Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
, 2001 and
the present breakdown of the financial and economic system. And, if it should turn
out that these kinds of experiences are essential ingredients of and for the notion of
God, one might wonder how it will ever be possible to develop a philosophical theol-
ogy, that is indeed philosophical and not another version of theological reasoning,
without an adequate theory of myth.
Finally, I would like to point to the ontological significance of myth. As Kurt
Hbner has shown, it is possible to contrast scientific ontology with mythological on-
tology if we assume that they both provide models to cope more or less reasonably
with experiences.
22
But since the two models are specifications of cultural reality in
their particular ways, I do not think that it is sufficient to juxtapose them without an-
swering the question about their mediation as well as about the conditions of their
possibility. Here I would like to refer once more to the distinction between myth and
mythology (and the mythic as depth and lasting origin), but now with the additional
qualification that myth itself is more comprehensive than the mythologies which re-
flect some of its meanings, and that it is precisely this comprehensiveness which
needs to be taken seriously in its nature, its possibilities, and consequences. For if it is
true that myth consists in the configuration of evidences with the implication of natu-
ralness, and that it insists on the tautegories which attract meanings in their own way,
then we cannot doubt that myth is always a whole, no matter how limited it may be in
its actuality. As tautegories form their own centers of reality, the space between them
becomes a field for various activities. As we can think of changing configurations, we
can think of new and different possibilities. But whatever the shifts may be, whether
some of the tautegories fade away while others emerge, or whether some stay the
same while others change, they form a whole in tautegorical difference and it is the
whole that extends or changes together with them. Within the limits of tautegorical
symbols and the semantic spaces they entail, there is room for ordinary existence both
as it evolves in conjunction with them, and as it modifies them in concrete relations.
Because of these symbols and spaces and their dimensions we can think of religion as
a particular mode of human existence, and of religions as modifications of this mode
in connection with different sets of tautegories and various relations to the meaning of
tautegorical difference.
23
In the same way, we can also think of philosophy and sci-
22
See Hbner 1985: 239 ff , part three, on the rationality of the mythic.
23
With the notion of tautegorical difference I refer to the idea that the cultural universe which is consti-
tuted in the constellation of tautegorical names is closed: in one sense, we always have to say, that is it!
But as there is tension and movement in the constellation of tautegories, their last word is always also a
first one. If we begin to understand, it is fine. But there is more to it, in depth and beyond all exten-
sions. There remains the question: what is it all about? Both moments are of vital importance for reli-
gious existence. If one of them is neglected the result is either fundamentalism or nihilism. Although I
Dupr Chapter 16: Myth: A Challenge to Philosophy
353
ence as they evolve from ordinary existence in conjunction with their specific tautego-
ries not as mythologies we know from prephilosophical and prescientific cultures,
but as logomythologies (German: Logomythie, Dupr 1973: 954) whose purpose it is
to understand the world as well as the various mythologies in terms of theoretical rea-
soning. If the universe not the universe that we imagine to exist out there, but the
one that is formed by the tautegories of myth which is supposed to comprise the out
there as well is large enough to contain God and Nirvana (as tautegories of tautego-
ries), we should not in advance exclude the possibility that the tautegoric whole is
capable of including philosophy as well as science and scholarship. It is at least a
point which deserves to be considered. Since we hardly scratch the surface of reality,
we should not believe that we have reached its essence, even if we assume that it has
no essence at all.
The distinction between mythos and logos is a necessary distinction as far as
the possibility of philosophy and science is concerned. It is a necessity which concurs
with the emergence of philosophy and science inasmuch as they relate to the logos in
forms of self-relation: as Parmenides has taught his fellow philosophers, with the lo-
gos we have to decide and come to a conclusion.
24
But the distinction does not neces-
sarily mean that myth is a delusion, that only logos is true, that mythos and logos
could not both be true and false, or that the distinction between them is not, in fact, an
indistinction when seen from the viewpoint of myth. When Parmenides called his way
a myth, he probably meant what he said. But when philosophers developed their
myths of the way, and started to refer to the myths of others in order to proclaim
their cultural superiority, it is not surprising that this has been the beginning of off-
duty mythologies.
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357
Chapter 17. Hephaestus and Agni
Gods and men on the battlefield in Greek and Sanskrit
epics
by Nick Allen
1
Abstract. Indo-European languages have received an enormous amount of comparative study, for
which Greek and Sanskrit (with Latin) are often regarded as the fundamental pillars. One might expect,
then, that the comparison between Greek and Sanskrit epic would be well advanced and that by now
some consensus would have been reached on the question of how much, if any, of their narrative con-
tent goes back to a common origin in early Indo-European times. However, this is not the case, and in
practice most students of one epic simply proceed as if they could take for granted that the other was of
no relevance or interest to them.
After a brief mention of various other reasons for this unsatisfactory situation, I focus here on the
apparent differences in modes of involvement of gods in the struggles of mortals. A typology of such
modes in Homer might include gods who father warriors, gods who fight mortals or intervene in their
fights (violently, or with material help, or with advice), and gods who fight other gods in the course of
human battles. Examples of all these modes can in fact be found in the Mahabharata, though not neces-
sarily in the great eighteen-day war that forms the centrepiece of the epic. For instance, the best exam-
ple of gods fighting gods comes in the episode of the Khandava Forest Fire (Book 1), where Agni (=
Fire), assisted by Arjuna, opposes Indra (here = rain, i.e. water). The comparison is with Iliad book 21,
where Hephaestus (here = fire), assisting Achilles, opposes the river Scamander. The rapprochement
involves not only the elements, and several deities other than those mentioned, but also many details,
including some similes.
The similarities are naturally acompanied by many differences (context, course of events, person-
nel, motivation...), and the major theoretical issue is how one can attempt to demonstrate that the tradi-
tions are in fact cognate and derive from an early common origin. The aim here is not so much to
contribute to an understanding of the two epics, but rather, in a case where the prehistory is somewhat
less long and obscure than in many cases studied by comparativists, to give a convincing example of
how much can be preserved by oral tradition over a period of the order of two millennia.
1. Introduction
If Homer is a foundational text for Greek culture and hence for the entire European
literary tradition, the Sanskrit Mahbhrata (which includes a compressed version of
1
Oxford University, UK.
New Perspectives on Myth
358
the Rmyan a story) is of comparable status within the Hindu tradition. Both grew
from oral traditions, Homer reaching written form around 700 BC, while the Sanskrit
epic emerged around the turn of the eras. The Sanskrit epic is about seven times as
long as the two Greek epics combined. Greek and Sanskrit are of course cognate lan-
guages within the Indo-European (IE) family, so the hypothesis of a common origin
for the two epic traditions (in a protonarrative) is an obvious one. However, surpris-
ingly few people have presented a detailed comparison of the two traditions, and I
shall spend most of this paper simply doing that. At the end I shall try to assess the
methodology, asking how convincing are such comparisons, and what conclusions
can be drawn from them.
Both traditions are so extensive that exact comparisons at a useful level of de-
tail are impossible, so how does one choose what to compare with what? I will not
provide a general answer to this question here, but instead will reveal how the present
essay originated. After having become interested in the similarities between Greek
and Sanskrit theories about the elements, I was reading an article on the conflict be-
tween the fire god and the river god in Iliad Book 21 (Wathelet 2004), when I was
reminded of the final section in Book 1 of the Mahbhrata. I soon recognised that
both texts combine the following four themes:
God of fire fights god associated with water.
Gods en masse participate in the conflict.
Central hero of respective epic is allied with god of fire.
Fire prevails.
The fire-water conflict remains at the heart of this paper, but the comparison
becomes more convincing if its scope is extended. We shall focus centrally on Iliad
Books 18-22 (only glancing at 23-24) and on the subparvan called The Burning of
the Khnd ava Forest (Mbh 1,214-225).
2
In view of the genesis of the paper I have so far referred to Greece before In-
dia, but for various reasons I shall now reverse the order and consistently put India
first. A long prcis of the two texts is unnecessary since the important points will
emerge in the course of their comparison. However, brief summaries are indispensa-
ble.
Mbh 214: Leaving their capital, Arjuna and Krishna make a pleasure outing. A brahmin ap-
proaches. 215: The brahmin is the god Agni and wants to burn the forest, but the Indra (king
of the gods, and god of war) protects it with rain. Arjuna will help Agni, but needs weapons.
216: Agni procures the weapons and starts his fire. 217: While the heroes prevent the inhabi-
tants of the forest from escaping, the fire rages. Indra takes note, and rains, so fire and water
2
Within the subparvan, The rgakas (1,220-225.4) forms a distinct substory, labelled as such in
some of the manuscript colophons; it is of only limited use here. I use the Critical Edition, which is
translated by van Buitenen (1973: 412-431, including the substory). This edition relegates a good deal
of text to footnotes or to its Appendix 1. Such relegated material is normally omitted by van Buitenen,
but some of The Vulgate can be found in Ganguli (1993: 432-455). Unless specially mentioned, all
references are to Mbh 1.
Allen Chapter 17: Hephaestus and Agni
359
are now opposed. 218: Arjuna counters Indra, who escalates the conflict. Krishna kills de-
mons, and other gods join in, but the heroes turn them back. 219: Indra and his troops return to
heaven, and the fire goes on burning. In all, only six beings escape the fire, including the four
rgaka birds (). 225: After six days Agni is satisfied. Indra rewards the heroes.
Iliad 18: Achilles learns of Patroclus death. His mother Thetis visits, and will help him take
revenge: she will get him new armour, made by Hephaestus. Helped by Athena, Achilles
frightens the Trojans, showing them that he is rejoining the fray. 19: Thetis brings the armour,
and the reunited Greek army mobilises. 20: Calling a divine assembly, Zeus tells the gods to
join in the fighting, though they do not yet fight each other. Achilles kills various Trojans, but
two major foes are saved by divine intervention. 21: Many Trojans flee into the Skamander.
3
Becoming angry at the bloodshed and corpses, the river attacks Achilles, whose life is at risk.
Hera summons Hephaestus to attack the river, who yields. The other gods fight each other, or
contemplate doing so. Achilles goes on fighting on the plain. 22: He kills his arch-enemy Hec-
tor.
Let us start with an overview of the parties involved in the conflict.
Table 17.1. Parties in the epic conflict involving Hephaestus and Agni
protagonists side F(ire) side W(ater)
gods Agni Indra (and his troop of gods)
Sanskrit
humans Arjuna (and Krishna) Khnd ava forest and its inhabitants
gods Hephaestus Skamander (and Simoeis)
Greek
humans Greeks, esp. Achilles Troy and Trojans
Annotations to this schema: Agni (Sanskrit agni is cognate with Latin ignis) is god of
Fire. Indra is king of the gods (like Zeus in Greece). Arjuna is the central hero of the
Mahbhrata, friend of the incarnate god Krishna, and son of Indra. Khnd ava is
north of Delhi. Following the abduction of Helen, the Greeks attack Troy. Hephaestus
is a craftsman god, and can also appear as fire. Achilles is the central hero of the Iliad.
Skamander is a river near Troy, as is Simoeis.
The two stories differ greatly, but let us explore the similarities before the dif-
ferences. To do this in an orderly way, I divide each story into five successive phases
(A-E), with the main Fire-Water conflict emerging in phase D. Each phase is intro-
duced with a summary of the Sanskrit and Greek, and an italicised statement of what
the two phases have in common. We can now work through the phases, collecting
rapprochements. For brevity, I minimise intra-tradition or intra-epic comparisons (i.e.,
Sanskrit-Sanskrit or Greek-Greek) even though they are sometimes very interesting.
3
I use this name (its human name) throughout, though the gods call the river Xanthus.
New Perspectives on Myth
360
2. Rapprochements
2.1. Phase A. Background conflict
Sanskrit: Having developed a passionate desire to consume the forest, Agni has re-
peatedly been prevented by Indra from doing so.
Greek: The Greeks have long been fighting the Trojans. Achilles withdraws. When he
loses Patroclus, he develops a passionate desire to kill Trojans, particularly Hector.
Shared: A long-standing background conflict precedes our episode. Someone on side
F conceives a craving to destroy a component of side W.
A1. Arrogant king causes disaffection
A certain King vetaki indulges excessively in sacrificing. He shows a lack of consid-
eration and judgement by overworking his brahmins, who eventually refuse to serve
him, and he also overworks Agni (the sacrificial fire), who falls ill, losing colour and
appetite (Appendix 1.118 of the Critical Edition, see footnote 2).
The leader of the Greeks, King Agamemnon, shows arrogance and lack of
consideration for his followers. Achilles therefore refuses to serve him, withdraws his
troops (the Myrmidons), and temporarily loses his own appetite for fighting.
A2. Intense desire
Agni learns from the supreme god Brahm that the remedy for his depression is to
consume the Khnd ava forest and the fat of its inhabitants. Seven attempts fail be-
cause the fire is doused by water (either rain sent by Indra or water brought by the
forests inhabitants). Brahm now advises Agni to call on Arjuna and Krishna to help
him satisfy his intense hunger.
Deprived of their best warrior, the Greeks fail in their attempts to defeat the
Trojans. However, when Patroclus is killed by Hector, Achilles profound grief leads
on to fury and, more precisely, to a determination to kill Hector.
A3. Absent male friend
One or other side is strongly influenced by a personal friendship. Indra (side W)
wants to protect the Khnd ava forest because it is the home of his friend, the snake
Taks aka (215.7). Achilles (side F) wants to kill Trojans to avenge his dear friend Pa-
troclus. Neither friend is physically involved in our conflict: Taks aka is elsewhere (in
fact at Kuruks etra), and Patroclus is already dead.
A4. Divine helper to central hero
Although the Sanskrit has two heroes and the Greek only one, the difference is mis-
leading. Krishna is not only less prominent than Arjuna in this episode, but he is also
far more of a god (as is clear in the Bhagavad Gt, which is part of Mbh Book 6). In
fact, Krishna often relates to Arjuna as Athena relates to Achilles or Odysseus (a huge
topic!). Krishna helping Arjuna here parallels Athena helping Achilles, as (e.g.) at
21.304.
Allen Chapter 17: Hephaestus and Agni
361
2.2. Phase B. Preparation
Arjuna and Krishna help Agni prepare to consume the forest and its inhabitants.
Achilles prepares to resume helping the Greeks against the Trojans.
To join or rejoin the background conflict the heroes prepare for battle.
B1. Deity visits hero
Agni visits the heroes in the form of a red blazing brahmin (214.29f); and Thetis with
her sea nymphs visits Achilles (18.65-72). This visit marks the transition from the
background to our episode proper, and is one of many cases where the rapprochement
is based on the action, not the agent. The similarity between Agni and Thetis is lim-
ited to this context and therefore can be referred to as fleeting, when compared with
more consistent and lasting resemblances.
B2. Heroes need military equipment
When Agni explains his situation and desires, Arjuna is happy to help him, but he
needs equipment (bow, arrows, chariot, horses) as does Krishna. Agni agrees to
provide it.
Thetis hears from her son of the death of Patroclus and of the loss of the ar-
mour he had borrowed from Achilles. Thetis promises to obtain what is needed
(18.73-144).
B3. Deity obtains equipment, which is welcomed
Agni thinks of Varun a, who at once appears and supplies Arjunas needs. Agni him-
self gives Krishna a disk (used as a weapon) and a club. Thetis goes to Mount Olym-
pus and visits Hephaestus, who promptly makes the panoply, including the famous
shield.
When the equipment arrives, a dialogue takes place between the supplier and
the hero. Agni and Thetis both praise the equipment, and the respective heroes are
enthusiastic. Arjuna expresses his gratitude (216.26-9), as does Achilles (19.18f).
4
B4. Craftsman god
The divine arms given to Arjuna and Krishna are described, but it is only the origin of
the chariot that is mentioned. It was created by Prajpati Vivakarman. Vivakarman
is a craftsman god like Hephaestus.
5
Varun a, Guardian of the Western Quarter, lives in the water as its lord (jale-
vara, 216.1). Hephaestus recalls spending nine years working amid the Ocean, when
4
Arjuna then urges Agni to burn vigorously (216.30), and the fire starts straight after this. Just before
the start of the fire-water battle in the Greek, Hephaestus receives similar encouragement from his
mother (221.333).
5
Another supernatural craftsman appears at the end of the episode, namely the asura Maya, who is
allowed to escape the fire. He describes himself as the Vivakarman of the demons (2,1.5).
New Perspectives on Myth
362
Hera threw him from heaven (18.394-403). So in both cases a deity who supplies
arms lives or has lived in the sea.
B5. Missile returns to thrower (so that it can be reused)
This motif applies to Krishnas discus (216.24, 219.7) and to three missiles in the
Greek (20.324, 20.441, 22.277).
B6. Chariot and horses
Arjunas divine chariot and horses are described when he receives them but they
fairly soon disappear from the text. Nothing is said about the heroes dismounting, but
by the last line of the book (225.17) they are sitting on a river bank.
Similarly, Achilles chariot and divine horses are mentioned early in the epi-
sode, but the hero soon seems to be on foot and has certainly abandoned his chariot by
phase D. The chariot and horses simply fade out.
B7. Fearsome noise helps side F
On the flagpole of Arjunas chariot there perches a divine monkeywhich seemed to
roar out, and on the flag itself large creatures are portrayed whose roars make ene-
mies swoon (216.13f). When Arjuna strings his bow, its twang causes fear (216.19),
while Krishnas club roars like a thunderbolt (216.25).
While the Trojans are trying to take the corpse of Patroclus, Achilles utters fu-
rious shouts, his voice reinforced by Athenas. The sound causes consternation among
the Trojans, who abandon Patroclus body (18.215-233).
6
B8. Happy scenes in town and country
The subparvan opens by describing the peaceful and orderly life in the Pnd ava capi-
tal (214.1-13). Arjuna and Krishna then leave the town with a crowd of women to
enjoy a luxurious picnic in the countryside, after which they meet Agni. Achilles
shield is ornamented by Hephaestus with scenes, first of city life, then of rural life.
At the Indian picnic the women wear garlands, receive fine clothes and dance
rapturously (214.22f). On the shield, the country scenes end in a dance, involving gar-
landed maidens clad in fine linen (18.595-7).
7
2.3. Phase C. Conflict begins
Arjuna and Krishna start helping Agni by killing the creatures that try to escape.
Achilles starts fighting. His duels with Aeneas and Hector are abortive, but he kills
other Trojans.
Side F starts destroying side W, but the watery component of W is not yet actively in-
6
Achilles also utters a fearful cry when he calls the Greeks to the assembly (19.41). Loud noises are
frequent in both texts and may call for more systematic study.
7
For further comparative work on the shield see Allen 2006, 2007.
Allen Chapter 17: Hephaestus and Agni
363
volved.
