 days interval during monsoon prevents the disease incidence Stem Bleeding (Ceratocystis paradoxa) The diseased trees show extensive yellowish brown to black bleeding patches from natural cracks or places of damage due to implements which become infected. The bleeding is commonly seen about more than one foot above the ground level and never seen on the trunk at the ground level. This is the major difference in bleeding between Ganoderma wilt and stem bleeding, besides the colour of the fluid. On chiseling of such bleeding patches on young trees of 10-15 years age yellowish liquid with a fermented smell flows out.

Control Injury or damage to the stem, especially while tractor ploughing should be avoided. Smearing of talc powder paste of Trichoderma viride on the bleeding patches on the stem. Soil application of 50 g of talc powder formulation of Trichoderma viride in combination with 5 kg neem cake/palm/year. Tatipaka disease The causal agent is suspected to be Phytoplasm. In early stages, Tatipaka diseased palms bear heavily and later there will be reduction in bearing below normal level, leaves turn yellow, leaf size both in length and breadth is reduced and lean in appearance. Leaf number is greatly reduced. At this stage tapering of stem starts from the base of the crown. Round nuts are produced and are soft nature. At times in the same bunch, some round and soft nuts and also some atrophied nuts are seen. In some diseased palms, leaves bund like an arch, in some cases bend abnormally and curves up. Fasciation is seen on some palms, chlorotic spots are seen in some palms when the disease is severe, all the bunches are empty without formation of round and soft nuts or atrophied nuts. Rotting of root is also high in Tatipaka disease palms. Control Eradication of Tatipaka disease should be taken up on collective basis by cutting and burning of affected palms. Collection of seednuts from diseased palms should be avoided.

OIL PALM (Elaeis quineenis)

240

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is the highest oil yielding plant among perennial oil yielding crops, producing palm oil and palm kernel oil. These are used for culinary as well as industrial purposes. On an average, oil palm produces 4-6 tonnes oil/ha. It can also contribute substantially to the nutritional and energy requirements of the masses. Oil palm is a crop for future and a source for diversification, import substitution, value addition, health and nutrition, waste utilization, energy generation (non-conventional energy) eco friendly and sustainable. Oil palm is a native of West Africa, is now extensively grown in Malaysia, Nigeria, Indonesia, Republic of Zaire and Ivory Coast. Increasing demand for palm oil and also the technological developments for its extraction have greatly changed the entire scenario of the palm industry. In India about 80% of the area is located in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.

Climate Oil palm is a humid tropical palm which thrives well where annual temperature range is 29O-33OC (maximum) and 22O-24O C (minimum) with an evenly distributed rainfall of 2,500-4,000 mm, relative humidity more than 80%, and not less than 5 hr sunshine/day. It can be grown up to 900m above mean sea-level. Season Planting is preferably done at the onset of rains during June-July. Soils It can be grown on a variety of soils. But moist, deep, loamy and alluvial soils rich in organic matter with good water permeability are best-suited, for its cultivation. Highly alkaline, saline, waterlogged and coastal sandy soils should be avoided. At least 1 m depth of soil is necessary. The soil pH should be 5.5-8.0. Varieties There are three main types of oil palm. They are dura, pisifera and tenera Dura With a thick shell (2-8mm) its fruits have low to medium mesocarp content (3555%). This is not grown commercially. Pisifera It is a shell less, fruit bearing variety. Tenera This is a hybrid obtained by crossing Dura (Female) and Pisifera (Male). It has a thin shell usually measuring 0.5 to 4 mm with medium to high mesocarp content of about 60-

241

90%. This is a widely cultivated hybrid all over the world due to higher mesocarp content and resultant oil output. Seeds and Sowing The seeds are subjected to a temperature of 40O C for 80 days for stratification. Seeds are soaked in water for five days changing the water daily. Thereafter the seeds spread out in shade for drying for two hours. The dried seeds are kept in polythene bags in cool place in order to maintain the moisture content. The poly bags (preferably black) of 400-500 guage measuring 40 x 35 cm are used. The bags are filled with top soil and compost, arranged at a spacing of 45 cm2 and one seed/bag is dibbled. The germination commences in about 10-12 days. Watering the seedlings weekly thrice is essential.

Planting Oil palm is planted in the main field in triangular system at a spacing of 9 x 9 m accommodating about 143 palms/ha in hexagonal system of planting. Planting is preferably done at the onset of rains during June-July. Manures and Fertilizers Age First year Second year Third year P2O5 K2O g/palm/year 400 200 400 800 400 800 1200 600 1200 N

Fertilizers should be applied in two equal split doses (in June and September) within 2 m diameter around the palm and forked in. Apply 50-100 g of Borax per tree every year. Application of potassium fertilizer may be enhanced depending on the requirement of the palm. Inter cultivation and Weed Control The base of the palm is to be kept clean by weeding and pruning of cover crops. For conserving the moisture in the basins apply coconut husk or paddy husk or saw dust, cut leaves or male inflorescence as mulching. Pruning Maximum number of green leaves should be retained on the palm. As a regular practice, all dead and diseased leaves should be pruned. Severe pruning adversely affects

242

both growth and yield of palm. Pruning should be done by giving clear cut to the petiole as close to the stem as possible with the help of a sharp chisel. Ablation Ablation is the removal of male and female flowers produced in early stages of plantation. This enables the plant to gain adequate stem girth, vigour and develop adequate root system. Flowering starts 14-18 months after planting. Ablation can be started immediately after the appearance of inflorescences on plams and extended upto two and a half to 3 years depending upon plant growth and vigour. After this stage, pollinating weevil

Elaeidobius kamerunicus has to be introduced for better pollination since oil palm is a cross
pollinated crop. Irrigation Oil palm requires sufficient irrigation, as it is a fast-growing crop with high productivity and biomass production. Insufficient irrigation reduces the rate of leaf production, affects the sex ratio and results in inflorescence abortion and leaf production. For grown-up yielding palms of 3 years age and above, a minimum of 200-250 litres water/day is a must. However, in older plantations during hot summer, this amount may be increased up to 300 litres. When water is not a constraint, basin irrigation can be taken up. Required quantity of water can be given at weekly intervals or once in 5 days depending on soil condition. Irrigation channels must be prepared in such a way that the individual palms are connected separately by sub-channels. For light soils, frequent irrigation with less water should be given. In heavy soils irrigation interval can be longer. If irrigation water is limited and land is of undulated terrain, drip or microsprinkler irrigation can be advantageous. When drip irrigation is given, care should be taken to avoid clogging and for uniform discharge of water. Four drippers are sufficient to discharge 200-250 litres water within 6-7 hr. Intercrops Annuals like chillies, gourds and other vegetables can be profitably grown as intercrops leaving an area of 2 m around the palm for the first two years only. After the onset of flowering there should not be any competition from other intercrops for the early stabilization of yields. Harvest First harvest 3 -4 years after planting. A chisel is used for harvesting bunches from young palms. When the palms become taller, a harvesting hook has to be used. Under very good maintenance especially with irrigation the yield could be 4-6 tonnes of oil per hectare per year.

243

The fresh fruit bunches harvested from the palm are to be transported for oil extraction immediately preferably within 24 hours. Plant Protection Pests Rhinoceros bettle (Oryctes rhinoceros) The adult beetle bores through into the spear leaf, resulting in snapping of the fronds at the feeding sites. The beetles also bore into the male and female inflorescence even when they are within the spathe. Control Release of baculovirus @ 10-15 inoculated beetles/ha at 3 months interval. Spraying of Metarhizium solution on manure heaps @ 1 lt of spray fluid per 3 mt3 of heap. Establishment of rhinolure traps @ 1 trap/2ha. Mechanical hooking of the beetle from palm crown. destruction of dead logs and boles of palms in the garden.

Red palm weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus) The grubs bore through and feed on softer tises of stem, meristem and mesocarp of fruits. Infested palms show gradual wilting and drying of outer whorl of fronds. In some cases, rotting of spear can also be noticed. Control Root feeding of Monocrotophos @ 10 ml with 10 ml water/palm would be effective. Remove and destroy pest affected dead palms. Avoid injuries to the stem. Bagworm (Manatha albipes, Metisa plana) The caterpillars of these species of bagworms cause severe defoliation occasionally on oil palm. Control Remove and destroy by burning the affected leaves and spray with carbaryl @ 3g/lit or quinolphos @ 2ml/lit of water. Leaf eating caterpillar (Opisina arenosella) Infest the lower leaves and scrape the leaf and later feed on the leaf lamina making rectangular cuttings. Control Spray Monocrotophos @ 1.6ml/lit or quinolphos @ 2ml/lit of water. Diseases Bud-rot (Ermima sp.)

244

Rotting of spindle and the affected spindle can be easily pulled off. Control Clean the affected tissues and drench the crown with Carbendazim @ 1g/lit. Basal stem rot (Ganoderma lucidum) Appearance of light brown lesions/rotting of the bole at the stem base is a characteristic symptom of the advancement of the disease. Control The diseased part of the garden should be isolated from healthy area by digging isolation trench (1m. deep and 0.5 m. width). Injury or damage to roots and pruning or cutting of roots should be avoided to prevent infection through injured roots. Talc formulation of Trichoderma viride (50g) in combination with 5 kg neem cake/palm/year should be applied to all trees in a garden where diseased palms are noticed. Even if one diseased palm is noticed in a garden, talc formulation of T.viride (50 g) in combination with neem cake (5 kg) per palm/year should be imposed to all the palms in the garden. Frequent watering/irrigation should be done during summer months. While irrigating, care should be taken to avoid flow of water from diseased trees to others. Basin system of irrigation to individual palms should be adopted. Stem bleeding (Thielaviopsis (Ceratostomella) paradoxa)) Gum exudation and stem bleeding on the upper potion of the stem are noticed. Control Excision of the rotten tissues followed by the application of 0.1% calixin and hot coal tar and plugging the holes with a paste containing sand cement and insecticide to provide mechanical support. Bunch rot The tissues between the individual fruits are affected leading to rot. Control Remove and destroy the affected inflorescence and spray carbendazim 1g/lit. Note: Copper fungicides should not be used in oil palm. COCOA (Theobroma cacao) In recent years the cultivation of Cocoa as an intercrop in Oil plam and aged (20 years) Coconut gardens, is gaining momentum in Andhra Pradesh. Climate

245

Temperature and rainfall affect the growth of cocoa. The optimum range in mean monthly temperature of cocoa growing regions is 15o-32OC and minimum night temperatures ranging from 18-21OC. It grows upto an attitude of 500 MSL. Cocoa is a crop of humid tropics requiring well distributed rainfall of 90-100 mm a month. It can also be grown in regions of low rainfall by supplementing rainfall with irrigation during dry periods. Soils It can be grown on a wide variety of soils, though most of such soils of high rainfall areas are relatively coarse-textured and acidic to neutral. Virgin, freshly cleared forest soils are used for cultivation of cocoa. The soils should be rich in organic matter and nitrogen, well-drained and acidic to netural in reaction. A depth of up to 1.5m is necessary for cocoa. Varieties Forastero The pods are green when immature and yellow when ripe, thick-walled, melon shaped with rounded ends or very bluntly pointed and warty on the surface with smooth inconspicuous ridges or furrows. The beans are flat and dark purple when fresh. variety. Criollo The pods are red or yellow in colour, thin walled, pointed and warty on the surface. They contain large and plump seeds with white or pale purple cotyledons. They possess bland flavour and pleasant aroma. Trinitario These types have characters of both these types. Season and Planting They can be planted with the onset of monsoon till December. Seedlings are vegetatively propagated material (budlings or grafts) can used for planting. It is planted at a distance of 2.5-3.0 m both between and within rows as a pure crop. When cocoa is to be raised as a mixed crop in 8 x 8 m spaced coconut, cocoa can be planted 4 m apart in a single row in between two rows of coconut palms, so as to keep a minimum distance of 3.75 m from coconut palms. Manures and fertilizers It possesses a harsh flavour with markedly bitter taste. It is largely grown as a commercial

246

The cocoa plants are manured with 125 g of N, 40 g of P 2O5 and 140 g of K2O per plant per year in two to four split doses. Trees younger than three years require only half or three-fourths of those. Irrigation It can not withstand drought hence irrigation is necessary after the cessation of rains i.e. from October-November to June-July. Depending upon the soil and climate irrigate at 47 days interval. In the drip system it requires 20-30 lit/day. The plantation is irrigated at weekly intervals during summer. If sufficient irrigation is not available, both the crops will receive a set-back. Pruning Cocoa grown in a series of storeys, the chupon or vertical shoot of the seedlings terminating at the jorquettle, where four or five fan branches develop. Further chupon develops just below the jorquette and continue, the vertical growth till another jorquette develops. First jorquette can be encouraged at 1.5m which will be convenient height for harvesting and other operations. It is desirable to limit the tree height at that level by periodical removal of chupon growth. One or two to three for jorquettes can be allowed for Cocoa, when grown as an intercrop in Coconut. Harvesting Cocoa flowers from the second year after planting. The pods take about 4-6 months to ripen. Each pod will have 25-45 beans embedded in white pulp or mucilage. Generally, cocoa gives two main crops in a year, in September-January and in April-June. Harvesting is, therefore, done every 5-7 days when ripe pods are harvested. While harvesting fruits, extreme care should be taken to see that the cushions carrying the flowers and fruits are not damaged. For this, pods are harvested by cutting the stalk with a knife. During harvesting all the pods damaged by diseases and rodents are removed. The beans are taken out by cutting the pods crosswise. This should be done within 2-3 days of harvest. Each pod weighs 300-500 g. The shell constitutes 75% of the pod weight. The fresh bean to dry bean ratio will be 3:1. Yield 50-60 pods/tree (300 kg of dried beans/ha/year) Fermentation and Drying It is generally done in sweating boxes made of wood and having holes at the bottom to allow the sweating from the pulp to drain down and air to enter, are used. The beans, scooped out from the ripe pods, are placed in the box and covered with few layers of

247

banana leaves. To facilitate uniform fermentation, beans are stirred after about 48 hours and second stirring is done after another 48 hours. Fermentation is allowed to continue for another 48 hours or until the temperature begins to fall and ammonical smell develops when the fermentation can be considered to have completed. (The beans are dried till moisture percentage comes to 6-8). Plant Protection Pests Stem Borer (Zeuzera Coffeae) It bores into branches and trunks of the cocoa trees. The aerial portions above the point of attack dry up. Control The pest can be controlled by extracting the caterpillar and plugging the burrow with Carbaryl paste. Mealy Bugs (Pseudococcus citri & Rastrococcus iceryoides) They suck the sap from tender leaves, young shoots, flower cushions and pods. Control Spraying Dimethoate 30% EC @ 0.05% i.e. 1.6 ml/l of water. Leaf Eating Caterpillars Several hairy caterpillars and semiloopers feed on tender foliage and shoots. Control They can be controlled by spraying 0.1% Carbaryl. Cockkhafer Beetle (Popilla complanata) Adult beetles feed only on young leaves causing a series of irregular holes. Control Drenching the soil with 0.15% Carbaryl suspension gives a good control of hiding adults and white grubs. Tea Mosquito (Helopeltis antonii. S) Suck the sap from the young leaves. Control Spray Endosulphan @ 2ml/lit for control Aphids (Toxoptera aurantii) Suck the sap from the emerging new leaves and young shoots. Control For the control spray Dimethaoate @ 2ml/lit.

248

Leaf Webbers (Lamida moncusalis W.) Caterpillars web the leaves and hide in the webs and continue to feed on the chlorophyll content of the leaves. Control Spray Dimethaoate or Metasystox @ 2ml/lit for control. Squirrels (Funambulus palmarum) They make holes on ripe cocoa pods and feed on the sweet mucilage surrounding the beans. They cause very serious damage. Control Poison baiting with zinc phosphide or warfarin, in addition to regularly trapping them. Dieseases Black Pod disease (Phytopthora palmivora) Pods of all ages are affected during the monsoon season. The infection spreads very rapidly and soon occupies the entire area of the pod. Infected tissues shrink and become dark brown in colour and corky in texture. Control Spraying with 1% Bordeaux mixture twice is recommended with the onset of the monsoons at 45 days interval. Charcoal Rot (Botryodiplodia theobromae and Macrophoma sp.) The affected pods shrivel and hang as mummies. The internal tissues are rotten due to infection and the affected beans and pods turn black in colour. Control Spraying with 1% Bordeaux mixture is recommended. Rodent and insect damage should be controlled. BETELVINE (Piper betel L) The Betelvine is an important commercial crop of Andhra Pradesh, occupying about 2772 hectares producing 93,694 tons. It is largely grown in Guntur, Cuddapah, Chittoor, Nellore and Ananthapur districts. Climate It grows well under warm humid climate with diffused sun light, tropical forest conditions which provide a cool shade, where adequate irrigation facilities exist and where the required condition of cool humid and shady atmosphere could be artificially created. Soils

249

Deep, well drained red laterite and red loamy soils are good for betelvine. It can also be grown successfully in black (alluvial) soils under good drainage conditions. Variety Tellaku (Kapoori Type) Leaf is greenish yellow, ovate in shape, smooth with acute tip, juicy and nonpungent. It produces large number of laterals/vine and hence the yield is more when compared to other types. The vine bears 10-15 lateral shoots. Susceptible to foot rot disease. It yields on an average 80,000 panthas per hectare per year (approximately) 100 leaves make one pantham. Karapaku (Bangla Type) It is moderately vigorous. The leaf is green to dark green, cordate in shape, thick with broad lamina, coarse to touch and pungent. With very few or no laterals/vine. Propagation This is usually propagated by terminal stem cuttings obtained from sufficiently mature plantations. The length of the vines used for planting is about 30 to 45 cm having 6 to 7 nodes. Land Preparation Apply farmyard manure 25 t/ha as basal dressing in the last ploughing. The land is laid out into ridges and furrows 45cm apart and irrigation channels formed at convenient places. Generally Agati is used as supporting betelvines. The seeds of Agati are sown at the rate of 40 to 50 kg/ha during June-July along the ridges spaced at 100 cm. Irrigations are given to the standards twice a week or even more frequently. Along the border sow some seeds of Moringa or Pangara, Glyricidia as wind breaks. Apply gypsum @2.5 t/ha and plough the field before sowing live standards in saline and alkaline soils. Prepare the field into small plots to facilitate good drainage to avoid the incidence of foot rot disease. Planting The vines are planted during September-October in place where live standards are raised in June-July. 50,000 sets (vine cuttings) are required for planting a hectare. The vine sets are planted at 100 x 20 cm spacing. The seed vines of top 50 cms length must be collected from vigorously growing, disease free gardens. Seed vines should be treated with 0.5% Bordeaux mixture + 500 ppm streptomycin for 15-30 minutes. For seed vine treatment 2 kg copper sulphate, 2 kg lime, 400 lts of water and 200 g. of streptomycin (9%) per one acre are required.

250

For treatment of seed vines require for one acre, the following composition is to be used. Copper sulphate : 2 Kgs. Quick lime : 2 Kgs. Water : 400 lit. streptomycin (9%) : 200 g After seed vine treatment the remaining Bordeaux mixture can be applied to the field. Manures and Fertilizers First Year Black Alluvial Soils 200 kg N/ha in 4 split doses at monthly interval starting from 2nd month of planting through organic (Neem cake) and inorganic manures in 1:1 ratio, 100 kg P2O5/ha through single superphosphate and 100 kg K2O/ha through Muriate of potash/sulphate of potash as basal dosage during land preparation. Red Soils 200 kg N/ha (100 kg N through FYM or oilcake, 100 kg N through Ammonium sulphate),100 kg P2O5 through single super Phosphate and 100 kg K2O through muriate of potash. Second Year Manuring schedule of first year except FYM is to be followed. Third Year Manuring schedule of first year is to be followed. Irrigation and drainage Irrigation is given after planting betelvine cuttings, twice in a day for 3 days, once in a day for next 3 days and later once in two days for 3 times. Later light irrigation is to be given depending on the soil conditions and season. Subsequent irrigations are to be given based on the seasonal and soil conditions i.e. once in 2 days during summer and 5 to 6 days during winter. Proper drainage channels are to be provided in the field for every 10-12 m row length and water should not be allowed to stagnate at the base of plants. Intercultivation Weeding Weeding should be done whenever necessary. Propping Train the vines to the standards at 20-30 days interval. Fix dry bamboos wherever there is no standard.

251

Topping Sesbania (Avisi) tops are pruned at 4m height. The pruning of sesbania branches is a regular and continuous process. Less number of branches are retained during winter to allow sufficient sunlight and more during summer to protect the vine from hot sun and wind. Tying with ropes When the vines grow to the top of sesbania, the latter have to bear a heavy burden, hence they are tied with strong coir and these ropes are tied strongly to a thick bamboo poles to protect from strong gales during April-May and cyclonic storms during October to November. Wind breaks The garden is protected from the strong gales, hot summers and cool winters by sowing some seeds of Moringa/Pangara/Glyricidia or fencing with banana leaves/coconut fronds/gunny sacs as wind breaks along the border. Lowering the vines When the first year crop is completed, the vine grows beyond 3-3.5m and picking leaves is difficult. Hence, the vines are lowered by forming a ring (lower leaves of shoots are stripped and then coiled) and fastened to live supports just above the ground level, leaving the apical 50cm of the vine. The top 50cm of the vines is erected and tied to live support. This operation is called lowering of vine for rejuvenation. Second year garden At the time of lowering the vines, the coiled vines are to be sprayed with 0.5% Bordeaux mixture solution and then tied to the sesbania standard. Crop rotation Crop rotation with maize once in two years recorded the lowest foot rot disease incidence. Crops like castor, brinjal, chillies, bhendi, tomato should not be included in the rotation. Harvesting Generally betelvine is ready for harvest after 2-3 months of planting and thereafter for every 25 to 30 days. Average yield: First year 60,000 - 70,000 bundles/ha Second year 80,000 1,00,000 bundles/ha (1 Bundle: approximately 100 leaves) Integrated crop Management module Best plant population (50,000 sets vine cuttings) +

252

200 kg N through Neem cake + Urea (1 : 1) (Neem cake as basal and Urea in 4 splits at bimonthly interval) 100 kg P2O5 and 100 kg K2O as basal. + Irrigation 100% replenishment of CPE + Application of Bordeaux mixture (4 drenches + 8 sprays) + Recommended insecticides if required. Plant protection Pests on Betelvine Leaf eating caterpillars Tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura) Tobacco caterpillars makes holes on leaves which are unfit for market. In case of severe infestation, the establishment of newly planted seed vines also delayed. Control

Installation of sex pheromone traps @ 10/ha from July to October. Collection and destruction of skeletonised leaves. Before planting of seed vine cuttings spray malathion or chlorpyriphos or monocrotophos @ 0.05% when ever the infestation is noticed.

After planting of seed vines, spray neem oil 0.5% (5ml/lit. of water) during October to November two times at 15 days interval.

White mites (Hemitarsonemus piperae) and red spider mites (Tetranychus cinnabarinus ) All stages of the pest feed on the under surface of the leaves by sucking the leaf sap results in Curling and malformation of younger leaves. Formation of red or brown spots on the lower surface of the leaves is the characteristic feature of infestation by red spider mites. Characteristic removal of chlorophyll and other plant pigment and leaves turns to pale yellow and dry after some time. Control Spray wettable sulphur 0.3% during December & January and March-April against white mites and red spider mites respectively. Repeat the insecticidal spray at 7 days after first spray if necessary. Betelvine Bug (Pachypeltis politus & P humerale) The nymphs and adults damage the leaves by puncturing and sucking the juice the leaves shrivel, fade and dry up. P politus cause small brown spots on the leaf which forms small holes where as P humerale forms dark brown angular patches on leaves. The bugs are

253

active during June-December and multiply rapidly under warm and humid conditions. They take shelter in dark and protected places and thrive by feeding on the plant sap. Control Spray tobacco decoction 2% or neem oil 0.5% or endosulfan 0.07% or malathion 0.05% after harvesting of leaves. Nematodes (Meliodog vine arenaria) They attack the roots resulting in the leaves turning yellow and pale. The roots develop knots and galls. Control Application of Neem cake @ 2 t/ha will reduce the nematode population to a considerable extent. Scale insects (Lepidosaphes cornutus, Aspidiotus destructor) The insects suck the sap from the leaves and stem. The leaves become yellow and vine wilts. Control Spray neem seed kernel extract 5%. White fly (Dialeurodes pallida) & Black fly (Aleurocanthus rugosa) They feed on the lower surface of the younger leaves and infest the whole vine under heavy infestation. Due to feeding by the pest, the vines become stunted and leaves become chlorotic. The flies infest the crop from October to February and the peak period of incidence is observed from December to January. Control Spraying of neem seed kernel extract 5% or tobacco decoction 2%. Leaf folder (Cocoecia sp.) The larvae feed on the sesbania foliage by webbing the leaflet on the top portions of leaves. The fully grown caterpillar migrates to betelvine plant and folds the betel leaf and pupates with in the fold rendering the leaves unfit for sale because of the crinkling nature of the infested leaves. Leaf damage to an extent of 5 12% during November to January was recorded in Andhra Pradesh. Maximum incidence of the pest is observed in the betelvine gardens where there is excessive shade by the prop crop (sesbania). Control

Thinning of excessive sesbania foliage. collection and destruction of folded leaves containing pupal stages.

Pests On Sesbania (Prop Crop) Flea beetles (Chaetocnema sp.)

254

The pest damages the young plants when they are 10 -15 days old. The adult beetles feed on the leaves by making holes and also cutting the plants near the ground level resulting in gaps in the field. Control Spray endosulfan 0.07% as soon as the pest incidence is observed Leaf eating caterpillar (tobacco caterpillar - Spodoptera litura and green looper Semiothisa pervolgata) The leaf eating caterpillars which are active from July to September cause defoliation on sesbania and the infestation is observed when the plants are 11/2 to 4 months old. Maximum damage due to pest is observed during the period synchronizing with the planting time of the seed vine cuttings. In the case of the severe infestation, the sesbania plants will be free of foliage. Control Monitoring of the pest during the planting time is important. Before planting of seed vines, spray chloropyriphos 0.05% or monocrotophos 0.05% or endosulfan 0.07%. Stem borer Azygophleps scalaris (F.) The pest is active from July to February. The larva immediately after hatching bores into the growing point or top portion of the plant which is indicated by the presence of necrotic brown spots at the site of infestation. Later, the caterpillar tunnels down into the main stem and feed on the internal contents. The infested plant gets dried up or will be broken at the site of infestation even with slight wind or touch. Excessive side branching on the terminal protion of the plant, bored holes on the stem and the presence of chewed fibrous material at the base of the infested plant are the characteristic features of stem borer infestation. Control IPM for the management of Sesbania stem borer

Arrange light traps during July-August which is the peak period of adult moth emergence and destroy the adults. Remove the top portions of the plants during August-September which harbours early instar larvae. Before planting of seed vines, spray moncrotophos 0.05% twice at an interval of 15 days (during third week of July and first and first week of August) synchronizing with the first brood emergence.