C1. Victims thrown to destruction
When animals try to jump out of the forest, Arjuna laughingly kills them and throws
them back in the fire. In phase D,
8
Lycaon tries to leave the river and escape; when he
begs for mercy, Achilles mockingly kills him and flings him back in the water (21.35-
127).
C2. Flames reach sky
Agnis flames rise to the sky and worry the gods, who then involve Indra. When
Achilles frightens the Trojans (B7), Athena makes him blaze, and the gleam goes to-
wards heaven. It is as when a city is under siege and at sunset the beleaguered citizens
light beacon fires and the glare shoots upwards; the citizens hope that neighbouring
islanders may sail to help them (18.202-227, phase B). The islanders who potentially
respond to the flames parallel the Sanskrit gods who actually respond.
9
C3. Fire burns forest
Agnis activity finds another parallel within a Greek simile. Achilles (on side F), as he
continues his slaughter, is compared to a fire raging through deep forests, driven on
by the wind (20.490-94). In the main story too, Hephaestus, instructed by Hera, burns
the trees on the banks of the river (21.337f, 350-2).
C4. Aquatic beings
In Khnd ava forest the watery places (streams, marshes, ponds?) come to the boil, and
turtles and fishes die in their thousands (217.9). In the Greek phase D, fishes are men-
tioned several times (21.1211-7, 203f), but the closest comparison is when Hephaes-
tus, acting as Fire, torments the eels and fishes in Skamanders eddies (21.353).
C5. Hither and thither
Just before the reference to the turtles and fishes the creatures of the forest are de-
scribed as darting hither and thither (tatra tatra, 217.7). Tormented by Hephaestus,
the eels and fishes plunge this way and that (entha kai entha, 21.354).
2.4. Phase D. Conflict of elements
Indra now tries to protect the forest, using rain, thunder and rocks; but the heroes
prove invincible.
8
Comparisons that straddle phases are presented according to their position in the Sanskrit.
9
Cf. also a later comparison: the suffering Achilles inflicts on the Trojans is as when the smoke rising
from a burning city reaches broad heaven and the anger of the gods drives it on (21.522, phase E).
New Perspectives on Myth
364
Some Trojans flee into Skamander, who attacks Achilles. Hera calls on her
son Hephaestus to help the hero, who survives.
Side W receives divine reinforcement, but side F resists successfully.
D1. Element-linked new participants
The new figures who now join the battle add to its scale and give it cosmic resonance.
The most important among them are individuals closely linked with elements. As al-
ready implied, Indras rain represents water, being opposed to Agni (Fire), who is al-
ready involved. In Greece the new participant is Hephaestus (here in the role of fire,
not as a craftsman); his opponent is Skamander, who is already involved.
In both epics the new participant is assisted by wind (the mobile and macro-
scopic form of the element air). Vyu, the wind god, assists Indra in raising the rain-
storm, and to help Hephaestus, Hera rouses the West and South winds (21.334). So
the winds help side W in India, side F in Greece. However the wind also helps Agni,
by serving as his charioteer (agnih vtasrathih , 219.36). We shall come back to the
inconsistency. The point here is simply the involvement of beings linked with the
three mobile elements.
D2. Other divine participants are listed
There is also a less important class of new participants. When Arjuna has countered
Indras thunderbolt, he is attacked by several types of supernatural entities, including
snakes, demons and gods (218.23). In fact some fifteen gods are listed as accompany-
ing Indra, each with his own name and weapon (218.31-35). One final verse (36), lists
groups of gods, such as Rudras, Vasus and Maruts.
In Greece, Zeus calls a divine assembly, attended by individual gods and by
two groups, namely rivers and nymphs. He tells the gods to choose one or other side
to support on the battlefield, and the text gives us five pairs of names, one pro-Greek
god paired with one pro-Trojan. Hephaestus and Skamander come last in that list,
though they actually fight first.
D3. Side-W[ater] birds
During this phase birds (garud as), resembling thunderbolts, fly down from the sky to
attack the heroes (218.20), but are killed by Arjuna. Much later, just before Achilles
kills him, Hector darts down like an eagle swooping through the clouds to seize a
lamb or hare (22.306-311).
D4. Side-W[ater]s anger and aggression
The new participants contribute to an escalation of the conflict. In Sanskrit phase C
side F encounters no opposition, and the only emotions mentioned are the terror of
victims and the happiness of Agni. We now meet anger. When Indras rainshafts are
evaporated by Agni, and his initial attacks are countered by Arjuna, Indra is enraged
and charges furiously on his elephant, wielding thunderbolt, rocks and a mountain
peak.
Allen Chapter 17: Hephaestus and Agni
365
In Greek phase C, Achilles meets little resistance. But after the hero kills Ly-
caon and Asteropaeus, Skamander loses patience and, with Apollos encouragement,
starts to attack him. He pursues Achilles across the plain, beats down on his shoulders
and, still furious, calls on his brother river Simoeis to help.
D5. Hero almost killed
When Indra charges, he announces to the gods that the two heroes are dead (215.29).
We must understand as good as dead it is a threat, heightening the tension, not an
erroneous statement of fact.
Achilles thinks he is about to drown, and Hera recognises this danger (21.281-
3, 326-9).
D6. Rescued or spared
Six beings escape from the forest fire. Indra rescues the son of the snake Taks aka (see
A3); Arjuna spares the palace-building demon Maya (see fn.4); and Agni spares the
four rgaka birds.
The comparable cases in the Greek are Aeneas who was saved by Poseidon
(20.75-350); Hector who was temporarily saved by Apollo (20.419-454); and Agenor
who was also saved by Apollo (21.544-611). In both epics the three instances of res-
cue are dispersed across the episode.
When saving the snake, Indra uses his my, his power of deception, and
dazes Arjuna with wind and rain (218.9f). When saving Aeneas, Poseidon sheds mist
over the eyes of Achilles (20.321, 341). Both heroes react emotionally to the gods
action.
10
D7. King of gods is happy
Both our traditions share a curious air of light-heartedness, of being not quite serious.
Indra may be a friend of Taks aka, but he is the divine father of Arjuna, and their rela-
tions are normally excellent. His anger (noted in D4) can only be simulated (or per-
haps a minor component in a mixture of emotions). As the text makes clear, what the
god is really doing is testing his son. When the heroes successfully resist the gods,
Indra is delighted (paramaprto, 218.43), and he sends a rain of stones as a further test
of Arjunas bravery (vryam jijsuh , desiring to know it, 44). When he sees the
gods retreating, Indras good mood is confirmed (avastithah prtah ) and he praises the
two heroes (219.11). At the end of our episode Indra offers the hero boons, mention-
ing his satisfaction at their achievement (tust o smi, 225.8).
When Zeus tells the assembled gods to join in the fighting, he tells Poseidon
that he himself will stay on Olympus and enjoy the spectacle (phrena terpsomai,
20.23). He also explains that the gods are to fight in case the Trojans yield too easily
to Achilles, but this seems a flimsy excuse, comparable to Indras alleged friendship
10
When Apollo saves Agenor, he too uses a trick (dolos, 599, 604), but of a different kind. Arjuna tells
Maya not to be afraid (219.38), and Poseidon says the same to Achilles (21.288).
New Perspectives on Myth
366
with Taks aka. In any case, when the gods do begin to fight, Zeuss heart within him
laughs for joy (egelasse gthosuni, 21.289f). Here then, Indra resembles not
Skamander, but Zeus.
2.5. Phase E. Conflict contracts and ends
Side W gods retreat. Voice tells them to return to heaven. Agni is finally satisfied.
Skamander yields to Hephaestus and Hera. After half-hearted fighting most gods re-
turn to heaven. Achilles continues killing Trojans and finally kills Hector.
Reinforcements to side W accept defeat and withdraw. Side F fulfils original desire.
E1. Combatants obey higher power
Having enjoyed his sons success, Indra might have departed spontaneously, but in
fact a disembodied Voice (vg aarrin , 219.12) instructs him to do so, mentioning
that the forest is destined for destruction. Indra accepts the authority of the Voice, and
Agni is implicitly allowed to continue.
Having failed to conciliate Hephaestus, Skamander prays to Hera, who stops
both the gods from fighting. In prompting the de-escalation of violence, Heras au-
thority parallels that of the Voice. Possibly this Voice-Hera correspondence finds ex-
tra support in the sex of Vc (Voice); this goddess is sometimes said to be the
consort of Brahm, as Hera is the consort (wife as well as sister) of Zeus.
E2. Undefeatable, so calm down
The Voice states that the heroes cannot be vanquished in any world (219.16), and
after hearing it, Indra sheds his wrath and indignation (kopmars au, 19). In conced-
ing defeat, Skamander remarks that Hephaestus cannot be matched (antipherizein,
21.357) by any of the gods, and on Heras instructions the rivers fury is quelled
(dam menos, 21.383).
E3. Hero like lion
When the gods depart, the heroes emit a lions roar. Although no roar is mentioned,
Achilles is compared twice to a lion. The comparison is made once by the poet in a
lengthy simile during the fight with Aeneas, and again by Achilles himself in his final
dialogue with Hector.
Lions tend to kill deer, and deer appear on side W. A list of the forest inhabi-
tants includes mr gs (219.2), and the twelve Trojan princes captured by Achilles are
compared to frightened fawns (nebrous, 21.29).
E4. King of gods watches
The Voice tells Indra to watch the forest fire, and no doubt he does. As he has planned
(D7), Zeus enjoys the sight of the gods bickering on the plain of Troy, and he also
watches the final Achilles-Hector duel (22.166f).
Allen Chapter 17: Hephaestus and Agni
367
E5. Shelter under banks
Desperate to escape, the forest inhabitants seek shelter behind banks (rodhah su,
219.28). The Trojans who jumped into Skamander cower beneath its steep banks
(21.25).
E6. Hot fat
Although Agni sometimes says he wants to consume the forest as such (e.g. 215.11),
what he most desires is its inhabitants their flesh and blood, and above all their fat.
According to Brahm (A2), it is the fat that will restore Agni to normality (Appx
1.118 line 108). Fat becomes liquid when heated, and references are made to floods
of fat (medhaughair, 219.32), to the elixir or nectar (sudh, 219.34) procured by the
heroes, to rivers (kulys, 225.6) of fat and marrow, to eating flesh and drinking fat and
blood (225.16).
11
When Skamander gives in to Hephaestus, his fair streams are seething as
when a cauldron is heated and the lard of a fatted pig melts and bubbles.
E7. Satisfaction of initial desire
Our episode began in an atmosphere of contentment (B8), and it ends similarly. Agni
is completely satisfied and Indra returns to congratulate and reward the heroes. At the
very end of the book, Arjuna and Krishna are sitting on the lovely river bank and
chatting constructively with Maya, one of those spared from the fire (D6).
Like Agni, Achilles achieves in Book 22 by killing Hector the vengeance
that he so passionately desired at the start of the episode (A2). However, he only
achieves peace of mind in Book 24 when he hands over Hectors corpse to Priam.
Though the war will continue, for the moment the mood is one of reconciliation.
E8. Closure
In the Sanskrit our episode forms a demarcated textual unit, an upaparvan. Introduc-
ing his commentary, Kirk proposes (1985: 45f) that the most natural division of the
Iliad may be into three movements. The second would end with the death of Patro-
clus and the third would open with Achilles return to battle. The upaparvan corre-
sponds to the third movement.
This comparison can be reinforced in three ways. Firstly, in both epics the dis-
tinct or distinguishable episodes we have been studying are situated just before a ma-
jor break in the narrative. In other words, looked at simply in terms of form, the end
of Mbh 1 corresponds to the end of the Iliad.
Secondly, within this short section of the narrative, but towards its end, we en-
counter subordinate parts which are distinct in character and introduce new individu-
als and themes. The rgaka subepisode narrates the response of Agni (see D6) to
the plight of four birds. A sage who wants children becomes a bird, mates accordingly
11
If Agni consumes meat, Achilles wishes he could carve up Hector and eat him raw (22.347). Cf. also
the heros assimilation to a lion (E3).
New Perspectives on Myth
368
with a wife in the Khnd ava forest, and produces four fledgelings. He leaves his nest
for a new partner (Lapit), but when Agni spares his offspring he returns (for a more
complete summary and discussion see Hiltebeitel 2007: 118-123). The story is still
about Agnis forest fire, but it concentrates on the family relationships between seven
newly introduced characters, all of whom are named.
Even though the war remains in the background, Iliad Books 23 and 24 are not
about fighting but about the fate of two corpses. Patroclus, killed by Hector in Book
17, is now cremated and his death is marked by the funeral games; Hector who was
killed by Achilles in Book 22 is now ransomed by his father Priam and cremated by
the Trojans. The new characters (new relative to our episode) include competitors at
the games and the women who mourn Hector.
12
Thirdly, both epics display a similar ring composition. In phase A, Agni and
Achilles conceive their desire. After the preparation phase B, they start consuming
and killing in phase C. In phase D, the climax, they meet and overcome watery op-
position. Phase E starts by deescalating the conflict so that the participants are as in
phase C, then moves towards a degree of closure, both emotional and narratological.
3. Differences
It is useless to aim for a complete comparison, since similarities need to be weighed
against differences, and the differences are so many and so large that a long list would
be of questionable use. A certain number of differences have already been implied,
and I shall now list a few more, ignoring (among much else) the different languages,
metres, names, and geographical / cultural settings.
1. The two episodes are differently situated within the story line of the whole
epic (whether one takes the Greek whole to be Homer or The Cycle). In India the
forest fire is a minor event occurring long before the Great War (which occupies
Books 6-10 out of the 18), while our Greek episode is a major event within the corre-
sponding Greek war.
13
This bears on the motif of testing the hero (D7). Arjuna is
tested by Indra in advance of the Great War; Achilles is already fighting that war.
2. Agni and Hephaestus contrast in many ways. Agni is a major figure in the
cult, while Hephaestus is not; Agni is scarcely a craftsman, and differs from Hephaes-
tus in his motives. He is active throughout, and he consumes living beings, while
Hephaestus, as Fire, is active only in phase D and consumes only corpses and vegeta-
tion. One of the greatest differences between the two epic traditions is the timing of
12
The two sub-episodes are not closely related, though a few points can be noted: the emphasis on pity
(for the helpless rgakas, for the two fallen warriors); a female (Hera, Lapit) reproaches a male
(Apollo, the sage); a father (the sage, Priam), who yearns for his son(s), alive or dead.
13
One of the arguments for the correspondence is the five-phase structure of the wars. Four leaders of
the Kauravas and four leaders of the Trojans succeed each other before a final nocturnal massacre in an
enclosed area (Allen in press a).
Allen Chapter 17: Hephaestus and Agni
369
the fire gods intervention. It contributes a good deal to the difficulty, at first reading,
of appreciating the degree of similarity between the two stories.
However, fire is much more pervasive in the Greek than the Agni-Hephaestus
comparison suggests. Achilles himself is fiery. During the entire episode, he is as-
similated to fire no less than twelve times (Richardson 1993: 138, commenting on the
last such passage, 22.317-321). In general, the mortal Achilles resembles the mortal
Arjuna (both are active throughout the episode). However, Achilles fiery quality
makes him resemble a fire god, while Arjuna is not particularly close to Agni. The
quality shared by Achilles and Hephaestus reinforces the validity of side F as an
analytic concept, but it also hints at the great complexity of Achilles persona.
3. The great Indra of side W, the atmospheric god of storms, clouds and rain,
contrasts markedly with the minor figure of Skamander. Although he attends Zeuss
assembly, Skamander is normally tied down to the plain of Troy and to the physical
form of a river. Moreover, one reason for his fighting is obedience to Zeuss orders.
However, Indra corresponds not only to Skamander (D4, E1, etc). As king of the
gods, who enjoys himself and watches the end of the conflict from afar (D7, E4), he
also corresponds to Zeus.
4. Apart from Agni, the mass of the Indian gods are on side W. The Greek
gods distribute themselves in mutually hostile pairs between the two sides (recalling
the chief human warriors in the Mahbhrata Great War, and the gods in Norse and
Iranian eschatological wars).
5. The forest and its inhabitants contrast with Troy and the Trojans (despite
e.g. E5). The contrast might be thought of as nature versus culture, except that the
forest contains supernatural beings who are neither plants nor animals.
6. A different type of contrast concerns the emotions of the audience. Sympa-
thy is scarcely elicited for the victims of Agni, as it is for the Trojans and their down-
fall. This must relate partly to difference 1. The Sanskrit episode is only a rehearsal:
in the Great War itself Arjunas victims do sometimes attract sympathy.
7. Cosmic overtones. The forest fire foreshadows the Great War, which itself
is but one episode in the ever-renewed cosmic battle of gods and demons. Moreover,
the Great War represents a break in cosmic time it is debated whether the break
separates yugas (ages) or kalpas (sequences of yugas). Greece knows of cosmic bat-
tles, such as the Titanomachy, and of cosmic sequences or cycles (Hesiods five ages
or five races), but within our episode demons are ignored, and the end of the heroic
race seems far off.
8. A difference that would merit fuller treatment concerns theories of Indo-
European ideology. Dumzils trifunctionalism is by now well known, but it can be
argued that the ideology in fact exhibited a more inclusive pentadic structure, of
which the five elements are one expression (Allen 2005). Fire, air and water would
represent the traditional functions in the standard order F1, F2, F3, while ether and
earth (essentially immobile) would represent respectively F4+ and F4-. The Sanskrit
story conforms reasonably to the pentadic schema. Agni, appearing as a brahmin,
represents F1 and opposes water, which Dumzil already linked with F3 (fertility,
New Perspectives on Myth
370
etc). F2 is represented by air or, as here, by wind or its god, whose position seems
intermediate or ambiguous: Vyu assists Indras brief storm, but he is also, and more
enduringly, Agnis charioteer. A comparable ambiguity affects Indra, traditionally
understood by Dumzilians as representing F2 (though there is more to be said Al-
len in press b). Publicly he joins side W and fights using water, but his true feeling is
delight at the success of his son in championing side F. In other words, both Vyu and
Indra are in some sense allied with Agni giving us the classic Dumzilian structure
F1+2 versus F3.
However, the Sanskrit contains other important figures, even if we ignore In-
dras troops. Above the fray, yet behind the action uninvolved yet involved, there
stands Brahm the Creator, representing F4+. It is he who sets in motion the whole
epic, by agreeing to lighten the load of beings who oppress the earth, and it is he who
sets in motion this particular episode by advising Agni to consume the forest and to
call on Arjunas help (A2).
14
At the other end of the hierarchy are the demonic inhabi-
tants of the forest, representing F4-.
A similar analysis of the Greek would at best be partial. One can argue for
Zeus F4+, winds F2, twinned rivers (recalling Simoeis) F3, Trojans F4-, but without
calling on the hypothetical element-function linkage (which would be circular), I see
no reason to interpret Hephaestus or the fiery Achilles as representing F1.
15
Here, as
often, it seems that Sanskrit epic has retained more of the old Indo-European func-
tional ideology than the Greek.
As I say, it is easy to think of further differences, but these are not an obstacle
to the common origin theory. They are exactly what one expects if oral traditions are
passed on independently over long periods (the common linguistic ancestor of Greek
and Sanskrit was perhaps spoken around 2500 BCE).
4. Broader issues
Let us assume that the similarities we have listed are genuine, i.e. that the texts say
what I have alleged and that the shared features have been accurately identified.
Could such a degree of similarity be explained other than by common origin? Inde-
pendent invention, even in societies of comparable socioeconomic type, is surely im-
possible, and direct influence of one epic on the other (as if the Mahbhrata derived
from Alexander taking Homer to India) is at least as unlikely. The natural explanation
is that the similarities derive from a common origin in a protoepic or protonarrative,
and the most economic hypothesis is that this was told in an early unwritten Indo-
European language.
14
If the disembodied Voice is his, or expresses his views, he also directly steers events.
15
The approach in terms of functions could be enriched by bringing in eschatological battles from
Scandinavia, where the fiery Surtr fights and kills third-functional Freyr, and from Iran, where the fiery
Aa Vahita fights Indra (here demonic).
Allen Chapter 17: Hephaestus and Agni
371
In work of this sort, everything turns on whether the rapprochements are con-
vincing. I shall comment first on their variety. One dimension of this can be called
scope. The most global similarities are the Two sides, which form a framework domi-
nating the whole episode, and the Sequence of five phases. Each phase in itself is a
rapprochement applying to substantial parts of the narrative; one can also recall the
twelve dispersed passages that link Achilles with fire and thus relate him to the fire
gods. All these are broad-scope similarities. At the other end of the scale are tiny de-
tails such as C5, Hither and thither, which turns on the repetition of a single adverb
and may perhaps be coincidental.
A common type of rapprochement links the Sanskrit main story with some-
thing in a Greek simile, for instance C3, Fire burns forest. My favourite example is
E6, Hot fat, which reads oddly in Homer but makes perfect sense in the Sanskrit. The
same phenomenon has been noted elsewhere (Allen 1996), and shows that narrow-
scope comparisons can sometimes carry considerable weight.
Rapprochements can also be formal, in that they concern the organisation of
the text rather than its content (E8).
The most important consideration is no doubt the number of rapprochements.
Precise figures mean little, since the analyst can often bisect a single rapprochement
or combine two or more separate ones. Nevertheless, we have assembled well over
thirty. This number should be sufficient for it not to matter if a few (like C5) are re-
jected. Moreover, this particular paper does not stand alone. The larger the number of
acceptable rapprochements between the Sanskrit and Greek epics (some are already
published, others will be), the more likely it becomes that the epics are cognate and
the less sceptical one needs to feel a priori towards each new proposal. Moreover if,
as I believe, a great deal of IE common heritage still remains to be recognised in other
parts of the IE-speaking world, it is not only Sanskrit-Greek comparisons that are
relevant to judgements of what is plausible.
What is the future for this sort of work? The implication is that the great ma-
jority of the similarities we have identified represent features that were already pre-
sent in a protonarrative. Theoretically, one can reasonably envisage the reconstruction
of abstract schemes of protonarratives, together with hypothetical accounts of the
steps leading from there to the texts we read now. However, this can wait. A vast
amount of basic intricate work is needed first. It is not only a matter of extending to
other parts of the epic narratives the style of comparison attempted here and integrat-
ing the results, while giving due attention to the other branches of IE tradition, but we
also need to incorporate intra-tradition comparisons. A hint of the complexities to be
expected is given by some of the more stable rapprochements we have met; while In-
dra corresponds to Skamander and Zeus (difference 3), Zeus corresponds to Indra and
Brahm (difference 8). Significant and stable one-to-one correspondences may prove
rare.
It would facilitate reconstruction if, given a particular rapprochement, we
could say which attested version was the more conservative the closer to the proton-
arrative. My view, or hypothesis, is that the Sanskrit is usually the more conservative,
New Perspectives on Myth
372
the Greek more innovatory (cf. difference 8). For instance, one can plausibly derive
Homeric similes, which are comparatively speaking a rare phenomenon, from or-
dinary stories such as the Sanskrit preserves, but not vice versa; and the Indian separa-
tion of the fire god and the craftsman god is probably older than their fusion in
Hephaestus. But one cannot assume that the Greek is never the more conservative.
References
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Allen, N.J., 2005, Thomas McEvilley: the missing dimension, Internation Journal of Hindu Studies,
9/1-3: 59-75.
Allen, N.J., 2006, The Buddhist Wheel of Existence and two Greek comparisons, in: Anthropology of
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gy of the Indo-European World and Comparative Mythology, M.V. Garca Quintela, F.J. Gon-
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Estudios griegos e indoeuropeos, 17: 33-44.
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Montpellier: Universit Paul-Valrie.
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in the Mahbhrata, S. Brodbeck and B. Black, eds., London and New York: Routledge, pp.
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versity Press.
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Part V. Work in progress
375
Chapter 18. Sunda
1
The affirmative life
The mythological worldview of the contemplative site
of Nagara Padang, West Java, Indonesia
by Stephanus Djunatan
2
Abstract. The study of indigenous myth such as the one at the rocky contemplative site of Nagara
Padang, Gunung Padang, West Java can be a useful starting point for the comparative study of human
wisdom. After discussing the cultural history setting and providing a sketch of the landscape, I will
delineate the teaching myth and its meaning. I will analyze this meaning using an etic approach on the
teaching myth. The analysis proposes the account of affirmative life as the indigenous ontological con-
ception of life. This discussion of the comparative studies of human wisdom will conclude by compar-
ing the indigenous ontological conception and the Dao De Chings ontological conception. An open
ending is an invitation to maintain intercultural dialogue.
1. Introduction
In todays era of globalisation, intercultural encounter studies of indigenous mytholo-
gies seek to offer a comparative understanding of human civilizations, highlighting
the interconnection of contemporary global life. One form in which mythology can
manifest itself is as a narrative form depicting how life began and where it is heading,
thus illuminating the spiral process of life as locally understood.
This is the kind of mythology that is told at the Sundanese site of Nagara
Padang, West Java, and which presumably dates back to the pre-Hindu and Buddhist
era in the Indonesian Archipelago. The believed meditating place of the historically-
legendary King of the Sundanese kingdom of Galuh, Prabu Premana Dikusumah
1
The term Sunda used here in the title is not intended to refer to the vast land between Asia and Aus-
tralia, or to the Sundanese people and culture. Instead the term is used to represent the Sundanese way
of thinking and living, and Sundanese religiosity based on the primordial legacy, Hindu-Buddhist and
Sufic influence on the people and the culture.
2
Parahyangan Catholic University, Bandung, West Java, Indonesia; Ph.D. student at the Department of
Philosophy, Erasmus University Rotterdam.
New Perspectives on Myth
376
(circa 6th c. CE)
3
and the alleged tomb of the sacred, semi-mythical King of the Sun-
danese kingdom of Pajajaran (12th c. CE), Prabu Silihwangi, expresses this mytho-
logical narrative form of life through 17 stages, 13 of which are marked by huge rocks
located in the uninhabited area above the Rawabogo desa.
Each stage has its name and proper meaning which relates to a conception of
the cyclic spiral of Life. The spiritual journey begins with a childhood phase, fol-
lowed by an adulthood phase extolling indigenous noble virtues and principal atti-
tudes for everyday life such as: silihwangi (intersubjective dignification), welas
asih (compassion), sapajajaran (equality), nuhunkeun (gratitude), and keadilan
(justice); and the phase of sagacity in which the self achieves and performs the af-
firmative life in daily life.
After discussing the meanings informaing these respective stages, we depict
the indigenous interpretation of ontology implied within such meaning. This mytho-
logical narrative of life hinges on the worldview of Tritangtu, the triadic structure by
which Life is maintained. These tripartite subjects illustrate an ontological account:
notably the moment of Becoming-One.
This indigenous harmony combined with Hinduism / Buddhism and Sufic / Is-
lamic spiritual beliefs defines for each individual a position in the middle of the triadic
structure, in such a way that each subject emerges as a luminous intermediary of all
other subjects. This harmonious spiritual moment of unification in life is the epistemic
foundation for the affirmative life expressed in the noble virtues and principal attitude
expressed above.
While this sums up the Sundas ontological and epistemic narrative form for
thinking cosmological interconnectedness, as a final step this paper proposes to apply
this Sunda paradigm to the present-day interplay of civilizations in our globalizing
world (etic interpretation). This means thinking and implementing mythical and mys-
tical triadic subjects, such as an account of articulate middle-ness, intermediary sub-
jects.
For this purpose, the indigenous account will be compared with the perspec-
tive offered by the Dao De Ching. Chinese classical wisdom also explains the
standpoint of affirmative life. Together these two distinct eastern wisdom traditions
offer an invitation for contemporary civilizations to engage themselves in pragmatic
connectivity.
2. The culture-historical setting of the contemplative
site
The contemplative site Nagara Padang is located at Gunung Padang or Pasir Pamipi-
ran in the southern region of Bandung Area, West Java. Dry padi fields, crops planted
side by side the government owned pine plantation, and human settlements surround
3
See Saleh Danasasmita 1984: especially part IV, p. 101-106; Yoseph Iskandar 1997: 140-146.
Djunatan Chapter 18: A Contemplative Site in West Java
377
the contemplative site.
4
The human settlements or kampongs are under the administra-
tion of the Rawabogo village. The Rawabogo Village is the place where guardians of
the site live. The village was settled in the 19th century CE
5
by people who originated
from the Regency of Sukapura in the Dutch Colonial era which is known today as the
Regency of Tasikmalaya and Ciamis. Rawabogo village is an agricultural community
where most people work in the rice fields in addition to poultry breeding and animal
husbandry.
Although the policy of decentralisation has split the regency of Bandung into
two administrations since 2006, and Gunung Padang is part nowadays of the Regency
of West Bandung, the guardians from Rawabogo village still maintain the contempla-
tive site. The guardians often accompany pilgrims while they carry out their respec-
tive contemplative journey in the site. During a pilgrimage, the guardian will explain
the reasons and the purpose of praying and meditation in the site. Every guardian de-
velops his own version of the teaching story during pilgrimage. These explanations
are then passed down by guardians to apprentices for generations. There is no formal
apprenticeship as a guardian. The preparation to be a guardian depends on how in-
tensely an apprentice contemplates his life. An older guardian or a local elder will
also determine how a guardian-to-be accomplishes the apprenticeship. The elder will
convey his teaching story of a pilgrimage of the Nagara Padang to the apprentice who
is usually his first born son or his first son-in-law, if he does not have a son. The fact
that there are several kinds of teaching stories of Nagara Padang demonstrates the
various emic approaches of the site. Observers have to discover for themselves which
guardians possesses relatively deep discernment over life and which ones provide co-
herence between the name of the site and the meaning of the teaching story of the pil-
grimage.
For example, one can uncover such coherence in what both Abah Karmo, an
elder and the prominent guardian, and Pak Undang, an apprentice of guardianship of
the site, have said about their understanding of the connotation of the name of the site.
They believe the name of the site, Gunung Padang, is a phrasal riddle. The term
Gunung or mountain connotes head or widely interpreted, selfhood. While the
term Padang denotes bright, light or illumination. Alternatively, Padang also
connotes illuminating heart.
6
One can also perceive the illuminating heart as a
careful discernment or deliberation, or a visionary contemplation. In short the emic
interpretation of the riddle Gunung Padang is the illuminating selfhood.
Both the denotation and the connotation which the guardians produce shows
4
The government owned pine forest has been managed and controlled by The Department of Forestry
(Perum Perhutani) since 1970.
5
According to the village chief of Rawabogo, the first inhabitants were the Islamic mysticism or Suf-
ism. For a discussion of the spread of Islam in West Java, especially in the regency of Sakapura, now
Tasikmalaya, see Iip D. Yahya 2006, cf. Denys Lombard 1990/2005 vol. 2: 55, 125-128.
6
Pak Undang said in the first interview: ari gunung luhur, padang nyatana hate urang Ieu gunung
teh luhur, ari padang teh hate nu caang. This means: Mount is our head, the light is in our illuminat-
ing heart (my translation); see Djunatan 2008: 105.
New Perspectives on Myth
378
the fact that both the elder and the apprentice employ their teaching authority. Their
authority is obtained from acknowledgements from the surrounding communities and
others outside the village and receive a formal certificate signed by Lurah, the head of
village
7
of Rawabogo. Because of this authority, I started by observing the teaching
narratives of sagacious figures such as Abah Karmo and Pak Undang. They are indis-
pensable figures in the village because people and visitors seek their consultation and
follow their advice.
Abah Karmo and Pak Undang live at Kampong Ciparigi which is on the out-
skirts of Rawabogo Village. Abah Karmo (70) has been a guardian for forty years,
since he was approximately 30 years old. His first born son, Bapak Undang (50) has
gradually started to take over his fathers role as an active guardian. Now that Abah
Karmo is beginning to retire, he is accompanying fewer pilgrims to the site. He dele-
gates his authority of teaching to Pak Undang. Pak Undang started his apprenticeship
in his youth. He has contemplated his life since he was young with reference to the
meaning produced concerning the site. Bapak Undang refers to his method of appren-
ticeship as maca alam,
8
which means to contemplate the self which is the inherent
part of the Universe. The method of learning and producing meaning has to do with
the one ngaji badan (diri)
9
or the contemplation of selfhood. These indigenous
methods start with an intense reflection and deliberation on daily activities. One could
argue that these indigenous methods are sound because they are based on the intuition
of the guardians and their respective sensitivity toward daily activities. By performing
these methods, the guardians perceive coherent meaning between the occurring event,
their effort to produce meaning and their cultural heritage.
The brief description of the Rawabogo village and the role of the main guard-
ian discussed above indicate a human reconstruction of the meaning at the site Nagara
Padang (i.e. an emic interpretation about the site). Such an emic interpretation pro-
vides an indigenous conception of life which included not only the cultural heritage
embodied by the inhabitants, but also an explanation of the origin and the purpose of
life. The latter implies an ontological world-view in which the presence of the natural
world, that is, the heavens and the earth are indispensable for human existence.
10
7
Lurah or Kepala Desa is the government representative which acts as an administrator of a village
8
See my interview with Pak Undang, in Djunatan 2008.
9
See also the Forum Discussion Group with some apprenticeships as Sunda elders including elders
such as Abah Ajat Poerba Sasaka or Ki Laras Maya in Djunatan 2008. Another reference is Straathof
1971: 262-264, 345-350.
10
The presence of the natural world plays a significant part in the worldview of eastern indigenous
philosophy. The idea conveys the contextuality of human knowledge and the idea of a mutual relation-
ship or reciprocity between human beings and the natural world (the heavens and the earth). Laurie
Anne Whit, an American philosopher, states:
It is in this sense that indigenous knowledge of the natural world is presentational. The pres-
ence of the natural world is a condition for the very possibility of knowledge. Knowledge is
located in the world as much as it is located in a people or a person; it is part of what relates
the human and non human. And it is thoroughly contextualized: specific knowledge requires
specific places whereby it can be recalled and experienced. Whit et al., 2001: 16.
Djunatan Chapter 18: A Contemplative Site in West Java
379
The cultural heritage which the inhabitants embody comprises three main set-
tings: the primordial Sunda legacy, the Hindu-Buddhist and the Sufic influence. One
should not be too quick to judge the assimilation of these cultural and religious heri-
tages as syncretistic. Indeed these heritages merge to produce an assimilative repre-
sentation. Nevertheless, the syncretistic representation comes from an outside
standpoint, mainly a pure religious conviction. This standpoint views as if it were
the authentic religious representation without any external influences. Thus, one can
claim a syncretistic representation only at an etic level of interpretation by observing a
gesture of rituals, a displayed symbol, a praying act or any religious object or cere-
mony.
11
One should be critical of the etic level of interpretation due to the standpoint
of the emic one
12
. The emic level of interpretation produces an explanation of how
religious heritage is assimilated. The assimilation implies a particular way of thinking
that allows both the distinction and the assimilation of the three religious elements.
In historical records one can trace this unique way of thinking in the form of
poetic stories and in the Sundanese narrative poem (Pantun). These records were tran-
scribed from traditional story-telling. Story-telling is the way indigenous communities
in the West Java have traditionally produced their own storys of the origin and the
purpose of life and their knowledge of what ought to be done and what ought not to
be done. These short narratives depict an indigenous ontological and epistemological
account of Life.
In the case of the contemplative site Nagara Padang at Gunung Padang, the
narratives mention Gunung Padang as the indispensable name, not only as the name
of a place where heroic figures have meditated or died, but the name also indicates the
semiotic meaning of the indigenous ontological and epistemological conceptions. The
narratives of Gunung Padang are: Carita Ciung Wanara, Carita Parahyangan, and
Wawacan Sajarah Galuh. I will now discuss each of these narratives.
2.1. Carita Ciung Wanara
This is the story of the historical figure Ciung Wanara (Sang Manarah). The story
was sung by story teller Ki Subarma. The transcript of this oral performance was
made by Ajip Rosidi, a prominent contemporary Sundanese elder in 1973. Gunung
Padang, according to the story, was a meditating place for Prabu Sang Premana Diku-
sumah, the King of Galuh (Galih Pakuan) around 703 CE. The King decided because
of a conflict during his rule
13
to delegate his throne to the prime minister Mantri
11
For this etic interpretation see Clifford Geertz 1969: 5; cf. with van Binsbergen 2003: 237, 349 and
Straathof 1970: 345-350 concerning his association of ngaji badan with Catholic teaching of charity
and sociality.
12
For another etic approach to Sunda cosmology see Straathof 1970: 260; Wessing 1988:43; 2006:
206-207; cf. for a similar etic approach to indigenous cosmology on sangomahood in Africa see van
Binsbergen 2003: 237, 244.
13
This conflict of power occurred because the kingdom of Galuh was a vassal kingdom under determi-
nation of the kingdom of Mataram in Central Java see, Atja & Saleh Dana sasmita 1981: 25pp; Dana-
sasmita 1984: 94pp; Iskandar 1997: 140-141.
New Perspectives on Myth
380
Anom Aria Kebonan Kideng Agung. The king then left the palace and started to
meditate at Gunung Padang. He became a Pandita (a Reverend Monk) known as Pan-
dita Ajar Sidik.