After planting of seed vines (within one month) adopt stem application with monocrotophos @ 1.25 kg /ha (after dilution with water in the ratio of 1:6) on the

255

top portions of the sesbania plants immediately after the last thinning of sesbania plants is under taken.

Drench the soil around sesbania plants with neem seed kernel extract 5% or neem oil 2% followed by spraying with insecticide.

Diseases

Leaf and Foot rot (Phytophthora capsici) Leaf spots either deep brown, circular, necrotic spots with distinct greyish brown zonations (under fluctuating relative humidity conditions) or dark brown necrotic spots without zonations (Continuous high humidity conditions). The plant looses lusture, leaves droop while still green, turn yellow and drop. Blackish brown marks on the stem at ground level or slightly above. Soft tissues in the root get disintegrated leaving only fibrous portion. Stem and under ground parts rot and may break at any point. Integrated disease management for Phytophthora leaf and foot rot :

Deep summer ploughing to expose fungal inoculum to high temperatures Crop rotation with Jowar or maize once in two years. Application of gypsum @ 1 ton/ acre and incorporation into the soil before sesbania seed sowing. Selection of healthy seed vines from disease free gardens. Seed vine treatment. Avoid application of inorganic fertilizers two months before seed vine cutting. Provide good drainage facilities, especially during rainy season and drain out rain water immediately after rain. Avoid excess and unnecessary irrigation. Do not allow irrigation water to flow from diseased garden to healthy garden. Delay fertilizer application during winter. Protect the vines from cold waves and dont remove sesbania tops during winter. Removal and destruction of diseases leaves and vines. For the management of leaf and foot rot disease of betelvine, prophylactic soil drenching (4 times) with 1% Bordeaux mixture @ 1 lt. per linear meter (4,000 lts /ac) and 0.5% Bordeaux mixture as foliar spray (8 times) @ 200 lt / ac at monthly and fortnightly intervals respectively should be taken up from November to February months in first year garden and with the on set of monsoons in second year garden.

Material required for one soil drenching and one foliar spray/acre

256

i) 1% Bordeaux mixture (soil drench) Cuso4 : 40 Kgs Lime : 40 Kgs Water : 4000 lts. ii) 0.5% Bordeaux mixture (foliar spray) Cuso4 : 1 Kg Lime : 1 Kg Water : 200 lts. Sclerotial wilt, stem rot or collar rot or basal rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) The plants are usually attacked at ground level. Dense white cotton like mass of threads (Mycelium) are seen on stems. This causes rotting of affected portion causing wilting and ultimate death of plants. Control Crop rotation with maize or jowar. Prior to sowing of sesbania seed, flooding the field for one and half month followed by drying.

Seed vine treatment with 0.5% Bordeaux mixture. Deep ploughing in summer. Earthing up the base of the vine. Pressing the soil at the base of the affected vine. Soil drenching with 1% Bordeaux mixture @ 1 lt. per linear meter. Tieing the coil to sesbania standard just above ground level at the time of lowering.

Leaf spot, marginal blight or Anthracnose (Colletotrichum capsici) Small black circular or irregular lesions appear on leaves expanding rapidly in humid conditions. Leaf spot appears as brownish black centre with yellowish hallow around and in severe cases the leaves drop owing to shrinkage of tissues. Control

Seed vine treatment with 0.5% Bordeaux mixture Removal and destruction of affected leaves. Spray 0.5% Bordeaux mixture or 0.3% copper oxychloride fungicide. Small powdery patches on the lower surface of the leaf corresponding upper surface

Powdery mildew (Oidium piperis) with yellowish discolouration, followed by reddening and drying of the leaves. In cases complete defoliation of the affected vines. Control

257

Spray with 0.3% wettable sulphur or 0.5% Bordeaux mixture 2 times at 15 days interval. Bacterial Leaf Spot, leaf blight or stem canker (Xanthomonas campestris pv. betlicola) Minute water soaked spots initially on the under surface of leaves later appear on upper surface also are as dark round to angular spots surrounded by yellowish zone. The centre of spots are mottled brown and later turn black and in severe conditions leaves turn yellow and fall. Control

Selection of healthy seed vines. Seed vine treatment with 0.5% Bordeaux mixture + 500 ppm streptomycin for 1530minutes. Removal and destruction of affected vines. Disinfection of tools and implements before use. BLACK PEPPER (Piper nigrum) Black pepper (Piper nigrum) (Family: Piperaceae) is a perennial climbing vine grown

for its berries extensively used as spice and in medicine. India is a leading producer, consumer and exporter of black pepper in the world. Black pepper is cultivated to a large extent in Kerala and Karnataka and to a limited extent in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Black pepper is cultivating in 271 hectares producing 407 tons in Andhra Pradesh in High altitude tribal zones of Chintapalli, Araku and Paderu of Visakhapatnam District and Rampachodavaram in East Godavari district. Climate Black pepper is a plant of humid tropics requiring adequate rainfall and humidity. The hot and humid climate of sub mountainous tracts of Western Ghats is ideal for its cultivation. It grows successfully between 20 North and South latitude, and from sea level up to 1500 m above sea level. The crop tolerates temperatures between 10 oC and 40 C. A well distributed annual rainfall of 125-200 cm is considered ideal for black pepper. Soils Black pepper can be grown in a wide range of soils with a pH of 4.5 to 6.5, though in its natural habitat it thrives well in red laterite soils. Varieties A majority of the cultivated types are monocots (male and female flowers found in the same spike) though variation in sex expression ranging from complete male to complete

258

female is found. Out of 75 cultivars of black pepper the following varieties are most suitable for cultivation in Andhra Pradesh Panniyur-1 F1 hybrid of Uthirankotta x Cheriyakaniyakadan.Suitable to all black pepper growing regions. Yield potential 1242 kg/ha. Its having 11.8 % Oleoresin, 5.3 % Piperine and 3.5 % essential oil. Karimunda OP Most popular cultivar suitable for most of the Black Pepper growing areas, high yielder and medium in quality. Suitable for heavily shaded areas. Other suitable varieties Sreekara, Subhakara, Panchami, Pournami and Aimpirian Propagation Black pepper vines develop three types of aerial shoots, namely (a) primary stem with long internodes, with adventitious roots which cling to the standards (b) runner shoots which originate from the base of the vine and have long internodes which strike roots at each node and (c) fruit bearing lateral branches. Cuttings are raised mainly from runner shoots, though terminal shoots can also be used. Cuttings from lateral branches are seldom used since they develop a bushy habit. However, rooted lateral branches are useful for raising bush pepper.

Production of rooted cuttings Traditional method Runner shoots from high yielding and healthy vines are kept coiled on wooden pegs fixed at the base of the vine to prevent the shoots from coming in contact with soil and striking roots. The runner shoots are separated from the vine during February-March, and after trimming the leaves, cuttings of 2-3 nodes each are planted either in nursery beds or in polythene bags filled with fertile soil. Adequate shade has to be provided and the polythene bags are to be irrigated frequently. The cuttings become ready for planting during May-June. Rapid multiplication method An efficient propagation technique developed at Sri Lanka has been modified for adoption in India for quick and easy multiplication of black pepper vines. In this method, a trench of 45 cm depth, 30 cm width and convenient length is made. The trench is filled with rooting medium comprising of forest soil, sand and farm yard manure in 1:1:1 ratio. Split

259

halves of bamboo with septa or split halves of PVC pipes of 1.25-1.50 m length and 8-10 cm diameter provided with plastic septa at 30 cm intervals are fixed at 45 angle on a strong support. Rooted cuttings are planted in the trench at the rate of one cutting for each bamboo split. The lower portions of the bamboo splits are filled with rooting medium (preferably weathered coir dust-farm yard manure mixture in 1:1 ratio) and the growing vine is tied to the bamboo split in such a way so as to keep the nodes pressed to the rooting medium. The tying can be done with dried banana leaf sheath fibers or coir rope. The cuttings are irrigated regularly. As the cuttings grow, the bamboo splits are filled with rooting medium and each node is pressed down to the rooting medium and tied. For rapid growth, a nutrient solution of urea (1 kg), super phosphate (0.75 kg), muriate of potash (0.5 kg) and magnesium sulphate (0.25 kg) in 250 litres of water is to be applied @ 0.25 litre per vine at monthly intervals. When the vine reaches the top (3-4 months after planting of the cutting) the terminal bud is nipped off and the vine is crushed at about three nodes above the base, in order to activate the axillary buds. After about 10 days, the vine is cut at the crushed point and removed from the rooting medium and cut between each node. Each cutting with the bunch of roots intact is planted in polythene bags filled with fumigated potting mixture. Trichoderma @ 1g and VAM @ 100 cc/kg of soil can be added to the potting mixture. Care should be taken to keep the leaf axil above the soil. The polythene bags should be kept in a cool and humid place, or should be covered with thin polythene (200 gauge) sheet to retain humidity. The buds start developing in about 3 weeks and the polybags can then be removed and kept in shade. The advantages of this method of propagation are rapid multiplication (1:40), well developed root system, higher field establishment and vigorous growth as a result of better root system. Trench method A simple, cheap and efficient technique for propagating black pepper from single nodes of runner shoots taken from field grown vines has been developed at the institute. A pit of 2.0 m x 1.0 m x 0.5 m size is dug under a cool and shaded area. Single nodes of 8- 10 cm length and with their leaf intact, taken from runner shoots of field grown vines are planted in polythene bags (25 cm x 15 cm, 200 gauge) filled at the lower half with a mixture of sand, soil, coir dust and cow dung in equal proportion. The single nodes are to be planted in the bags in such a way that their leaf axil is above the potting mixture. The polythene bags with the planted single nodes are arranged in the pit. After keeping the bags in the pit, the pit should be covered with a polythene sheet. This sheet may be secured in position by placing weights on the corners. The cuttings should be watered at least five times a day with a rose can and the pit should be covered with the polythene sheet immediately after

260

watering. It is advisable to drench the cuttings 2-3 times with copper oxychloride (2g/litre). After 2-3 weeks of planting, the cuttings will start producing roots which are visible through the polythene bags. After the initiation of roots the frequency of watering may be reduced to 3- 4 times a day. After about 1 month, new shoots start emerging from the leaf axil. At this stage it is advisable to keep the pit open for about 1 hour per day so that the cuttings would harden and will not dry when they are taken out of the pit. The cuttings can be taken out of the pit after 2 months of planting and kept in a shaded place and watered twice a day. These cuttings will be ready for field planting after about 2 months. By this method 80-85%success can be obtained. Foliar application of nutrient solution will also enhance the growth of the cuttings. Serpentine method Cheaper propagation technique for production of rooted cuttings of black pepper is serpentine layering. In a nursery shed with roofing sheet or shade net, rooted black pepper cuttings are planted in polythene bags holding about 500 g potting mixture, which will serve as mother plants. As the plant grows and produces few nodes small polythene bags (20x10 cm) filled with potting mixture may be kept under each node. The node may be kept gently pressed in to the mixture assuring contact with the potting mixture with the help of a flexible twig such as mid rib of a coconut leaflet to enable rooting at that junction. Roots start growing from the nodes and the cuttings keep on growing further. The process of keeping potting mixture filled polythene bags at every node to induce rooting at each node is repeated. In 3 months the first 10 nodes (from the mother plants) would have rooted profusely and will be ready for harvest. Each node with the ploythene bag is cut just below the rooted node and the cut end is also buried into the mixture to induce more roots. Polythene bags filled with solarized potting mixture or soil, granite powder and farmyard manure in 2:1:1 proportion is recommended for producing disease free rooted cuttings. The rooted nodes will produce new sprouts in a week time and will be ready for field planting in 2-3 months time. Daily irrigation can be given with a rose can. On an average, 60 cuttings can be harvested per mother plant in a year by this method. Selection of site When black pepper is grown in slopes, the slopes facing south should be avoided and the lower half of northern and north eastern slopes preferred for planting so that the vines are not subjected to the scorching effect of the southern sun during summer. Preparation of land and planting standards With the receipt of the first rain in May-June, primary stem cuttings of Erythina sp. (Murukku) or Garuga pinnata (kilinjil) or Grevillea robusta (silver oak) are planted in pits of

261

50 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm size filled with cow dung and top soil, at a spacing of 3 m x 3m which would accommodate about 1110 standards per hectare. Whenever E. indica is used as standard, application of phorate 10 G @ 30 g may be done twice a year (May/June and September/October) to control nematodes and stem and root borer. When E. indica and G.

pinnata are used, the primary stems are cut in March/April and stacked in shade in groups.
The stacked stems start sprouting in May. The stems are planted in the edge of the pits dug for planting black pepper vines. Existing Coconut gardens having age of more than 15-20 years also suitable for Black pepper cultivation. 300 nos Black Pepper cuttings are required for planting in one Hectare area of Coconut garden @ 2 cuttings for each tree. Planting Pits of 50 cm at a distance of 30 cm away from the base, on the northern side of supporting tree are taken with the onset of monsoon. The pits are filled with a mixture of top soil, farmyard manure @ 5 kg/pit and 150 g rock phosphate. Neem cake @ 1 kg and

Trichoderma harzianum @ 50 g also may be mixed with the mixture at the time of planting.
With the onset of monsoon, 2-3 rooted cuttings of black pepper are planted individually in the pits on the northern side of each standard. At least one node of the cutting should be kept below the soil for better anchorage. Cultural practices As the cuttings grow, the shoots are tied to the standards as often as required. The young vines should be protected from hot sun during summer by providing artificial shade. Regulation of shade by lopping the branches of standards is necessary not only for providing optimum light to the vines but also for enabling the standards to grow straight. Adequate mulch with green leaf or organic matter should be applied towards the end of North East monsoon. The base of the vines should not be disturbed so as to avoid root damage. During the second year, the same cultural practices are repeated. However, lopping of standards should be done carefully from the fourth year onwards, not only to regulate height of the standards, but also to shade the black pepper vines optimally. Lopping may be done twice (during June and September) in a year. Excessive shading during flowering and fruiting encourages pest infestations. From the fourth year, two diggings are usually given in the inter species one during May-June, and the other towards the end of south-west monsoon in October-November. Growing cover crops like Calapogonium mucunoides and Mimosa invisa are also recommended under West Coast conditions as an effective soil cover to prevent soil erosion during rainy season. Further, they dry during summer, leaving thick organic mulch. Manures and Fertilizers

262

1st year 2nd year 3rd year and above

N (g/vine/year) 17 34 50

P2O5 (g/vine/year) 17 34 50

K2O (g/vine/year) 50 100 150

Apply the above in two split doses once in June-July and the other in AugustSeptember and applied at a distance of about 30 cm all around the vine and covered with a thick layer of soil. Care should be taken to avoid direct contact of fertilizers with roots of black pepper. Organic manures in the form of cattle manure or compost can be given @ 10 kg/vine during May. Neem cake @ 1 kg/vine can also be applied. Application of lime @ 500 g/vine in April-May during alternate years is also recommended. When biofertilizer like Azospirillum is applied @ 100 g/vine, the recommended nitrogen dose may be reduced by half to 70 g/ vine. In soils that are deficient in zinc or magnesium, foliar application of 0.25% zinc sulphate twice a year (May-June and September-October) and soil application of 150 g/vine magnesium sulphate, respectively is recommended. Harvesting Black pepper flowers during May-June. The crop is ready for harvest in 6-8 months from flowering. The harvest season extends from November to January in the plains and January to March in the hills. During harvesting the whole spike is hand picked when one or two berries in the spike turn bright orange. The berries are separated from the spikes and dried in the sun for 7-10 days. The optimum moisture content in dried pepper to prevent mould attack is 8-10%. The berries can be separated manually or mechanically using threshers. Threshers with capacities varying between 0.5 to 1.5 tons per hour are available. This enhances speedy and hygienic separation of black pepper berries. When dried, the berries retain the characteristic wrinkled appearance of black pepper of commerce. Post Harvest Technology and Processing The fresh berries are dipped in hot water for a minute before drying in the sun which results in an attractive black colour and also reduces the drying time. The recommended drying surfaces are bamboo mat coated with fenugreek paste, cement floor and high density black polythene which gives better appearance and cleanliness to the dried product. Mechanical driers such as copra drier, convection drier and cascade type driers can also be employed for drying. The optimum temperature to be maintained in mechanical driers should be around 60C.

263

The white pepper of commerce is prepared either from freshly harvested berries or dried black pepper using special techniques such as retting, steaming and decortications. The recovery of white pepper from ripe pepper berries is about 25%. Water steeping is the most popular technique for preparing white pepper in which ripe pepper berries are soaked in water for 8-10 days and the outer skin is removed, washed and sun dried. The berries of Panniyur- 1 are ideal to prepare white pepper. Plant protection Pests Pollu beetle (Longitarsus nigripennis) The pollu beetle (Longitarsus nigripennis) is the most destructive pest of black pepper and is more serious in plains and at altitudes below 300 m. The term pollu denotes the hollow nature of the infested berries in Malayalam. The adult is a small black beetle measuring about 2.5 mm x 1.5 mm, the head and thorax being yellowish brown and the fore wings (elytra) black. Fully-grown grubs are creamy white and measure about 5 mm in length. The adult beetles feed and damage tender leaves and spikes. The females lay eggs on tender spikes and berries. The grubs bore into and feed on the internal tissues and the infested spikes turn black and decay. The infested berries also turn black and crumble when pressed. The pest infestation is more serious in shaded areas in the plantation. The pest population is higher during September-October in the field. Control Regulation of shade in the plantation reduces the population of the pest in the field. Spraying thoroughly underside of leaves (where adults are generally seen) and spikes quinalphos (0.05%) during June-July and September-October or quinalphos (0.05%) during July and Neemgold (0.6%) (neem-based insecticide) during August, September and October is effective. Top shoot borer (Cydia hemidoxa) The top shoot borer (Cydia hemidoxa) is a serious pest in younger plantations in all black pepper areas. The pest infestation is higher during July to October when numerous succulent shoots are available in the vines. The adult is a tiny moth with a wing span of 10-15 mm with crimson and yellow fore wings and grey hind wings. The larvae bore into tender terminal shoots and feed on internal tissues resulting in blackening and decaying of affected shoots. Fully-grown larvae are grayish green and measure 12-15 mm in length. When successive new shoots are attacked, the growth of the vine is affected. Control

264

Spray quinalphos (0.05%) on tender terminal shoots; repeat spraying at monthly intervals (during July- October) to protect emerging new shoots. Leaf gall thrips (Liothrips karnyi) Infestation by leaf gall thrips (Liothrips karnyi) is more serious at higher altitudes especially in younger vines and also in nurseries in the plains. The adults are black and measure 2.5-3.0 mm in length. The larvae and pupae are creamy white. The feeding activity of thrips on leaves causes the leaf margins to curl downwards and inwards resulting in the formation of marginal leaf galls. Later the infested leaves become crinkled and malformed. In severe cases of infestation, the growth of younger vines and cuttings in the nursery is affected. Control Spray dimethoate (0.05%) during emergence of new flushes in young vines in the field and cuttings in the nursery. Scales Mussel Scale (Lepidosaphes Piperis) and Coconut Scale (Aspidiotus Destructor) They cause serious damage to black pepper vines at higher altitudes and also to older cuttings in nurseries in the plains. The pest infestation is more severe during the post monsoon and summer periods. Females of mussel scales are elongated (about 1 mm length) and dark brown and that of coconut scales circular (about 1 mm in diameter) and yellowish brown. Scale insects are sedentary, remaining permanently fixed to plant parts and appear as encrustations on stems, leaves and berries. They feed on plant sap and cause yellowing and wilting of infested portions; in severe cases of infestation the affected portions of vines dry up. Control Clip off and destroy severely infested branches. Spray dimethoate (0.1%) on affected vines; repeat spraying after 21 days to control the infestation completely. Initiate control measures during early stages of pest infestation. In nurseries spraying neem oil 0.3% or Neemgold 0.3% or fish oil rosin 3% is also effective in controlling the pest infestation. Slow decline (slow wilt) (Radopholus similis and Meloidogyne incognita nematodes) Slow decline is a debilitating disease of black pepper. Foliar yellowing, defoliation and die-back are the aerial symptoms of this disease. The affected vines exhibit varying degrees of root degeneration due to infestation by plant parasitic nematodes. The diseased vines exhibit foliar yellowing from October onwards coinciding with depletion of soil moisture. With the onset of south west monsoon during May/June, some of the affected

265

vines recover and put forth fresh foliage. However, the symptoms reappear in subsequent seasons after the cessation of the monsoon and the diseased vines gradually lose their vigour and productivity. The affected vines show varying degrees of feeder root loss and the expression of symptoms on the aerial parts occur after a considerable portion of the feeder roots are lost. The root system of diseased vines show varying degrees of necrosis and presence of root galls due to infestation by plant parasitic nematodes such as Radopholus

similis and Meloidogyne incognita leading to rotting of feeder roots. The damage to feeder
roots is caused by these nematodes and P. capsici either independently or together in combination. There is no spatial segregation of plant parasitic nematodes and P. capsici in the soil under field conditions. Control It is necessary to adopt a combination of fungicide and nematicide application for the management of the disease. Severely affected vines which are beyond recovery should be removed from the plantation and destroyed. The pits for planting should be treated with phorate 10 G @ 15 g or carbofuran 3 G @ 50 g at the time of planting. Nematode free rooted cuttings raised in fumigated or solarized nursery mixture should be used for planting in the field.

Diseases Foot rot (quick wilt disease) (Phytophthora capsici) It is the most destructive of all diseases and occurs mainly during the south west monsoon season. All parts of the vine are vulnerable to the disease and the expression of symptoms depend upon the site or plant part infected and the extent of damage. Symptoms _ One or more black spots appear on the leaves which have a characteristic fine fibre like projections at the advancing margins which rapidly enlarge and cause defoliation. The tender leaves and succulent shoot tips of freshly emerging runner shoots trailing on the soil turn black when infected. The disease spreads to the entire vine, from these infected runner shoots and leaves, during intermittent showers due to rain splash. If the main stem at the ground level or the collar is damaged, the entire vine wilts followed by shedding of leaves and spikes with or without black spots. The branches break up at nodes and the entire vine collapses within a month. If the damage is confined to the feeder roots, the expression of symptoms is delayed till the cessation of rain and the vine starts showing declining symptoms such as yellowing, wilting, defoliation and drying up of a part of the vine. This

266

may occur during October-November onwards. These vines may recover after the rains and survive for more than two seasons till the root infection culminates in collar rot and death of the vine. Control The disease can be controlled by adopting integrated disease management strategies. Phytosanitation removal and destruction of dead vines along with root system from the garden is essential as this reduces the build up of inoculum (fungal population). Planting material must be collected from disease free gardens and the nursery preferably raised in fumigated or solarized soil. Cultural practices Adequate drainage should be provided to reduce water stagnation.Injury to the root system due to cultural practices such as digging should be avoided.The freshly emerging runner shoots should not be allowed to trail on the ground. They must either be tied back to the standard or pruned off. The branches of support trees must be pruned at the onset of monsoon to avoid build up of humidity and for better penetration of sunlight. Reduced humidity and presence of sunlight reduces the intensity of leaf infection. Chemical control Any of the following chemical control measures can be adopted. After the receipt of a few monsoon showers (May-June), all the vines are to be drenched at a radius of 45-50 cm with copper oxychloride 0.2% @ 5-10 litres/vine. A foliar spray with Bordeaux mixture 1% is also to be given. Drenching and spraying are to be repeated once again during August September. A third round of drenching may be given during October if the monsoon is prolonged. After the receipt of a few monsoon showers, all the vines are to be drenched with potassium phosphonate 0.3% @ 5-10 litres/vine. A foliar spray with potassium phosphonate 0.3% is also to be given. A second drenching and spraying with potassium posphonate 0.3% is to be repeated during August-September.If the monsoon is prolonged, a third round of drenching may be given during October. After the receipt of a few monsoon showers, all the vines are to be drenched with 0.125% metalaxyl mancozeb @ 5-10 litres/vine. A foliar spray with metalaxyl mancozeb 0.125% may also be given. At the onset of monsoon (May-June), apply Trichoderma around the base of the vine @ 50 g/vine (this quantity is recommended for a substrate containing Trichoderma @ 1010 cfu). A foliar spray with potassium phosphonate 0.3% or Bordeaux mixture 1% is also to be given. A second application of Trichoderma and foliar spray of Bordeaux mixture 1% or potassium phosphonate 0.3% are to be given during August-September.

267

Anthracnose (Pollu disease) (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides ) It can be distinguished from the pollu (hollow berry) caused by the beetle by the presence of characteristic cracks on the infected berries. The disease appears towards the end of the monsoon. The affected berries show brown sunken patches during early stages and their further development is affected. In later stages, the discolouration gradually increases and the berries show the characteristic cross splitting. Finally, the berries turn black and dry. The fungus also causes angular to irregular brownish lesions with a chlorotic haloon the leaves. Control Spray Bordeaux mixture 1%. Stunt disease (Cucumber mosaic virus and a Badnavirus ) This disease is caused by viruses. The vines exhibit shortening of internodes to varying degrees. The leaves become small and narrow with varying degrees of deformation and appear leathery, puckered and crinkled. Chlorotic spots and streaks also appear on the leaves occasionally. The yield of the affected vines decreases gradually. It spreads through the use of infected stem cuttings and also transmitted through insects like aphids and mealy bugs. Control Use virus free healthy planting material regular inspection and removal of infected plants and the removed plants may be burnt or buried deep in soil. Insects such as aphids and mealy bugs on the plant or standards should be controlled with insecticide spray such as Dimethoate or Monocrotophos @ 0.05%. ***

268

269

FLOWER CROPS

CHRYSANTHEMUM (Chrysanthemums Spp.) Chrysanthemums are grown for their showy fragrant flowers. It is cultivated on a limited area in our State and is mainly concentrated in the neighbouring areas of big cities like Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam etc. This is also cultivated on a large scale in sandy tracts of Coastal Andhra. A sizeable area is also developed near Tirupati in Chittoor district. The total area under Chrysanthemum in Andhra Pradesh is about 2,449 hectares with estimated annual production of 28,164 tonnes Soil and Climate Soil should be well drained, sandy loam with PH of 6.5-7.0. It is highly sensitive to waterlogged conditions. However it is grown even in sands in the Coastal areas. It is a short day plant responds differently to their environments, underground or aerial. Depending on the location planting date should be adjusted so that cultivars are exposed to long days during vegetative phase and short days for flowering. It can be successfully grown up to an altitude of 1200m from MSL.