The prime minister, however, betrayed the king. He took over the throne and
then claimed that he was actually the real Prabu Premana Dikusumah. He also took
the real kings wives as his own wives. Meanwhile, Pandita Ajar Sidik came to his
wife, Dewi Naga Ningrum, in a dream. Prabu Premana Dikusumah told her that she
would bear a son who would rule the Kingdom of Galuh. This prophecy upset the
usurper King Premana Dikusumah. The king then called Pandita Ajar Sidik and chal-
lenged the monk to prophesy whether his wives would bear sons. In order to make
them look pregnant, the fake king hid the night before a wide-mouthed clay pot on
Dewi Naga Ningrums belly and he used a wide rim golden bowl for the other wife
Dewi Pangreyep. As soon as the monk Pandita Ajar Sidik prophesied, both ladies ac-
tually became pregnant.
The fake king became very upset and ordered his subjects to kill the monk.
Yet Pandita was invincible because of his supernatural power. In order to prevent
more bloodshed, Pandita offered to die. The event of his death which is connected
with Gunung Padang is described in the following verses:
14
Lungkruk Pandita Sidik
Sukma tinggal di kurungan
Biur ngapung ka mega malang
Ku malayang di mega malang
....
Banusan Ajar Sidik
Mulih ka jati mulang ka asal
Kebo mulih pakandangan
Clik ragrag di Nagara Gunung Padang
Salin jisim
Salin jinis
Pandita saparantosna ka Gunung Padang
Salin jisim, jalin jisin
Ngajadi Naga Wiru keur tapa
(Summary translation: the Pandita Ajar Sidik let himself die. His spirit left the body.
He became one with the origin of Life. After this, his spirit stayed in Nagara Gunung
Padang, where he metamorphosed in to the meditating Dragon of Wiru).
14
See Rosidi 1973: 52-53.
Djunatan Chapter 18: A Contemplative Site in West Java
381
2.2. Carita Parahyangan
This poetic narrative was compiled and translated into Bahasa Indonesia from old
manuscripts in 1981.
15
Some Sundanese scholars claim the story was anonymously
written in 1579. The manuscript is a reconstruction of the history of West Java after
Islam spread over the region. In this historical reconstruction of West Java, the death
of Prabu Premana Dikusumah is told. He received another title in this version, Pen-
deta Sakti Bagawat Sajalajala, (the Sacred Monk Bagawat Sajalajala). It is told that
mercenaries, under the order of Sang Tamperan (the prime minister who took over the
throne) tried to kill the Monk.
Sang Tamperan was a nephew of King Sanjaya, the prominent ruler of Sunda
Pakuan Kingdom.
16
The nephew was Sanjayas caretaker for the vassal kingdom of
Galuh. The death of the sacred monk had to do with the birth of Ciung Wanara or
Sang Manarah, and his step brother Aria Banga. These historical figures were indis-
pensable in the history of Java. The conflict between these brothers was the origin of
separation. The Sundanese kingdoms were split into Negeri Sunda which is west of
Citarum river, and Negeri Galuh that lies to the east of the river. Both were separate
from the rest of Java where the prominent Javanese kingdoms were built.
17
2.3. Wawacan Sajarah Galuh
This poetic narrative is another Islamic anecdote about the Kingdom of Galuh and
Gunung Padang, translated into Bahasa in 1983. The origin of Gunung Padang was
assimilated into the chronicle of the prophet Noah and the Flood Myth.
18
Ratu
Pusaka, the ruler of Java, did not obey Noahs prophecy about the coming flood. Be-
fore Gods inflicted his punishment, the King Ratu Pusaka built Gunung Padang and
Gunung Galunggung, which were not covered with water when the flood came. Dur-
ing the flood, the King and his subjects escaped to Gunung Padang, and survived
there until the flood subsided.
The story returns again to the origin of the name when it describes the killing
of the Monk (Pandita) of Gunung Padang. Again, this story had to do with the birth of
Ciung Wanara, and the conflict of Ciung Wanara with his stepbrother Aria Banga
which resulted in the division of Sundanese Galuh Kingdom, ruled by Ciung Wanara
(Sang Manarah, Sang Surotama) and his descendants, and Negeri Sunda ruled by Aria
Banga and his successors. One of Ciung Wanaras successors was the semi-mythical
King of Sunda, Prabu Siliwangi, who ruled the Kingdom of Pajajaran.
15
See Atja & Saleh Danasasmita 1981: iii.
16
Later, Sanjaya moved to the central Java. He established the (old) Kingdom of Mataram. See Iskan-
dar 1997: 141
17
See Saleh Danasasmita 1984 on part IV: 112, cf. Iskandar 1997: 155; Sumardjo 2003: 112
18
See Ekadjati 1981
New Perspectives on Myth
382
2.4. Lessons learned from these narratives
a) Among the lessons learned from these narratives is that Gunung Padang is not
only the name for an individual mountain. The Sundanese elders that I inter-
viewed describe three different locations for Gunung Padang. A local journal
of Sunda Literature reported one of the locations of Gunung Padang was in
Cianjur Regency (west of Bandung).
19
The second location is the one I ob-
served. And the third one allegedly lies in Ciamis Regency (east of Bandung).
Some elders are sure that the name Gunung Padang hints of a principal pre-
supposition of the conception of the origin and the purpose of life, and for the
indigenous virtues of life.
20
This presupposition determines the Sundanese on-
tological (cosmological) and epistemological accounts, as well as the Sun-
danese worldview and religious belief.
b) A mountain is a central symbol for the Sundanese. It symbolizes the idea of
axis mundi, a sacred mediator between the earth and the heavens.
21
An Axis
mundi can be represented either by ancestral spirits, or by certain figures such
as a shaman, a storyteller (tukang pantun, dalang), a guardian, an elder, a king
or by natural phenomena such as mountains, trees, rocks, or by certain animals
(like a water buffalo, a tiger, a snake, a dragon, a phoenix, and the garuda),
or by buildings like a grave, a temple (candi), a palace and a house. The axis
mundi is regarded as sacred in the Indonesian Archipelago and in general in
Southeast Asian primordial religiosity.
22
Therefore, the Sundanese people be-
lieve human beings and the non-human figures communicate with each other
through mediation of the axis mundi. The indigenous narratives describe
Gunung Padang as the meditation place for semi-historical and mythical fig-
ures who wanted to contemplate a sagacious life and to maintain sagacious in-
dividuality. According to the storytellers, the latter is always associated with
supernatural capabilities.
c) The name Gunung Padang is also associated with the spiritual experience of
self-illumination. It refers to the individuals experience who seek self-
enlightenment through intense meditation and contemplation of the Sundanese
virtues of life. The sagacious selfhood is the personification of the principal
virtue of life, that is, intersubjective dignification or silihwangi. It is important
19
See Bachtiar 2006: 33-35.
20
See Forum Group Discussion with Ki Laras Maya, Abah Badra Santana, and Abah Atmajawijaya 27
November 2007.
21
Wessing 1988: 43; 2006: 225-226; Sumardjo 2003: 22.
22
For the significance of the idea of the Axis Mundi in the Indonesian Archipelago, see Sumardjo 2003:
5 (The axis mundi as Dunia Tengah or the mediation between human and non-human beings and the
Almighty; Rachmat Subagya 1979; the idea of the axis mundi in the South East Asian primordial re-
ligiosity see Wessing 1988 (on the chthonic forces in the mountains as the axis mundi); 1997 (on the
Nyai Roro Kidul, the Queen of the South / Indian Ocean); 2006 (on symbolic animals as the axis mundi
in the South East Asian primordial religiosity).
Djunatan Chapter 18: A Contemplative Site in West Java
383
to note that the idea of self-enlightenment and the achievement of spiritual
life, is not exclusively a Sundanese invention. The self-enlightenment of life
associated with sagacious selfhood is an ancient conception of the Sage in the
Indonesian Archipelago.
23
A teaching narrative as a calling to obtain self-
enlightenment also plays a significant role in other faiths including Hinduism,
Buddhism, Christianity and Islam. It is also indispensable for the Indian and
Chinese Sage. In short, the idea of the sagacious selfhood is not unfamiliar; it
is a resonance of ancient civilizations.
24
2.5. Sketch of the landscape
After depicting the historical and cultural setting, it is also important to provide a geo-
logical sketch of the Nagara Padang site. The site is located in Gunung Padang or
Pasir Pamipiran (elevation 1224 m., see Fig. 18.1). The mountain is a part of a moun-
tainous area in the south of Bandung. According to geological data, this mountain
emerged in the Miocene epoch. This mountain is supposed to be an erupted volcano.
On the mountain climatic erosions over the ages have exposed large igneous rock
formations.
The igneous rocks are naturally formed in such a way that they look like ter-
races. With some human intervention these terraces have defined on the mountain into
3 shaped phases of the life cycle and 17 prayer and meditation stages. This interven-
tion indicates the guardians reconstruction of the natural formation of the rocks. The
reconstruction provides the guardians with teaching materials which they employ in
order to assist pilgrims while they are performing all prayer and meditation sessions at
the site. Fig. 18.2 below renders the topography of phases, terraces, and stages.
The topography above is equivalent to a complete cyclic life spiral. The cyclic
life spiral starts with the initial phase of life: the birth and childhood period (A). This
phase consists of a narrative of birth, a memory of parental nurturing and a reflection
of formal education. These narratives are a necessary condition for establishing a
foundation of humane quality.
The next phase portrays the adult period (B) and connotes the capability to
perform daily work, to maintain material belongings, and to show ones competence
and skills. The adult period refers to the development of human capabilities such as
mind, affection and volition, that of the physical body, and the growing awareness of
the spiritual realms. The achievement of adulthood will determine the next phase that
is the mature period. According to the Sundanese belief, the period of mature indi-
viduality has to do with a process of becoming wise. In this way, sagacious individu-
ality reflects an expression of Sundanese principal virtues in daily life.
23
Cf. Subagya 1979: 76.
24
The story of the Sage in Chinese tradition, see Fung Yu-Lan 1969 vol. 1; in Indian, Hinduism and
Buddhism see Armstrong 1994,: 28-34; Fung Yu-Lan 1969 vol. II; in Islam particularly Sufism, see
Simuh 1996; Nurbakhsh 2002; Chittick 2002.
New Perspectives on Myth
384
Fig. 18.1: The location of the Site and surroundings.
25
25
The map is courtesy of Periplus Map of Bandung Area, HK 2004.
Djunatan Chapter 18: A Contemplative Site in West Java
385
Fig. 18.2. The topography of the terraces and stages
Legend for Fig 18.2: I to VII: the terraces; A, B, C: Three phases of the cyclic life spiral the stages
for a pilgrims praying and meditating session are set out in the following table.
Table 18.1. The stages for a pilgrims praying and meditating session
Phase A: the terraces I III, the Birth and Childhood
I.1 Cikahuripan (spring of life)
II.2.a. Lawang Saketeng (The entry Gate of Saketeng)
II.2.b. Lawang Kadua (The exit Gate)
III.3. Batu Palawangan Ibu (The rock of the vaginal passage)
III.4. Batu Paibuan (The rock of Motherhood)
III.5. Batu Panyipuhan (The rock of formal education)
III.6. Batu Poponcoran (The rock of the final examination)
Phase B: the terraces IV V, of the adulthood
IV.7. Batu Kaca Saadeg (The rock of self-reflection)
IV.8. Batu Gedong Peteng (The rock of the dark cave)
V.9. Batu Karaton (The rock of Royal Palace)
V.10. Batu Kutarungu (The Rock of the Ear)
Phase C: the terraces VI VII, the maturity or sagacious individuality
VI.11. Masjid Agung (The Mosque of Majesty)
VII.12. Batu Bumi Agung (The rock of Glorious Earth)
New Perspectives on Myth
386
VII.13. Batu Korsi Gading (The rock of Ivory Throne)
VII.14. Batu Pakuwon Prabu Siliwangi (The commemorative slab of Prabu
Silihwangi)
VII.15. Batu Lawang Tujuh (The rock of the seven doors)
VII.16. Batu Padaringan / Leuit Salawe Jajar (The rock of rice barns, or the
curved array of 25 rocks)
VII.17. Puncak Manik (The summit of Light)
The contemplation of the phase of maturity [C] starts with an acknowledge-
ment of the glorious Almighty
26
who is the proprietor of the universe. This is self-
awareness toward the presentation of the earth and the heavens. This understanding
reveals the triadic structure of life or Tritangtu which comprises the self (human be-
ings), the earth (the underworld) and the heavens
27
(the upperworld). The ternary life
structure is the implication of Sunda virtues: silihwangi (intersubjective dignifica-
tion), welas asih (compassion); and Sunda cardinal principle of life: silih asuh, silih
asih, silih asah (to love, to care and to teach each other), sapajajaran (equality), nu-
hunkeun (gratefulness), and kaadilan (justice).
It is interesting to discover that the implicit conclusion to this phase of sagacious in-
dividuality, is death. One experiences death as a moment of unification: the self be-
comes one with the earth and the heavens. The moment of unification is described in a
Sundanese phrase: mulang ka jati, mulih ka asal.
This phrase connotes a homeward journey, or going back to the unity with
the other two features in the ternary life structure. Nevertheless, the journey home
initiates a new cyclic process which elevates an individual to a human being of higher
quality. The continuation symbolizes a journey into perfection as the Sage. A Sun-
danese word describes this moment of the becoming-one as ngahiang.
28
The word
literally means disappearing. Thus, the Sage will disappear when one knows the
end of ones life is arriving. This disappearance includes the body. The word connotes
death with the completeness of body and soul; both are unified with the earth and the
heavens. In Islamic mysticism, the journey home is referred to as marifat.
29
One can find these three phases of cyclic life spiral in the form of the Sages
teaching story at the contemplative site. The teaching story of the Sage places a pil-
grim whose intention is to contemplate their respective journey of life as the child.
26
The supernatural authority in Sunda tradition is called Gusti. Such term is less similar with God
in Judaism since the Almighty does not represent any gender character. Because of this non-gender
character, it is better to mention It in capital so that the term is close to the emic belief of the super-
natural authority. The term Gusti is abbreviation of Geus ti ditu na or As it already is. See
Djunatan 2008: 41 cf. p. 130 concerning connotation tengah with Dat MahaKawasa or the Al-
mighty.
27
See Sumardjo 2003, 2006; cf. with Wessing 1988, 1997.
28
This term articulated by Ki Laras Maya and confirmed in other elders in my interview sessions.
29
Cf. Simuh 1996: 92; Nurbakhsh 2002: 2; Chittick 2002: 71.
Djunatan Chapter 18: A Contemplative Site in West Java
387
This child is a future heroic figure who eventually becomes the Sage. Thus, the hero
is not Prabu Silihwangi, the prominent Sundanese Sage King who is closely con-
nected to the site. But rather, metaphorically speaking, it can be said to be the pilgrim
himself, who emerges to become the Sage King.
In other words, one follows the teaching story of the future sage-child while
one is making a pilgrimage at the site. The story of the future sage conveys an ideali-
zation of either an individual or a communal life. Such idealization is related with an
indigenous belief about the origin and the cosmological structure of life.
30
The belief
causes the story to be sacred; it is not merely a story of an individual, but the sacred
story of the Sage. Therefore, the teaching materials which the guardians communicate
are coherent elements of the sacred story of the Sage.
3. The myth of sagacious individuality
A myth can be viewed as either a story of a heroic figure, a sacred tale or merely an
imaginative antidote of primitive minds originating from illiterate societies. However,
this heroic and sacred story actually depicts a complexity and completeness of human
existence both individually and collectively. In other words, in a myth one conceives
of the existence of life as a wholeness which includes a complex and complete life
cycle.
31
The story of wholeness implies at least four fundamental inner aspects of hu-
man beings. Maria M. Colavito
32
lists these four aspects as maia, mythos, mimesis and
logos. Maia stands for a dynamic experience of life which portrays an image of the
cosmic life out of the chaotic one. Mythos refers to a capability of oral expression
which turns this dynamic experience into a story. Mimesis is a process of describing
communal mores, virtues and noble principles of life as an integral part of the story.
The last aspect, logos puts these community mores, virtues, and principles of life
into a common conception regardless of any individual experience. In this sense, my-
thology is conceived as a complete narrative which theorizes dynamic inner capacities
and experiences in which mores, virtues and principles of life are shareable and com-
prehensible.
If such mores, virtues and principles of life are shareable and comprehensible,
myth explains human intention to understand the origin, the meaning and the purpose
of life. To tell narratives of a holistic life is to disclose layers or levels of meaning in
order to answer the quest for life.
33
These narratives need actors which can be either
supra human or non-human representations. These fictitious actors are the projection
of a human being individually and collectively. In this sense, mythology provides a
30
See Barnard & Spencer 1998: 386, the entry of Myth and Mythology.
31
Cf. Korab-Karpowicz 2002: 209-210.
32
Cited in de Nicols 1999: 188-190.
33
Cf. Korab-Karpowicz 2002: 210.
New Perspectives on Myth
388
chance for reflection for each individual so that they can each deliberate on their own
journey of life. In other words, the story is about the journey of the self who tries to
probe for quests of life.
34
Thus the aspects of a myth can be summed up in following points:
a) A story about how complex and complete a life cycle is.
b) The presentation of a heroic figure, in the form either of a human be-
ing, a non-human figure or a supernatural one, is to explain the fact
that the complexities of life with its ups and downs are inevitable.
Moreover, the story of the deeds of the heroic figure conveys the
meaning of the inevitable cycle of life.
c) The ultimate purpose of any heroic figure is to attain sagacious indi-
viduality. The sagacious individual is concerned with the experience of
illumination. In turn, the sagacious individual is the person who can
answer and resolve the quests for life.
d) The achievement of sagacious individuality is the central meaning of
the myth. It is the achievement of any individual regardless their back-
ground. Every person who reads or hears the kind of story about the
Sage should be able to articulate the moral, the virtues and the values
implied inside the individual.
35
The articulation of these morals, virtues
and values is a new phase of the life cycle for any sagacious individual.
Together the four aspects of myth above define mythology as:
the narratives of the cyclic life spiral which convey that the meaning of
a complexity and completeness of the life cycle is to achieve the saga-
cious individuality. By contemplating such narratives, each individual
can realize his or her own life journey as the attainment of the saga-
cious individuality.
Thus, I propose that mythology is every human beings story of the sagacious
selfhood in which the attainment of the Sage is the ultimate meaning.
I uncovered this type of mythology in the teaching narratives during my visit
to the Nagara Padang pilgrimage site. When one begins a pilgrimage there, the guard-
ian of the site always opens the teaching narratives with the phrase:
Urang mun rek asup ka Nagara Padang
(If you [someone] want[s] to enter the Nagara Padang site (my translation).
This phrase indicates an invitation for a pilgrim to consider himself or herself
to be the actor of the story. In other words, a pilgrim will be a hero who will complete
his life journey for sagacious individuality. When a pilgrim realizes this purpose, the
guardian will continue reciting instructional materials, such as with the following cita-
34
Cf. Nnoruka 1999: 413.
35
See Barnard & Spencer 1998: the entry Myth and Mythology.