270

Flower Types In chrysanthemum flowers are classified by the kind and arrangement of florets into five broad groups 1) Singles, 2) Anemones, 3) Pompons, 4) Decorative, 5) Large flowered. Varieties All the cultivated types can be broadly classified into three groups. 1. The small flower type known as Nakshatra Chamanti or Kasturi Chamanthi 2. Medium flower types or Patnam Chamanti and 3. Large flower types which are mostly used for flower decorations and for cut flowers. Among these three types, there are variations in colour ranging between yellow to red with different shades of admixture. The following varieties are suitable for loose flowers in our state. Yellow 1. Basanthi 2.Punjab Anuradha 3.CO-1 4.Yellow Gold 5. Silper 6.Raichur Season It is a cool season crop, main season for the crop is from June July. The crop can be started in Feb-March by planting the suckers. Preparation of Land The land is ploughed 3 to 4 times in March-April and 25-30 t/ha of farmyard manure applied in the last ploughing and the land is made into beds of convenient size. It is suggested that 4 ft wide beds are made so that while picking there will not be trampling and damage of plants. 60kg of P2O5/ha in the shape of Superphospate can also be incorporated in the last ploughing. Propagation Chrysanthemum is propagated vegetatively either through suckers, cuttings and by Micro propagation. This is usually raised from suckers after the harvest of main crop in February-March. Suckers After flowering, the stem is cut back just above the ground. This induces the formation of side suckers which are separated from the mother plant and are planted in sand bed. Well rooted suckers can be directly transplanted to field. The advantages of this 1. 2. 3. 4. White Ratlam selection IIHR-13 IIHR-6 Baggi

271

method are natural availability of suckers, their easy establishment and almost no mortality. The main disadvantages are transmission of parental disease to progeny and lack of uniformity and poor flower quality. Terminal cuttings These cuttings are taken from a healthy stock plant, 5-7 cm length cuttings are made by shearing basal leaves and cutting half of the open leaves. The cuttings are ipped in 2500 PPM Indole butyric acid or either in Seradex/Keradex (rooting hormone). These cuttings are put in sand beds in semi shade conditions and watered immediately and thereafter regularly. Planting It can also be raised by planting a nursery. Nursery raised in 8-10 cents will be sufficient for planting a hectare. The best time of planting is June-July. Some times, it is planted in February-March also. Normally nursery would be planted for multiplication in February-March. The slips should be planted at a spacing of 90cm either way after irrigating the field. One hectare will require about one lakh slips. While separating slips for planting, they should be lifted with care with their roots intact. A life irrigation should be given on the third day. The well rooted suckers/cuttings are planted in beds at a spacing of 30 x 30 cm. the soft wood cuttings of 58,080 are needed for planting in one acre. Manures and Fertilizers This crop requires a high dose of organic manure which is applied as basal dressing in the form of FYM and oil cakes. After well preparation of land 10-12 tons/acre of well decomposed farm yard manure is incorporated into the soil. Apply 50 kg of nitrogen, 160kg P20 and 80 kg K20 per acre as a basal dose. Top dress the crop with 50 kg Nitrogen /ac at the time of first pinching. The entire Phosphate is to be applied as basal dose in the last ploughing. One or two ratoon crops are also taken up after the harvest of the first crop. The stems of the plants will be cut close to the ground and the crop is earthed up with a liberal dose of FYM and superphosphate. The slips are then allowed to grow for the ratoon. This crop may give less yield and the flowers size also may be reduced. It is also not economical to take more than two ratoons. Intercultivation and Irrigation The crop is to be irrigated twice a week in the first month and subsequently at weekly intervals. Irrigation depends on soil and weather conditions. Weeding and hoeingss generally done manually as and when required, normally 8-10 times. Besides control of weeds, the soil is made loose, porous to provide aeration.

272

Horticultural Practices Staking Staking is necessary to provide the support whether the plants are grown in pots or in field. Pinching The objective of pinching is to encourage the side branches and it should be repeated to encourage more number of branches depending upon the number of blooms to be retained. Spray Chrysanthemum These types produce numerous small to medium sized flowers. In such types two pinchings are required to encourage lateral growth. First pinching is done at 4 weeks after planting and second after 7 weeks of planting or approximately 100 days before full bloom. Disbudding Disbudding is done to remove the side branches which arise from axillary buds, so that the number of flowers is limited and blooms of better size are obtained. In standard chrysanthemum regular disbudding is done to produce single flowers on single stems. Harvesting Depending on the variety plants start yielding flowers after 3-4 months of transplanting. Flowers can be plucked by hand picking at 4 days interval with or without pedicel (stalk) for loose flowers purpose. The correct stage of harvesting depends upon the cultivar, marketing and purpose etc. Yield, packaging and Economics Flowering season varies from region to region. The harvesting of the crop commences from December-January and lasts upto February-March depending upon the age of the plant (i.e. planting time). The natural blooming season, for most of the regions lasts from July to February with traditional cultivars and techniques. One can harvest the flower around 15 times. Each picking would give about 40-50 thousand flowers per acre, i.e. 6 to 7.5 lakhs flowers weighing about 600-700 kg valued @ Rs. 10 to 15/- per kg giving a gross income of Rs. 6,000/- to 7,000/- per acre annually. The yield ranges from 9 to 10 tonnes of loose flower per acre. The yield will be reduced by about one fourth of this in the ratoon crop. Plant Protection Pests Aphids (Macrosiphoniella sanborni) There are only a few flowering varieties which neither require pinching nor staking and hence known as no stage no pinch varieties.

273

Greenish black nymphs and chocolate brown adults suck the cell sap from growing shoots and lower surface of leaves. Damage results in loss of vigour, yellowing and premature leaf fall and stunted growth. Honey dew secreted by aphids favours development of sooty mould. Control Spraying of pongamia oil or neem oil 2% gives significant mortality of aphid. Spray Dimethoate or Oxydemeton methyl at 0.05%. Thrips (Microcephalothrips abdominalis, Frankiniella spp.) Slender white nymphs and black adults feed on tender leaves causing silvering, mottling and distortion of leaves. Damaged flowers discoloured, withered and dried due to scorching. Control Spraying of Acephate or Cartap hydrochloride or Ethofenprox or Dimethoate at 0.05%, 2 to 3 days at 15 days interval. Drench the soil with chlorpyriphos 0.1% to control pupae. Bud borer (Helicoverpa armigera) Round cream coloured eggs are deposited singly on bracts and petals of buds. Larvae feed on growing flowers causing considerable flower loss.

Control Sprays Endosulfan 0.07% or Methyl parathion 0.05% or Fenvalerate 0.01% at appearance of eggs. Spraying of NPV of Helicoverpa @ 250 LE/ha also gives effective control. Leaf folder (Hedylepta indicate) Pale white eggs are laid singly or in small groups on lower side of leaves. Green larva with brown head folds leaves together and feeds on chlorophyll. Affected leaves become skeletonized and dry. The larvae also damage flowers by feeding on petal. Control Cutting and buming of infected parts. Two or three sprays of Methyl parathion or Quinolphos at 0.05% or Fenvalerate 0.01% give effective control of leaf folder. Lesion nematode (Pratylenchus coffeae) Stunting of plants with premature yellowing and drying of leaves, reduced flower size, dark lesions on roots.

274

Control Apply neem cake 1t/ha or Carbofuran 2.5kg/ha. Bud and leaf nematode (Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi) Interveinal discolouration of leaves and their death. The nematode spread up the plant from base. Dead leaves do not drop. Control Hot water treatment of stools at 46 OC for 5 minutes. Spray 0.02% Thionazin or 0.01% Methyl parathion to aerial parts. Diseases Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum, f. chrysanthemi) The infected plants show chlorosis and necrosis starting from lower leaves. The apical leaves show curving and necrosis. At the base of the plants above the soil surface dark streaks are common. Control Drenching the soil with Thiophanate methyl or combination of Benlate + lime + nitrate are effective. Stem rot (Fusarium solani) The symptoms appear as leaf chlorosis, necrosis and decay and discolouration of pith and the adjacent vascular region of the cortex. When flower buds are about to open, small dark streaks are seen at the base of the stem. Root decay is noticed only in the advanced stages of infection. Control Soil treatment with Thiophanate methyl or a combination of Benlate + Lime + nitrate is effective. Root rot (Pythium sp., Phytophthora sp.) Root rot is common in wet weather conditions. Under high soil moisture the affected plants will suddenly. Control Besides fungicides like Captan, Mancozeb, Metalaxyl and Fosetyl-Al, soil solarization is useful. Powdery mildew (Oidium chrysanthemi) The symptoms appear as powdery coating on the leaves. This disfigures the leaves and often results in defoliation. Control Use sulphur fungicides or Carbendazim.

275

Leaf spot and flower blight (Alternaria sp., Septoria chrysanthemella) The infection first appears on the lowermost leaves. The small dark brown spots with yellow surroundings merge and in the advanced stages the entire foliage rots. When the flowering starts the infection occurs on flower buds, which rot completely. Control Spraying of Mancozeb at 10-15 day intervals offer good control. CROSSANDRA (Crossandra infundibuliformis) Crossandra flowers are very popular for their bright colour, light-weight and keeping quality. Deep orange coloured flowers are of great demand for garlands and hair adornments. The total area under Crossandra in Andhra Pradesh is about 3,084 hectares with estimated annual production of 9,868 tonnes Soil Crossandra can be cultivated in a wide range of soils. Fertile, red loamy soils with pH range of 6 to 7.5 and rich in organic matter are ideal for its cultivation. Varieties The common variety under cultivation is the one producing orange coloured flowers. Varieties producing yellow flowers are also grown in some places, mostly in home gardens. These are perennials and are propagated by cuttings or seed. Propagation Propagation is by seeds or stem cuttings. Preparation of Land The land is ploughed 4-6 times, 25 t/ha of farmyard manure is applied in the last ploughing and ridges are formed or beds and channesla re formed at convenlent size (60cm apart). Seedlings are transplanted on the sides of the ridges (40 cm). Seeds and Sowing Seeds are sown in June-July in raised beds. About 2 to 2 kg of seeds will be required per ha which will accommodate about 50,000 seedlings/acre at a spacing of 30 x 50 cm. Seeds are to treated with mancozeb or carbendazim @ 2g/Kg seed before sowing them on the raised nursery beds. The seeds will loose their viability very soon and hence only freshly extracted seedsshould be used. Care should be taken to protect the germinating seedlings from cut worms by dusting Carbaryl 5% on the beds. The damping off disease can be controlled by applying wettable ceresin (1g/l) to the seed beds. Vigorous growth of the seedlings can be promoted by applying Ammonium sulphate solution (25g/10 lit of water) to

276

the seed beds twice a week. When the seedlings develop 3-4 leaves they are ready for transplanting. The seedlings are transplanted at a spacing of 30-50cm. Before planting, it is better to dip the roots of the seedlings in wet Ceresan solution to prevent the incidence of wilt disease. The seedlings will be ready for transplanting with in 50-60 days after sowing. In the case of triploid varieties like Delhi, cuttings are used. Cuttings should be transplanted when sufficient roots are developed. Manuring The crop is top dressed 3-4 times with 25-20-45 kg/acre of N: P 2O5 : K2O each time, at 3,6,9 and 15 months after transplanting . Application of Zinc sulphate @ 5gm/lt 60 days after transplanting Irrigation Immediately after planting, the crop has to be irrigated twice a week and later irrigation is to be provided at 7-10 days interval based on climate and soil conditions. Dried flower stalks and branches are to be removed at regular intervals. Intercultivation Weeding once or twice may be done during the first two months. Harvest and yield Crossandra flowers within two to three months after planting and continues to bear flowers throughout the year with a lean production during rainy months. Flowers are to be picked early in the morning by pulling the corolla out of the calyx. Flowers will be available for picking for six months in a year. At each picking, an yield of 5 to 7 kg of flowers will be obtained. After 6 months, about 500-700 kg of flowers per hectare/year will be obtained. Harvesting of flowers is to be done on alternate days. The crop can be retained in the filed for about 3 years. After that it has to be removed as it would not be economical to keep it. Plant Protection Pests Brown Scale (Saissetia nigra), White scale (Orthezia insignis) Yellowish nymphs and dark brown adult scales are seen in large numbers under leaves and on petioles and stem. Severe infestation results in stunted growth and leaves turn yellow and drop. Honey dew secreted by Orthezia sp. favours development of sooty mould which harms the plant growth. Control Removal and burning of infested portion of plants prevents further spread. Application of Carbofuran granules at 1 kg a.i./ha and spraying of dimethoate @ 2ml/lt or acephate @1gm/lt or Chlorpyriphos 0.05% at fortnightly intervals. increases the flower yield and also quality. The application of fertilizers is to be necessarily followed by irrigation.

277

Mealy bugs Nymphs and adults suck the sap and weaken the plants. Control Spray dimethoate @ 2ml/lt or acephate @1gm/lt. White files (Lipaleyrodes sp.) It occurs in large numbers on the undersurface of leaves. It is prevalent during August-November and heavy infestation leads to chlorosis and development of sooty mould. Control Spray Dimethoate @ 2ml/lt or Acephate @1gm/lt or Phosalone 0.05% or Fenthion 0.05% at fortnightly interval repeated twice. Nematodes They are serious pests in crossandra. The affected plants shows brown to black colored spots and lesions on the roots. In severe conditions, plants are stunted in growth and finally death occurs. Control They can be controlled by application of 4-5 quintals of neemcake per acre during last ploughing. At the time of planting apply Furadan granules 2 8-10 Quintals per acre. Lesion nematode (Pratylenchus delatrei), Root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne

incognita), Needle nematode (Longidorus africanus)

Stunting of plants with pinkish to purple and yellow coloured leaves, reduction in inflorescence and flower size, retardation of root growth with brown to black spindle shaped lesions/galls, reduction in yield (22%). Control Apply neem cake 2 kg/m2 in nursery beds. Application of FYM and interplanting with marigold or pangola grass are helpful. Soil application of Carbofuran 2.5 kg/ha or neem cake 1t/ha. Diseases Wilt (Fusarium solani) Wilt caused by Fusarium solani will result in yellowing of leaves and death of the plants. The incidence of the disease is found nematode Control It can be controlled by application of phorate @ 1g per plant. Water logged conditions are to be avoided. Foot and Root rot (Phytophthora nicotianae) to be more in the presence of root lesion

278

In young seedlings, symptoms appear as brown lesions on rootlets followed by rotting of the entire rootlet. On the collar region peculiar brown rot can be seen. The leaves show pink discolouration and drooping. In advanced stages of infection wilting of whole plant can be noticed. Control Growing seedlings in raised beds drenched with Captan, application of neem-cake to control nematode infestation, prophylactic application of Captaf as soil drench at the time of planting in the main field and application of Fosetyl Al as soil drench 2-3 times at monthly interval during mosoon season are effective. Flower blight (Alternaria sp.) Drying up of flowers during winter months are symptoms. Young flowers fail to open on infection. Control Spray Mancozeb at fortnightly interval. GLADIOLUS (Gladiolus spp.) Gladiolus is has gained a wide popularity because of its- glamorous beauty. The Indian Institute of Horticulture Research, Bangalore has developed several hybrids like

Sapna, Apsara, Meera, Nazrana, Poonam, Shova etc. Gladiolus has got high commercial
value and it is a boon to the florists all over the world. The total area under Gladiolus in Andhra Pradesh is about 12 hectares with estimated annual production of 30 tonnes Soils Loamy to sandy loam soil is best suited for gladiolus cultivation. Water logging with high salinity areas are to avoided. Clay soil is also not suitable for gladiolus cultivation. Adding sand to make it porous can amend light clay soil. Soil pH of 6.5-7.0 is ideal. Climate It can be grown in all climates, however, cooler climate is always preferable. Propagation Gladiolus is usually grown from its corms which are available with nurserymen and gladiolus growers. 3-4 cm diameter corms are to be selected for planting which would start yielding after 90 days of plantation. For commercial cultivation, it is always advisable to propagate through corms. Corms usually have dormancy period of 70-90 days. So immediately after uprooting, the corms should not be used for planting.

279

Spacing The corms are planted at a spacing of 30 X 20cm. Before planting the scaly portion of the corms are to be removed and they are dipped in mancozeb 2g or carbendazim 1g/lt of solution. Planting Land is prepared during sep-Oct and corms are planted up to Nov. Even December planting is also recommended. Manures and Fertilizers Basal dose of 8-10 tons/acre of FYM, 15-20Kg N, 30-35Kg P 2O5 and 30-35 Kg K2O are applied to the field. Later 30-35Kg N is to be applied two times as top dressing at 3 and 6 leaves stage. Staking After 10 to 15 days of planting, the corms strikes out buds or shoots which come above the ground level. Sword like foliage grows upwardly in one plane. It is highly essential to stake the plant when they are 15 cm high in order to provide shelter from wind and biomass pressure. Otherwise, the plants as well as heavy spikes will grow crookedly. Mulching and Stirring Gladiolus requires periodic stirring of soil for more aeration and percolation of soil water to facilitate the growth of the plants as well as the flowers. Mulching with coconut fiber, grass clippings, dust, dried leaves etc. adds to the growth of Gladiolus.

Crop rotation It is highly desirable to resort to crop rotation which acts as prophylaxis against pests and diseases. Planting of marigold immediately after gladiolus helps in rebuilding the soil and eradication of nematodes. Harvesting Gladiolus takes 80 to 140 days to produce spikes depending upon the variety. Usually gladiolus is harvested as blooming spikes which sell in the market. The spikes should be cut with 30 inches stalk during evening hours and packed into bundles of 12 or dozen and kept overnight in wet linen. Bundled spikes are transported to the market in bamboo baskets with wet new papers or linen as lining.

280

Once the spikes are cut out, the leaves begin to turn yellow. Gradually the water supply is reduced till the leaves get dried naturally. After 3 - 4 weeks corms are lifted from the ground along with cormels produced by corms and stored in cool and dry place . Plant Protection Pests Cut worms(Agrotis segetum) Grown up clay coloured larvae cut the plants at ground level. Plants are vulnerable to attack up to 3 leaf stage. Cut worms also damage underground corms and developing spikes. Control Plouging during summer exposes pupae to predators. Poison bait consisting of carbaryl or malathion at 0.1% in wheat bran and molasses in the field controls the larvae. Bulb mite (Rhizoglyphusechinopus) This slow moving mite is about 0.5 mm long, globular, and yellow-white with brownish legs. Infested corms produce stunted plants with yellow and distorted leaves. Early infestations are found around the basal plate of the old corm. Roots are destroyed first and stems are attacked later. Corms can be completely destroyed by the combined action of the mites and micro-organisms that invade the damaged tissue. Control Hot water treatment will kill the mites, but good sanitation is very important when digging up, storing, or planting out corms. Aphids Several species of aphids attack gladiolus. All infest the foliage and also transmit virus diseases. Aphids are slow moving and plump bodied insects. The colour varies with the species and green yellow, pink, brown and black forms occur. Control Spraying contact insecticides like Rogor, Metacid, Malathion etc. along with systemic insecticides like Thimet or Furadan. Thrips (Taeniothrips simplex) Yellow coloured nymphs and black adults damage leaves and spikes by rasping tissues and sucking the sap. Affected leaves and spikes develop silver streaks, turn brown, get deformed and dry when attack is severe. Corms in storage are also attacked by thrips. Infested corms are sticky, get shriveled and produce weak plants. Control

281

Spray Acephate 0.1% 2-3 times at 10 days interval or spraying contact insecticides like Rogor, Metacid, Malathion etc. along with systemic insecticides like Thimet or Furadan. Diseases Gladiolus is highly susceptible to fungal attacks by fungi like Stromatinia, Carvularia,

Fusarium etc.. Fusarium corm rot or wilt (Fusarium oxysporum, f.sp. gladioli)
In worm soil, fusarium attacks the corms causing fusarium corm rot. The initial symptom is yellowing of older leaves, whereas the inner leaves remain green. Spike develop dark green colour and petals also develop dark colour. In advanced stages of infection, the plants show wilting. Corms when cut open show brown spots or streaks usually at the base. Control In order to control the disease, it is advisable to destroy the infected corms from the field and to spray systemic fungicide like Bavistin on the soil as well as on the plants in the affected field. It is also suggested to treat the corms in a solution of Bavistin prior to planting in the field. Leaf and flower blight (Curvularia trifoli, C.eragrostidis) In warm and humid weather, oval brown spots appear on the young leaves and later on spreads to stems and spikes which is caused by Curvularia fungus. Control Can be controlled by spraying mancozeb at weekly or 10 days interval. Neck rot (Pseudomonas marginata, Stomatinia gladioli, Botrytis gladiodotum)

Stromatinia causes neck rot stunting the growth of the plant and forming brown or
black spots on the corms. In cool and humid weather, the plant is attacked by Botrytis - yet another fungus causing brown patches on upper side of the leaves which turns grey. Control Spray Bavistin or Captan. Root-knot Nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) Gladiolus is also attacked by root-knot nematode causing wilting of the plants. Stunted growth, yellowing of leaves and heavy galling on roots. Control Use nematode free planting material. Hot water treatment of corms at 57.8OC for 30 minutes. Intercropping or crop rotation with marigold. Apply Furadan granules @ 8-10 q / acre or Carbofuran/Phorate (1g/m2).

282

JASMINE (Jasminum sps.) Jasmine is one of the important flower crops grown on commercial scale in certain selected areas of Andhra Pradesh. The main areas of production of these flowers in our State are Hyderabad, Rangareddy, Guntur, Prakasam, Kurnool, Cuddapah, Ananthapur and Chittoor districts. The flowers are highly fragrant and used for religious offerings in temples and highly preferred by ladies for adorming their hair and also used for preparing garlands. Loose flowers are also used for extraction of essential oil which is used in the preparation of perfumes and scented water. The jasmine oil has great export potential in addition to its use for medicinal purpose. The total area under Jasmine in Andhra Pradesh is about 4,880 hectares with estimated annual production of 24,400 tonnes Soil and Climate Jasmine can be planted on a wide range of soils. Well-drained sandy loams and red loams are ideal for its cultivation. In clayey soils, there is increased vegetative growth and reduced flowering. They give good yield in low rainfall conditions. It is a tropical crop and grows well in moderate humid conditions. Varieties There are trailing, climbing and erect growing species and cultivars. Three important species and their varieties are given below:

Jasminum sambac
It is common known as Arabian jasmine. It is the most common species in India. Its flower buds are white with single or multi whorled petals, used for garland making, adorning hair, worshipping, decoration and extraction of perfume.

Jasminum sambac is usually accepted as commercial jasmine which is a shrub. There

are four types in Jasminum sambac. 1. Single flowered Arabian jasmine. This is the most commercial type, which bears flowers profusely. 2. Semi double type of jasmine called Dontara Malle. 3. The fully double small flowered Arabian jasmine (Gundumalle). 4. The large double or Tuscan type of jasmine (Boddu Malle) also called as the grand duke of Tuscany. Important varieties are Gundumalle Motia Virupakshi

283

Sujimalli Madanabanam Ramabanam

Jasminum grandiflorum
It is a climbing type and is commonly called as Sannajaji. It is a large shrub in striate branches having pinnate leaves, compound with 7-9 leaflets of equal sizes. Flowers are white, often tinged with purple outside, axillary or terminal and 5 petalled. Large single flowers are delightfully fragrant. Flowers are used in making garlands, decorative bunches or veni. They are suitable for planting in shrubbery, arches and pergolas. Presently concrete is extracted from its flowers. It flowers from March to September. Important varieties are Co-1 Pitchi Co-2 Pitchi Thimmapura Lucknow

Jasminum auriculatum
Commonly known as Juhi, Jui, Malle, Mokggu, Mullai, Adavi malle and Ambur Malliage. It is a scandent shrub having shiny leaves with minute lateral leaflets. Leaves are mostly simple, occasionally trifoliate. The plants produce numerous star shaped, white scented blooms and are very good as loose flowers. The flowers are borne in pubescent compound many flowered flax cymes. Black type of this species is grown in home gardens. The flowers are commonly used for garlands, adorning hair, worship and decoration. It bears flowers from spring to summer and in rainy season. Its high yielding varieties are. Co-1 Mullai Co-2 Mullai Long Round Short Point Short Round Propagation Layering and cutting are the main propagation methods. Jasmine sambac is propagated by cuttings and layers while Jasminum grandiflorum (Jathimalli) is propagated by layers and by stem cuttings. Better rooting of cuttings can be obtained by planting in coarse sand and also by using any of the rooting hormones like IBA (5000 ppm), IAA (1000 ppm) and NAA (5000 ppm). Simple and compound layering methods are followed during June July to October November. Layers will be ready for planting within 90-120 days. Planting

284

After ploughing the land, pits of about 40 x 40 x 40 cm size are taken and filled with topsoil and 15 kg well-rotten FYM. Planting distance depends on the species and also on soil and environmental conditions. Species Planting distance 1.2 x 1.2 m 1.8 x 1.8 m 2.0 x 1.5 m

J.sambac J.auriculatum J.grandiflorum

Irrigation

Planting is usually done during June August. Irrigation is most important for jasmines. Constant and adequate water supply (irrigating twice a week) in light soils during peak flowering season (March October) is essential for high yield of flowers. After flowering is over, the water supply can be cut off. Manures and Fertilizers The plants are usually manured once in every year with organic manures in January before flush season commences at 10-12kg of FYM per plant. In some places tank silt and horse manure are also applied to get high yields. The manures are usually applied after pruning the bushes once in June-July and again December-January. The fertilizer recommendation also differs with the species grown.