Djunatan Chapter 18: A Contemplative Site in West Java
389
tion.
Ayeuna ceuna lamun [urang] rek nak ka gunung padang kudu mawa bakakak hayam. Tah
padahal lain bawa bakakak hayam. ta simbul jeung gambaran. ... Urang th kudu lir ibarat
hayam dibelah dua, dibakakak, saha badan urang, serah sumerah ka saha. Hiji menta pidua ti
indung bapa, serah sumerah ka mahakawasa, boga tekad didinya. Geus serah sumerah ka nu
Maha Kawasa, lir ibarat hayam dibelah dua, teu daya teu upaya, ujud paparin obah pangersa
Gusti.
36
(My translation: Now, it is said when we want to visit Nagara Padang, we have to bring a long
chicken cut in half vertically but unseparated. This is symbolic for us. We have to be like a
chicken cut-in-half so that we can resign ourselves, asking who we are. First, we are begging
our living and ancestral parents to say a prayer for our intention, so that we realize that we
should entrust our live to the Almighty. We are nothing, have no authority against the will of
The Almighty; this is the reason we have to submit ourselves to It.
37
)
The guardian conveys the teaching narrative to the heroic pilgrim whose inten-
tion it is to perform prayer and meditating sessions at the site. It is a narrative since
the guardians tell a pilgrim what will happen during the pilgrimage at the site. The
citation explains a certain disposition of ones mind and physical gestures. This spiri-
tual and physical disposition is the ground for the subsequent teaching sessions during
further stages of the pilgrimage.
The other indispensable point is that the guardians teaching focuses on the
contemplation of the self. The ideal disposition of the pilgrimage is to submit and to
entrust the self to the living and ancestral parents and to the Almighty. From the
standpoint of the Sundanese conception, the parents represent not only the biological
father and mother. This metaphor of parents includes the ancestral spirits and the
earth. The Sundanese believe that since the beginning of life, every individual was
born to the earth.
38
The metaphor of the parents also connotes a mutual interconnec-
tivity between human beings and the natural world or the heavens and the earth.
4. Mythology as pious teaching: The affirmative life
Two points are needed to clarify before explicating the complete teaching narratives.
They are the emic level of interpretation, a production of knowledge of the sage per-
formed by the guardian, and the etic approach to the emic interpretation. For the sec-
ond point, this paper tries to provide a semiotic categorization of the meaning of the
teaching narratives.
36
This citation is Pak Undangs explanation. See Djunatan 2008: 31.
37
The Almighty in the indigenous sense is not characterized by sexual gender. Ki Laras Maya for ex-
ample, is often called the Almighty Gusti. Yet this word is a puzzle from Geus ti dituna (as it is from
the beginning). This puzzle means The Almighty embodies neither gender, characters, personae nor
physical appearance. It is just the Almighty. Thus I prefer to use It in order to provide closest mean-
ing for this indigenous term. See Djunatan 2008: 95.
38
For the ancient idea of the birth of human beings into the earth see Berezkin, 2008.
New Perspectives on Myth
390
Firstly, an interpretation of the guardians at the contemplative site should be
analyzed based on the religious and cultural heritage of Java, especially West Java.
There are three components of this heritage namely, the pre-Hindu indigenous legacy,
the Hindu-Buddhist heritage and the influence of Sufism. These legacies influence the
guardians production of the teaching narratives of the Sage and also the guardians
interpretation of the natural formations of the rocky stages. In other words, the natural
formations of the rocks at the site emerge as the signifier for the guardians so that they
can produce the coherent signified of the rocky stages in the form of the teaching nar-
ratives.
Secondly, the pilgrim or the observer who performs contemplative acts at the
site produces their own meaning of the stages in accordance with the teaching narra-
tives told by the guardians. In other words, the pilgrim or the observer produces the
signified of the stages by correlating the natural formation of the stage and the teach-
ing narratives with their own intense prayer and meditation during the pilgrimage.
After clarifying both the guardians and the pilgrims standpoint, this explana-
tion applies a semiotic method, namely the triadic models of the sign.
39
I decided to
employ the method of semiotics in order to analyze Gunung Padang as the sign or the
signifier, that is, its natural formation of the stages. While the guardians teaching nar-
ratives, and the meaning produced by the pilgrims in accordance with the teaching
narratives, are the signified.
The etic approach of the site will provide a comprehensive analysis. For this
purpose, I will apply semiotic terms such as:
The sign vehicle, to depict the physical formation of the rocks, especially
the name of the rocks and some special marks or forms in some of these
rocks. In short these names are also categorized as the signifier of each
stage, which will provide the materials for interpretation.
The sense, to explicate the content of the teaching narratives as it is told by
the guardians. The guardians teaching narratives are the signified of the
emic approach which provides materials for an etic interpretation.
The last is the referent or the meaning of the stage which is coherent with
the teaching narratives of the sagacious personality and the names or special
forms of the stages.
40
The senses of the stage are the signified, which is pro-
duced by both the guardians and the pilgrims / observers.
Based on these semiotic terms, I am about to explain an etic approach for each
phase and its stages.
39
See Nth 1995: 89-90, for the correlation of the signifier with the signified based on the view of
interpreter the triadic models of the sign in semiotics.
40
Nth 1995: 89.
Djunatan Chapter 18: A Contemplative Site in West Java
391
4.1. The opening ritual ceremonies
The sign vehicle: The fountain of Gunung Padang, Cikahuripan and the entry gate,
Lawang Saketeng.
The sense: The purification of the self, and the awareness that the self belongs to the
universe and the Almighty.
The referent: A spring usually represents a mothers breast milk or cai nyusu in the
Sundanese conception. In this sense, water is associated with the idea that a human
fetus lives in the liquid of the mothers womb. The living in the liquid of the womb
symbolizes that human beings live in a sterile or a pure condition. By accepting the
pure beginning of life, every human being should cleanse his / her body (diri) by
taking a shower in the fountain. The water of the fountain cleanses the designation
and the essence, the body and the soul.
This entry gate or Gapura signifies the awareness that an individual has a ge-
nealogical bond with other manifestations of life, metaphorically speaking, the heav-
ens and the earth.
41
According to non-western indigenous knowledge, the idea of the
genealogical bond is a presupposition of human existence. In this sense, human beings
cannot live without such bonds. The awareness of this close relationship is revealed in
the guardians opening prayer. This opening prayer shows that human beings have a
correlationship with the spirits of the ancestors and the keepers of the earth and the
heavens. These non-human figures are the parents. A pilgrim should ask the parents
permission and blessing to participate in the pilgrimage.
4.2. The phase of childhood
The sign vehicle: The rock of the vaginal passage, Batu Palawangan Ibu; The rock of
the motherhood, Batu Paibuan; The rock of the formal education, Batu Panyipuhan;
and The passage of final examination, Batu Poponcoran.
The sense: A description of the birth phase of every child. This phase includes the
story of a parental upbringing and nurturing of the child, an early education and a
formal one. The initiation of the child into adulthood concludes the childhood phase.
The referent: The birth for every human being is the reason for human presence in
this world. Consequently, each individual has something to be revealed during his
own life journey. This life duty is to perfect life in any kind of its manifestation. In
the Sundanese tradition, this duty is called kasampurnaan
42
or the perfection. This
Sundanese term connotes human beings duty to maintain the correlation with the
others.. The others are described in the following phrase.
43
Patalina Diri ka Gusti, Patalina diri ka sasama, Patalina diri ka Alam
This poetic phrase relates how each individual has a constant relationship with
41
Whitt et al. 2001: 4-8.
42
Maya 2008: 13.
43
Maya 2008: 16-17.
New Perspectives on Myth
392
the Almighty, their fellow human beings and the earth. To fulfill this duty is both to
glorify the Almighty and to affirm the existence of all its creatures. In the state of na-
ture, every individual is in charge of maintaining such a relationship. This shall be the
ultimate vision and the mission of life for every human being.
The rock of Motherhood represents for each individual parental upbringing
and nurturing. How parents bring up their children contributes to their growth, helping
improve both physical and mental aspects including the application of the five human
senses and the use of cognitive, affective and volitional capabilities. These physical
and mental capabilities are the necessary requirements for a mature individual. The
child also learns about the virtues in this parental upbringing.
This rock also symbolizes the parental education of the sensitivity and the af-
firmation of life. The Sundanese believe that a father should be in charge of improv-
ing his childs cognitive and technical skills. Thus, the fatherhood connotes with the
mind and knowledge of a sagacious individuality (elmu pangaji panalar diri, pikeun
darajatna). A mother will nurture the affective and volitional aspect of children.
Motherhood, therefore, has to do with affection and volition (elmu pangaji pangulas
rasa
44
pikeun martabatna). The early education of these mental and psychological
aspects is the inevitable task of motherhood. These cognitive, affective and volitional
aspects are basic to sagacious individuality.
45
The rock of the formal education refers to a state school, an Islamic religious
boarding school (pesantren
46
), or an indigenous one (padepokan). The educational
institutions are the places where children go through the process of the formation of
the self. The children can learn not only knowledge and skills and empathy and social
sensitivities, but also self-discipline and self-determination to achieve their respective
purpose of life. They learn to internalize and to practice virtues. In other words, the
children learn to express the basic characteristics of sagacious individuality. Teachers
in the formal education can only persuade a child so that this young boy or girl is will-
ing to apply what has been learned in school.
The passage of the final examination concludes the childhood phase. If an in-
dividual can pass a final examination it means he / she is ready to enter the next
phase, the adult one. This higher category connotes a readiness of each individual to
express his own competence, skills and to learn more how to apply the virtues of life
in daily activities.
4.3. The phase of adulthood
The sign vehicle: The rocks of self-awareness (Batu Kaca Saadeg), The rocks of the
dark cave (Batu Gedong Peteng), The rocks of the palace (Batu Karaton), and The
44
The Sundanese lexicon defines Rasa as the capability of human senses, as the mental and rational
perception or judgment (budi, jiwa), intuition, hope (asa), the memorizing capacity (ras). See Danadi-
brata 2006.
45
Maya 2008: 30-31.
46
Of Pesantren or Islamic Seminary cf. Geertz 1969: 177-179.
Djunatan Chapter 18: A Contemplative Site in West Java
393
rocks of ear (Batu Kuta rungu).
The sense: a child growing-up begins to show competence and skills in daily activi-
ties. A grown-up individual someday will possess material belongings and achieve a
career. Having a position he or she will exercise power to manage others. To have a
career and to exercise a power means that a grown-up individual learns more in-
tensely the expression of the principal virtues of life, such as charity (amal ibadah),
and reciprocal caring, loving, teaching (silih asuh, silih asih, silih asah). If the child
growing-up realizes that ability and the skills, material belongings, status and power
are the duty and the expression of an affirmative life, then he or she should begin the
phase contemplating the future and self-perseverance in order to be able to express
duty in ones daily chores.
The referent: the rock of self-awareness signifies the invitation of the grown-up chil-
dren to have their respective specialized vision and mission of life. This self-
awareness tries to answer the quests of life: what is the purpose of my life? What do I
want to do to accomplish my duty of glorification and dignification of the heavens,
the earth, and human beings? How do I realize this duty in my daily chores?
The answers to these questions are uncovered by contemplating ones current
psychological and spiritual condition. This means that the quests of life should be re-
sponded to right then and there. This response reveals the Sundanese paradigm of the
contextuality of the spatial and temporal dimension of existence. The result is affirma-
tion in every daily occurrence.
The rock of the dark cave symbolizes a hard or difficult situation. The difficult
situation occurs because the grown-up individual has nothing to support himself or
herself. The grown-up individual should overcome this by working hard. He / she
should apply his / her competence and skills to an occupation and adopt a career oth-
erwise nothing will offer support to his / her life. To have an occupation in this sense
is to have a bright individual life.
Thus every young adult should fulfill his / her duty in accordance with his /
her career in life., It is questionable how this duty will be accomplished without such
a career. To have a career, however, is not only to support ones own life but also to
assist others. The assistance of the others means the expression of the virtue of charity
(amal ibadah) and reciprocal nurturing, loving and teaching (silih asuh, silih asih,
silih asah). In other words, to supply necessities and to assist other people and other
creatures is to fulfill the duty of pursuing an affirmative life.
The rock of the royal palace characterizes the embodiment of power. In order
to fulfill ones duty, there is a presumption of power of humanity where individuals
supply their own necessities and the necessities of others. In short, an individual gains
sense of authority from their own career. The embodiment of authority strengthens the
individual to express the virtue of charity and reciprocal nurturing, loving and teach-
ing. The Sundanese people against the idea that authority can be used to dominate
events to subordinate others.
In order to prevent the negative application of authority, while growing-up the
child should listen to his conscience. The rock of ear connotes the firm conscience of
New Perspectives on Myth
394
an individual and the individuals self-determination to follow the path of the duty of
an affirmative life. The Sundanese people believe that is through the conscience that
the Almighty speaks. The child growing up should not be easily distracted from the
pathway which she or he decides to walk on. A young adult should only listen to the
advice of his / her conscience. He / she should not easily believe to useless opinions,
news, and gossip which lead one away from the duty of existence.
Sundanese elders highly recommend listening to and acting according to the
advice of the conscience. This ancestral sagacity meets Sufism. The idea that the Al-
mighty speaks through human conscience corresponds to Islamic mysticism.
47
Be-
sides this sagacious characteristic, Sundanese wisdom also encourages the individual
to express the duty of the affirmative life through human senses.
48
The two important
human senses in this case are sight and hearing. Both senses are the way in for our
thought and consideration, our affection and volition. What one sees and hears will
influence their responses. Thus, a careful discernment of external information helps us
to manage our life. The Sundanese word for self-discernment is eling or pepel-
ing.
49
The word is an application of the capability of budi, the conscience, and
akal, the mind, in order to prevent any negative effects from external influence.
4.4. The phase of the sage
The sign vehicle: The Mosque of Majesty (Masjid Agung), The rock of glorious earth
(Batu Bumi Agung), The rock of the ivory throne (Batu Korsi Gading), The rock of
Eyang Prabu Silihwangi (Pakuwon Eyang Prabu Silihwangi), The rock of the seven
doors (Batu Lawang Tujuh), The rock of the rice barn or the curved array of the 25
prophets (Batu Padaringan), and The rock of the summit of the light (Puncak Manik).
There is a carving of kopiah (the Indonesian Moslems rimless cap) on a leaning rock slab.
The guardians always guide a pilgrim to perform a resignation prayer as a sign of self-
entrustment to the Almighty. At the monument of the Eyang Prabu Silihwangi, a pilgrim will
find a monument (a small lingga) with a carving of a thumb on the top of it. The thumb is as-
sociated with the name Prabu Silihwangi. The name refers to the way in which one might
show appreciation to someone. To give a thumb means to respect and to honor that person.
The sense: While growing up the child will realize the glory of the Almighty as he /
she enters the phase of the sage. This realization leads him or her to acknowledge the
idea that the Almighty is the proprietor of the heavens and the earth. This is a self
awareness that human beings are an inherent feature in the triadic structure of life, the
Tritangtu. The journey afterwards is an internalization of the noble virtues of life
which are compassion (welas asih), equality (sapajajaran), intersubjective dignifica-
tion (silihwangi), justice (kaadilan), gratitude (nuhunkeun) and the ability to reveal
the personal destiny (takdir). These are the main characteristics of the Sage in Sun-
danese belief. Moreover, the Sage is always associated with the name Prabu
47
See Chittick 2002: 24-26.
48
See Maya 2008: 38-39.
49
See Sunda lexicon entry of this word, eling or its derivation pepeling, see Danadibrata 2006.
Djunatan Chapter 18: A Contemplative Site in West Java
395
Silihwangi, the moksa-King of Pajajaran (12th c. CE). The wise man in this context
should be able to perform some sort of outstanding physical and mental challenge.
Some of them are able to stand on the top of the rock of the glorious earth which is
steep and slippery. Once at the top the wise man then has to move to the neighboring
rock, that is, the rock of the ivory stone. He / she has to be able to sit on the top of the
rock of the ivory stone and the way down from the ivory throne is very risky. In the
final stages of the pilgrimage, the pilgrim learns how to actively reveal his / her own
destiny, how to affirm the equality of mankind, the ability to prophesy like a prophet,
and the experience of the union mysticism with the Light. The spiritual journey ends
in the summit of the light. This is the realization of the enlightened human being or
the sagacious individuality.
The referent: The Mosque of Majesty is located higher on the mountain Gunung
Padang from which everyone can see the panorama of the South of Bandung. It signi-
fies the glorification of the Almighty. This is the acknowledgement that the Almighty
is the only authority and the proprietor of this universe. Human authority is merely a
mandate from the Almighty.
Human beings do not occupy and conquer the universe. Moreover, human be-
ings cannot claim that the arrangement and management of life are solely up to human
competence and skills. Everybody is merely a mediator who leads the universe and
the other creatures to the Majesty. In other words, it is through human beings the Al-
mighty perfects the universe. This is the task of the affirmative life so that individuals
are in charge of maintaining and developing all manifestations of life. If one knows
his position as the keeper of the earth, one shall realize that human beings are an inte-
grated part of the heavens and the earth.
The rock of glorious earth symbolizes a dignification of the motherland and an
attitude of holding the nationhood in high esteem. Every grown-up individual is in
charge of protecting the land and the nation. One can express ones duty by nurturing,
caring and maintaining any manifestation of life inhabiting the area. Neither are ag-
gressive violence, nor armed defense the primary strategies for protecting the mother-
land and the nationhood. The nurturing of and the care for the motherland are the
ultimate strategies for protecting and maintaining Life. To manage the earth is com-
patible with the care of human body and soul .
The rock of the ivory throne signifies the dedication of the human authority to
fulfill its duty of protecting the motherland and the nation as explained in the rock of
glorious earth. Along with to the rock of glorious earth, this rock represents the con-
templation of the divine authority as an expression of compassion or welas asih,
rohman-rohim. This expression is the essential Sundanese virtue. The affirmative
life is mainly characterized by those who are compassionate and practice this noble
virtue.
The commemoration rock slab of Eyang Prabu Silihwangi symbolizes the vir-
tue of gratitude, nuhunkeun. Human beings should be able to express gratefulness
toward any kind of experience and any given bread. By referring to the previous
rocks, this stage also uncovers the other essential Sunda virtues of the affirmative life:
New Perspectives on Myth
396
the intersubjective dignification, silihwangi. Every grown-up individual should be
able to express this through a mutual and respectful interaction with the others, the
earth and the heavens.
The rock of the seven doors connotes a personal destiny revealed by ones
birthday. A birthday connotes a specific destiny for everyone. The grown-up individ-
ual should be able to follow his / her own path. This conception of destiny does not
entail a passive response. Instead of passivity, individuals should be proactive in real-
izing their respective destiny (takdir).