J.sambac J.auriculatum J.grandiflorum

90g N, 120g P2O5 and 240g K2O four times at two months interval. 60g N, 120g P2O5 and 120g K2O 100g N, 150g P2O5 and 100g K2O

This has to be supplemented with organic manures like neem cake, groundnut oil cake etc. at the rate of 100 g per plant per month. Pruning The pruning of jasmine is an important operation. With the approaching of winter the bushes start to shed the leaves. To promote good flowering water is withheld to the bushes in the 2nd fortnight of November which throws the plant to rest and shed the leaves. The plants are defoliated. The bushes are trimmed back to half the height (45 cm from the ground level) during mid December January. Before pruning irrigation is to be with held and all the dried and diseased twigs are to be removed. Jasminum auriculatum is generally pruned during Jan- Feb months. After pruning, the leaves are also to be removed and irrigated profusely so as to encourage vegetative growth on which flower buds are developed during the season. Weed control

285

Manual weeding is effective but expensive. Use of weedicides like paraquat is also practiced. Harvest The layers will start flowering from 2nd year after planting and the commercial yields commence from third year onwards. The Jasminum sambac varieties flower profusely in summer and also in rainy season (i.e. March-August) while climbing types (Jatimalli) will flower throughout the year, with peak flowering in June-July. Yield Yield of flowers and jasmine oil vary according to the species and management practices. Species Flower Yield (t/ac) 1.0-2.0 1.8-3.6 1.8-4.0

J.sambac J.auriculatum J.grandiflorum

Since the jasmine flowers are highly perishable and will have to be disposed off in the market within few hours after picking. Plant Protection Jasmine is comparatively a hardly plant. Pests Bud and Shoot borer (Hendecasis duplifascialis) Caterpillar makes hole on the flower bud and feeds on the inner content. Larva attacks 2 -3 buds .Petals are eaten by the larvae. Larva is greenish with pale body hairs and black head. Adult - small white moth with black wavy lines on hind wings and abdomen. Control Spray 0.15 0.20% carbaryl or 0.06% Dimethoate (2ml/lit) Spray 0.15 0.20% carbaryl Stick Bugs (Antestia cruciata ) Adults and nymphs of this bug suck the sap from leaves, tender shoots and flower buds, reducing the market value. Control Spray 0.05% Malathion Thrips (Thrips orientalis) Nymphs and adults attack the flowers. Brown streaks are seen on flower petals. Control Spray 0.06% Dimethoate (2ml/lit)

286

Disease Leaf blight (Cercospora jasminicola) Jasmine plants affected with leaf blight develop red-brown circular spots on their upper surface. The infection spreads rapidly, especially during the rainy season. And as it progresses, infected leaves curl and dry at the margins. In severe cases shoots, buds and young branches dry out as well. Leaf blight severely reduces flower production, but is not dangerous. Control Spray affected plants with bordeaux mixture to control the disease.Can be controlled by spraying 0.2% mancozeb or 0.1% benomyl Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporium) Wilt slowly kills the root system of the jasmine, starving the plant of essential nutrients. Uprooted jasmine plants with wilt show roots that are blackened in patches and girdled with the white mycelia that cause the disease. Control Can be controlled with 1% Bordeaux mixture. Rust (Uromyces hobsoni) Brown coloured pustules develop on the lower surface of the leaves and in severe cases on stems and flowers. Control Spray 0.2% zineb or any Copper fungicide. MARIGOLD (Tagetes erecta and Tagetes patula) Marigold is one of the most important flowering annuals cultivated in India. It has gained popularity on account of its easy culture and wide adaptability, wide attractive colours, shape, size and good keeping quality. (African Marigold Tagetes erecta) (French Marigold Tagetes patula) Climate Marigold requires mild climate for luxuriant growth and flowering. Depending on environmental condition, planting of marigold is done in 3 three seasons i.e rainy, summer and winter. Planting of African marigold after 1st week of February and before 1st week of July greatly affects the quality and yield of flowers. So staggered planting between 1st week

287

of July to 1st week of February at monthly intervals assures supply of flowers to market over an extended period from October to April, however maximum yield can be obtained from September planted crop. Soil It can be grown in a wide range of soils except water logged conditions. However, a deep fertile soil having good water holding capacity, well drained, sandy loam soil rich in organic matter is best suitable. Neither too acidic not too alkaline soils with p H 6.0 to 7.5 are suitable. Selection of site A sunny location is ideal for marigold cultivation. Under shade, it produces more vegetative growth and do not produce any flowers. Varieties Pusa Narangi Gainda Pusa Basanti Gainda Season Season 1. Rainy season 2. Winter 3. Summer season Sowing time Middle of June Middle of August First week of January Transplanting Middle of July Middle of September First week of February

Highest yields are upturned when planted in September. Rainfall during rainy season and high temperatures during summer will affected the flower quality. Propagation Marigold is generally propagated either by seed or by herbaceous cuttings. By Seed Seed rate for marigold varies from 0.8 1 Kg per acre and takes about 5-7 days for germination. Seeds can be sown on nursery beds in lines in shallow furrows. During preparation of nursery beds 8-10 Kg of well decomposed farm yard manure per 1sq.m bed is thoroughly mixed with the soil. The width of the seed bed should not be more than 1.2m and height should be 15 cm. Before sowing of seeds a little amount of folidol dust is applied to the nursery bed to avoid ant or termite infestation. During winter beds should be covered with a layer of straw to accelerate germination process. However the straw should be removed as soon as the seedlings are visible above the soil. Seeds germinate 5-7 days after sowing. By herbaceous cuttings

288

Varieties like Gaint African yellow, Gaint African orange do not set seed. Therefore these are usually multiplied by herbaceous cuttings. Apical shoots of 10cm long are usually used for vegetative propagation. Herbaceous cuttings each with one or two pair of leaves are inserted in sand medium either in seed pan or nursery bed. Before putting the cuttings in rooting medium the basal portion of the cuttings is treated with a hormone powder which is marketed as seradix B-1, Rootex-1 to encourage profuse and early rooting. Shade should be provided initially to the beds. Regular watering should be done to keep the bed in moist conditions. With in 8-10 days, rooting is observed in the cuttings which are later used as planting materials. Transplanting of seedlings Land should be ploughed 2 to 3 times to bring the soil to a fine tilth. One month old seedlings with 3-4 leaves are fit for transplanting. Watering of nursery bed one day prior to uprooting will lessen the damage to root system. Uprooting of seedlings and transplanting should be done in the evening hours for better establishment. Spacing Proper spacing between plants is required for better development of plants and for higher flower yield. The following spacing is recommended for marigold. 1) African marigold 60 X 30 cm or 45 X 30cm. 2) French marigold 20 X 20cm or 20 X15cm Manures and Fertilizers Incorporate 20 tonnes of Farm Yard Manure during the last ploughing. Apply 20-40 kg N, 80 kgs of P2O5 and 80 kgs of K2O per acre. Half of nitrogen, entire dose of phosphorus and potash should be applied as basal dose, preferably one week after transplanting and rest half nitrogen should be applied one month after the first application. Irrigate after application. Intercultural operations In marigold control of weeds is an important operation. If the weeds are not removed in time, a great loss would occur in terms of growth and productivity of marigold particularly during rainy season. Hoeing and weeding should be done 3 to 4 times during the crop period to make the soil loose and weed free. Irrigation At all stages of vegetative growth (55-60 days) and during flower production sufficient amount of moisture in soil is essential. Moisture stress at any stage affects normal

289

growth and flowering. In lighter soils more frequent irrigations are required than in heavy soils. In sandy loam soil, weekly irrigation is necessary between September to March while during summer months between April to June irrigation at 4-5 days intervals is required. Pinching In tall cultivars of African marigold, plants first grow upwards to their final height and later on produce a terminal flower. After the formation of terminal flower bud, axillary branches develop which also bear flower. However, if the apical portion of shoot is removed early, large number of axillary shoots arise resulting in well shaped bushy plant bearing more number of uniform sized flowers. Removal of apical portion of shoot is known as pinching. It is observed that pinching at 40 days after transplanting enhances flower yield. However, Giant double African yellow and orange do not require pinching as the plants are bushy and branching type. Harvesting Marigold flowers are plucked when they attain full size. Harvesting should be done either in the morning or evening hours. Field should be irrigated before harvesting of flowers so that the flowers keep well for longer period after harvest. Productivity of plants increases considerably by regular plucking of flowers. Yield Flower Yield of flowers varies with type and variety. Normally 4-6 tonnes of flowers per acre can be obtained. However, Giant African yellow when planted in September, may give 10 tonnes of flowers per acre. Seed Seeds should be collected only from winter crop. African marigold 120-150 Kg /ac French marigold 400-500 Kg/ac.

Packing After harvest, flowers are packed in moist gunny bags or bamboo baskets covered with moist cloth or polythene sheets and sent to market. Plant Protection Pests

290

Bud caterpillars (Helicoverpa armigera and Phycita sp.) Eggs are laid singly on young buds. Larvae feed on developing flowers by damaging florets. Larvae of Phycita sp. feed on heads of buds and flowers. Control Collection and destruction of infested buds and flowers. Sprays of Endosulfan 0.07% or Methyl Parathion 0.05%. Aphids (Aphis gossypii) Aphids mainly infest lower surface of flowers and base of petals. Nymphs and adults suck the sap from the flowers causing discoloration and withering. Control Spraying of Oxydemeton methyl 0.05% or Moncrotophos 0.05%. Thrips Thirps infest young leaves, buds and flowers and suck the sap. Affected leaves get distorted, while petals of flowers turn brown and dirty. Control Two or three sprays of Oxydemeton methyl, Diemthoate 0.05%, at 10 days interval. Diseases Wilt and Stem rot (Phytophthora cryptogea) The fungus attack roots and collar portions of the plants. In nurseries the infection results in damping off and is aggravated by high soil moisture. In the field the infected plants show wilting. Control Treat soil with Captaf, Mancozeb and Metalaxyl. Collar and root rot (Pellicularia filamentosa, P.rolfsii, Pythium ultimum,

Scelrotinia slerotiarum)
Rotting of root and collar portions is noticed resulting in wilting of the plant. Control Soil fumigation and planting healthy seedlings. Leaf spot and blight (Alternaria sp., Septoria sp., Cerospora sp.) Brown circular and brownish grey spots appear. Control Spraying fungicides regularly. Powdery mildew (Oidium sp. Leveillula taurica) The fungi cause powdery patches on leaves.

291

Control Foliar application of sulphur compounds, Carbendazim, Triadimefon, Fenerimol, Penconazole and Triforine. ROSE (Rosa sp.) Flowers are among the loveliest objects on this earth. Among them rose is the queen. Rose is estimated to be more than thirty million years old and has figures in the myths and legends, is the poetry and music. The rose has been used in rituals, as a motif in architectural decoration, in beautiful designs in jewellery, pottery and embroidery. There are about 120 species of roses distributed in the North temperate and sub tropical parts of both the hemispheres. As far as the garden roses of the world are concerned, R.fortida, R.gallica, R.gigantea, R.moschata and R.wichuraiana have played an important role. Cultivated roses can be grouped under two categories those in cultivation before 1800 A.D. and those after 1800 A.D. The period after 1800 A.D. was notable because of the influence of perpetually flowering types derived from R.Chinensis and R.gigantea from the far East, crossing with new introductions gave rise to the important groups of the Noisettes and the Bourbons. Further, complex crossing ultimately gave rise to the great groups of Tea roses and the Hybrid perpetuals. The tea roses were prized for their continuous flowering habit while Hybrid perpetuals included varieties of magnificent size and rich perfume. Climate Rose usually dislikes humid climate, but can tolerate high temperature. At a temperature below 10 C flowering is affected and blind shoots and bull heads are developed. Rose plant should receive 8 hours exposure to sun rays. Shady area is not at all suitable for rosary. Soils Sandy-loam, red-loam, silty-loam soil are best suited for rose cultivation. The soil pH of 6.0 to 7.5 is ideal for rose. Rose is very sensitive to saline soils as sodium carbonate which is present in the saline soil is harmful to the plants. Soils rich in organic matter with good water holding capacity are ideal for its cultivation. Varieties Hybrid teas, Floribundas and miniatures are the different types of roses. Mostly Hybrid teas and Floribundas are grown in A.P. Among Hybrid Teas Gladiator, Raktima,

292

Grandgala, Aditya etc and among Floribundas Red front, Olympic gold, Mother Teresa etc are suitable. For loose flowers mostly kakinada roses are suitable. Hybrid Teas The outstanding event in the rose world was the origin of Hybrid Tea roses. The Hybrid Tea roses are the crosses between Hybrid perpetuals and Tea roses. Later they were crossed among themselves and also with some other types such as the Permetianas, with the result that the present day Hybrid Teas are quite a complex group. Crimpson Glory, Mc Gredys Sunset, Peace and Super Star are some well known examples. Some of the Hybrid Teas have sported to produce climbing forms, e.g. Cripson Glory climbing Peace and climbing Shot Silk. Hybrid Perpetuals Obtained by crossing the existing roses in Europe such as damasks and the gallicas with perpetually flowering introductions from China. These are characterized by tall growth, large full flowers and by rich fragrance e.g. General Jacqueminot. Mrs.John Laing and paul Neyron. Teas The tea roses are not as hardy and resistant to cold as the Hybrid Perpetuals, e.g. Lady Hillingdon. Molly Sharmancrawford and Mme Falcot. Floribundas The floribundas started with a group called Hybrid Polyanthus, created by crossing the Hybrid Teas and dwarf Polyanthus. Dwarf Polyanthus They produce enormous clusters of small flowers and bloom for several months, e.g. Baby Faurex, Cameo, Chatillon Rose and Echo. China Roses Also called Bengal or monthly roses, common blush china, Comtesse du cayla. They are suitable for hedges and borders. Miniatures These are popularly known as Baby roses and suitable for edges, e.g. Baby Gold Star, Baby Masquerade, Coralin and Pixie.

Land preparation Plough the land 4-5 times thoroughly during May followed by 15 days exposure to sun rays. For rose cultivation, pits of size 45 cm X 45 cm X 30 cm are prepared for

293

plantation of rose plantlets. After exposing to sun rays for 15 days the pits are refilled with soil-manure mixture in the following composition. i. Soil ii. Cow-dung iii.Leaf-mould iv.Oil-cake, Bone-meal v. Urea vi. SSP vii. MOP Spacing 0.75m from pit to pit & 0.75m from row to row in low density cultivation accommodating about 7,000 plants per acre with plant density 1.729/m 2. In case of green house culture, high density plantation will accommodate 28,000 plants per acre having plant density 7/m2, (1 hectare= 2.471 acres).Standard roses are planted at a spacing of 90100cm. Plantlets are planted after a week of refilling the pits. Planting The roses are planted in circular pits of about 60-90 cm across and 60-75 cm deep. The pits are to be prepared atleast a month before the date of planting. The best time for planting roses in the plants is during September or October. The planting materials are planted in the prepared pits during evening hours. Before planting, 5 gram of Furadan 3G is to be applied to the pit for controlling pests. Propagation Roses can be propagated by seeds, cuttings, layers and by budding. Seed propagation is done in the production of new varieties. Budding is the best method for commercial propagation. Root Stocks 40% 40% 10% 10% 25 g 100 g 50 g

R.multiflora, Briar and Edward roses are best suited. Multiflora is suited for hill
stations. Briar for medium and Edward for both. Budding When a rose plant comes into flower small swellings are visible between the stem and stalk of the leaf. Select the eyes which are plump and not started to elongate and grow. Cut off the portions of the branch with the eyes selected is called as bud wood. With a budding knife remove a shield shaped piece of the bark and the eye. The Root stock should be kept ready by cutting the branches and side shoots which are not required. Make a sharp horizontal cut at a suitable height in the stock and then make a vertical T shaped cut in the stem of the stock. The eye should point towards the top and is tied with fibre.

294

After care Stock sprouts should be frequently removed very often, off shoots or suckers from the root-stock stem come up at the base of the plantlets or below the grafted point which, if allows to grow by mistake, will retard the growth of the grafted part ultimately leading to its death. The off-shoot of the root-stock part will be seven leaved and odd pinnate which is to be pinched off as soon as it comes up. Such unwanted suckers should be removed by nail pinching or by a sharp knife. Dust setting on the leaves should be washed by spraying water on the foliage. A basketful of FYM is sufficient for one year. A small quantity of iron sulphate may be applied @ 50-75 g/shrub by dissolving in water. Irrigation Twice a week during October to March, Thrice a week during April to June. No irrigation is required during the rainy season. Irrigations should not result in water logging. Mulching Mulching is an agro technique for conservation of soil moisture around the root zone of the plants and to facilitate gradual supply of nutrients to the plants. It is particularly very much important in arid and semi-arid zones where water becomes scarce during summer. The technique is very simple - agro wastes like straw, dried leaves, grass clippings, rice husk or other wastes like Saw dust, used tea, or leaf-mould are spread around the root of the plants with a radius of 1 to 2 feet and 4 inches thickness. Now-a- days, black polyethylene sheet is used as mulch which is proved to be more efficacious and easy to manage. Pruning It is a peculiarity with the rose that the old stem gradually stop giving healthy shoots to bear good flowers. If old and week stems are pruned after wintering, healthy shoots come up which bear good flowers. Therefore, wintering followed by pruning are the two important operation under the general maintenance cares. Without periodic pruning of old and week stems, at least once a year during October rose plant cannot yield qualitatively as well as quantitatively. Pruning is done to produce best possible flowers and to maintain good shape and to keep plant healthy by removing dead parts. Three to four months after planting the rose plant is first pruned. Four branches placed in four directions are chosen and these are pruned back to an outer bud leaving two to four buds on the stump. All other branches are thinned out. If the plant has only one or two weak shoots they are to be cut back to two or three buds. The first fortnight of October is usually considered to be the best time for

295

pruning. Some hybrid Teas requires severe pruning. In Tea roses strong shoots are pruned to 2/3 of their length. Climbing roses needs no pruning. Pruning is to produce the required number of new shoots because rose bears flowers terminally on current season wood. Too many shoots on plants will reduce the size and quantity of flowering. Limiting the number of flowers promotes flower size. Depending on the variety and severity of pruning roses takes about 35 to 60 days from pruning to flowering. Manures and Fertilizers The best time to add organic manure is at the time of pruning. FYM, leaf mould and oil cakes are good sources of nitrogen. It is better to apply fertilizers in a mixture such as roxe mix. Rose Mix can be prepared as: Neem cake Bonemeal Ammophos Sulphate of Ammonia Superphosphate Potassium Sulphate 5 kg 5 kg 2 kg 1 kg 2 kg 1kg

100g of this mixture can be used per plant. The chelated compounds of iron, magnesium and manganese are available in the market under names like Sequestrene Plus which are helpful in bringing out the full colour of flowers. In general for each rose plant urea 20-30g. superphosphate 30-50g, Potassium Sulphate 20-30g and Cakes kg to 1 kg, in two to three split doses is recommended. Harvesting After initial planting in July- August rose starts blooming from october and plant will yield on economic scale for 3 years. Plucking Stage For commercial purpose, roses are plucked at the bud stage just prior to blooming stage having a stalk of 9" to 12" long as per the preference of the market. Time of Plucking Buds must be cut out from the plant by a sharp knife during the evening hours to keep them fresh.

Packaging

296

Buds with long stalk are made to bundles of 100 as need may be and put in the bamboo baskets which are kept floating on water so that the cut end touch the water. Flowers are transported to market while covering the baskets with wet linen. . Rose Products Gulkand It is prepared by pounding together a mixture of rose petals and white sugar in equal proportions. It acts as a tonic and laxative. Edward rose is mostly used for this purpose. Pankhuri Dried rose petals called Pankhuri are used during the hot weather for preparing cool drinks. Roses are used for many purposes such as rose water, rose vinegar. Rose develop fruits called Hips and they are good source of Vitamin C. Plant Protection Pests Aphids (Macrosiphum rosae) They occur in clusters on tender shoots, buds and flowers and sucks the plant sap making the plant weak Control The affected flowers and buds should be lightly dusted in the mornings or evenings with 9.2% Pyro dust or spray Nuvacron, Metacid etc. Nicotine sulphate solution is, however, specific in controlling aphids. Thrips (Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus and Scritothrips dorsalis) These are very minute insects which distort the leaves. In normal condition. these insects effect the normal photosynthesis of plant. Curled leaves with brown marks and deformed buds with burnt margins are the main symptoms of damage. Control Spray Metacid, Rogor or Acephate or Profenofos or Ethofenprox or Imidacloprid at 0.05%. Jassids (Leaf hoppers) They suck the sap from the plant parts. The leaves lose their natural colour and become dull whitish yellow and subsequently dry up and the damaged plants have a sickly appearance. Control Spray Methyl parathion 1.5ml/lt. Ash Weevil (Myllocerus spp.)

297

Eggs are laid in soil. Grubs feed on roots, grey coloured adults feed on leaves from margins in a regular fashion and cause severe foliage damage. Control They cause damage to the rose leaves by cutting neat, circular or oval patches from the leaf margin and are controlled by applying 5% Carbaryl. Red Scale (Aonidiella aurantii) It is an insect which form small and round red or brown scales on the stem near the base and then gradually spread upwardly. The insects live inside the scale and suck the sap of the plant. It appears as reddish brown waxy scale like marks on tender shoots and stems and the affected portions dry up. Control Dip a cotton swap in 0.1 Malatihon solution and rub the affected parts. If it is on large scale, spraying of 0.1% Methyl parathion or Malathion or Rogor, Metasystox and applying granular Furadan 3G to the soil should be done. Red Spider Mites or Two spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) Very minute insects or mites spin webs on the under side of leaves which can be seen through a magnifying glass. Red mites infest only during dry months. The affected leaves look dull as mite suck sap from leaves. It is difficult to eradicate red mites completely. Control Insecticidal spray with Dicofol, and dusting with Sulphur can control this pest. Chaffer Beetle (Adoretus spp.) Rose chafer beetle cut away the leaves. In severe cases the plants reduced to a mere skeleton. Control Spray 0.5% Malathion @ 2 ml/lit or 0.05% Methyl parathion @ 1 ml/lit or Endosulfan 0.07% @ 2ml/lit. Mealy-bug (Planococcus citri) Bug with white woolly incrustation are found on the branches which suck sap from young stem and leaves. Control Spray Malathion, Rogor, Metacid etc. Leaf-rolling larva (Archips rosaceana ) It is a larva of an insect that first feed on the young leaves and then roll the leaves for its shelter

298

Control Spray Malathion. Leaf-miner (Stigmella anomalella) It affects the photosynthesis of the plant. Control Spray Malathion or Metasystox. White ants (Termite) (Microtermes obesi) White ant which inhabitates beneath the soil is menace to rose plant. The attack starts under dry soil conditions. They mainly feed on the roots and spread to stem and damage bark in case of severe infestations. Affected plants wilt, dry and die consequently. Control Deep ploughing destroys termite colonies. Timely irrigation prevents pest buildup. Drenching soil with Chlorphyriphos 0.05% or Endosulfan 0.07% ml or Malathion 0.1% or soil may be mixed with 10% BHC or Aldrin berore planting. Diseases Powdery (Sphaerotheca pannosa) and Downy Mildew (Pernospora sparsa) These are very common fungal diseases of rose. Foliage, young stems and stalk of flower buds of rose are coated with powdery dust or downy masses causing leaves to fall, young shoots to wilt and perish and preventing buds to bloom. The disease starts-with a small white dot and then rapidly proliferate affecting the entire plant. High temperature difference between day and night triggers the disease, according to some experts. Control Spray sulphur compound i.e. Thiovit 2g/lit or Bavistin 1g/lit of water at weekly intervals during winter season against Powdery mildew. Spray Fosetyl-Al or Metalaxy MZ against Downy mildew. Black Spot (Diplocarpon rosae) This is also very common in India and it can be distinguished by almost circular black spots on the leaves causing severe defoliation and is a common fungal disease of rose. Initially, brown or yellow spots appear on the lower leaves which then turn into black spots. The affected leaves turn yellow and fall off. In severe cases leaves drop and growth ceases. Control Spray copper fungicide like Blitox, Dithane M-45 or Captan at the rate of 2g in 1 lit of water or 1% Bordeaux mixture or by systemic fungicides like Bavistin, Calixin etc. at weekly intervals.

299

Rust (Phragmidium spp.) Yellowish to black swellings called pustules are produced on the leaves, petioles and stem imparting a rusty appearance on shoots. Control Foliar spray with 1kg of Ferbam plus 1kg of wettable sulphur in 500 lit of water with Sandovit as a spreader. Die-Back (Diplodia rosarum, Colletotrichum sp.) This is the most dreaded disease of rose. The stems die back from top down wards and gradually the whole plant. The disease, according to plant pathologists, is due to injury to the roots by fungi or careless root pruning or poor drainage in the root zone or due to shortage of essential food elements. Control The affected stem or branch is cut 2-3 inches below the effected part and a cap of fresh cow-dung mixed with Copper Sulphate or Bordeaux paste alone is put over the cut wound. Over watering, particularly in coastal areas, should be avoided. It is also advisable to procure buddlings from reliable nurseries only.

TUBEROSE (Polyanthes tuberosa ) The tuberose, a native to Mexico, belongs to the family Amaryllidaceae and is commonly known as lily. It has long been cherished for aromatic oils extracted from its fragrant white flowers. It is a popular cut flower, not only for use in arrangements, but also for individual florets that can provide fragrance to bouquets. Besides oil extraction, the flowers are also used in making garland. The flowers remain fresh for a long time and are suitable for long distance transportation. Climate The plant is tropical to semi-tropical. Basically, it needs warmth, sunshine, high relative humidity, well-drained soil, and even moisture. The commercial cultivation of tuberose is mainly confined to warm, humid areas with average temperature ranging between 18 to 32 degrees C. The ideal temperature for plant growth ranges between 26 and 30 degrees C. The tuberose needs a long growing period in order to blossom in early to late fall. The spike production, along with the quality flowers declines to a great extent during December January except in double varieties of tuberose.

300

Soil The plant can be successfully grown on a wide range of soils, even in soils affected by acidity or alkalinity to some extent. The plant is very sensitive to water-logging which damages the root system and affects the plant growth. Loam and sandy loam soil having pH range of 6.5 to 7.5 with proper aeration and drainage are considered best for tuberose cultivation. The soil should be rich in organic matter and retain sufficient moisture for proper growth. Season Tuberose can be commercially grown throughout the year but highest yield is obtained from July planted crop. Spacing Bulbs are planted at a spacing of 30-20 cm between the rows and 20-10cm between the plants. Propagation Propagation of the plant can be done by means of bulbs. The bulbs of 2-3 cm wide are suitable for propagation. Planting of fresh bulbs produce less number of flowers hence, bulbs should always be kept in store for a month or more to ensure better production of flowers. Larger bulbs result in early flowering and higher yields. The bulbs should be planted 4-5 cm deep in beds and soil moisture should be maintained after planting of bulbs before monsoon starts. Varieties suitable to Andhra Pradesh: Singles (Single with one row of corolla segments) Hyderabad single Calcutta Single Shringar Semi double (Semi double with two to three rows of segments) Hyderabad double Suvasini Calcutta Double Vaibhav Manures and Fertilizers During preparation of the soil, a basal application of farm yard manure (FYM) at the rate of 8 to 10 tones per acre should be done to ensure better growth and flowering. A fertiliser dose of 80 Kg N, 80 Kg P and 80 Kg K is recommended. Entire dose of P and K and

301

1/3 dose of N should be applied as basal dose and remaining N should be applied at 60 and 90 days after planting as top dressing. Weeding Weeding is carried out after a fortnight, especially in the initial stage of the bulb sprouting and the growth of plants. Hand weeding is eco-friendly but expensive. For chemical control, Atrazine can be applied. Irrigation Soil moisture is an important factor affecting the growth, flowering and bulb yield of tuberose. Field should be irrigated after planting the bulbs and further irrigation should be avoided until the sprouting of bulbs. The crop should be irrigated at weekly interval in the absence of rainfall. However, irrigation should be avoided at the maturity stage of bulbs during December-January. Harvesting Tuberose is harvested by cutting off the spikes from the base for decoration or the individual flower is picked from the spike for making garlands. The flower spike should be cut off and placed immediately in cold water. Flower yield Flower yield varies with variety, plant density and bulb size at planting time and crop management. Packaging Loose flowers are packed in bamboo baskets, covered by cloth. The spikes are graded as per length of the spike, length of the flowering zone and quality of individual flowers. Harvesting of bulbs Harvesting of tuberose bulbs at the proper stage of maturity is important for storage of bulbs and their growth. Yield of bulbs The bulbs reach maturity when the flowering is over and the plant growth ceases. At this stage, the old leaves become dry, plant growth ceases and bulbs are almost dried. About 40 quintal of bulbs can be harvested from one acre of land. Plant Protection Pests Thrips In singles , the loose flower yields is nearly 20-25qunitals/acre and in doubles the spike yield is 1.0-1.2 lakhs per acre.

302

Thrips feed on leaves, flower stalk and flowers. They suck sap from these parts and ultimately damage the whole plant. Some times they are associated with a contagious disease known as bunchy top where the inflorescence is malformed. Control Thrips can be managed by spraying endosulfan twice at 10 days interval or by spraying dimethoate @ 2ml/lt. Diseases Stem rot or Basal rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) The soil borne diseases can be identified with symptoms like appearance of prominent coarse mycelial masses on the leaf surface at or near the soil level. Infected leaves loose green colour due to rotting, which extends to the whole leaf and detaches the affected leaves from the plant. Control The infected plants should be burnt immediately to check further infection. Drenching with Copper oxychloride @ 2gm/lt or 1% Bordeaux mixture will reduce the disease. Flower and bud rot or Flower blight (Botrytis elliptica) It is also a bacterial disease. The disease appears mainly on young flower buds and results in dry rotting with brown scorched necrotic discolouration of peduncles. In the advanced stage, buds become shrivel and dry. Control Destroy or burn the infected plant debris to check further infection and spray carbendazim @ 1gm/lt.

***

303

AROMATIC CROPS

304

Aromatic plants possess volatile oils which have essence, gum, exudates, oleoresin in one or more parts such as roots, wood, bark, foliage, flower and fruit. These are extensively used in perfumes, food flavouring, cosmetics and soaps. Some of them have antibacterial and germicidal properties. LEMONGRASS (Cymbopogon flexuosus) Lemon grass is also a perennial grass (3-4 years) and grows to a height of 3 to 4, cultivated for essential oil distilled from freshly harvested foliage. The major constituent of essential oil is citral (80-90%) which imparts lemon like aroma. The oil is used in soaps, cosmetics, beverages and synthesis of - and ionones and vitamin A. Soils Lemongrass can be grown on wide variety of soils ranging from loam to poor laterite. It can also be grown on poor, marginal, waste and forest lands. It is hardy, drought resistant plant. Climate Warm tropical climate with high, well distributed rainfall (175-200cm) is good for rainfed cultivation. Sub tropical areas need supporting irrigation. It ceases growth during winter in North India. Seeds and Sowing By seeds, 4 kg/ac seed are mixed with sand and sown in May-June in nursery beds. Planting Lemongrass is propagated through slips which are planted during rainy season (June-July). About 60 days old seedlings are transplanted in spacing of 60 x 45 cm. Slips from old plants are planted on ridges or in a flat bed during July. The soil around the slips after planting is pressed to avoid lodging of slips during irrigation. planted throughout the year with irrigation facility. planting one acre. Variety Cauvery Herbage yield 100 to 120 q/ac, oil yield 80 to 90 kg/ac and citrol % is 80 to 82%. It is suitable for south Indian conditions. Krishna Herbage yield 100 to 112 q/ac, oil yield 90 to 100 kg/ac, citrol % is 80 to 82%. It is suitable for south Indian to north Indian plails and hills. Lemongrass can be About 15,000 slips are required for

305

After Cultivation 2-3 weedings in initial stages are required. The crop is irrigated once in 10 days. Manures and Fertilizers FYM @ 4 t, N @ 20 kg P2 O5 @ 20 kg and K2 O @ 15 kg per acre applied in the last ploughing. After each harvest, apply N @ 20 kg per acre. Irrigation The crop is irrigated immediately after planting at 2 to 3 days interval till about one month and subsequent irrigations are given as and when required. Harvesting The crop is harvested 10-15 cm above ground level. First harvest is taken 5-6 months after planting. Subsequent harvests are obtained at 2 to 3 months after planting. The crop is economical for 4-5 years. After each harvest, the dead and dried leaves are removed to encourage growth of fresh tillers. Lemongrass flowers in winter season. The flowering stalks are to be harvested and discarded from time to time, otherwise the crop yield gets adversely affected. Yield The oils recovery ranges from 0.7 1.0% on an average12-15 tonnes of herbage and 60-90 kg oil yields can be obtained from lemon grass from one acre in a year.

CITRONELLA (Cymbopogon winterian US) Citronella is a perennial grass cultivated for essential oil derived from freshly harvested foliage. The oil of citronella is used in soaps, cosmetic, deodorants and mosquito repellent cream. It is a raw material for manufacturing aromatic chemicals like geraniol and citronellal used in perfumes. Citronella is cultivated in Vishakapatnam and East Godavari districts. The total area under Citronella in Andhra Pradesh is about 887 hectares with estimated annual production of 177 tonnes. Its cultivation has been also taken in other districts of Andhra Pradesh. It is a perennial aromatic grass, growing to a height of 2 3 ft. Soils Loamy and sandy soils are best suited. It is grown as an irrigated crop. However in areas with well distributed rainfall it can be grown as rainfed crop. Avoid clayey soils, waterlogged areas or soils with pH above 8.5.

306

Climate It comes up in tropical to subtropical conditions where rainfall and atmospheric humidity are high with warm days and plenty of sunshine. In areas with well distributed rainfall throughout the year like high altitude areas it can be grown as rainfed crop. Citronella can be cultivated throughout Andhra Pradesh as an irrigated crop. Varieties Java-2 Java-2 is the high yielding varieties recommended for South india. Bio-13 Bio-13 is the high yielding varieties recommended for South india. Propagation Citronella is propagated through slips obtaining by splitting old and healthy plants. Planting Although planting of citronella can be done anytime during the year, onset of monsoon is the best time. It is planted preferably during July August adopting a spacing of 60 cm between the row and 45 cm within the rows. This can be planted either in ridges or in flat beds. About 15,000 rooted slips are required for planting one acre. After Cultivation 2-3 weedings are needed during initial stages of crop growth. The crop requires irrigation once in a week. Manures and Fertilizers FYM @ 4 t, N @ 20 kg P2 O5 @ 20 kg and K2 O @ 15 kg per acre applied in the last ploughing. After each harvest, apply N @ 20 kg per acre. Irrigation The crop is irrigated immediately after planting at 2 to 3 days interval till about one month and subsequent irrigations are given as and when required. Intercultivation Intercropping of Horse gram in citronella in the early stage of planting has been proved beneficial in controlling of weeds as well as improving the soil condition. Research findings revealed that sowing of horse gram one month after planting of slips is beneficial. Harvesting The crop is harvested 10-15 cm above ground level. The first harvest is obtained between 6-7 months after planting depending upon the soil and climate. The subsequent harvests are taken at the interval of 2 to 3 months. The crop is economical for 4-5 years. After each harvest, the dead and dried leaves and tillers are removed to encourage growth

307

of fresh tillers. The flowering stalks should be removed from time to time and discarded, other wise the crop yield is affected. Yield Citronella yields about 15 t/acre of herbage and 100 kg per acre of oil per year as irrigated crop. The oil recovery ranges from 0.8 to 1.0%. Plant Protection Pests Stematophora fuscibasilis The inner most leaves show crinkling and remain unfolded. Control To control and prevent attack of this pest, 0.2% monocrotophos is sprayed immediately one month after planting and after each harvest. Apply Thimmet @ 3kg per acre. The dead stubbles may be removed and destroyed.

GERANIUM (Pelargonium graveolens) Geranium is a native of Cape Colomy (South Africa). It is a perennial, drought resistant herbaceous plant. The chief constituents of essential oil of geranium are geraniol and 1-citronellol. There are three types, Algerian and Bourbon and Egyptian types in India; the Bourbon type is largely cultivated. Bourbon has 27.5% citronellol and 22.7% geraniol. The geranium is cultivated for oil, which has a pleasing rose like odor and blends well with a wide range of floral and oriental perfumes. It is used for scenting ointments, pharmaceutical and tobacco products, in the manufacture of high grade soaps and cosmetic products. Soils Requires well drained red sandy loams. suitable. Climate Requires warm winter winds. High humidity is not suitable. Areas with dry weather like Telangana with good irrigation are preferred. Nursery Raised nursery beds are prepared during the month of September & October by applying bavistin and blitox to the soil. Terminal cuttings about 10-15cm long are taken from well grown, healthy plants. After removing all the leaves except two to three terminal leaves, a slant cut is given at the bottom and is dipped in 2000 ppm solution of IBA and 0.1% bavistin and planted in the nursery bed. The cuttings are planted in such a way that Soils with a pH more than 8.0 are not

308

at least two nodes are inside the soil. The nursery beds are watered lightly immediately after planting and every 3rd are 4th day. The cuttings root in 30-40 days and are ready for planting in the main field. Planting The cuttings strike roots within a month and are ready planting. The rooted cuttings are planted at a spacing of 60 x 45 cm and irrigated immediately after planting. Thus 15,000 cuttings are required for planting one acre. The rooted cuttings can be planted from October to February. The unrooted cuttings are dipped in 2000 ppm solution of IBA and 0.1% of bavistin and planted in the main field directly during the last week of November to first week of January. If planted during the other months, the establishment of the crop is very poor. Geranium can be planted either in rainy season or in winter season. Irrigation The field is irrigated immediately after planting. Irrigate the field frequently till the establishment of cuttings. There after the crop is irrigated at weekly intervals, in the absence of rains. After Cultivation 3-4 weedings are required to check weed growth. Water logging is deter mental to the growth of Geranium and therefore good drainage should be provided. Manures and Fertilizers For Irrigated Crop 40 kg N + 25 Kg P2O5 + 25 kg K2O/ac per year. P and K are to be given as basal and N in 3-4 equal split doses. For Rainfed Crop 25 kg N + 16 Kg P2O5 + 16 kg K2O/ac per year. P and K are to be given as basal and N in 3-4 equal split doses. Intercultivation The field is kept free of weeds for the first 2-3 months after planting and up to one month after every harvest. Havervesting First harvest is obtained 5-6 months after planting. The crop is harvested when the lower leaves start yellowing and flowers appear here and there. The top 20-30 cm of plants leaving few leaves on the plant and tender twigs are harvested using sharp sickle and distilled immediately.Ffour harvests can be taken per year. Subsequent harvests are taken at 3 months intervals for 4-5 years. Giving jerks to the plant while harvesting should be

309

avoided. The crop should not be harvested from the ground level. The crop should be sprayed with 0.1% bavistin or benomyl solution and irrigated immediately after each harvest. Yield The oil recovery ranges from 0.11 to 0.15% on fresh weight basis. Herbage yield is 10-12 tons/ac and oil 25-30 kg per ac. per year. This crop is recommended for Telangana region only in areas where the climate remains cool for most part of the year and summer temperatures do not go beyond 30-40OC. Plant Protection Diseases Root rot and Wilt ( Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium oxysporum redolens ) The infected plants showed drooping of leaves particularly lower ones and the plant collapses within 5-7 days, when uprooted a severe rotting of roots is observed. In advanced stages stem basal portion also rots. Control The affected plants are uprooted and destroyed. Avoid waterlogging, drenching of soil with chlorothalonil or mancozeb (0.3%) around the plant and pretreatment of cuttings with 0.3% mancozeb. Leaf blight (Colletotrichum gleosporioides, Alterneria alternata) The symptoms first appears on the margin of the leaf as brown necrosis which later extend towards midrib leading to complete necrosis and rotting of leaves. Control The crop is sprayed with 0.3% zineb or 0.1% benomyl at 12-15 days interval. Rot of stem cuttings (Rhizoctonia solani) The symptoms generally appear in the form of cholorosis of lower leaves and the cuttings collapse with in 10-15 days. Control Dipping of cuttings in 0.3% Mancozeb and drenching the nursery beds with same solution. PALMAROSA (Cymbopogon martinii) Aromatic plants possess volatile oils which have essence, gum, exudates, oleoresin in one or more parts such as roots, wood, bark, foliage, flower and fruit. These are extensively used in perfumes, food flavouring, cosmetics and soaps. Some of them have antibacterial and germicidal properties. spots

310

Palmarosa is a tall (6-7) perennial (3-4 years) grass growing wild in dry open forest of Andhra Pradesh. The flowering tops and foliage contains scented oil giving rose like smell and is widely used in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes. The oil is rich in geraniol (75-90%). The oil is used as a raw material for producing gerancol which is used in perfume industry. Soils Loamy and sandy loams are the best although it can be cultivated on all kinds of soils including soils with a pH upto 8.5. Climate Excess winter and frost not suitable. Season Sown preferably during June July. Varieties Trishna This variety was released by CIMAP, Lucknow. It contains higher geraniol (93.6%). The variety has potential of 160 q/ac of herb yield and 100 kg/ac of oil yield. Propagation Commercially through seed by either direct sowing or nursery. The seeds are small and light, therefore they are mixed with sand and sown in May-June in nursery beds. About 2 kg seed is kept immersed in water overnight and then mixed with sand sown in the nursery beds in furrows 2-3 cm deep and row 20 cm apart. The nursery beds are irrigated daily. Transplanting The seedlings (15-20 cm height) will be ready for planting in 30-40 days in one-acre area. 20-30 days old seedlings are transplanted in a spacing of 45 x 30 cm 5 kg of seed is required for planting. Irrigation The seedlings are irrigated every 3-4 days depending on rains, during the first month of planting. There after, the crop is irrigated at 10 days intervals. When the crop is fully grown, irrigations are given at 15-20 days intervals. After Cultivation The crop required 2-3 weedings in the initial stages. Palmarosa is irrigated once in 10-15 days interval. Interculture The field is kept free of weeds for the first one month after planting and up to 15 days after each harvest.

311

Manures and Fertilizers For Irrigated Crop 40 kg N + 25 kg P2O5 + 25 K2O/ac/year. P and K are to be given basal and N in 3-4 equal split doses. For Rainfed Crop 25 kg N + 15 kg P2O5 + 15 K2O/ac/year. P and K are to be given basal and N in 3-4 equal split doses. Harvest The crop is harvested at flowering stage. First harvest is taken 3 to 3 months after planting. The crop is harvested 15-20 cm above ground at the time of flowering to early seed formation stage and fresh herbage is distilled. Subsequent harvests are obtained at 1 to 2 months intervals depending upon the season for 5 -6 years. Yield On an average palmarosa gives 15-20 tons herbage and 90-100 kg oil and per ac/year (0.52% oil recovery). Rainfed crop gives 70 kg oil. The crop remains economical for 3-4 years and at least 2 crops per year can be obtained from rainfed and 4-5 harvests if grown as irrigated crop. DAVANAM (Artemisia pallens) Davana is an annual erect branched herb grows upto 45-60cm tall. The leaves and flowers emit a delicate, persistant fruity fragrance and are used in floral decorations. Davana oil is used in preparation of high grade perfumes. The oil has been reported to possess antimicrobial activity. The oil of davana contain hydrocarbons (20%), esters (65%) and oxygenated compounds (15%). Esters are the major compounds responsible for the characteristic smell of davana. Soil Can be grown on various types of soils from sandy loam to medium black. However, a fertile, well-drained, sandy loam soil is ideal. Climate A few light showers with moderate winter conditions and no frost is conducive to the good growth of the plant. It should be planted during the first week of November when the crop is grown for the production of oil. Season October February

312

Nursery raising Only the seed from previous seasons crop should be used. About 600 g seed is required to get the seedlings for one acre. The beds are prepared with 2 x1 m size. The seeds are thoroughly mixed with sand @ 10 times the seed volume. Water is added so that the sand is sufficiently wet. Then the mixture is tied in a cloth bag and kept for 48 hours. There will be radicle emergence after 48 hours. The nursery beds are flooded with water and then the seed + sand mixture is broadcasted all over evenly. When the seeds have settled down, a fine layer of sand or FYM is spread over to cover the seed. After 2-3 days, the seeds will germinate and establish in 7-8 days after which the beds are regularly irrigated. Land preparation The field is thoroughly ploughed, leveled and plots are laid out of convenient size. About 5-6 t/ac FYM is incorporated during last ploughing. The plots are irrigated a day prior to transplanting. Transplanting In about 40 days the seedlings will be ready for planting. subsequently, higher oil-yield. Manures and Fertilizers In addition to FYM, a fertilizer dose of 20 kg P 2 O 5 and 20 kg K2O per acre are also applied as basal dose. Nitrogen is applied @ 50 kg/ac in 3 equal splits , 10 days after transplanting and the subsequent two doses at 15 days interval thereafter. Irrigation Immediately after transplanting, light irrigation is given. Regular irrigations are given till the establishment up to 10-15 days and later on 7 days interval depending on the weather conditions. Intercultivation About 2-3 weeding are taken up during the early period of growth. Harvesting The crop starts flowering after 110-115 days of sowing which will be around 2 nd or 3rd week of February. They are harvested at about 50% flowering stage. This is usually at the end of February or 1st week of March (100-120 days). The plants are cut from the base, dried under shade for 2 days and then steam distilled. Some times second crop can be taken 60-65 days after first harvest with good management. The seedlings are transplanted at a spacing of 15x7.5 cm close spacing results in higher herbage yield and

313

Yield About 5-6 t/ac of fresh herbage. About 6 - 8 kg oil can be obtained per acre per year. Plant protection No serious pests and diseases were observed except. Damping off However, damping off observed in the nursery Control Seed treatment and drenching nursery beds with copper fungicide and allowing more light and air in between the seedlings.

***

314

MEDICINAL PLANTS

315

ASWAGANDHA (Withania somnifera) The roots are widely used in Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha and Allopathy systems of medicine to cure a number of diseases. The roots are used for improving the general vigour of the body. Soil Sandy loam or light - red soils with good organic matter and drainage with PH 7.5-8.0 are ideal. Climate Suitable as late Kharif. Varieties Jawahar Asgandha-20 This variety was released from Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishya vidyalaya, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Mandsaur. Other improved varieties - Rakshitha and Poshita Local variety-Nagore Season July/August (main season) October / November (yield will be only 1/2 to 1/3 in rabi compared to main crop. Seed rate For broadcasting of seed 7-8 kg/acre mixed with five times of sand. Spacing 25 30 cms between the rows or broadcasting Manures and Fertilizers Mostly organic manures are used in the last ploughing @ 4 - 5 t/ac + P & K @ 20 kg/acre each. Intercultivation Thinning is done at 25-30 days after sowing so as to maintain a population of 30,000 to 35,000/acre. Can be grown as rainfed crop if the total rain fall is 650 750 mm. Otherwise 2-3 irrigations during late winter will improve the root growth.

316

Harvesting Starts from January (160 to 170 days) and continues upto February. The maturity is judged by indications of drying of the leaves and turning of the berries into yellow/ red colour. Entire plant is uprooted and the aerial parts are separated at 2 cm above the crown. The root is cut into pieces of 7-10 cm and dried. Yield Dried roots 2.5 3.5 q/acre Seed 50 kg/acre Plant protection Pests No serious pest is noticed. Diseases Damping off (Fusarium sp., Rhizoctonia sp., Pythium sp.) Affected seedlings first a slight yellowing patch just above the ground level, this darkens with time and tissues soften and the whole seedling collapse to the ground. The disease incidence is severe during the rainy season. Control Avoid water stagnation. Practice crop rotation. Seed treatment with Dithane M-45 @ 3 g/kg or Thiram 1.5g + Bavistin 1.5g/kg seed. Treat seed with Trichoderma sp. @ 5g/kg of seed.

SENNA (Sonamukhi) (Cassia aungustifolia) Senna leaves and pod-shell contain the laxative principle (sennoside A & B) which are extensively used as bulk laxative in medicine. Senna is a small branched shrub remaining in fields for 5-7 months. It is a drought tolerant crop and can be grown either as pure crop or mixed with other agricultural crops. Soils Any type of soil but preferably red loams including coarse gravelly and alluvial loams. Tolerates salinity. marginal soils. Climate Requires warm and dry weather year round. Sensitive to heavy rains. Performs well in heavy soils also. It can also be grown on poor and

317

Season Best season is at the cessation of heavy rains i.e., end of August to middle of September. Winter Summer Propagation It is propagated by seed. Seed rate 25 kg/ha under rainfed and 15kg/ha under irrigated conditions. Sowing The seed should be soaked in water for 6-8 hours before sowing to get good germination. The land is prepared to fine tilth and seeds are sown preferably at the end of South West monsoon. Heavy rains during early stage of crop cause damping off and leaf spot diseases. Water logging should be avoided. A spacing of 60 x 30 cm or 60 x 60 cm is recommended. Manures and Fertilizers In addition to FYM @ 5 t/ac in the last ploughing, 20 kg each of N, P and K are also recommended. Nitrogen is applied in 4 splits i.e., at field preparation, 30,90 (Ist picking) and 150 days after sowing (2nd picking). Irrigation Generally grown as rain fed. If necessary irrigation can be given at 15 20 days interval. Intercultivation The first weeding-cum-hoeing is done at 25-30 days after sowing, second at 75-80 days and third 110 days after sowing. Harvesting The crop flowers in two months after planting and the first flower flush is harvested to encourage more branching. Stage of harvesting is judged by full grown, thick and bluish coloured leaves. The first picking is taken at 90 to 100 days and second at 150 days after sowing. It can be retained as perennial crop. The leaflets are spread on clean floor under shade in thin layers and stirred frequently. In 7-10 days, the leaves dry which is indicated by yellowish green colour. The pods are gathered in bunches and hung in ventilated rooms for drying which is completed in 10-12 days. Then the pods are beaten and seed is - October November - February March

Extended rains may affect the crop drying in rainfed crop.

318

separated. The produce is then graded, pressed and finally packed in Hessian bags under pressure. Yield 400-600 quintals of leaves and 600-800 quintals of pods/ac. The produce should contain about 2.5% of active principle calculated as anthraoquinoes. Plant Protection Pests Pod Borer (Catopsilia pyranthae) Control Spraying of Endosulphan 0.05% or Carbaryl 0.25% at an interval of 15 days. Spray Neem oil @ 3ml/lit in the early stages. Diseases Damping off (Rhizoctonia bataticola) Seedlings are attacked at ground level and they fall down. Control Avoid water stagnation. Soil drenching with Captan 3g/lit or Bavistin or Benomyl 1g/lit Leaf Spot (Alternaria alternata) First appear as minute pale yellow spot on leaf blades and its margins. With the advancement of the disease, leaf tips and margins die and the necrotic tissues increase in size. In severe infection leaves start drying and drooping. Concentric rings are visible in advanced leaf spots. The green colour of the leaves changes from pale green to brownish yellow. In advanced stages the pods are also affected with brownish black spots. Control Use optimum plant population. Use disease free seed. Spray Mancozeb 2.5g or Bavistin 1g/lit at 15 days interval. KALMEGH (Andrographis paniculata) The plant has been reported to posses antipyretic, antihepatotoxic, antihistamic, analgesic, antibacterial, antiinflammatory, antifertility and immunosupressive proprties. The three bitter principles deoxy andro grapholide, andrographolide and neo-andrographolide are isolated from the whole plant and leaves, identified as diterpenes. The plant contains 0.5-0.9 per cent andrographolide an alkaloid pharmacopoeia. responsible for bitterness. The fresh and dried leaves of kalmegh and the juice extracted from the herb are official drugs in

319

Soil It is a hardy plant and can be grown on a variety of soils. Red sandy loams with good organic matter are best for the growth and yield. Climate Comes up well both in tropical and sub-tropical climate. Can withstand a temperature of 40-45oC. Season July August. Best suited as rain fedcrop. Seed rate 150 to 200 g/acre Sowing/Transplanting For direct sowing, mix the seed with sand in ratio of 1:5 and sown on ridges or broadcasted. Spacing 30 x 15 cm (direct sowing 88000 plants/ac) 30 x 15 cm or 20 x 15 cm (transplanted). A Population of 88,000 plants per acre at spacing of 30 x 15 cm was proved beneficial in research findings at Herbal Garden Scheme, Rajendranagar. Manures and Fertilizers FYM @ 45 t/acre and N:P:K @ 20:30:20 kg/acre applied in the last ploughing. Nitrogen @ 15 kg/acre 30 days after transplanting or sowing. Intercultivation Two weedings are given early in the season i.e., 30 days and 60 days after sowing. Later, weeding follow every harvest. Harvesting The crop will be ready for harvesting in 90-120 days after sowing. The plants are cut at base 10-15 cm above ground for regeneration. The second harvest is taken 60 days after first harvest. Another harvest can also be taken after 60 days of second harvest or the crop can be removed. After harvesting, the herbage is dried for 3-4 days under shade and then stored. Yield 10 - 11 q/acre dry herb. Plant protection No serious pests and diseases have been observed.

320

ALOE (Aloe vera) The gel of Aloe vera possess various biological and physiological activities viz., healing ability of skin burns and cutaneous injuries, anti ulcer, inhibitory action against The pulp contains glycoside barbaloin, iso barbaloin and barbaloin. The some bacteria and fungi, inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis by anthraquinone type compounds. leaves also contain glucose, galactose, galacturanic acid, mannose, aloesin and volatile oils, gum resin, emodine, chryphanic acid and traces of coumarin. The plant grows in a semi wild stage throughout the drier parts of India. Soil It is a hardy plant and grows on any kind of soil. Comes up well in sandy coastal to loamy soils of the plains with a PH up to 8.5. Climate It has wide adaptability and can be grown in warm, humid or dry climate with rainfall ranging from 35-40 cm to 150-200 cm annually. Land preparation Plough the land thoroughly. About 5 t/ac of FYM is added in the last ploughing. Seed rate and planting About 15,000 root suckers/acre are required a spacing of 60 x 45 cm. Suckers of 1520 cm long and weighing 75 g are planted in such a way that 2/3 portion should be under the ground. Fertilizers About 20 kg each of NPK/ac is recommended in addition to organic manures. Irrigation Soon after planting, the land should be irrigated. Generally 4-5 irrigations are sufficient per year particularly during the peak dry period. Intercultivation Two to three weedings are done per year. base are removed and marketed or planted in the nursery. Harvesting The plants are harvested at 10-12 months after planting. The plants can be removed manually. The broken rhizome part left in the soil throws out new sprouts in spring for raising the succeeding crop. An aloe plantation gives a commercial yield from the second year up to the age of five years, after which it needs replanting. Small suckers arising from the

321

Yield 15 - 20 t/ac on fresh weight basis. Plant protection No serious pests and diseases are observed. COLEUS (Coleus forskohlii) It is one of the most potential medicinal crops of the future as its pharmacopeia properties have been discovered only recently. It is under cultivation in parts of Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamilnadu in large scale. Its tuberous roots are found to be rich source of in alkaloid called forskolin. Forskolin has been reported to possess a large number of biological properties such as anti-hypertensive, anti-glaucoma. management and certain types of cancers. Soil Well drained red loamy soils with marginal fertility also can be used Climate Found in wild form on hills of Andhra Pradesh with heavy rainfall. successfully grown in the state as irrigated dry crop. Varieties K-8 It is a selection from Karnataka and reported to possess 0.5 per cent forskolin and higher tuber yield. Propagation By herbaceous terminal cuttings. Planting Kharif Planting Rabi First fortnight of October. Manures and Fertilizers FYM @ 5t, NPK @ 20:25:20 kg /ac in the last ploughing. Nitrogen @ 20 kg /ac should be applied 30 days after planting. is done during July-August at a spacing of 60 x 30 cm accommodating approximately 22000 plants/acre. No need of rooting hormone. Cuttings will be ready for planting in about 30 days or they can be planted directly in the field. It can be It is also important base for many drugs developed for asthma, congestive heart failures, weight

322

Irrigation Once in 3 4 days during the first 15 20 days and 10- 12 days there after, if there is no rainfall during the period. Intercultivation Needs weeding at least once in 25 30 days during first two months. There after, crop becomes bushy and weed competition will be less. Harvesting The crop is ready for harvest 150 - 170 days after planting. Before harvesting, irrigate the field, uproot the plants, separate the tuberous roots, washed and dried under partial shade. Yield Kharif 600- 700 kg dry roots/acre Rabi 300 400 kg/ acre Plant protection Pests Root knot nematode It is caused by Meloidogyne incognita, Coleus is reported to be affected by root knot nematode. It is most important disease of this crop. Nematode infected plants though The diseased roots are stunted, appear as luxuriant as the normal plants. The symptoms consists of stunting, wilting of leaves and basal part of the stem turned brownish black. conditions. Control Crop rotation with marigold, sorghum and maize would be beneficial to minimize the loss of yield. Apply of 200 kg of neem cake/acre before planting. Application of carbofuron granules @ 8 kg/acre under wet condition near the root zone reduce the incidence of nematode. Diseases Fusarial wilt Dip the terminal cuttings in Carbendazim 0.1% solution before planting. Mix 5 kg of totally damaged due to severe galling, tuber formation was reduced to nearly 65% in field

tricoderma viridae in 250 kg of compost and apply around the roots at 20 days interval.