50
The curved array of 25 rocks symbolizes not only the 25 acknowledged
prophets in the Koran, but also a significant Sundanese virtue, that is, equality or
egalitarianism (sapajajaran). Then the natural formation can be regarded as the 25
full rice barns, the symbol of prosperity. The idea of prosperity has to do with the
value of egalitarianism. Every human and non-human being deserves to have equal
access to prosperity in front of The Almighty.
Thus, the duty of human beings is clearer in this context. By following the
teaching narratives from the first stage until the curved array of 25 rocks, every indi-
vidual is called to bring prosperity to all. It is every human beings responsibility to
distribute the natural resources so that the other creatures can enjoy life in a proper
way. In this context, personal wealth is dedicated to the prosperity of the earth, and
the nationhood. By fulfilling this life task, human beings, based on the mandate from
the Almighty, expresses the dignification of their selves, the perfection of creation,
and the glorification of the Almighty.
The Summit of Light is the final stage in the pilgrimage of life. The purpose of
life is depicted in this final place, the becoming-one with the universe and the Al-
mighty, the moksa in Buddhism; or its sufic equivalent, the makrifat, the union mysti-
cism.
51
The experience of becoming one is the final realization of the idea of the
affirmative life. The moksa or the makrifat, is the ultimate achievement of the Sage.
After the grown-up individual ends his or her contemplation in the final stage,
he or she is encouraged to actualize his or her own vision and mission as a Sage. The
realization of sagacious individuality is done in accordance with ones occupation,
competence, skills, and his / her social, cultural and religious context, as well as social
roles. After passing the various stages, it is now time to go and perform ones destiny
(takdir) as the manifestation of sagacious individuality. The Guardian affirms, Tereh
make salawasna or Go and apply the values and virtues of the Sage as long as you
live. It is time to dedicate oneself to the service of the affirmative Life.
50
See Djunatan 2008: 40, the guardian confirms the active attitude toward the destiny as follows: Aye-
una ngudag lawang tujuh, mun teu mah didinya ngudak hak warisna masing-masing, hak tujuanana
masing-masing dina poe anu tujuh eta. In English translation: Now, following the seven doors, every-
one has their respective pathways in life, respective destiny in accordance with their own birthday.
51
This unifying process, becoming-one with the Universe and The Almighty is also rephrased in Suf-
ism as marifat. Thus this mysticism corresponds with the Sunda primordial ontological paradigm.
See Nurbakhsh 2002: 2-3.
Djunatan Chapter 18: A Contemplative Site in West Java
397
4.5. A philosophical interpretation
The teaching narratives above reveal the indigenous ontological conception, that is,
the Tritangtu or the triadic structure of life. This conception consists of three inter-
connecting features: the human being (the self), the earth and the heavens. Each fea-
ture exists in a parallel position. These triadic features can not be adequately
illustrated as either a two-dimensional triangle, in which the heavens is the higher
rank and the other two features are lower, or a hierarchical structure, which places the
heavens to be the ultimate, human beings in the middle, and the earth in the lowest
place.
52
(See Fig. 18.3 and Fig. 18.4 below).
Fig. 18.3. The two dimensional triangle of the Tritangtu
Fig. 18.4. The hierarchical structure of the Tritangtu
The problem with the triangle diagram (Fig. 18.3) and the hierarchical struc-
ture of the Tritangtu (Fig. 18.4) is that they reduce the triadic structure to merely a
difference in higher and lower status. Both diagrams only convey the static position of
each feature without explaining the dynamic interconnections among the features. The
52
For the two dimensional triangle, cf. Sumardjo 2002, 2003:307; cf. Wessing 1979: 102. For the hier-
archical structure of Tritangtu cf. Sumardjo 2006: 356-360.
New Perspectives on Myth
398
diagrams also cannot properly convey the idea that each feature becomes the middle
for the other two. Here, the middle should be preferred as a connecting agent more
than a static middle position. In this sense, the middle is not associated with an estab-
lished position or status of the three features in the Tritangtu. The middle connotes a
dynamic function of interconnectivity rather than an established status. It is the mid-
dle that correlates the other features in the triadic structure.
To consider the middle as the interconnecting agent in the Tritangtu is to illus-
trate the triadic structure in a three-dimensional dynamic cyclic spiral.
53
The three
dimensional illustration contains a parallelism of the three features. On the one hand
the parallelism describes an equal status of the three features; on the other hand, it
conveys the dynamic interconnection among them. The equality of the features em-
phasizes the function of the middle as the interconnecting agent. Fig. 18.5 illustrates
the three-dimensional dynamic cyclic spiral.
Fig. 18.5. The three-dimensional dynamic cyclic spiral
This three dimensional illustration of the dynamic cyclic spiral shows how the
heavens (Hvs), human beings (HBs) and the earth (E) exist in an equal position. It
also describes the interconnectivity among these three features. The cyclic life spiral
begins at the birth of every individual moving toward the manifestation of the life of a
sage. The circular arrows represent a process of life which presumes the interconnec-
tivity among the three equal features for the purpose of the development of the saga-
cious selfhood. The sage does not reach a final attainment, but the sages attainment
depends on the ongoing actualizations of (Sundanese) principal virtues of life in daily
matters. Thus, becoming a sage, which requires the continuous mutual interconnec-
tion between the heavens and the earth, is an inevitable process in the development of
human character. The development of the sagacious character is impossible unless the
awareness and the practice of interconnectivity are realized in daily attitudes.
53
This is an etic interpretation inferred from several intensive interviews with the guardians. The emic
interpretation or the guardians conception provides the idea that the three features in the triadic struc-
ture of life reciprocally sustain each other so that one feature clarifies the existence of the two others.
Djunatan Chapter 18: A Contemplative Site in West Java
399
The illustration of the dynamic cyclic life spiral corresponds to the Sundanese
phrase opat kalima pancer.
54
Word by word, this phrase denotes the four compass
points (opat), the fifth point or the nucleus (kalima) and the high noon (pancer).
Opat, the four compass points symbolize the universe or the Mandala.
55
Kalima,
the nucleus connotes tengah or the middle. I propose the use of the term the mid-
dle rather than the centre or pusat in Bahasa.
56
The connotation that is derived
from the use of the term middle, emphasizes the meaning of the connecting agent
that conjoins the compass points, Papat, or the mandala. The meaning of the middle
is supported by the last word in the phrase, pancer or the high noon.
Independently, Pancer or the high noon
57
reveals the moment when light
shines without any shadow on all compass points. One can clearly see everything un-
der the sun. One can also perceive a harmonious composition of a landscape. If one
combines the middle, tengah with the high noon, pancer, one will uncover once
again the interpretation of the Almighty, human beings and the Universe as the inter-
connecting agents. This interpretation is necessary if one wants to reveal the Sun-
danese way of thinking, that is, the comprehensive worldview. In other words, the
Sundanese comprehensive worldview is a presumption which explains why Sun-
danese people conceive of a relationship between the opposites. In this sense, the
mandala or the compass points are comprehensive because they are woven by the
connecting agent, the middle.
A Sundanese metaphor of the light also refers to the middle as the intercon-
necting agent. Pak Undang explained such a metaphor in the following way:
Pancerna, anu tara bohong tea di urang, atawa batin urang, hate urang.
58
Ari tengah pancerna, ari pancer lamun disimbulkeun kana jiwa urang, anu tadi tea nu tara
bohong tea, tengahna mah kitu.
59
(My translation: The high noon is the part inside us which never lies, or our conscience, our
heart. If the high noon is symbolized inside our soul, it is our heart which never lies; the
middle is always like that.)
The citation mentions the idea that metaphorically speaking the high noon in-
side the human soul is hate, the heart or conscience. The function of the heart or the
conscience is to convey the truth. The sunlight offers consideration of and directions
54
This phrase becomes one of the meditative keywords on the contemplative site Nagara Padang for a
pilgrim. Meditating on this phrase will lead pilgrims awareness to honour and to dignify the universe
and the Almighty. Dignification of both features in triadic structure of life is equivalent to dignifying
human beings. See Pak Undang in Djunatan 2008: 130.
55
The Hindu-Tantric and Buddhist mandala as the complete structure of the universe is a significant
idea of the cosmic existence in the Archipelago. See Sumardjo 2003: 77; Lombard 1995 jilid III.
56
In Javanese, the term tengah could be translated into pusat in Bahasa or the centre. Such a transla-
tion will reduce the deepest connotation of the word. For the translation of tengah into pusat see
Sumardjo 2003, 2006. Geertz 1969; cf. with my research report Djunatan 2008.
57
See Danadibratas Sunda Lexicon for this entry.
58
Pak Undang 2008: 130.
59
Pak Undang 2008: 136.
New Perspectives on Myth
400
concerning what ought or ought not be done. The metaphor of the high noon in this
sense is also the presentation of the Almighty inside the human soul. In other words,
just as the sun illuminates a landscape, the human heart can also illuminate the right
path to walk on and guide the right conduct to be performed. In other words, the light,
the sun and the heart is the essence of the Almighty and it is the middle in this inter-
pretation. Therefore, in the Sundanese belief the Almighty is lighting the mandala, the
four compass points so that it becomes the unification of life. The unification of life
represents the comprehensive worldview and human existence as the interconnecting
agent in Sundanese peoples conception.
The guardian of the site employs the meaning of the human existence as the
interconnecting agent, as explained by the phrase papat kalmia pancer, to solve the
riddle of Nagara Padang. The name Nagara Padang consists of the word Nagara
and Padang.
60
The word Nagara should be read starting from the last syllable to the
first one. It becomes ra ga na. Ra and Ga are combined so that one can read
them as Raga or the (human) body. These three syllables are accompanied with the
preposition dina or in / into. Together the word should be read as Dina Raga Na,
or in the body. The word Padang means light, brightness, or illumination. Thus the
riddle of Nagara Padang means either there is the light in the human body or that
the human body itself is the representation of the Light or the Almighty. Both solu-
tions of the riddle emphasize the following ontological formulations about the presen-
tation of human beings.
a) The presentation of human beings is the realization of a dynamic inter-
connectivity within its inner self.
b) The presentation of human beings is as a mediating agent who inter-
weaves the different elements in the universe; and by becoming such
an agent, human beings are interconnected with the heavens and with
the earth.
Both conceptions characterize human existence as an experience of self-
enlightenment. In every individuals inner life, there is a tendency to experience self-
illumination in order to answer the quests for life (formulation a). In answering such
quests for life, an individual should have a sensibility to listen to his / her conscience.
Under the influence of the conscience an individual should be able to deliberate and to
discern all sorts of impulses and reactions. In doing this, the individual will work it
through in their own mind which path in life they decide to take. In order to determine
their individual pathway in life, the individual should be able to practice self-
perseverance and self-discipline so that he or she is consistent in realizing his or her
own destiny in life. By being aware of the purpose of life, each individual is aiming
for the realization of the Sage through their daily attitudes. This is the experience of
the illumination of the inner self. In short, the experience of self-enlightenment im-
60
Cf. the transcription of my interview with Pak Undang in Djunatan 2008: 104.
Djunatan Chapter 18: A Contemplative Site in West Java
401
plies the interconnectivity of the physical and the mental aspects, the body and the
soul.
Outwardly, human beings will be interconnected with others in accordance
with the second meaning (formulation b). This interconnectivity defines precisely the
role of every human being. Such role can be described with the questions how do I as
an individual realize my presentation for others? or what can I do for others? Such
questions are indispensable for individuals rather than asking what is it? or who are
you? In other words, life is defined by an individuals role not only to themselves but
also their function in a communal life. From this standpoint, the role interconnects the
individual with others. The status of an individual is not an established position to
define identity.
Thus the Nagara Padang site proposes the idea that human beings exist in a
mutual interconnectivity. Human beings exist for the earth and the heavens and like-
wise the heavens and the earth exist for human beings. The ontological role is the rea-
son for existence; it is more than a definitive establishment of the self-identity. In
other words, the indigenous ontological conception of human beings is that every hu-
man being is always interconnected with others. Human existence is an expression of
this correlation especially within the triadic structure of life, the Tritangtu. From an
etic interpretative perspective, I would formulate this ontological standpoint as the
affirmative life. The word affirmative is essential because it will uncover the Sun-
danese virtues of life that have already been discussed above. An affirmative individ-
ual expresses intersubjective dignification (silihwangi), reciprocal nurturing, loving
and teaching (silih asuh, silih asah, silih asih), equality or egalitarianism (sapaja-
jaran), gratitude (nuhunkuen), compassion (welas asih), and justice (adil). These vir-
tues explain how Life embodies affirmative qualities in its essence and design.
61
Thus,
after discussing the characteristics of affirmative individuals, I will now shift to a
wider context of abstraction. The presentation of affirmative subjects draws particular
attention to the idea of affirmation as key to conceiving of life in general.
5. Open ending: A comparative study
The indigenous ontological conception of life and human beings underlies an episte-
mological framework of knowledge production.
62
Before the discussion of the frame-
work continues further, one should think of the etic philosophical interpretation
instead of the emic one. The external formulation of the emic ontological conception
61
One should refer to indigenous classification implied in the conception of Life. Such classification
differentiates wadah or cangkang or the designation and eusi or the essence. A poetic phrase de-
scribes this differentiation, cangkang reujeung eusina kudu sarua lobana (the designation and the
essence should be compatible [equal]). See Sumardjo 2006: 331.
62
See van Binsbergen 2003 and 2008, for an intensive as well as extensive philosophical discourse of
local knowledge production from the standpoint of intercultural encounters.
New Perspectives on Myth
402
can be compared with a typical philosophical conception. This typical philosophical
conception emerges in the Chinese classical philosophy, the Dao De Ching. Thus, the
following comparative study between the Sundanese ontological conception and the
Chinese one will depend on the etic interpretation of both theories. This comparative
study will proceed first with the interpretation of the Sundanese ontological concep-
tion, the affirmative life.
5.1. The Sundanese affirmative life
Before I explain the triadic structure of life Tritangtu, I would like to start with the
following Sundanese poetic phrase.
Dunya sakitu legana, heurinna ngan ku dua jalma, lalaki jeung awewe
63
(Our vast earth only comprises man and woman, my translation).
This phrase describes a metaphorical polarized pair, man and woman.
64
The pair ex-
plains the two opposite sides. Other opposites can be mentioned such as darkness and
light, success and failure, persistence and distraction, selflessness and selfishness,
among others. In metaphors, these opposites indicate the binary presentation of exis-
tence, as shown in the previous pairs.
Nevertheless, the existence of these paradox subjects cannot be conceived
unless the third conjoining one is implied. If one only recognizes two distinct sub-
jects, one will ignore the foundational one which underlies the whole existence itself.
In the quotation above the earth or dunya is the third conjoining subject, which
unifies man and woman. Thus, Tritangtu is really the triadic structure of life.
Symbolically the triadic structure is shown in terms of the earth, man and woman.
From this standpoint, the opposite subjects are the necessary condition for existence
while the underlying third feature is the sufficient reason for existence so that life be-
comes a comprehensive presentation.
65
The triadic structure of life implies using logical operations to theorize about
the indigenous ontological conception. The indigenous logical operation consists of
three mechanisms as follows:
1. The acknowledgement of the unique presentation of a subject. The acknowl-
edgement is meant for the recognition that different features exist in life, either
symbolically projected on to the Tritangtu, human beings, earth and heavens
or experienced inwardly or reciprocally correlated among the mind, the affec-
tion and the volition.
2. The assertion of the unique existence of the two distinct representations. This
63
My interview with Abah Karmo.
64
It is clear that polarization of subjects discovers Sufisms influence in the peoples mind and belief.
See Chittick 2002: 30.
65
Wessing 2006: 211-212.
Djunatan Chapter 18: A Contemplative Site in West Java
403
assertion explains the opposition of one against the other. The assertion is in-
evitable if one thinks of the diversity of the presentations of individuals, or of
the plural expression of the One. Moreover, a clear distinction will define a
particularity of self-identity. A man is distinct from a woman. A classification
is made for the plural presentations. The man occupies one side, the woman
the other. The clear distinction of these sides implies the negative logical op-
eration so that the contradiction will obtain. Only one side is true. Conse-
quently, the prevailing one will synthesize the opposite. This way of thinking,
I argue, has been employed in the logic of identity formation and the principle
of the excluded third.
66
3. The apposition
67
of the dualistic presentations is a comprehensive review. The
review is made based on the idea that one side clarifies the existence of the
others and vice versa. The negative logical operation of the pair does not dem-
onstrate a complete thinking process. The teaching narratives of sagacity on
the site prove this comprehensive worldview. The guardian mentions:
...didinya memang ta jalan had jeung gorng. Ngan had nu mana gorng nu
mana. Ulah gorengna gorng teuing. Had ge ulah had teuing. Sabab gorng teuing
kacida, had teuing pare og loba teuing bera mah euweuh eusian, hapa. Euweuh
araheun, had teuing. Siger tengah. (Handap) teuing bisi jongklok, tukang teuing bisi
jongklok. Geura panggihan, geura tepungan anu aya dina wujud. Geura tepangan anu
aya dina raga, geura wincik anu aya dina diri, geura papay anu aya dina rasa.
68
.
(... there is good and bad. Yet one has to carefully understand both. It is better if it is
not too bad or not too good, because that means excess. If there are too many grains
of rice, they are empty. Too good is aimless. Be comprehensive. Too low one can
fall; too high one can also fall. Find this out within. Discover this inside the body,
perform self-management. Be aware of your conscience.)
The guardian employs the logical operation of the apposition when he perceives the
existence of the opposites such as good / bad (hade / goreng), male / female (lalaki /
awewe), day / night. The logical operation leads to the understanding that the good is
in apposition to the bad. This comprehension is not only about a theory of a balanced
perception of these opposites. One should be able to conceive of both sides simulta-
neously and recognize that the opposites are interconnected. The self-awareness of
this appositive correlation is symbolized in the Sundanese compound word Siger
tengah or according to my translation be comprehensive. This compound word is
associated with the idea of the interconnecting middle. The middle functions as the
inclusive connectivity of the paradox. This is not a third way which exclusively exists
along side the opposites. The opposites are correlated in so far as one side implies the
other sides existence.
According to another interpretation, Siger means crown or corona. Semi-
66
Cf. van Binsbergen 2008: 13, 30.
67
See Fung Yu-Lan, 1969: 31.
68
Transcription of my interview with Pak Undang in Djunatan 2008: 120.
New Perspectives on Myth
404
otically, the crown or the corona symbolizes the circle of light for someone who is
honored and perfect.
69
The circle posits the comprehensive worldview so that every
presentation is irreplaceable. The circle clarifies the idea that the man explains the
presentation of the woman, and vice versa. In short the circle embodies the connect-
ing middle position, which is the apposition of distinct subjects.
Together the ternary logical operations above enhance the idea of the affirma-
tive life in the indigenous ontological conception. The idea clarifies that Life in itself
embodies a comprehensive quality. This quality enriches the human recognition of the
multiple as well as the unique presentations of individuals. The comprehensive
worldview is an explanation of the human interconnecting presentation. It is an inclu-
sive recognition of the others.
5.2. The wisdom of the affirmative life
Wisdom can be considered part of indigenous intelligence
70
or as a part of indigenous
knowledge production. Indigenous sagacious knowledge serves a pragmatic function
in dealing with daily conduct and behavior. The pragmatic function acknowledges the
nature of human virtues and vices. It also asserts the human virtues against the human
fragilities. The identification of virtues and vices in daily conduct explain the prevail-
ing virtues over the vices. Nevertheless, the identification of the prevailing virtues
should be completed by a third logical operation. The Apposition of the opposites,
that the virtues are seen in apposition to the vices, is needed so that one can under-
stand that the virtues interconnect with the vices.
This apposition is the comprehensive worldview of sagacious individuality.
Human beings inevitably identify the bad characters along with the good ones. Thus
the binary quality of human characters is the necessary explanation of human exis-
tence. A close comparison of the ternary logical operations of sagacious knowledge
can be made with Chinese classical philosophy. In the 2nd verse of Chapter 2 of the
Chinese Dao De Ching it is written:
Therefore having and not having arise together
Difficult and easy complement each other
Long and short contrast each other
High and low rest upon each other
Voice and sound harmonize each other
69
See Wiratakusumah 2008.
70
van Binsbergen 2008: 18-19.
71
Lao Tsu in Gia-Fu Feng and Jane Englishs translation (1972/1997): chapter 2 yng shn
(self-cultured, self-development), in roman pinyin at
http://www.yellowbridge.com/onlinelit/daodejing02.php or http://www.edepot.com/taocp.html:
(qu) you wu xing sheng, nan yi xing cheng,
Djunatan Chapter 18: A Contemplative Site in West Java
405
Front and back follow one another
71
Therefore the sage goes about doing nothing,
teaching no-talking
72
Each line of the 2nd verse identifies the opposite, such as having - not having. Fol-
lowing the opposites are reciprocal complements, such as arise together, each other
(xing, )
73
and the (literary) equivalence (zh, ), for the explanation of the corre-
lation between the binary such as going (manage affairs) and doing nothing (wu
wei), teaching and no-talking. The polarized sides are not intelligible unless this
reciprocal correlation is present.
The Dao De Ching is also a teaching narrative about a reciprocal explanation
or apposition of the paradox. In other words, the reciprocal complements in the sec-
ond verses of Dao De Ching above explain the basic Chinese mindset, the correlative
thinking.
74
The correlative thinking also explains that every subject presumes the exis-
tence of the others. A subject is a part of the others, or it belongs to others. In short,
each subject needs a reciprocating acknowledgment.
75
This reciprocity and the cor-
relative thinking explain the wisdom of the affirmative life.
When one thinks of the ideas of the correlative mind and reciprocal thinking
found in Chinese classics, one can identify that this mindset is also familiar to the
teaching narratives at the contemplative site Nagara Padang. The third logical opera-
tion in Sundanese thought demonstrates a similar way of thinking. The apposition or
the comprehensive mind reflects the correlative thinking and the reciprocity between
two distinct and polarized features of life. One can identify the comprehensive mind
in realization of Sunda principal virtues of life. The virtues are an expression of the
wisdom of the affirmative life.
If one expresses the wisdom of the affirmative life, one is able to see the full-
ness of human presentation. To be able to conceive of such a presentation is to im-
prove sagacious individuality. The sagacious individual does not emphasize one side
in preference to the other. The wisdom of the affirmative life is a way of thinking that
is consistently critical of the desire to prevail over others. One needs to be aware of
chang duan xing xing, gao xia xing qing,
yin sheng xing he, qian hou xing sui.
shi yi sheng ren, chu wu wei zh shi, xing bu yan (er) zh jiao.
72
Cf. Legges translation of this line: Therefore the sage manages affairs without doing anything (wu
wei), and conveys his instructions without the use of speech. The character zh () connects go
(manages affairs) with doing nothing (without doing anything, wu wei), and teaching with no-
talking. See http://www.yellowbridge.com/onlinelit/daodejing02.php .
73
Suzukis translation is mutually. Other scholars like Legge translates it, one another; Goddard has
all are opposite and each reveals the other. Suzukis translation of Daodejing see.
http://www.yellowbridge.com/onlinelit/daodejing02.php.
74
Lai 2002: 22.
75
Whit et al., 2001: 10.
New Perspectives on Myth
406
our inner negative intention to eliminate others. Instead of expressing this negative
force, one needs to promote a more comprehensive worldview. Realizing this com-
prehensive worldview in daily conduct, one will maintain affirmative individuality. In
turn, once sagacious individuality is achieved, one immediately expresses his / her
respect for life and dignifies existence in multiple forms.
To conclude this account of work in progress, the contemplative site of Nagara
Padang reveals the wisdom of people who inhabit West Java (now comprised of three
provinces). However, the Sunda refers to more that the vast land between Asia and
Australia and the people who live there. My informant, Ki Laras Maya often said that
the Sunda should also be known as an ideology of the wisdom of the affirmative
life.
76
Such wisdom can contribute to human interaction and enhance civilization even
though adversity will always occur in the process of mediation or negotiation for a
common understanding and for the establishment of peace. Of course, the wisdom of
the affirmative life is not always the best medicine for all human problems nowadays.
It is a persuasive invitation to a pragmatic interconnectivity and it promotes the pri-
macy of life over our negative interests which try to exploit benefits from other mani-
festations of life.
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409
Chapter 19. The function of irony in
mythical narratives
Hans Blumenberg and Homers ludicrous gods
by Nadia Sels
1
Abstract. Dealing with Greek mythology, one inevitably encounters the problem of the ambiguous
treatment of the Olympic pantheon. It seems that for the Greeks, the gods could be both the object of
sincere reverence and the source of ironic laughter. This apparent paradox is especially striking in the
epics of Homer, where solemn veneration can in a few verses turn into mockery, and vice versa. To
rationalise this ambiguity, classical scholars have often attempted to artificially separate these two atti-
tudes by ascribing them to different authors, ages or poetic registers. This point of departure, however,
was motivated by the expectations of a monotheistic and thus anachronistic model they enforced upon
Greek mythology.
I want to argue that these seemingly incompatible attitudes are two sides of the same coin, and that
this ironic streak of Greek mythology is inherent to its function.
For this hypothesis, I base myself on the theories of Hans Blumenberg. This philosopher and clas-
sical philologist approached myth not as a particular archaic genre, but as a continuous process of sym-
bolisation that enables man to reduce what he called the absolutism of reality (Wirklichkeitsabsolutis-
mus). This liminal concept refers to a condition of being totally overwhelmed by the undifferentiated
threat of the outside world. The polytheistic pantheon and the stories that surround it are considered to
be the primitive means by which man succeeded to differentiate this threat, and thus to restrict it. Me-
diated by myth, the absolutism of reality becomes both sublime and manageable. Irony forms a part of
this process.
To concretise and illustrate these theories, I will apply them to some excerpts from the Homeric
epics wherein the gods are depicted in an ironical way: the battle of the gods (Ilias XX), the story
about the entrapment of Aphrodite and Ares by Hephaestus (Odyssea 8.266-369), and, in particular,
the beguilement of Zeus by Hera (Ilias XIV).
1. Introduction
I would like to start my argument with a personal anecdote. One night, when I was
still very young, my father took me for a walk in a nature reserve near our house. In
1
University of Ghent, Belgium (FWO, Flanders).
New Perspectives on Myth
410
the distance we could see some flickering lights, probably street lamps or something.
But my father, who loved folk tales, told me that these little stars were will-o-the
wisps, unbaptized souls that were doomed to roam the heath. He then warned me
never to beckon to these lights, for they would take it as a sign that you were prepared
to baptize them and come rushing to you at such a speed that it would crack your
chest. Fascinated by the story, I tarried till I dropped behind and then, terrified, half-
heartedly, beckoned. The only thing that followed me as I spurted back to my father
was some whirling snowflakes. In spite of this experience, surprisingly, for years I
kept thinking of the little sparkles on the heath as restless souls, will-o-the-wisps, and
nothing else. But maybe it is even more surprising that I beckoned altogether. For if I
did believe my fathers story, even slightly, I was taking a deadly risk, and if not, the
gesture would have been meaningless. At the time, I think it would be correct to say, I
understood my fathers story as a myth. Like a myth it was a fascinating story that
defined and explained a part of the world, but at the same time it was not totally clear
whether I understood it to be fact or fiction, real or unreal. By beckoning, was I ac-
knowledging or mocking the legend of the will-o-the-wisps?
2. Homers ambiguous portrayal of the gods: An age-
old question
This inherent ambiguity of myth, the fact that it often seems to hover between mock-
ery and veneration, is one of its most puzzling qualities. Another good example of this
mythical paradox is found in Homers ambiguous portrayal of the Olympian gods, the
subject I want to discuss here. The Homeric gods are anthropomorphic. They are not
only human, but all too human even. At the same time these belligerent, pretentious
and childish creatures represent exalted cosmic forces that are deemed worthy of ven-
eration and awe. Calhoun phrases the paradox very accurately:
The scandalous tale of Ares and Aphrodite, for example, ends on a note of serene beauty and
dignity; in three lines we pass from a scene that might have shocked the goodwife of Bath to
the august serenity of the most sacred shrine of earths most potent goddess ( 360-362). That
majestic Zeus whose nod shakes great Olympus, the Zeus of Phidias and of all poets, is also
the furtive, henpecked husband, made querulous by the thought of Heras nagging, who pres-
ently finds relief in a ridiculous squabble with his consort (A 528-567). In the Theomachy is
this same curious intermingling of the sublime with the ridiculous and vulgar, lines that are
stigmatized as unspeakably bad by Leaf and Wilamowitz and lines that can be acclaimed for
their sublimity by so critical a spirit as Edward Gibbon (Calhoun 1937a: 11-12).
This seeming discrepancy in Homers conception of Olympus, which Calhoun
calls one of the unsolved puzzles of Homeric study (1937a: 11) has even troubled
scholars of antiquity as early as the sixth century. It led to criticism of Xenophanes,
the philosopher who was scandalised by the immorality of the gods, and to the alle-
goric readings of Theagenes and Pherecydes, who tried to exonerate Homer with their
Sels Chapter 19: The Function of Irony in Homer
411
distorting interpretations.
2
It can indeed be said that it was Homers often ludicrous
depiction of the gods that sparked off the first instances of literary criticism in West-
ern history. The problem which had puzzled many scholars in Homeric studies con-
tinued in to the twentieth century when contested passages were often disposed of as
late interpolations that were consciously critical. The original epics were assumed to
be composed in
an early period of simple faith and sincere religious feeling in which poets sing of the gods
with reverence or exalt them as the benevolent rulers of the cosmos,
while the scandalous scenes originated in
subsequent periods of iconoclastic scepticism usually a concomitant of the Ionian philoso-
phy in which later poets scoff and jeer at the deities of earlier generations.
3
It was only with the work of George Calhoun that this kind of thinking lost its
legitimacy. He pointed out that
[i]n those instances in which the cultural background of mythology or religion is definitely
known we find uniformly that naive, grotesque elements appear at a very primitive level and
are in no way incompatible with devout religious feeling (Calhoun 1937b: 266-267).
4
Calhoun assumed that the grotesque elements in Homer came from ancient
folk tales and Mrchen
5
and were combined with the more solemn material for aes-
thetic reasons. For him, chopping up Homer in different religious strata is
as intelligent as would be the assumption that the tesserae of different colours in a mosaic
must have been set by different hands (Calhoun 1937b: 272).
Today, it is obvious that Calhouns position has prevailed. Nowadays no one
would consider marking the scandalous Homeric passages as interpolations. It is clear
that those philologists who once did this were projecting the expectations and charac-
teristics of a relatively modern, monotheistic system of belief that of their own time
and culture on that of Homer. By now we have become aware that contradiction is
common in human imagination and thinking, at an individual level as well as on a
collective scale, and that mythic thinking in particular tolerates discrepancies to a far
greater extent.
6
2
See also Sikes 1940: 123 and Detienne 1981: 12.
3
I quote from George M. Calhouns Higher Criticism on Olympus (1937: 258), in which he attacks
such hypotheses, principally those of Wilamowitz and Finsler. I also refer to this article for a general
survey of their positions.
4
G.S. Kirk also stresses that there is a constant between myth and fairytale, and that seriousness and
play are consistently intertwined (Kirk 1990: 31).
5
See Calhouns article Homers Gods Myth and Mrchen (1939), where he substantiates this theory
with a list of fairy tale elements from Homer.
6
See also Keller: One of the prime characteristics of primitive social forms is the ease with which they
ignore consistency. This general proposition could be illustrated at length from Homer, entirely apart
from the subject of rationalisation. For example, the gods are represented as eating with men, as enjoy-
ing the savor of sacrifices; yet it is elsewhere stated that they eat ambrosia (that is immortality), that a
fluid called ichor supplies for them the place of blood, and so on. Souls are incorporeal and like
New Perspectives on Myth
412
Paul Veynes study Les Grecs ont-ils cru leurs mythes? (1983) has been cru-
cial in that respect. In this work, Veyne has demonstrated how our modern opposi-
tions true / false, fact / fiction and belief / disbelief simply do not fit myth. These
concepts are anachronistic when applied to the Greeks and their relation to mythol-
ogy, because the distinction between fiction and reality had yet to be made (Veyne
1988:17). So the question of whether the Greeks believed in their own myths cannot
simply be answered with yes or no, because believing meant something totally dif-
ferent to them.
7
Veyne lays bare the historicity of the concept of truth and states that
myth was not, and cannot be evaluated by that standard. It was a tertium quid, neither
true nor false (Veyne 1988: 28).
8
For instance, he illustrates this statement by citing
the work of Dan Sperber on the mythic convictions of the Ethiopian Dorz concerning
the leopard:
[T]he leopard is a Christian animal who respects the fasts of the Coptic Church, the obser-
vance of which, in Ethiopia, is the principal test of religion. Nonetheless, a Dorz is no less
careful to protect his livestock on Wednesdays and Fridays, the fast days, than on other days
of the week. He holds it true that leopards fast and that they eat every day. Leopards are dan-
gerous every day; this he knows by experience. They are Christians; tradition proves it (Veyne
1988: xi).
So Veyne would definitely argue against the old thesis that the scandalous
Olympian sections are late interpolations. Just as the leopard can be considered both a
piously ascetic Christian and a dangerous predator at the same time, it is not a contra-
diction for the Homeric gods to be considered ridiculous childish creatures and divine
cosmic entities at the same time.
However, there is an important distinction between Calhouns argumentation
and that of Veyne. While Veyne speaks of the functioning of thoughts and beliefs,
Calhoun limits himself ultimately to discussing the workings of literature. He sees the
two contradictory images of the gods not as two sides of the same religious coin, but
as different stylistic elements that Homer combines to make his story more attractive.
The sublime gods are the gods of religion, or of his ethical thought while their ri-
diculous counterparts are exponents of a vulgar folk tradition, the ancient, grotesque
gods of myth, crystallized in their unchanging tradition (Calhoun 1937a: 17). In this
way, even Calhouns solution holds on to the old division. When it comes down to it,
he flinches from confronting the possibility that Homeric religion is simply radically
different from the modern one and inherently allows for this contradiction. By refus-
ing to take the ambiguity of the Homeric gods seriously, he misses out on the chance
of considering more far-ranging conclusions. For a literary work is never merely a
smoke; yet Odysseus can keep them away from his blood-filled trench at the point of the sword (Kel-
ler 1910: 652-653).
7
And even for us, Veyne argues, matters of true or false, believing or disbelieving are not as clear-cut
as we like to think. Another very illumination study on the relativity of the verb to believe, that fol-
lows a similar line of thought, is Jean Pouillons article Remarques sur le verbe croire (1979).
8
Marcel Detiennes Les matres de la vrit dans la Grce archaque (1967) should also be mentioned
here, as it substantiates the fact that the concept of truth is historically and culturally defined.
Sels Chapter 19: The Function of Irony in Homer
413
literary work; it reflects a world of thought, real mentalities and attitudes.
Surprisingly, Calhouns approach has set the tone in Homeric studies for the
treatment of the problem right up to the present day. Even the sophisticated Laurence
Coupe still glosses over the strangely ambiguous character of the Homeric gods by
reducing them to mere literary tools:
The deities of Homer are, significantly, presented as vividly, sometimes ridiculously, anthro-
pomorphic: they exhibit all the lust and greed, pettiness and spite, of which humans are capa-
ble. They shift their allegiances in the war according to whim, or decide to hinder the heros
progress because of some nurtured grievance. They are primarily literary devices, which help
to get the tale told (Coupe 1997: 102).
Although we agree with the fact that the Homeric epics are primarily literary
works and not theological treatises, we cannot ignore their powerful religious dimen-
sions. Furthermore, the conclusion that the element of parody, even mockery, was not
incompatible with sincere veneration, leaves us with the question of how both sides
are interrelated. How should we conceive of this religious attitude? And what was the
function of this parodical element?
In what follows, I want to propose an answer to this question on the basis of
the theories developed by the German thinker Hans Blumenberg in his work Arbeit
am Mythos (1979).
9
Blumenberg has developed a fresh and challenging conception of
the workings of myth and looks at parody as an important element of the mythical,
vital to its functioning. After giving a compendious survey of Blumenbergs line of
reasoning, I will further explore the meaning of the concepts of parody and irony and
try to conceptually adapt them to the Homeric context. I will then attempt to prove the
usefulness of these theories by checking them against the epics themselves, and apply
them specifically to the three challenged passages Calhoun mentions: the Theomachy
and the Dios Apat in the Iliad, and the story of Ares and Aphrodite in the Odyssey.
3. Blumenberg and the absolutism of reality: Strate-
gies to keep the gods at bay
Being both a philosopher and a philologist, Hans Blumenberg approached myth from
a dual perspective. In his work, mythology refers not only to the stories we call myths,
but also to a more abstract conception, a modality of imagining and thinking that
gives structure to the world by narration. The point of departure for Blumenberg was
the work of the philosopher Ernst Cassirer, who in his Philosophie der symbolischen
Formen (1923-1929) tried to bridge the gap between the Enlightenments distrust for
myth and Romanticisms idealisation of it. Blumenberg adopts Cassirers insight of
not seeing mythos as the opposite of logos, but as a preliminary phase, a steppingstone
towards it. For Blumenberg the only problem with this theory is that it implies that
once the stadium of logos is reached, myth should become redundant and dissolve.
9
From here on, I will refer to the English translation Work on Myth (1985) by Robert Wallace.