323

SAFED MUSLI (Chlorophytum borivilianum) Its tubers are popularly known as safed musli. It finds wide application in Ayurvedic medicine as general health tonic for improving vitality. Soil Sandy and Loamy soils are preferable. Red and medium black soils without stagnation are useful Season June July Land preparation Deep ploughing in AprilMay. FYM @ 15-20 loads/acre is mixed in last ploughing. advisable. Seed rate Tubers weighing 5-6 gm are used. About 80,000 tubers are used per acre (400 kg/acre) Planting Healthy tubers are dipped in Bavistin 0.2% for 15-20 minutes before planting and planted at 15 x 25 cm spacing during 2nd fortnight of June to the end of July. Manures and Fertilizers Apart from FYM applied during field preparation, NPK can also be applied after first rains @ 50 : 40 :40 kg per acre. Irrigation Light irrigation should be given immediately after planting. Afterwards irrigate the crop at weekly intervals. Sprinkler, flood or drip can be used. stagnation of water in the field. Intercultivation Two to Three weedings are required to keep the weed growth under check. Pinching of inflorescence Pinching of inflorescence is advisable. Pinching promotes better plant growth and root development. Harvesting Harvesting is done during January February either by digging or deep ploughing. Tubers are cleaned and spread under the shade for a week. The longer and healthy fingers There should not be Raised beds (1 ft height x 3.5 ft width) with drip irigation are water

324

(tubers) are detached from the tubers, whereas the smaller ones are used as planting material for next season. Yield Fresh tubers Dry tubers 20 to 30 quintals/acre 4 to 5 quintals/acre

Post harvest techniques The longer & healthy fingers are processed by peeling the skin with a stainless steel knife and then they are kept in the sun for drying. Within 3-4 days, the fingers dry up. These are packed in poly bags and marketed. Plant protection In general, the pest problem is very less. biopesticides be sprayed. SWEET FLAG (Acorus calamus) The rhizomes of sweet flag are mainly used for improving the digestion and also for gastric problems. The powdered rhizome and essential oil can be used as a safe insecticide. It grows wild in marshy and semi aquatic places as a perennial aromatic herb with creeping rhizome. Soil Fairly moist soil, clayey loams and light alluvial soils. Submerged conditions like wet land paddy. Climate It is a hardy plant and grows in tropical and sub-tropical climate. The optimum temperature range is 10-38oC and rainfall from 70-250 cm. Planting season Best season is March-April. Land preparation The field is prepared exactly as in case of wet paddy. FYM is also mixed @ 8-10 t /acre during puddling. Seed rate Approximately 40,000 rhizome pieces/acre. It is cultivated almost in It produces an essential oil. The essential oil contains -asarone (82%). asarone acts on Central nervous system. like neem oil, garlic, capsicum, As a precautionary measure, tobacco decoction etc., can

325

Planting Sprouted rhizome pieces are used for planting at a spacing of 30x30 cm and a depth of 5 cm. The rhizome pieces are pressed into the mud in such a manner that the plant in the second row comes in between the two plants of first row and not opposite to facilitate root growth. Manures and Fertilizers In addition to the FYM, 80 kg N, 50 kg P2 O 5 and 25 kg K2O/acre are also applied. Entire FYM, P Irrigation The field is regularly irrigated. In the beginning, about 5 cm of water is left in the field. Later, it is increased to 10 cm as the plant grows. Intercultivation In all, about 6 - 8 weedings are required. At each weeding, the plants are lightly pressed down at the base. Harvesting and processing Time of harvesting 8-10 months after planting when the leaves start turning yellow and dry. Method of harvesting The field is allowed to dry partially so that sufficient moisture is there to make necessary deep ploughing/digging. done by ploughing. The rhizomes are cut into short lengths of 5-7.5 cm and all the fibrous roots are removed. The pieces are then washed thoroughly and dried in sun. After drying, the rhizomes are graded into thick and thin cuttings. The dried material is rubbed to remove leafy scales. The graded rhizome is packed in the bags separately and stored in the godown. Yield The yield of dry rhizomes is about 3 to 4 t/acre Plant protection The crop is generally free from pests and diseases. The rhizome will spread up to 30-60 cm, therefore, harvesting should be done carefully. If it is cultivated on large scale, harvesting can be
2

O5, K2O and 1/3 N are applied as basal dose. The remaining 2/3 N

is

applied in two equal splits during 3rd and 6th month after planting.

326

LONG PEPPER (Piper longum) The fruits and roots contain essential oil and alkaloids like piperine, piplartine and are used for cough, bronchitis, asthma, muscular pains, dysentery, stomach disorders, leprosy and tuberculosis. It is cultivated in parts of Assam, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh (Paderu tribal agency area of Visakhapatnam district). In Andhra Pradesh, it can be grown as an irrigated crop in well drained, medium to heavy textured soils rich in organic matter. Soils It flourishes well in rich, well drain, loamy soils. Climate The plant requires hot, moist climate and elevation between 100 to 1000 meters for its cultivation. It should be grown under partial shade with 20 to 25% shade intensity. Season May Varieties - Viswam Propagation Long pepper is propagated through seeds, suckers s cuttings or by layering of mature branches at the beginning of the rainy season. The nursery can be raised during March and April the cuttings are ready for planting in the main field by the end of may. Planting Indian long pepper is propagated through stem cuttings or suckers. For rooting stem cuttings, 30 cm long having at least 3 nodes are planted in the nursery in the month of January February. The field is prepared to good tilth by ploughing twice, harrowing and planking. About 5 tonnes of farm yard manure, 16 kg P2 O5 20 kg of K and 15 kg of zinc sulphate per acre are applied basally. Planting is done during rainy season. Using rooted stem cuttings at a distance of 75 cm between the rows and 30 cm between the plants (17000 18000 cuttings/acre). The crop is irrigated at 15-20 days intervals during non-rainy periods. Manures and Fertilizers Generally the crop is Irrigation fertilized with manures only. Application of 60 kg urea in 3 equal splits is suggested for good yields.

327

The crop should be irrigated once a week if it is grown as a pure crop. In case the crop is grown an intercrop with other crops the irrigation provided to the main crop is sufficient Intercultivation During 1st year of planting weeding is done when weed growth is noticed in the beds. Once the crop grows it covers the inter spaces of the beds. Harvesting When the crop is raised for spikes, it comes to bearing in the first year itself (November-December). The spike yield per acre increases from about 800 kg in the first year to about 1200 kg in the second and third years after which yield decline, therefore, the crop is to be replanted. The spikes are harvested while still green and unripe, as they are most pungent at this stage. When the crop is grown for roots, it can be harvested after 36 months, as they are said to be of good quality. Periodically, the above ground part is removed to ensure better quality roots. The roots are dug out, cleaned, cut into pieces of 2.5-5.0 cm, dried in shade and stored. A three-year-old turmeric intercropped with Indian long pepper gives 300 - 400 kg roots and a net profit up to Rs. 12,000 per acre may be obtained. Plant Protection There are no pests or diseases on this crop. GLORY LILY (Gloriosa superba) Glory lily is a tall, weak-stemmed climbing perennial medicinal herb native to India. It belongs to the family liliaceae. The seeds and rhizomes, which are poisonous, contain alkaloids colchicine and superbine. Colchicine is widely used to treat gout, rheumatism and for inducing polyploidy in plants. The plant grows wild in many parts of Andhra Pradesh. Glory lily can be grown as an irrigated crop in Andhra Pradesh in well-drained red or black loamy soils having pH 6.07.0. It is commercially grown in Periyar district of Tamil Nadu and India is a regular exporter of seeds of glory lily. Soils It can be successfully grown in red or black loamy soils with good drainage. A soil pH range between 6.0 -7.0 has been found suitable to this crop. Climate

328

It is a tropical plant of warm and humid regions. In natural conditions it may grow up to an elevation of 600 m from sea level. The annual rain fall of about 300 cm, well distributed throughout the year ideally suitable for this crop. Propagation For commercial propagation underground V shaped tubers are used. Tubers weighing 50-60 g treated with 0.1% Carbandazim are used for planting on an average 800 kg to 1 tonne of tubers are required for planting in one acre. Tubers should be handled carefully as they are brittle and liable to break easily. The vigour of the vine and its The dormant tubers start flowering and fruiting depends on the size of the tubers.

sprouting from the month of May to August. Planting should be done during the months of July and August. It may also be propagated by seeds however the plants raised from seeds take nearly 3-4 years to flowering. About 5 tonnes of farmyard manure, 25 kg nitrogen, 20 kg P2O5 and 25 kg K2O/acre are applied at the time of planting. Remaining dose of 25 kg nitrogen is applied in two equal doses in 30-60 days after planting. Nursery The crop can be propagated by seeds or V-shaped rhizomes. Rhizomes are generally preferred. Planting The land is ploughed, harrowed and planked to good tilth. The treated tubers are planted 6-8 cm deep during rainy season in furrows spaced at 60 -45 cm. immediately after planting. Interculture At early stages, crop is irrigated once in 4-7 days, later at 15 days intervals. The crop is kept weed free by 2 manual weedings. Short duration legumes can be grown as intercrops. Manures and Fertilizers Five tonnes of well rotten farm yard manure, 10 kg N, 20 kg P2 O5 and 25 kg K2O per acre are applied at the time of planting. 30 kg urea is top dressed at the time of flowering. Harvesting The crop flowers during August-September and mature pods can be seen in OctoberNovember. The crop yields 80-100 kg seeds and 1.0-1.25 t of rhizomes per acre. Yield Trellis or supports are erected for the plant to climb on to the supports. The crop is irrigated Tubers weighing 50-60 g and treated with 0.1 % Carbendazim are used for planting @ 800 kg/ acre.

329

The yield of seeds differs greatly, depending upon the vigour and age of the plant. The yield during first year will be low, in the subsequent years it increases gradually. From a well managed crop about 80-100 kg seeds and 60-72 kg of pericarp/ac can be obtained. Plant Protection Pests Lily Caterpillar ( Polytela gloriosae) The lily caterpillar attack almost all parts of the plant. Control This pest can be affectively control by spraying metacid @0.2% at fortnight by intervals or by spraying neem oil @ 4 ml/lit. Green caterpillar (Plussia chaleites) This caterpillar attacks the leaves and flowers. It completely eats away the flowers cause in severe damage to the crop. Control This pest can be affectively controledl by spraying metacid @0.2% at fortnight intervals or by spraying Neem oil @ 4 ml/lit. Diseases Leaf blight (Curvularia lunata) The effected leaf first turn light yellow and later small black spots are seen which ultimately spread to the entire leaf and neighboring plants. The incidence is higher during cloudy weather with high humidity. Control Spray 0.3% Mancozeb. Tuber rot (Sclerotium spp.) This is soil born pathogen which effects the underground tubers and cause death of the plant. In the initial stages the infected tubers start becoming soft and the foliage exhibits the yellow appearance and in advanced stages the whole tubers gets infected giving the appearance of discolored mass and the plant dies off. Control Soil drenching with 0.2% Carbendazim. PSYLLIUM (Isabgol) (Plantago ovata) It is an annual herb, a native of Persia. The husk is rosy white membranous covering of the seed which constitutes the drug and is given as a safe laxative, particularly beneficial in habitual constipation, chronic diarrhea and dysentery.

330

Soil The crop is traditionally grown in light sandy to sandy loam soils. It can be cultivated in clay loam, medium black soils. However good rain is essential for its cultivation in heavy soils. Climate Isabgol is highly environmental sensitive crop. It requires cool and dry climate. Unseasonal rain or high dew deposition during crop maturity results in to total loss of seed yield. The areas receive winter rains are unsuitable for cultivation of this crop. Season Last week of October to 2nd fort night of November is ideal time for sowing. Early sowing increases vegetative growth resulting in lodging and high downy mildew disease incidence. While late sowing reduces total growth period and increases risk of seed shattering due to occurrence of pre monsoon rains during maturity period. Varieties Gujarat Isabgol -1 Dwarf and erect plant with dark green leaves and moderate tillers, early maturing variety. It requires 110 to 115 days for maturity. Seed yield 4.0 q/ac. released by Anand Agricultural University (AAU), Anand, Gujarat. Gujarat Isabgol-2 Medium broad and pale green leaves. This variety is moderately resistant to downy mildew. Seed yield 4.0 q/ac. This variety was released by Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat. Jawahar Isabgol -4 Leaves are narrow, dense, lathery, green and hairy. Seeds are boat shaped, hard and light pink in colour. Seed husk is rosy white membrane like. Seed yield 5.0 q to 6.0 q/ac. This variety was released by Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishya Vidyalaya (JNKVV) Mandasur, Madhya Pradesh. Haryana Isabgol -5 Profuse tillering, long and compact spikes and moderately resistant to downy mildew. It is a selection from Gujarat Isabgol-2. Seed yield 4.0 to 4.8 q/ac. This variety was released by Haryana Agricultural University, (HAU), Hissar, Haryana. Niharika Long panicles, maturity period is 120 days. This variety was released by CIMAP, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. Propagation This variety was

331

The seeds are small and light are sown by broadcasting in early November to late December at the rate of 2.8-3.2 kg/ac. Germination starts within 6-10 days.

After Cultivation The crop requires 1-2 hand weedings. A light irrigation is to be given immediately after sowing. Second irrigation is given after 3 weeks and the third at the time of formation of spike. The plant bears flowers in about 60 days and matures in about 120 days after sowing. Three more irrigations are given between flowering and maturity. Manures and Fertilizers 6 cart loads of FYM/ac before final ploughing. 10 kg P2O5 + 10 kg K2O/ac as basal and 20 kg N in 2-3 equal split doses. Irrigation A light irrigation immediately after sowing is desirable to ensure good germination. The crop requires 4-5 irrigations. of the maximum number of spikes. Intercultivation The first weeding generally done after 20-25 days of sowing. Two to three weedings are required during the first two months of the crop. Harvesting When mature spikes are pressed in between in fingers, the seeds come out indicating the readiness of the crop for harvesting. The crop is harvested close to the ground. Stacked for 1-2 days and trampled by bullocks, winnowed and the separated seed is collected. The seeds are processed through a series of grinding mills to separate the husk. Yield The seed yield is 4.0 q/ac and about 30% husk is recovered from the seed. Plant Protection Pests Aphids Aphids generally appear 60-75 days after sowing. Control Two sprayings of 0.2% dimethoate effectively control the pest. Diseases Wilt (Fusarium sp.) Control The last irrigation should coincide with the milking stage

332

Spraying of Copper oxychloride or Dithane M- 45 at 0.3% at 15-20 days interval or when the weather turns favourable for the pathogen to spread.

Damping off (Pythium ultimum, Rhizoctonia solanii) Control Pre-treatment of seeds with metalaxil at 5.0 g per kg seeds protect the seeds from damping off. PERIWINKLE (Catharanthus oseus) (Vinca rosea, Billa gamera) Periwinkle is an annual drought tolerant herbaceous plant. The leaves contain anticancerous principles (Vincristine, Vinblastine etc.) and the roots contain antifibrillic and hypotensive principles (ajmaleine, reseripine etc.). productive. Soils Can be grown on all types of soils. Climate It comes up in tropical and subtropical areas. It can be successfully grown up to an elevation of 1300 m above sea level. A well distributed rain fall of 100 cm or more is ideal for raising this crop on a commercial scale under rainfed conditions. Season Periwinkle can be produced throughout the year. However the best time for planting is SeptemberOctober. Propagation Seeds are sown by broadcasting at 1.0 kg/ac. during June-July. The crop can also be transplanted and the seed rate is 200 g/ac. Seeds are sown in nursery beds of conventional size with 5 cm spacing and 60 days old seedlings are transplanted during June-July at a spacing 45 x 30 cm or 45 x 45 cm. Manures and Fertilizers 32 kg N + 16 kg P2O5 + 16 kg K2O/ha. P2O5, K2O and N as basal and the remaining N in two equal split doses at 3 and 6 months after planting. Intercultivation and Irrigation Periwinkle grows wildly as an ornamental plant due to its attractive flowers, pink and white. Both the varieties are equally

333

2-3 weedings and 4-5 irrigations during non rainy months. Harvesting 3 leaf strips may be taken after 3-6 and 9 months after planting. Plants are pulled out after 9 months and the roots are separated from rest of the plant. Leaves and roots (cut into small pieces) are dried in shade for 4-7 days and stored in gunny bags. Yield Yield 2-3 tonnes of leaves and 1 ton of roots under irrigated conditions. The yield is 40-50% under irrigated conditions. Roots diameter and more, fetch more price. Gross returns Rs.15,000. Net retuns Rs.10,000. Roots Rs.10/- kg leaves Rs.2/-kg. Plant Protection The plant is very hardy and resistance to the attack of fungi and insects.

***

334

GENERAL

335

DRY LAND HORTICULTURE Certain crops such as ber, custard apple, amla and mango require less water and can be grown as rain fed crops. With supplemental irrigation pomegranate and mango can be used for alternate land use systems. These orchards can be intercropped upto 3 years to generate more biomass. BER It can be grown in all types of soil. Proper managing and irrigation during fruit development checks the dropping of berries. Regular pruning is necessary. Spacing may be kept as 6 to 9m. AMLA It can be grown even on slightly alkaline soils. Plants need light irrigation till they are well established. Fruiting starts at the age of 8 years. The trees should be planted at a spacing of 7.5 to 9 m. MANGO Though it is a dry land crop, it requires irrigations only in summer season from March to May at an interval of 15 to 20 days for fruit retention and maturity. Mango requires slightly deep soils with good drainage and pH at 6.5 to 7.6. It needs 10 m X 10 m spacing in well deep soils and 9m X 9m in medium soils. Along with horticultural crops, plantations for timber and fibre can be developed on soils, which are not suitable for grain crops. The trees include neem/leucaena and others in paired rows. Stylosanthes hamata can be grown in the interspace. Silvi pastural systems Involve lopping trees and grazing under storey grasses and bushes in forests and plantations. This system is applicable to vast areas of cultivable wasteland. Farm forestry system This system is an integration of field, forage crops and trees within a broader frame work of proper resource management. Fuel and fodder forage yielding trees and planted on fences, field boundaries, bunds and near the farm ponds as shelterbelts, windbreaks and tree belts. These modify the environmental factors and increase the yield of crops besides

336

yielding fuel, fodder and fruits. Ecualyptus, tamarind, acacia, mango, neem, casuarinas and ber are useful for this purpose.

Package of Practices of some Timber Yielding Plants

Name 1 Teak (Tectona grandis) Red Sander (Pterocarpus santalinum) Sandalwood/ Sri Gandham (Santalum album) Tella Maddi (Terminalia arjun) Jeetregi (Rose wood) (Delbergia lattifolia) Dirisena (Albezzia lebbeck) Neem (Azadaricta indica) Nilagiri (Eucalyptus spp.) Subabul Yepi (Hardwickia binata) Tumma (Acacia spp.) Sarugudu (Casuarina spp.) Austrilian Tumma (Acacia manziam) Sal (Shorea robusta) Silveroke Pit size (lxbxh) and preparation time 2 45x45x60cm. during summer 45x45x60 cm. during summer 45x45x60 cm. during summer 45x45x60 cm. during summer 30x30x45 cm. during summer 30x30x45 cm. during MarchApril 30x30x45 cm. during in April 30x30x45 cm. During April 30x30x45 cm. During April 30x30x45 cm. during April 30x30x45 cm. during April 30x30x45x cm. During April 45x45x60 cm. during April 30x30x45 cm. during April 30x30x45 cm. Nursery method and time 3 Stumps/Tissueculture plants In Polythene bags, February-May In Polythene bags, February-May In Polythene bags, February-May In Polythene bags, March-may In Polythene bags, February-May IN Polythene bags, January-May In Polythene bags, February-May In Polythene bags, February-May In Polythene bags, February-May In Polythene bags, February-May In Polythene bags, February-May In Polythene bags, November-Dec In Polythene bags, February-May In Polythene bags, February-May In Polythene bags, Planting Season 4 JuneAugust June-July June-July Spacing 5 Initial-3x1.3m. Final-3x5.2m. 5x5 m. 4x4 m. Irrigation interval and Manures (g/Plant) 6 10-12 days interval, N.P.K. 500:500:500 0-12 days interval, N.P.K. 500:500:500 20-30 days interval, N.P.K. 400:500:500 15-20 days interval, N.P.K. 300:400:500 15-20 days interval, N.P.K.400:400:400 20-30 days interval, N.P.K. 300:400:400 20-30 days interval, N.P.K. 500:500:500 20-30 days interval, N.P.K. 500:500:500 15-20 days interval, N.P.K. 250:500:500 10-20 days interval, N.P.K.300:400:400 20-30 days interval, N.P.K. 300:400:400 15-20 days interval, N.P.K. 300:500:500 15-20 days interval, N.P.K. 300:500:500 15-20 days interval, N.P.K. 500:500:500 10-15 days interval, Harvesting age and Yield (Cu ft./plant) 7 At 20-30 years, 10-20 At 30-40 years, 10-15 At 30 years, 10 At 40 years, 20-30 At 30-40 years, 20 At 25 years At 25-30 years, 20 At 20 years, 20 At 20 years, 10-15 At 25 years, 25 At 30-40 years, 30 At 30-40 years, 25 At 15-20 years, 10 At 20-30 years, 10-15 At 20-30 years,

June-July June-July

6x6 m. 5x5 m.

June-July June-July JulyAugust JulyAugust JulyAugust JulyAugust June-July JulyAugust JulyAugust July-

6x6 m. 5x5 m. 4x4 m. 4x4 m. 5x5x m. 6x6 m. 4x4 m. 4x4 m.

5x5 m. 5x5 m.

337

(Greevillea robusta) Veduru (Bamboo spp.) Simarouba Vippa/Eippa (Bassia latifolia)

during April 30x30x45 cm. during April 45x45x45 cm. during April 45x45x45 cm. durin April

February-May In Polythene bags, February-May In Polythene bags, February-May In Polythene bags, February-May

August JulyAugust JulyAugust JulyAugust 5x5 m. 5x5 m. 9x9 m.

N.P.K. 500:500:500 10-15 days interval, N.P.K. 500:500:500 0-15 days interval, N.P.K. 500:500:500 10-15 days interval, N.P.K. 500:500:500

10-15 Every 3 years 12 poles Till 10 years 10002000 kl/ha. of oil Till 10 years 15-20kg seeds/plant.

Note: N- Nitrogen, P- Phosphorous, K- Potash POST HARVEST EQUIPMENT Drying of turmeric Drying of turmeric with the chilli dryer is advantageous in time and cost saving. The result of the trials showed 65.47% of time saving and 7.8% of cost saving compared to traditional method of sun drying. It took 58 hours to dry turmeric of 79.24% moisture content to 12.5% level against 168 hours of time taken for the similar level of drying in open yard drying. Turmeric Grader The ANGRAU turmeric grader designed and developed by the centre can grade about 400 kg of Turmeric in an hour in to four fractions namely bulbs, fingers (3 cm length and above), polishable Nali (2 to 3 cm length) and unpolishable Nali (less than 2 cm length) in a single pass, thus eliminates tedious and laborious manual grading. This also facilitates better quality and value addition to get higher remunerative price. Turmeric Polisher Hand operated turmeric polisher Hand operated ANGRAU turmeric polisher developed at this centre can be used for both preliminary and secondary polishing, replacing traditional method of shuffling and rubbing in gunny bags and use of wooden log attached palmyrah leaves in bullock treading method. It has the capacity to polish 500 kg of turmeric rhizomes per hour compared to only 100-200 kg/hr in the farmers traditional method. Power operated turmeric polisher With suitable alterations and further attachments like 2 hp motor, V-belt and chain drive mechanism and gear system, the hand operated turmeric polisher was converted into power operated turmeric polisher. It can run at 30-32 rpm. With the attachment of gears and V-belt. The power operated ANGRAU Turmeric polisher can polish about 600-700 kg of turmeric in an hour with 98% polishing efficiency. Low cost measuring device for determining colour intensity of agricultural produce

338

Colour reflect meter designed and developed at this centre can be successfully used to determine yellowness of turmeric (cur cumin content) and redness. Chilli seed extractor This machine is used for extracting seed from dry chillies successfully. Dry chillies (of 11% moisture content) were cut into pieces by the extractor and are collected at the outlet. Seed is separated from the pericarp by a built in separation mechanism. The machine can extract seed in 4 quintals of pods in a day of 8 hours with 99% extraction efficiency. Thus, it felicitates in elimination of not only physical drudgery but also scorching and pungency that hinder the extraction in traditional manual extraction. Chilli storage Chillies stored in amber coloured polythene bags were found to retain colour for longer period of storage. Mechanically dried chillies showed higher colour value in chillies during storage than that of open yard sun dried produce. Curcumin content in stored turmeric varieties The curcumin content in stored turmeric varieties progressively decreased with length of storage period. Among the varieties tested the decrease in curcumin content in storage was higher with Mydukur followed by PCT-14 and TC-2. Chemical treatment of copra to prevent fungal damage Mature coconut halves treated with solutions of 1% acetic acid, sodium bicarbonate or sodium chloride protected the copra from spoilage due to fungal infection. Suitability of storage containers for storage of tamarind Tamarind gained moisture when stored in mud pots and gunny bags with reduced total acidity compared to the produce stored in polythene bag, tetra pack or glass bottle. The acidity of the samples stored in tetra pack was highest followed by polythene bags, whereas it was least in case of the samples stored in gunny bags followed by mud pots. None of the structures however could prevent discolouration of stored tamarind as it is temperature dependent. Mango Harvester Experiments using IIHR mango harvester gave a harvesting capacity of 170-200 kg mangos/hr (500-550 fruits/hr). It was observed that farmers are using a dhoti which is made locally using bamboo stick and net made of jute thread. The net is connected to the curved frame. Local dhoti gave a capacity of about 300-350 fruits/hr. Percentage dropped fruits while harvesting were found to be lower 8-10% compared to 20-25% in local dhoti thereby reducing the damage to the fruits. However the IIHR mango harvester is somewhat heavy and difficult to handle for harvesting fruits by standing on the tree particularly for old

339

and well branched trees. Two types of Mango harvesters which are useful to harvest fruits from ground (for small trees/young gardens) and on the tree (for old and well branched trees) as alternatives to local harvester have been designed, fabricated and tested with Banginapalli variety. The light weight harvester when used on large, well branched tress grave a harvesting capacity of 625-650 fruits per hour. The heavy weight model useful to harvest fruits from ground gave a capacity of 600-615 fruits per hours. Local dhoti gave a capacity of 300-350 fruits/hr. Conversion of tobacco barns for chilli drying Ten to twelve quintals of ripe chillies can be loaded in the existing tobacco barns to dry chillies. G.I. wire mesh trays of size 10.5 x 7.5 x 7.5 cm are suitable to hold chillies on the existing tiers. Each tray can be loaded with 7 to 8 kg of ripe pods. Drying time required to reduce moisture from 75 to 10% (w.b.) vary considerably depending upon whether the chilli is hybrid with thick pericarp (eg. Wonder hot) or varieties with medium to thin pericarp (eg. LCA 334). The former takes about 50 hours to dry whereas the latter type takes about 40 hours only. The temperatures ranging initially at 50oC to a final value of about 55OC are appropriate for drying chillies. The open yard sun drying takes 12 to 15 days in comparison to barn drying method. The cost of barn drying is approximately Rs.1.50-2.00 per quintal of dry chilli. The percentage discoloured pods can be reduced to about 3.5 to 4% in barn dried produce in comparison to 9-10% in open yard sun drying. The barn drying method has the advantages such as 1) quality product with good colour retention and free from external contamination. 2) less number of discoloured pods (Talukaya) 3) Reduction in drying time 4) Drying can be accomplished even during inclement weather particularly early in the chilli season i.e., November to February to fetch remunerative price. Drying of chillies in a poly house ANGRAU poly house solar dryer of size 12 x 7.8 x 2.1m has been developed to dry about 20 quintals of ripe pods. The dryer essentially consists of an arch type poly house to hold chillies on two different tiers made of wire mesh fixed to frame assembled by nuts and bolts. The whole frame structure is connected by nuts and bolts. The whole frame structure is covered with a UV stabilized 150 gsm cross laminated semi-transparent polyethylene sheet with ventilators at bottom and top to facilitate movement of air. The drying time is 5 to 8 days to reduce moisture form 75% to 10% (wb) in comparison to 15 to 20 days required to dry chilli in open yard sun drying depending upon weather and type of chilli., i.e. thick pericarp hybrids or thin pericarp varieties. The dryer can be converted into nursery house by replacing poly sheet cover using 50% shade net. About 70,000 chilli seedlings can be raised in the house per batch. The poly house can also be used to raise green Coriander

340

during off season i.e. in May and June when the chilli drying is completed. The poly house can be efficiently use for about to 10 months in a year in chilli growing region i.e. Drying of chillies during December to April, Coriander leaf production in May to June, raising chilli nursery during July to September. Chemical treatment of copra to prevent fungal damage Mature coconut halves treated with solutions of 1% acetic acid, sodium bicarbonate or sodium chloride protected the copra from spoilage due to fungal infection. Suitability of storage containers for storage of tamarind Tamarind gained moisture when stored in mud pots and gunny bags with reduced total acidity compared to the produce stored in polythene bag, tetra pack or glass bottle. The acidity of the samples stored in tetra pack was highest followed by polythene bags, whereas it was least in case of the samples stored in gunny bags followed by mud pots. None of the structures however could prevent discolouration of stored tamarind as it is temperature dependent.

341

Composition of Manures and Fertilizers Materials Ammonium Sulphate Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate Ammonium Nitrate Ammonium Phosphate Calcium ammonium Nitrate Nitrate of Soda Urea Superphosphate-Single Superphosphate-Double Superphosphate-Triple Ultraphos Rock Phosphate Muriate of Potash Poultry Manure Sheep Manure Farmyard Manure Compost Bone Meal Percentage of nutrients N P2O5 K2O 20.5 26.0 33.5 16.0 20.00 20.5 16.5 46.5 18.00 35.00 45.00 28.3 28.4 58.00 or 60.00 1.2-1.5 0.8-1.6 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.25 0.5 3.5 21.0 -

342

GUIDE FOR MIXING FERTILIZERS

8. Superphosphate single or triple 5. Sodium nitrate 6. Calcium cyanamide 7. Urea 9. Ammonium phosphate 2. Sulphate of potash 4. Calcium ammonium nitrate 10. Basic slag 3. Sulphate of ammonia 11. Calcium carbonate 1. Muriate of potash

1. Muriate of potash 2. Sulphate of potash 3. Sulphate of ammonia 4. Calcium ammonium nitrate 5. Sodium nitrate 6. Calcium cyanamide 7. Urea 8. Superphosphate single or triple 9. Ammonium phosphate 10. Basic slag 11. Calcium carbonate

Fertilizers which can be mixed Fertilizers which may be mixed shortly before use Fertilizers which can be mixed
Note: The crossing point of the required vertical column and horizontal column indicates the possibility of mixing or otherwise of the fertilizer.

343

Chemical Fertilizer Combinations and Dosages Charts Recommende d dose of Fertilizers kg/hectare 5 10 15 20 30 50 60 75 100 Percentage of N, P2O5, K2O 10% 1 50 100 150 200 300 500 600 750 1000 11% 2 46 91 136 182 273 455 545 682 909 12% 3 42 83 125 167 250 417 500 625 833 14% 4 36 71 107 143 214 357 429 536 714 15% 5 33 67 100 133 200 333 400 500 667 16% 6 31 63 94 125 188 313 375 469 625 17% 7 29 59 88 118 176 294 353 441 588 18% 8 28 56 83 111 167 278 333 417 556 19% 9 26 53 79 105 158 263 316 395 526 60% 21 8 17 25 33 50 83 100 125 167 20% 10 25 50 75 100 150 250 300 375 500

Dose 22% 25% 26% 28% 32% 35% 36% 45% 46% 50% 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 5 22 20 19 18 16 14 14 11 11 10 10 45 40 38 36 31 29 28 22 22 20 15 68 60 58 54 47 43 42 33 33 30 20 91 80 77 71 63 57 56 44 43 40 30 136 120 115 107 94 86 83 67 65 60 50 227 200 192 179 156 143 139 111 109 100 60 273 240 231 214 188 171 167 133 133 120 75 314 300 288 268 234 214 206 167 163 150 100 455 400 385 357 313 286 278 222 217 200 Note: Usage of the chart to obtain the required dose of Fertilizer.

Locate the recommended dose of fertilizer in the vertical column (N=30) and in the horizontal column locate the available percentage of the fertilizer (N in urea 46%) the crossing point of these two columns indicates the required dose of chemical fertilizer (65) kg/hectare.

344

Herbicides available in the Market S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. Common Name 2, 4-D Sodium Salt 2, 4-D (sodium) 2, 4-D Ethyl Ester 2, 4-D (dimethylamine) 2, 4-D (ellylester) 2, 4-D (ethyester) 2, 4-D (Na salt) 2, 4-DB 2, 4-D (ammine) 2, 4-D 2, 4-D (DMA) 2, 4-D (amine) Acetachlor Amitrole Amitrole+ammonium thiocyanate Alachlor+atrazine Azafenidin AMS Atrazine Acrolein Anilophos (Anilofos) Trade Names Fernoxone, Weedamar, Greenoxone, Salix, Agrodex, Agrodar, Agrdone-48, Combi, Erbitox, Tafacide, Weedmar Knockweed Fernaxon, Tapicide, Weedicide knock Weed Granules, Agrotex Agrodar (32,96), Knockweed 72 Agrodex G Knockweed Agrodone Agrosodium Butoxone Fenoxurone WP Key-D Tafade Weedar Zeneca-ICI Weedazol Weedazol-TL MON 29870 Evolus Ammate Atrataf, Solaro, Surya, Milizine, Dhanuzine, Croginstrek Aqualin Aniloguard, Aerogin, Anilostar, Arilodhan, Arozin, Sumo, Check, Ricil, Glyphotox, Weedonil, Anildhan, Anilotof, Arozin, Taguard, Rice, Rico Shot One, Aniloguard plus Basagram Rice Guard BGE Lasso, Cattch, Alltof % of a.i. 80 WP

80 WP 4 Granules

4G, 18EC, 36EC 48 EC, 18 WP

50 WP

30 EC

22. 23. 24. 25. 26.

Anilophos + 2,4-DEE Anilophos (Anilophos+Ethoxysulfuron) Anilophos+trichlopyr Alachlor

45 EC (24:32) 40 EC 26 WP 50 EC

345

27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.

Benzoylprop-methyl Benthiocarb Benusulfuron-methyl Bromoxynil Bromacil Bentazon+Blazer Bromoxynil Bensulide Bentazone Butachlor

Suffex plus Saturn Londax Jaguar Hyvar-X Galaxy Bromonil, Buctril Betasan Basagran Butanex

10 G 60 DF

346

37.

Butachlor

38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80.

Butachlor+2, 4-DEE (Butachlor+Propanil) Basphyriback Sodium Cinosulfuron Cyclocydim Choroxuron Chlorsulfuron Chlortoluron Clopyralid + 2,4-D Cinmethylin Clodinafop with safener Cyanazine Cimzine Carfentrazone-ethyl Cinanethylin Carfentrazone ethyl Chlorimuron-ethyl + metsulfuron + anilophos Chloramben Cinmethylin + 2,4-DEE Chlorimuron-ethyl Clomazone Cyhalofop-butyl Clodinofop-propargyl Dichlormate Dinoseb Difenoxuron Dichlofop-methyl Dinoseb Dithiopyr Dichlobenil Diallate Difenzoquat Dicamba Dalapon DSMA Dazomet Diclofop-methyl Diuron Endothall Ethoxysulfuron Flchlorin Flupropanate Flamprop (methyl)

Bilchlor, Trapp Dhanuchlor, Machete, Teer, Milchlor, Delchlor, Weedkill, Arochlor, Hiltachlor, Lambast, Nirmool, Starchlor, Rasayanchlor, Butanex, Pillarset Anuchlor+2, 4-DEE Butanil Naminigold Setoff Sethoxydim Norex, Tenoran Glean Dicuron Curtail Cinch CGA-184927 Bladex Taphazine, Hexazine Affinity Agrgold Aim Alkombo Amiben Argold plus Kloben, Classic Command Clincher Topik Sirmate Premerge Mowdown Heolon Dow Weed Millor Dimension Casoron Avadex BW Avenge Banvel-D Dowpon, Hexapon, Tafapon, Radapon Ansar-529D Mylone Illoxan Agromex, Karmax, Klass, True, Hexuron Hydrothol Sunrise Basaalin Tetrapion Suffix super

50 EC 5G

5+4 Granules 28+28EC 10 EC

50 WP

25 50 10 15

WP EC EC WP

85 WP

28 EC 80 WP 15 WDG 45

347

81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113.

Fluroxypur+2, 4 D Fluroxypyr Fluordifen Flamprop-methyl Flupyrsulfuron-methyl Fluometuron Fosamine Fluometuron Flamprop (IP salt) Fluchloralin Flufenacet Fenoxaprop-p-ethyl Fenoxaprop-p-ethyl Firajo Sulfuran Ethyl Glufosinate aommonium Glufosinate ammonium Glyphosate Glyphosate+2, 4-D (IPA salts) Haloxyfop-butyl Haloxyfop-butyl Haloxyfop Haloxyfop-methyl Hexazinone Imazosulfuron Imazaquin Imazaquin+pendimethalin Imazapyr Imazamethabenz-methyl Imazethapyr (Imazethapyr+pendimethalin) Isopropagyl Isoproturon+ 2, 4-D Isoproturon

114. 115. 116. 117. 118.

Lactofen Linuron Linuron+Chlorimuron-ethyl (12:1) Lenacil MSMA

Starane plus Starane Preforan Metaven Lexus Lanex Krenite Cotoran Barnon Basalin FOE-5043 Puma super, Power, Whip super Rice star Saadhi Basta, Liberty Liberty Glycel, Roundup, Roleout, Cleanup, Weedall, Break, Weedoff, Comet, Glytof, Noweed, Sweep, Randip Ready mix Fusillade Verdict, Focus Gallant Dowco-443 Velpar Takeoff Image, Sector, Tone up Squadran Assault Assert Pursuit, Hammer, Pivot Valour, Pursuit plus JV-485 Isoguard plus Alon Arelon, Rakshak, Dhanulon, Graminon, Carelon, Ciluron, Delron, Dhar, Greniran, Haproturon, Isocin, Isoguard, Isohit, Isolon, Isoptoturon, Isotox, Jaiproturon, Kanak, Marklon, Milron, Monolon, Nocilon, Norlon, Pestolon, Phulon, Prow, Ronak, Shivron, Sonaron, Sulron, Vegfru Taurus, Tolkan, Totalon, Tritilon, Wonder, Bengran, Hytane, Isoguard, Parlan Cobex Afalon, Lorox Gemini, Lorox plus Venzar Weedhoe-108

50 DF

45 EC, 48 EC 10 EC 10 WP 15 SL 41 EC

12.5 EC

10 SL 32 EC (2+32)

50 WP 75 W.P.

50 WP

348

119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163.

Metham Methazole Metribuzin+chlorimuron-ethyl Molinate Metoxuron Metobromuron Metsulfuron MAA Mesosulfuron + iodosulfuron Mesosulfuron-methyl MCPA Metribuzin Metsulfuron-methyl + Chlorimuron-ethyl Methabenzthiazuron Metolachlor Metsulfuron-methyl Mextoxuron Napropamide Nitralin Nitrofen Oryzalin Oxyfluorfen Oxadiargyl Oxadiargyl Oxadiazon Picloram Pebulate Pethoxamid Propachlor Pyrazosulfuron-ethyl Peperphos Pyrazon Prometryn Propazine Pethoxamid Paraquate (without surfactant) Paraquat Paraquat Prometryn Propaquizafop Propham Prynachlor Pyrithioback Sodium Paraquat dichloride Pretilachlor

Vapam Probe Preview Ordram, Valan Doxanex Patoran DMC, Escort, Gropper Anstar Atlantis Mesox maxx

80 WP

40 SL 40 AS Sencor, Tatametri Barrier, Lexone, Tata 71 WP Metri Almix 20 WP Ambinil, Perch, Tribunil, Yield Dual Algrip, Allie, Ally, Brushoff Dosanex, Hilnex, Hexanor, Invest Devrinol Planvin Tok E-25 Surflan Goal Oxygold, Alto Top Star, Raft Raught Ronstar Tordon Tillam Successor-600 Ramrod Rallis, Saathi Avirosan-rilof Pyramin Prometrex Milogard Koban Gramoxone-S Gramoxone, Gramuron Sweep Gesagard Falcon Chemshoe Basamaize Hitweed, Theme Gramaxone, Uniquat, Milquat, Weedol Arrage, Refit, Eraze 70 WP 500 EC, 720 EC 20 WP 80 WP

23.5Ec, 0.35G 23.5 EC 80 WP 6 EC 25 EC

10 WP

23.5 EC, 0.35G

10 EC Paralock, 24 SL 50 EC

349

164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. 175. 176. 177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 185. 186. 187. 188.

Pretilachlor Pretilachlor+2, 4-D (Pretilachlor+safener) Propanil Pendimithalin Pendimithalin Quizalofop-ethyl Sethoxydim Sunfonylurea Sirmate Simazine Sulfosulfuron Terbacil Thiobencard (=ben thiocard) Triallate Triflaralin Triasulfuron Triclopyr Trilopyr+clopyralid Trifloxysulfuron sodium Tribenuron (methyl) Thifensulfuron Triclopyr Thiobencarp Thiazopyr

Sofit, Refit, Petrobest, Preeth 30 EC Ready mix Sofit 50 EC Stam F-34, Hexanil 34 EC Stomp, Pendistar, Gadar, Dhanutop, 30 EC Pendimil, Dost, Mop up, Pandia, Pendiherb, Pendigold, Prowl Stomp 20 EC Targa Super 5 EC Poast Hoe-404 Sathi, Gesatopso, Hexazine, Princep, 50 WP Tafazine Leader 75 WG Sinbar Saturn 50 EC Avadex BW 50 EC Flora, Rampage, Tip Top, Traflan, Trinetra, 48 EC Trilex, Trofan, Krilin Amber, Logran 20WG, 75WG Dowco-443 Redeem Enfield Express Harmony Garlon Saturn 10 G Visor 2E

350

CONTROL OF PERENNIAL WEEDS IN ORCHARDS Perennial weeds like Cyperus rotundus, cynodon dactylon etc. in orchards can be controlled effectively by spraying glyphosate at 2.5 to 5.0 L ha-1 dissolved in 500 liters of water. Falling of the spray fluid on young fruit plant foliage should be avoided Second spray is required when there is regrowth of weed. (cost Rs.700/- to 1400 ha-1)

SOME INSECTICIDAL MATERIALS FOR COMMON HOUSEHOLD USE Kerosene Emulsion This is a contact insecticide useful against many sucking insects. Finely divide 500 g of ordinary bar soap and dissolve it in 4.5 litres of water by boiling. Cool and add 9 litres of Kerosene. The mixture is then violently agitated until the oil is completely emulsified. The stock solution can be diluted with 15-20 times of water before spraying. Tobacco Decoction This is very effective for controlling aphids infesting vegetable crops. Tobacco decoction can be prepared by steeping 500 gm of tobacco in 4.5 litres of water for 24 hours. Then 320 gm of ordinary sliced bar soap is dissolved separately in another vessel. The soap solution is added to tobacco decoction and the stock solution is diluted 6-7 times. Neem Seed Suspension This is very effective as a repellent against locusts and gross hoppers. The mature dropped neem fruits should be collected and kernels obtained. The kernels should be ground into a coarse powder. For obtaining 0.1% concentration 1 g of powdered neem seed is required for a litre of water. The required quantity of the coarse powder should be put in a small bag of muslin cloth and dipped in water contained in a bucked and squeezed till the water becomes light brownish. This is to be sprayed on crops for protection.

351

Insecticides Their Common Names and Trade Names with Formulations S. Common Name No. 1 2 Oragnochlorine group 1. Chlordane Trade names with Formulations 3 Intox 8 DP 2.5 D; Intox 10 D; Intox 8 DP 50 WP Mode of Action 4 Control and dosage 5 Filling in leaf axills against coconut rhinoceros beetle. Residual, highly persistant soil insecticide All type of insects especially leaf eating caterpillars 2ml/l Broad-spectrum insecticide. Relatively safer to beneficial insects and pollinators. Leaf eating caterpillars, Aphids, Thrips 400-600 g/acre Seed treatment (pulses) 50-60 g/kg seed Jassids, Caterpillars and borers 250-300 g/acre Caterpillars and pests on vegetables 2 3 g/l and

2. 3.

Aldrin Endosulfan

Non-systemic insecticide; Contact and stomach with some fumigant action Aldrex 30 EC; Aldrin 10 D Non-systemic insecticide; Soil insecticide Hildan 35 EC; Thiodan 35 EC; Non-systemic Starsulphan 35 EC; Hexasulfan insecticide and 35 EC; Endocel 35 EC; acaricide; Contact Megaendo; Endodhan; Endotaf and stomach

Carbamates group 4. Carbaryl 5. 6. 7. Carbosulfan Thiodicarb Methomyl

Hexavin 5 D and 10 D; Sevin 5 D; Sevin 50 WP; Kilex carbaryl 50 WP; Kilex carbaryl 80 WP. Marshal 25 EC Larwin 75 WP Lanet 40 SP; Dunet 40 SP

Stomach and contact with slight systemic action Systemic, stomach and contact Stomach, contact Systemic; Stomach and contact

Carbamates group - Granules 8. Carbofuran 3% G Carbofuran, Furan, Legent, Hexafuran 3% G, Furadan 3% G etc. Joint formulation 9. Carbaryl and Sevidol 8 G* Lindane Organophosphorus group 10. Methyl Parathion Metacid 50 EC; Paramar M 50 EC; Parmet M 50 EC

Systemic, contact Sucking pests and stomach nematodes 10-12 kg/acre.

Non-systemic; Contact and stomach; Rapid knock down action.

Leaf eating caterpillars 1.5 ml/l Not to be used against pests supporting wide spectrum of natural enemies. To be used with extreme caution

352

11. 12. 13.

Methyl Parathion Fenitrothion Acephate

Follidol 2 D; Metacid 2 D

14.

Malathion (Mercaptothion)

Non-systemic; Contact and stomach Folithion 50 EC; Sumithion 50 Non-systemic EC insecticide and acaricide; Contact Starthene 75 WP; Tamaran Systemic; Contact gold 75 WP; Asataf 75 WP; Ardin 75 WP; Megastar 75 WP; Turbido 75 WP; Lancer 75 WP; Lucid 75 WP; Hilphate 75 WP; Twinguard 75 WP; Deldin 75 WP; Archem 75 WP; Dhanraj 75 WP; Acephex 75 WP Cythion 10% D; Malathion 50% Non-systemic; EC; Malamer 50% EC; Contact, stomach Malasandoz 50% DC; Cythion 25 EC Nogos 76 EC; Nuvan 76 EC; Contact, stomach Marvex super 76 EC; Vapona and fumigant. 76 EC; Divas 76 EC; Doom 76 EC; Doomer 76 EC; Suchlor 76 EC Ekalux 5 D; Ekalux 5 G; Ekalux Contact and 25 EC; Berucil; Flash; Smash; stomach. Quick; Choffer; Selquin; Hilquin; Megaquin; Quinlux; Vajra; Queenguard; Chemlux Quinoltaf; Suquin Zolone 35 EC; Zolone 4 D Broad spectrum insecticide with contact and stomach action. Also has acaricidal action Lebaycid 50 EC Contact and Stomach Rogor 30 EC; Dimor 30 EC; Rogor 5 G; Kilex Dimethoate 30 EC; Tara 909; Celgar; Novogar Metasystox 25 EC Systemic

Termites, Leaf eating caterpillars 10 kg/acre Effective against chewing and sucking pests Sucking pests, Leaf eating caterpillars 1.0-1.5 g/l

15.

Dichlorovos (DDVP)

16.

Quinalphos

Safe insecticide for controlling vegetable pests. Leaf eating caterpillars, mites 200-400 ml/acre Sucking pests, caterpillars 1ml/l Residual toxicity lasts for only 24 hours. Safer to be applied on vegetables. Leaf eating caterpillars. 2.0-2.5 ml/l Particularly effective against mealy bugs and scale insects. Thrips and Mites in Chillies 400-500 ml/acre Used for effective control of rice stem borer, red palm weevil of coconut etc. Sucking pests 2ml/l Effective against sucking insects Long rersidual action and contact Sucking pests 2ml/l

17.

Phosalone

18.

Fenthion

19.

Dimethoate

20.

Methyl Odemeton

Strongly systemic effective against sucking insects and contact

353

21.

Formothion

Anthio 25 EC

Systemic and contact

354

22.

Monocrotophos

23.

Profenophos

24.

Chlorpyriphos

25. 26. 27.

Triazophos

Trichlorfon
Thiometon

Nuvacron 36 SL; Monocil 36 SL; Bilphos 36 SL; Crotocil 36 SL; Croton 36 SL; Cadet 36 SL; Monophos 36 SL; Megamono 36 SL; Hilcron 36 SL; Phoskil 36 SL; Guardian 36 SL; Monochem 36 SL; Luphos 36 SL; Azordin 36 SL Curacron 50 EC: Baspro 50 EC: Kareena 50 EC: Celcron 50 EC: Bolero 50 EC: Proven 50 EC: Profex 50 EC Dursban 20 EC; Dermet 20 EC; Radar 20 EC; Force 20 EC; Suchlor 20 EC; Tricell 20 EC; Tafaban 20 EC; Coroban 20 EC; Fantan 20 EC; Classic 20 EC; Hilban 20 EC; Megaban 20 EC; Chloroguard 20 EC; Dhanvan 20 EC; Lentrek 20 EC Hostothian 40 EC; Vachan 40 EC; Truzo 40 EC; Trizocel 40 EC; Suthathian 40 EC Dipterex 50 EC Ekatin 25 EC

Systemic, persistent, long residual action, ovicidal action too, contact and stomach

Sucking pests, Red mites and white mites, Leaf eating caterpillars etc., 1.5 to 2.0ml/l

Non-systemic insecticide and acaricide; Contact and Stomach Contact, stomach and fumigant

Sucking pests, caterpillars 2ml/l Leaf eating caterpillars (2.5-3.0ml/l), Termites (4-5ml/l),

Stomach, contact and broadspecturm Useful only against chewing insects Systemic effective against sap sucking insects

Whitefly, Jassids 2.0-2.5 ml/l

Organophosphorus group - Granules 28. Phorate 10% G Phoretax, Thimet 10% G, Grenade, U.Met, Loofet

Systemic, contact Sucking pest of roots and fumigant and nematodes. For soil and leaf axil application against the banana bunchy top vector and for controlling nematodes of pepper. 5 6 kg/acre. Sucking pests 0.6ml/l Seed treatment @ 5-7 g/kg seed

Neonicotinoid group 29. Imidacloprid

Confidor 17.8 SL; Tatamida Systemic and 17.8 SL; Imidacel 17.8 SL; contact Imidex 17.8 SL; Admit 17.8 SL; Atom 17.8 SL; Hexamida 17.8 SL; Courage 17.8 SL; Imidagold 17.8 SL; Chemida 17.8 SL; Maharaja 17.8 SL; Media 17.8 SL; Gouch 17.8 SL

355

30.

Acetamiprid

Pride 20 SC; Price 20 SC; Erban Systemic; Stomach 20 SC; Manik 20 SC; Permit 20 and contact SC Cruiser70 WS Systemic and contact Actara 25 WG; Renova 25 WG; Systemic and Ananth 25 WG contact Dimlin 25 WP Stomach and contact Stomach

31. 32.

Thiamethoxam Thiamethoxam

Jassids, Aphids (20g/acre) Thrips, whiteflies (30-40g/acre) Seed treatment @ 5g/kg seed. Sucking pests, 2530g/acre (0.1g/l)

Benzoyl Urea group 33. Diflubenzuran

Jassids 1g/l 34. Nuvaluran Remon 10 EC Jassids and caterpillars 1ml/l A fermentation product from the soil actinomycete Streptomyces avermitilis group 35. Emamectin Proclin 5 SG Stomach Caterpillars, Jassids Benzoate 90g/acre Thiourea group 36. Diafenthiuron Phenylpyrazole group 37. Fipronil

Pegasus 50 WP

Broad spectrum and multiple activity Stomach, contact and systemic

25g/acre

Sucking pests (Including Thrips) 2.0-2.5 ml/l A fermentation product from the soil actinomycete Saccharopolyspora spinosa group 38. Spinosad Tracer45% SC, Spinstar Stomach, contact Jassids and Thrips 90-100ml/acre

Regent 5 SC

Oxadiazine group
Avant 14.5 EC; Daksha 14.5 Non-systemic; EC; Dava 14.5 EC Stomach and contact Phenylpyrazole group - Granules 40. Fipronil 0.3% G Regent G.R. Systemic 39. Indoxscarb Jassids 200-250 ml/acre

Leaf folders and sucking pests. 7-10 kgs/acre

Nereistoxin group - Granules

41. Cartap Hydrochloride 4% G Sasvex, Cimitar, Caldan, Padan Systemic; Stomach Leaf folders and contact 6-8 kg/acre

SYNTHETIC PYRETHROIDS 42. Cypermethrin Belsip, Cald, Java, Ankush, 10%EC Cympher, Laser, Silcard, Cypermar, Megatrin, Cyperguard, Bullet, Ustad, Hilcypres 43. Cypermethrin 25% Cybel, Cald, Java, Bisatrin, EC Cymbush, Trophy, Cyperkil, Megacyper, Cyperguard, Cyrex, Whitegold, Superkiller, Ralotrin

Stomach contact

and All types of caterpillars and borers 1ml/l and All types of caterpillars and borers 0.5ml/l

Stomach contact

356

Fenval, Belfen, Phonocron, Fencel, Tatafen, Hilfen, Sumicidis, Lufen, Tremcard, Altafen 45. Alfametrin 10% EC Sherepalpo, Phars, Jem, Legend, Alfaguard, Forward, Guru, Alfadan, Farmex, Tata Alfa, Axil 46. Deltametrin2.8% EC Desis Bytam, Decaguard, Deltex 47. Bita Cyputhrin 25% Buldak EC 48. Lamida Cyhalothrin Kungfu, Reena, Judge 2.5% EC 49. Lamida Cyhalothrin Carate 5% 50. Fenpropathrin 30% Meyothrin EC Pyrethroid derivative group 51. Ethofenfrax Nukil 10 EC MITICIDES Sulphur group 52. Sulphur 80% W.P. 53. 54. Sulphur 40% EC Dicofol 18.5% EC

44.

Fenvalerate 20% EC

Stomach contact Stomach contact Stomach contact Stomach contact Stomach contact Stomach contact Stomach contact

and All types of caterpillars and borers 0.6-1ml/l and All types of caterpillars 1.0-1.5 ml/l and Borers 4-10ml/10l and Borers 300ml/acre and Leaf holders and and Leaf holders, Borers 200-300ml/acre and Leaf eating caterpillars 300 ml/acre Leaf folders, leaf hoppers, plant hoppers specially in rice

Quick knock down action

Thiovit, Sulfex, Microsul, Sultaf, Contact Cumulus Share Kelthane, Colonel, Hexakel, Hilfol Contact Dicobel, Stomach contact

Mites and mildew 3g/l

Powdery

Organochlorine group
and Red mites and white mites in chilles, citurs etc., 3-5 ml/l Red mites 200 ml/acre Stomach, contact Mites 200-300 ml/acre To be used with extreme care. Used for fumigating rodent burrows and also for controlling pests of stored grain and against red palm weevil Storage pests control

Sulfite group
55. Propargite 57 EC Simba, Oomite Organophosphorus group 56. Ethion 50% EC Phosmite, Tafithion, Dhanumit Fumigants 57. Aluminium Phosphide Tablets

Celphos tablets, Phosfume etc.

Fumigant

58.

Aluminium Phosphide 56% EC

Quickphos

Fumigant

357

COMBINED PESTICIDES AVAILABLE IN THE MARKET 59. Chloripyriphos 50% Nurel D 505, Cinrangi, Hamla, Stomach + Cypermethrin 5% Terror contact

and Leaf and Fruit eating caterpillars 2ml/l

60 61. 62. 63. 64.

Ethion 40% + Calfs, Pagat, Spectrum Cypermetrhin 5% Profenophos Cypermethrin + Rocket

Chloropyriphos 16% Ducard + Alfamethrin 20% Acephate 25% + Coronda Fenvelarate Triazophos + Spark Deltamethrin

Stomach, contact Leaf eating caterpillars and systemic and mites 1.0-1.5 ml/l Stomach and Fruit borer and sucking contact pests 300-400 ml/acre Systemic and Sucking pests and contact nematodes Stomach, contact Leaf eating caterpillars and systemic 300-400 ml/acre Stomach and Whitefly, Leaf eating contact caterpillars 300-400 ml/acre

358

PREPARATION OF FUNGICIDES Bordeaux mixture To prepare 1% Bordeaux mixture, dissolve 1kg of copper sulphate and 1 kg of lime each separately in 50lt of water. Add the copper sulphate solution slowly to lime solution with continuous stirring. High concentration of copper in the prepared mixture is injurious to plants. To check the concentration of copper element in the prepared mixture, dip a blade or a knife or a sickle in the solution. Red color on the blade indicates higher copper concentration. To reduce the copper concentration in the mixture, slowly add lime to the mixture and check for copper with blade. Use the freshly prepared mixture every time. Dont use the stored mixture. Bordeaux paste Dissolve 1kg copper sulphate and 1kg lime each separately in 5 lt of water. Add the copper sulphate solution to lime solution with continuous stirring. Apply the paste to the trunk and cut portions of stem. Prepare freshly the paste at the time of use. Dont use stored paste. Cheshunt mixture Powder finely 60g of copper sulphate and 330g of ammonium carbonate separately and mix both the powders in a vessel. Close the lid of the vessel with polythene cover tightly to prevent air circulation. After 24hr, add 1lt of water to 25g of powder. Mix this in 8lt of water before spraying. Neem cake To prepare 0.1% neem cake, soak 1g neem cake in 1lt of water till the water turns brown color. Use this brown solution for spray. Tobacco mixture Soak 500g of tobacco in 4.5lt of water for 24hr and filter the solution. Soak 320g of carabolic soap in 1lt of water in a separate vessel. Add the soap solution to tobacco filtrate. Dissolve 1lt of this mixture in 7lt of water and use for spraying.

359

Fungicides Their Common Names and Trade Names with Formulations S. Common Name No. 1 2 Dithiocarbamate group 1. Mancozeb 75% WP Trade names with Formulations 3 Dithane M 45, Indofil M 45, Belzeb, Manzeb, Manezeb, Uthane M 45, Hilden, Spic Mancozeb Antracol Mode of Action 4 Non-systemic; Therapeutic eradicant Non-systemic; Therapeutic eradicant Control and dosage 5 All diseases and 750-1000 g/acre Seed treatment @ 2.5 3.0 g/kg seed. All Leaf spots and 2 g/l

2.

Propineb 70% WP

Benzimidazole group 3. Carbendazim 50% Bavistin (50% WP), MEC (50% Systemic; WP WP), BAS-3460, Carbendazim Prophylactic (50% WP), Derosar, Arrest, eradicant Benguard, Benfen, Stin, Milstin, Chemistin, Zoom, Dhanuswim

Seed treatment @ 1.0and 1.5 g/kg seed. All diseases 150-200 g/acre Not effective against phycomycetes and bacteria Leaf spots, Rusts, Collar rot etc. 80-120 g/acre Should not be mixed pesticides alkaline in reaction Incompatible with a number of other pesticides. Should not be mixed with Bordeaux mixture or Lime Sulphur. Compatible with most other fungicides excepting copper compounds. Powdery mildew, Downy mildew, Seedling rot 250-500 g/acre 2ml/l and 0.6g/l and Seed treatment @ 24g/kg 1ml/l and

4.

Benomyl 50% WP

Benlate 50 WP

Systemic; Prophylactic eradicant

and

5.

Thiabendazole

Bengard, Mycozol, Arbotect, TBZ (60 WP) etc. Topsin (50% WP), Cercobin (50% WP)

6.

Thiophanate

Systemic; Prophylactic eradicant Systemic; Prophylactic eradicant

and

and

7.

Thiophanate Methyl

Topsin-M (70% WP), Roko

Same as that Thiophanate.

of

Triazole group 8. Hexaconazole EC 9. Tricyclozole WP

5% Cantaf, Control, Menege, Toper, Hexzol 75% Beam, Trooper, Lottery, Sivic Tilt, Radar

10.

Propiconazole 25 EC

Sitara, Systemic; Prophylactic eradicant Dhantim, Systemic; Prophylactic eradicant Systemic; Prophylactic eradicant

360

11.

Difenconazole 25% Score EC Bitertanol 25% WP Triadimefon WP Baycor

12. 13.

25% Bayletan

Systemic; Prophylactic eradicant Systemic; Prophylactic eradicant Systemic; Prophylactic eradicant

Fruit rot in Chilles and Powdery mildew, and spots 200-400 g/acre Powdery mildew and 150-250 ml/acre Leaf

Organophosphorus group 14. Iprobenfos Kitazin 15. 16. Ediphenophos Iprobenfos

Systemic; Prophylactic eradicant Hinosan (30 and 50% EC) and Non-systemic; 2-2.5% dust. Therapeutic eradicant Kitazin-P Systemic; Prophylactic eradicant Cupravit (73.5% COC), Non-systemic; Blimix 4%, Blitox-50 (50% Therapeutic COC), Cupramar50% , W.P. eradicant (50% COC), Micop W-50 Micop D-6, Fytolon (88% COC), BLUE Copper-50, Chlorocop-56 (97% COC), Emulsicop-40 (70% COC), Oleocop-40 (70% COC), Fycol BE, Fycol-8, Fycop-56, Indofilcop, Captor, Hilcoper, Dhanucop Non-systemic; Therapeutic eradicant Fungimar (50% Cu), Perenox Non-systemic; (50% Cu), Copper 4% dust Therapeutic (4% C.O.), Copper Sandoz eradicant (50% Cu). Non-systemic; Therapeutic eradicant Microsul 80%, Vegfru vegsulf Non-systemic; 80% WDP, Thiovit, Cosan, Therapeutic Hexasul etc eradicant

400 ml/acre and 1 ml/l and Compatible and commonly pesticides with most used

Basic copper group 17. Copper oxychloride

All diseases (Leaf spots, and fungal diseases, collar rot, root rot, citrus canker) 3 g/l Not to be mixed with TMTD. Mercury compounds, lime sulphur and dithiocarbamates

Inorganic copper group 18. Copper hydroxide Cocide, Ecide 77% WP 19. Cuprous oxide

All diseases 2g/l and Incompatible with Lime and sulphur. Compatible with most other pesticides.

Elemental sulphur group 20. Sulphur dust Kolodust (53% sulphur) etc. 21. Wettable sulphur

Should not be applied and when temperatures are high. Same as that of sulphur and dust. It is the safest on tender foliage. Compatible with may fungicide and insecticides.

361

Organic sulphur Dithiocarbamates group 22. Ziram 27% SL Ziride (80 WDP), Hexazir (80% Non-systemic; WP), Cuman L (30% liquid), Therapeutic Zerlate (76%, 65% WP). eradicant

Seed treatment @ 3 g/l and Wilt, Canker, Mildews, Leaf spots, Rust and Fruit rot 600-1000 ml/acre. Non-phytotoxic except to zinc, sensitive to crops such as tobacco and cucurbits. Compatible with common fungicides and insecticides. and Rust, Mildews, Fruit rot, and Rhyzome rot 600-800 g/acre Zinc sensitive plants such as tobacoo and cucurbits are injured. and

23.

Thiram

24.

Zineb 75% WP

TMTD, Hexathir (75% WP), Thride (75 D), Vegfru thiram (75% dry seed dress), Texsan (75), Thimer, Arasan (50%) Dithane Z-78, Hexathane (75% WP), Lonacol, Zineb (65), Zineb instantised (35%), (Zineb 5 AQUA enmulsion), Miltox (Zineb + COC)

Non-systemic; Therapeutic eradicant Non-systemic; Therapeutic eradicant

25.

Maneb

Dithane M-22, Manzate, Non-systemic; Dithane M-45, (Zinc+Maneb Therapeutic 75%), Fungicide dust (6% eradicant Coordination product or Zn+Maneb)

Oxathiin derivative group 26. Carboxin Vitavax, Vitavax 200 (37.5% Systemic; Carboxin+37.5 Thiram Prophylactic eradicant 27. Oxycarboxin Plantvax Systemic; Prophylactic eradicant Morpholine group 28. Tridemorph 80% EC Calixin (75% EC) Systemic; Prophylactic eradicant

Best used as seed and treatment against Loose smut of wheat Effective against rusts and

Powdery mildew, and Sigatoka leaf spot on Banana, Rust etc. 75-150 ml/acre Compatible with common fungicides, insecticides and micronutrients. It should not be mixed with Urea. Calixin is phytotoxic at 0.1% on barley foliage Tip burn in cereals. and

Antifungal antibiotic group 29. Aureofungin Aureogungin, Aureogungin-sol

Systemic; Prophylactic eradicant

362

30. 31.

Griseofluvin Validamycin 3% L Sheathmar, Rhyzocin

Systemic; Prophylactic eradicant Systemic; Prophylactic eradicant Non-systemic; Therapeutic eradicant

and 250 g/acre and

Tin group 32. Fentin Hydroxide

Duter

33.

Triphenyltin acetate Brestan (TPTA)

Non-systemic; Therapeutic eradicant

Compatible with and wettable powder formulations of other pesticides but incompatible with emulsiable formulations and oils. At higher rates of application apples, tomatoes, potatoes and wheat show phytotoxicity. Compatible with and wettable powder formulaions. It is not compatible with oil containing formulations. Phytotoxic to various vines, fruits and ornamentals. and

34.

Triphenyltin Chloride (TPTC)

Brestanol 45% WP

Non-systemic; Therapeutic eradicant Non-systemic; Protective, therapeutic eradicant

Phthalimide group 35. Captan 50% WP

Captan 50 W, Captan 75 W, Esso fungicide 406, Orthocide 406, (Captan 50% W.P.), Hexacap 50% WF, Hexacap 7.5% dust (7.5% Captan), Orthocide 7.5 dust (7.5% Captan), Orthocide 75-SL (75% Captan for slurry)

Seed treatment 2g/kg 650-700 g/acre and Incompatible with all alkaline materials. Lime sulphur and Bordeaux mixture. It is compatible with marry other common fungicides and insecticides.

Carboximide group 36. Folpet 37. Captafol

Pheltan Difolatan (80% W.P.), Difosan, Senspar, Sulfonimide

Non-systemic; Therapeutic eradicant Non-systemic; Protective, therapeutic eradicant

and

and

363

Dinitrophenyl group 38. Dinocap 48% EC

Karathane, Arathane, Capryl, DNOPC, Mildex, Mildont and Crotothane

Non-systemic; Protective, therapeutic eradicant

Chlorinospora leaf spot, Powdery mildew and and mites 85-125 ml/acre If used at higher concentration or when the atmospheric temperatures are above 30O C it may damage the foliage. It causes chromosomal aberrations in Vicia feba roots.

Organochlorine group 39. Quintozene 40.

Brassicol, Terrachlor

Chlorothalonil 75% Kavach WP

Non-systemic; Therapeutic eradicant Non-systemic; Therapeutic eradicant

and Powdery mildew, Rust, and Leaf Blotch and Collar rot 300-500 g/acre

Benzene sulphonates group 41. Dexan Dexon Sterol inhibitor group 42. Miclobutanil 10% Sinthane WP COMBINED FUNGICIDES AVAILABLE IN THE MARKET 43. Metalaxyl 8% + Ridomil MZ, Matco 8.64, Master mancozeb 64% WP 44. 45. Carbendazim 12% Compaian, Saff, Sixer + Mancozeb 63% WP Cymaclinal 8% + Karjet M 8, Suggest Mancozeb 64% WP

Non-systemic; Therapeutic eradicant Systemic; Prophylactic eradicant

and

Powdery mildew in and chilles, Fruit rot and Collar rot 120-160 g/acre Downy mildew, Fruit rot, and Rhyzome rot etc. 600-1000 g/acre All diseases and 400-600 g/acre Mildews in Vine fruits and and vegetables 600-800 g/acre

Systemic; Prophylactic eradicant Systemic; Prophylactic eradicant Systemic; Prophylactic eradicant

364

Waiting period (days) of Pesticides in vegetables Crop Chillies 5 23 6 6 7 7 Bhendi 2 23 7 7 15 7 2 7 Brinajl 1 5 7 5 5 2 7 2 Tomato 2 5 3 5 5 4 10 2 Cabbage 3-4 7-10 7-10 5 7-10 5 10-14 3-4 Cauliflower 5 10 5 10 7-10 5 -

Pesticide
Carbaryl Monocrotophos Phosolone Dimethiote Cypermethrin Quinalphos Endosulfan Malathion Fenvelarate Delta Methrin

Waiting period (days) of Pesticides in Fruits Crop Grape 5 23 6 6 7 18 6 5 10 1 9 5 10 20 Mango 7 9 15 10 3 -

Pesticide
Carbaryl Monocrotophos Phosolone Diemthiote Cypermethrin Quinalphos Fenvelarate Delta Methrin Dithane M-45 Ridomyl Carbandazim Thiophanate Methyl Dichlorovas Acephate Chlorophiriphos

365

Methods to reduce the Pesticide residues Crop Pesticide Carbaryl Method 1. Cook for 15 minutes after washing with 2% salt solution 2. Washing with 2% salt solution 3. Washing with water 1. Washing with 2% Tamarind solution 2. Washing with 2% salt solution 3. Washing with water 1. Cooking for 15 minutes after washing with 2% salt solution Cooking for 15 minutes after washing with 2% salt solution Cooking for 15 minutes after washing with 2% salt solution 1. Washing with 2% salt solution 2. Dipping in water for 10 minutes 1. Washing with 2% salt solution 2. Dipping in water for 10 mintues 1. Washing with 2% salt solution 2. Dipping in water for 10 minutes Cooking for 15 minutes after washing with 2% salt solution Cooking for 15 minutes after washing with 2% salt solution Cooking for 15 minutes after washing with 2% salt solution Cooking for 15 minutes after washing with 2% salt solution Removing upper three leaves from the head Removing upper three leaves from the head washing with water after keeping for 10 minutes in the 2% salt solution washing with water after keeping for 10 minutes in the 2% salt solution washing with water after keeping for 10 minutes in the 2% salt solution washing with water after keeping for 10 minutes in the 2% salt solution washing with water after keeping for 10 minutes in the 2% salt solution washing with water after keeping for 10 minutes in the 2% salt solution Reduction of pesticide residues (%) 75% 27.4% 12.8% 46.7% 26.6% 23.2% 32% 63% 30% 60% 28.4% 32.6% 16.3% 58.9% 27.4% 69% 60% 60% 29% 100% 100% 59.3% 72.3% 67.5% 51.8% 75.6% 58.2%

Fenvelarate Tomato Monocrotophos Phosolone Quinalphos Cypermethrin Triazophos Acephate Chillies Carbaryl Monocrotophos Phosolone Quinolphas Quinolphas Cabbage Chloropyriphas Monocrotophas Acephate Dichlorovas Grape Chloropyriphas Quinolphas Teepalmethrin

366

LIST OF BANNED PESTICIDES Aldrin Benzene hexachloride (BHC) Calcium cyanide Chlordane Copper acetoarsenite Dibromochloropropane (DBCP) Endrin Ethyl mercury chloride Ethyl parathion Heptachlor Menazon Nicotine sulphate* Nitrofen Paraquate dimethyl sulphate Pentachloro nitrobenzene (PCNB) Pentachlorophenol (PCP) Phenyl mercury acetate (PMA)* Sodium methane arsonate (MSMA) Tetradifon Toxaphene Methomyl 12.5% L** Methomyl 24% Formulation Phosphamidon 85% SL** (Banned in A.P.) Ethion 50 EC (Banned in A.P.) * Manufactured in India for export only, ** Banned w.e.f. 25 March 2002. Source: Pesticides Handbook, 2001. SPS Publications

367

Ready Reckoner for dissolving insecticides at desired strength Desired Strength of Solution in % 0.010 0.020 0.050 0.075 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 Percentage of Active Ingredient of Insecticides in Commercial Products 25 30 35 50 75 100 0.4 0.33 0.29 0.20 0.13 0.10 0.8 0.67 0.57 0.40 0.27 0.20 2.0 1.70 1.50 1.00 0.67 0.50 3.0 2.50 2.20 1.50 1.00 0.75 4.0 3.33 2.86 2.00 1.33 1.00 8.0 6.67 5.71 4.00 2.67 2.00 20. 0 40. 0 17.0 33.3 3 15.0 0 28.5 2 10.0 0 20.0 0 6.67 13.3 3 5.00 10.00

20 0.5 1.0 2.5 3.5 5.0 10. 0 25. 0 50. 0

Quantity of insecticides to be added in gram or in ml per litre of water GUIDELINES TO THE FARMERS FOR SPRAYING INSECTICIDES

1. Thorough coverage of the plants is essential. 2. Under surface of the leaves must be covered with the insecticides. 3. Quantity of spray fluid for vegetables should not be less than 200 l/acre of 500 l/ha
and for orchards 400 l/acre of 1000 l/ha.

4. A safe period of 10 to 15 days between spraying and harvesting is to be maintained

whenever spraying is done during bearing, except in case of carbaryl, malathion and DDVP.

5. Farmer must use a plastic measuring jar for diluting appropriate quantities of
insecticides in water to get the required strength/concentration.

368

Table 1 Compatability chart of Chemical Fertilizers and Pesticides

P E S T I C I D E S

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 C C C C C C C C N N C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C

C C C

C N C N

Note:

369

C = Can be mixed. N = Can not be mixed.

Table No.1 Particulars DOWN (PESTICIDES) 1. Acephate 2. Aldicarb 3. Carbaryl 4. Carbofuran 5. Carbosulfan 6. Chlorfenvinphos 7. Chloropyriphos 8. Diazinon 9. Dichlorovas 10. Dimethoate 11. Disulphoton 12. Endosulfan 13. Fenitrothion 14. Fensulfothion 15. Fenthion 16. Hexachlorohexane 17. Isofenphos 18. Lindane 19. Malathion 20. Mefosulfone 21. Methamidophos 22. Methyl-O-dematon 23. Methyl Parathion 24. Monocrotophos 25. Phenthoate 26. Fenamiphos 27. Phorate 28. Phosphomidon 29. Profenophos 30. Quinolphos 31. Terbufos 32. Telodrin 33. Triazophos

ACROSS (CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS) 1. Borax 2. Ferrous Sulphate 3. Muriate of Potash Source: 4. Superphosphate 5. Urea 6. Zinc Sulphate 7. Triple Superphosphate 8. Diammoniumphosphate

A guide on crop pests A. Regupathy, S.Palanisamy, N. Chandra Mohan, K. Gunathilagaraj (1997)

370

Table -2 Compatability chart of Pesticides, Fungicides and Biopesticides

FUNGICIDES PESTICIDES No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
1 2 3 4 5 C N N C C C N N N C C N N N N N N N N C N N N N N N N C C C C C C C C C C C C N N C N N N C C C C N C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C N C C C C N C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C N C C C C N C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C N C C C C 6 7 C C C C C C N C C C C N C C C C 8 9 C 1 0 1 1 1 2 C 1 3 C C C C C C 1 4 C 1 5 C 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9

BIOPESTICIDES
2 0 2 1 C 2 2 C 2 3 2 4 2 5 26

BIOPESTICIDES

371

Note: C = Can be mixed. N = Can not be mixed.

Table No.2 Particulars DOWN (PESTICIDES) 1. Dicofol 2. Endosulfan 3. Lindane 4. Acephate 5. Chloropyriphos 6. Dichlorovas 7. Dimethoate 8. Fenetrothion 9. Fenthion BIO PESTICIDES 26. Bascillus turinginsis 28. Spodoptera litura N.P.V. ACROSS (FUNGICIDES) 1. Benomyl 2. Bordeux mixture 3. Carbandazim 4. Captafol 5. Copper Oxychloride 6. Carboxin 7. Edifenophos BIO PESTICIDES 8. Dinocap 9. Mancozeb 10. Wettable Sulpher 11. Thiophanate Methyl 12. Ziram 13. Zineb 14. Thiram 15. Captan 16. Tridemorph 17. Copper Sulphate 18. Oxycarboxin 19. Metalaxyl 29. Beveria besciana 31. Tricoderma spp. 32. Pseudomonas florescence 27. Heliothis armigera N.P.V. 30. Verticillion lacani 10. Malathion 11. Methamedophos 12. Methyl-o-Dematon 13. Monocrotophos 14. Phenthoate 15. Phosphamidon 16. Phosalone 17. Profenophos 18. Quinolphos 19. Cypermethrin 20. Deltamethrin 21. Fenvalerate 22. Fenpropathrin 23. Carbaryl 24. Carbofuran 25. Carbosulfan

372

20. Bascillus turinginsis 22. Spodoptera litura N.P.V.

23. Beveria besciana

25. Tricoderma spp. 26. Pseudomonas florescence

21. Heliothis armigera N.P.V. 24. Verticillion lacani

MEASUREMENTS Mile Meter Yard Feet Inch Acre Acre Hectare (ha) Mile Metric ton (MT) Pound (Lb.) Kilogram (kg.) Quintol (Q) Gallon (G) Liter Ounce (oz.) Teaspoon Candy Lbs. per acre Bale Putti (paddy) Bag 1760 yards or 1609.34 m. or 5280 feet 1.0936 yards or 39.37 inches 0.9144 m. or 91.44 cm. 0.3048 m. or 30.48 cm. 2.54 cm. or 25.4 mm. 4840 sprare yards or 43560 sprare feet 0.4047 ha. 2.471 acres 1.609 km 1000 kgs or 2204.6 pounds 0.4536 kilos or 453.6 g. 2.2046 pounds 100 kgs 4.5361 l. 0.2200 gallon or 1000 ml 28.412 ml. 5 ml. 500 pounds or 226.8 kgs Half a ton 1.12 kgs of heactare 170 kgs 560-600 kgs (8 bags) 70-75 kgs

One Cart load (FYM) -

373

374