New Perspectives on Myth
414
This, according to Blumenberg, has never happened. Myth is still, implicitly or ex-
plicitly, omnipresent. His conclusion is that myth cannot be a primitive and imperfect
form of logos. Since myth is not made futile by logos, then it must serve some other
purpose, a purpose of its own. This is why Blumenberg proposes that we stop study-
ing myth from the point of a terminus ad quem, that is from the point of logos which
should evolve in an almost teleological way, but should instead look at it from its
terminus a quo, from the situation out of which myth originated, or from the problem
that triggered it.
To conceptualise this situation, Blumenberg is forced to create a sort of an-
thropological myth himself, and to use what he calls a liminal concept: the Absolutis-
mus der Wirklichkeit, absolutism of reality. Absolutism of reality refers to a certain
state of total fear and paralysis that overtook primitive man or should have over-
taken him when he left his biological niche as an animal and exchanged the habitat
of the woods for the vast plains of the savannah. In this environment with its open
horizon, to which he was no longer adapted, danger could come from anywhere. Re-
acting to possibilities and threats of the environment was no longer a matter of re-
flexes and instincts; for the first time, a future had to be anticipated:
What is here called the absolutism of reality is the totality of what goes with
this situational leap, which is inconceivable without super-accomplishment in conse-
quence of a sudden lack of adaption. Part of this is the capacity of foresight, anticipa-
tion of what has not yet taken place, preparation for what is absent, beyond the
horizon. It all converges on what is accomplished by concepts. Before that, though,
the pure state of indefinite anticipation is anxiety. To formulate it paradoxically, it is
intentionality of consciousness without an object. As a result of it, the whole horizon
becomes equivalent as the totality of the directions from which it can come at once
(Blumenberg 1985: 4).
Absolutism of reality is not the fear of some particular threat, but exactly the
more radical form of anxiety that occurs when the threat is not specified, is every-
where and nowhere, reality itself. Against this Angst the German word is more ap-
propriate no defence is possible because it is absolute, unrestricted by forms or
names. However, absolutism of reality is a liminal concept. Man has never been
overwhelmed by it in this measure. As far as we can go back, it has always been kept
at bay by something that could turn this total, undefined Angst into mere concrete
fear, directed at a well-defined danger. This was accomplished by means of myth.
10
Many factors have contributed to the exact shaping of mythical narratives in-
cluding among other factors psychological, biological, and socio-political realities.
Yet for Blumenberg the reasons why these stories have taken these particular forms is
less important, than the fact that they have taken these specific forms no matter what
these forms may be. By these means, man succeeds in structuralizing his world, in
10
Blumenbergs a quo- approach is consistent with Kenneth Burkes remark on myth: critical and
imaginative works are answers to questions posed by the situation in which they arose. They are not
merely answers, they are strategic answers, stylized answers (Quoted in Coupe 1997: 177, italics in
the original).
Sels Chapter 19: The Function of Irony in Homer
415
making it appear comprehensible, even controllable. In the first place this is not
achieved through logos, reason, but through imagination, for reason itself only be-
comes possible on irrational premises:
[A]nxiety must again and again be rationalised into fear, both in the history of mankind and in
that of the individual. This occurs primarily, not through experience and knowledge, but rather
through devices like that of the substitution of the familiar for the unfamiliar, of explanations
for the inexplicable, of names for the unnameable (Blumenberg 1985: 5).
Myths primal function is to give the uncontrollable and indefinable
11
a face
and a name: it takes the form of monsters and gods. By this, the horror is channelled
and mitigated into milder emotions: awe, astonishment and rapture (Blumenberg
1985: 62). The mystery becomes more fascinans than tremendum, to use, as Blumen-
berg sometimes does, Rudolf Ottos terms.
The process of restricting the threat by naming and delimiting it leads to even
further ramifications: more and more names appear to classify the sacred, with more
and more stories and particularities attached to them. A mythology comes into being.
The main aim of this mythology is the division of power. Therefore, Blumenberg ar-
gues, religion was originally always polytheistic. For every threatening Poseidon,
there must be a helpful Athena, for every vindictive Hera, there must be a benevolent
Zeus. This is also the reason why mythology loves to portray the gods as a bunch of
quarrelsome children:
12
Not only to be able to shield oneself from one power with the
aid of another, but simply to see one as always occupied and entangled with the other,
was an encouragement to man deriving from there mere multiplicity (Blumenberg
1985: 14). In a later stage, some religions will indeed turn to monotheism. I cannot go
into this issue here, and will restrict myself to saying that even then mythology tries to
confine the gods powers, by a covenant, a treaty he enters with man, but also by in-
troducing saints, angels and even a Mother of God to mollify his wrath (see Blumen-
berg 1985: 22-23 and 140).
With this theory about the division of powers, Blumenberg provides an expla-
nation for a multitude of properties of mythology, like the polytheistic origin of relig-
ion, the superabundance of names in mythological genealogies and the quarrelsome
nature of the gods. But there is more that seems to be consistent with his theory, like
the fact that the Olympians are not the primordial gods, but were preceded by several
older generations. In contrast with the rude gods of the past, Blumenberg suggests,
man could depict the present gods as charitable and well-disposed towards man.
Moreover, the fact that Zeus had not ruled the world since the beginning of time sug-
gested that his reign was not absolute and did not have to last eternally. The story of
Prometheus, not accidentally the creator and champion of man, reminds us that even
Zeus is not invincible in the end.
Of course, the function of myth is not to totally deny the threat posed by the
11
Outside and inside us, psychoanalysis would argue.
12
Discussing the Homeric epics, Calhoun even goes as far as to call the quarrelling of the gods the
dominant motif of the Olympian scenes throughout both poems (Calhoun 1939a: 22).
New Perspectives on Myth
416
sacral. On the contrary, myth can only work properly if it represents the horror. But it
allows us the choice of how we represent it: the Titans, the vengeful Zeus that causes
the Deluge, creatures like Python and Typhon, are all set in a distant past, and the
monsters that roamed the earth are consistently accompanied by heroes that get the
better of them. And as the work of mythology advances, even the monsters lose their
grim disposition and become alluring.
13
This is what happened to Medusa, who
through the ages iconographically evolved from a hideous beast to an image of ago-
nized beauty (Blumenberg 1985: 15, 65-66). Blumenberg considers the Gorgon to be
exemplary for the workings of myth. Her capacity to turn those who look her in the
face into stone seems to suggest the paralysing panic of the absolutism of reality. Like
all monsters, she is a ragbag of animal body parts. This hybrid, polymorphous body
reflects the amorphous, undefined fear she symbolizes, but at the same time the min-
ute description defines and restricts it. Apollodorus describes her with snakes instead
of hair, a tong that hung out between an enormous set of teeth, iron claws and dragon
scales, but, as Blumenberg remarks, each of [these] details [] makes Medusa more
harmless (Blumenberg 1985: 116-117). Myth is Perseus mirror-shield that reflects
our fears in an image we can face and by doing so enables us to conquer them. Once
Medusa is defeated, we can incorporate her powers. The head becomes beneficial; it
merges with the protective aegis of sublime Athena.
But next to description and division of power, there is another important
stratagem of myth that Blumenberg discusses, which is the one that concerns us here,
its comical character. His theory on this matter may be a valuable addition to Cal-
houns insights, since he shows how the ambiguous image of the Homeric gods may
be motivated by more than simply aesthetic reasons. The problem has always been
closely connected to the question to what extent ancient people literally believed in
their myths. After all, is not mocking the gods only a step away from denying their
existence altogether? Blumenberg has a paradoxical answer to this question. On the
one hand, he affirms that the mockery of the gods is a form of rebellion against them,
a declaration of independence. On the other hand, this mockery is not contradictory to
myth. Far from that, it is one of the techniques of work on myth (Blumenberg 1985:
33). Parody may seem to undermine the authority of the gods, but at the same time it
confirms them, makes them possible, bearable. We can only endure a god that to
some extent we know we can defy. Parody is a method that ensures we can defy them.
This is what Homer does when he pokes fun at the gods, and this is what I did
when I beckoned the will-o-the-wisps. To make the god endure curses, mockery,
and blasphemous ceremonies is to feel out and possibly to displace the limits on
which one can rely. To provoke the savior to the point where he comes []. One can
do this, or say that, without being struck by lightning. It is the first stage of Enlight-
enment satire, of rhetorical secularization as a stylistic technique employed by a
spirit that is not yet confident of its enlightened status (Blumenberg 1985: 16-17). So
13
See Woodford 2003: 133-140 for some specific examples of how the images of monsters evolved
during antiquity.
Sels Chapter 19: The Function of Irony in Homer
417
when I assured myself that the unbaptized souls on the heath were really not that dan-
gerous, I was on a small scale preparing my own Enlightenment. But at the same time
the gesture made it possible for me for the first time to confidently believe in these
spirits; it reassured me, that by admitting their existence, I was not admitting some
terrible power in the world that could not be controlled. On the contrary, the will-o-
the-wisps provided me with an image in which I could store some of the absolutism
of reality. With them, some of my fears were banned to the heath, to a no mans land
between reality and fiction.
4. Irony, human helplessness and the divine
viewpoint
Up until now, I have used Blumenbergs term parody. This concept is of course in-
evitably anachronistic: if we follow Veyne and Blumenberg we have to assume that
mockery came naturally to the Greeks when dealing with their gods. Homer mentally
did not have to make the shift to a specific genre or stylistic device when he inserted
his comical passages, as Calhoun would certainly have it, and as the term parody
implies. However, there are additional reasons why this word is not entirely adequate.
A classical definition considers parody to be any cultural practice which provides a
relatively polemical allusive imitation of another cultural production or practice
(Dentith 2000: 9). Definitions may vary, of course, but the element of a serious origi-
nal seems to be elementary. In my reading of Blumenberg however, it is essential that
there never was such an original, there never was an early period of simple faith and
sincere religious feeling. On the contrary, Blumenbergs theory implies that the
mocking attitude towards the gods was the original one, and that the kind of religion
that could distinguish sincerity from mockery, fiction from fact, only became possible
after this period of work on myth.
Blumenberg stresses that for him, there is no original myth, only Arbeit am
Mythos: I do not want to leave room for the assumption that myth is the primary,
archaic formation, in relation to which everything subsequent can be called reception.
[] [T]he process of reception has itself become a presentation of its manner of func-
tioning (Blumenberg 1985: 118). There is no original myth to be found, since myth is
not a certain fixed genre, but a movement away from something. The parodic tone of
these stories should not be interpreted as an allusion to a serious original, but rather as
an essential and inextricable feature of what myth is and does. Thus, we are obliged to
work with oppositions and concepts that do not suit myth because only the work of
myth made these oppositions and concepts possible in the first place. It would be
more correct to state that the comical engendered the serious rather than the other way
round.
14
14
See also Csapo 2005: 7: Our own concept of false narrative depends on our concept of true account,
and the opposition false / true narrative is shaped by such other oppositions as myth / science, legend /
New Perspectives on Myth
418
So the difficulty in approaching this problem is that our perception is funda-
mentally incommensurable to the Greek one.
15
But if we would venture to use a mod-
ern term to describe this aspect of Greek mythology, I think irony would be a good
choice. For while the concept of parody relies strongly on the opposition between a
serious original and a playful copy, the concept of irony has always implied ambigu-
ity, contradiction and doubt. I will elucidate this by looking a bit closer at the theory
of irony.
We use the word irony for many and different kinds of acts and speech acts.
But to keep it simple, we can begin to define it with the classical notions of simulation
and dissimulation: pretending to be what one is not and pretending not to be what
one is (Muecke 1970: 25). In the schoolbook example of Marc Antonys speech in
Shakespeares Julius Caesar, when he claims that Brutus is an honourable man,
Marc Antony implies that Brutus, on the contrary, is an unscrupulous murderer. But
to speak of irony, there must at least be a possibility that someone might have taken
Marc Anthonys words literally. So the classical definition of irony implies on the one
hand the self-conscious ironist, together with, in most cases, an accomplice audience
that understands his real intentions, and on the other hand, the victim, a naive listener
who is fooled by the ironists dissimulation (Hutcheon 2005: 43). But, as is clear even
in this simplified situation, the literal interpretation must always be possible if not,
we would not speak of irony but of mockery. The essence of irony is doubt: there
must always remain a certain ambiguity.
So in reality, more often than not, the ironists intention is not completely
clear, not even to himself. This is something that distinguishes the ironist from the
parodist, who can clearly draw the line between the serious original and the mocking
parody. The true meaning of what is said is suspended; it is constantly shifting from
one side to the other. This is what Kenneth Burke means when he poetically calls
irony the dancing of an attitude (Burke 1989: 79). Therefore, most theorists of irony
also allow for broader definitions this irony is based not on dissimulation but on
ambiguity and paradox. Some go even further and speak of something like general
or cosmic irony, no longer a simple trope, but a general attitude towards life.
Schlegel, for example, considered irony to be the recognition of the fact that the
world in its essence is paradoxical and that an ambivalent attitude alone can grasp its
contradictory totality (Quoted in Muecke 1970: 19).
One of these theorists, Douglas Muecke, sees this general irony as a reaction
to the human condition itself: irony is mans makeshift measure to cope with his in-
history, myth or legend / literature. Westerners invented the concepts of science, history, and literature
partly to distinguish our own culture thought and expression from that of mythmaking societies. How,
then, could these distinctions be the same for us and them?
15
What remains extraordinarily difficult to establish is the effect of this parody on the sacred stories
themselves. Part of the difficulty concerns the very status of religious myth in classical Greece. []
[T]he categories of the modern (i.e. post-medieval) world simply do not translate to this early social
world. [] At all events, the Greeks seemed able to sustain an attitude or frame of mind in which the
serious forms and their parodic counterparts could exist side by side, even when these serious forms
and thus their parodies - carried some of the most sacred stories of their culture (Dentith 2000: 40-41).
Sels Chapter 19: The Function of Irony in Homer
419
ability to understand and control the world. So that what is called World Irony or
Philosophical Irony or Cosmic Irony is sometimes little more than a presentation of
the helplessness of men in the face of an indifferent universe, a presentation coloured
with feelings of resignation and melancholy or even despair, bitterness, and indigna-
tion (Muecke 1970: 69). What Muecke says here about irony is, of course, almost
exactly the same as what Blumenberg says about myth: both are described as a reac-
tion to human vulnerability. One step further, and Mueckes description of General
Irony leads us right back to Blumenbergs theories about the absolutism of reality:
This lightness may be but is not necessarily an inability to feel the terrible serious-
ness of life; it may be a refusal to be overwhelmed by it, an assertion of the spiritual
power of man over existence (Muecke 1970: 36, my italics).
Since for Muecke the concept of irony touches upon the (lack of) meaning of
human existence itself, it is not at all surprising that his general irony also has an im-
portant religious dimension. He starts out from the idea that the ironic smile has its
origins in the experience of looking down at the misery or helplessness of others
while being in a position of control:
In Lucretius, Lucan, Cicero, Dante, Chaucer, Shakespeare, Bacon, Heine,
Nietzsche, Flaubert, Amiel, Tennyson, Meredith, not to mention the Bible, we find the
idea that looking down from on high upon the doings of men induces laughter or at
least a smile. The ironics awareness of himself as observer tends to enhance his feel-
ing of freedom and induce a mood perhaps of serenity, or joyfulness, or even exulta-
tion. His awareness of the victims unawareness invites him to see the victim as
bound or trapped where he feels free; committed where he feels disengaged; swayed
by emotions, harassed, or miserable, where he is dispassionate, serene, or even moved
to laughter; trustful, credulous or nave, where he is critical, sceptical, or content to
suspend judgement (Muecke 1970: 37).
Muecke claims it is based on this experience that the ironic attitude is mod-
elled. He proceeds:
From this point of view the archetypal ironist is God he that sitteth in the heavens shall
laugh: the Lord shall have them in derision. He is the ironist par excellence because he is
omniscient, omnipotent, transcendent, absolute, infinite, and free. [] In earthly art Irony has
this meaning conduct similar to gods. The archetypal victim of irony is man, seen, per con-
tra, as trapped and submerged in time and matter, blind, contingent, limited, and unfree and
confidently unaware that this is his predicament (Muecke 1970: 37-38).
For Muecke, the mental construction of the concept of divinity and the ironic disposi-
tion are closely related. Muecke considers irony a paradoxical attitude of looking
down on ones own limitations from the viewpoint of a god.
At this point, I come back to our Olympian gods, who hold this same position
of supreme irony. Take, for example, the final verses of Sophocles tragedy Women of
Trachis:
Let all men here forgive me, / And mark the malevolence /
Of the unforgiving gods / In this event.
We call them / Fathers of sons, and they /
Look down unmoved / Upon our tragedies. /
New Perspectives on Myth
420
[] Women of Trachis, you have leave to go. / You have seen strange things, /
The awful hand of death, new shapes of woe, / Uncounted sufferings; /
And all that you have seen / Is God.
In Homers Iliad, the Gods are only slightly less callous towards human suf-
fering. They have much in common with the superior beings Jenyn describes in a pas-
sage quoted by Muecke:
As we drown whelps and kittens, they amuse themselves, now and then, with sinking a ship,
and stand round the fields of Blenheim, or the walls of Prague, as we encircle a cockpit. As we
shoot a bird flying, they take a man in the midst of his business or pleasure, and knock him
down with an apo-plexy. Some of them, perhaps, are virtuosi, and delight in the operations of
an asthma, as a human phi-losopher in the effects of the air-pump. To swell a man with a tym-
pany is as good sport as to blow a frog. Many a merry bout have these frolic beings at the vi-
cissitudes of an ague, and good sport it is to see a man tumble with an epilepsy, and revive and
tumble again, and all this he knows not why (Muecke 1970: 30-31).
In the same dispassionate way, Apollo crushes Patroclus with a simple gesture
or spreads plague in the Greek camp. In the same way, Athena light-heartedly tricks
Hector into walking towards his death. But most of the time, they just gaze at us from
above. Griffin even states that looking on is the very essence of the concept god
(Griffin 1978: 1) and Austin claims that
the first function of Homers gods is to witness the world (Austin 1989: 141).
But the interesting thing, of course, is that in the Homeric epics these same
powerful gods are made a laughingstock in their turn. And this, I want to argue, is
exactly what Homeric parody of the gods is all about: if man can conceive of being
looked at ironically it is only a small step to reverse the gaze. This is also exactly what
Muecke claims irony enables us to do: that is the ability to take on a double view-
point, of changing places with the gods. Blumenberg as well would agree that man
can only tolerate the overwhelming power of the gods if he is able to downplay it
somehow and that this is what myth (i.e. parody) does. Let us then take a look at the
Homeric epics themselves and see if we can recognize this pattern there. We will take
a look at the three most notorious instances of Olympian ridiculousness, the ones al-
ready summed up by Calhoun: the Theomachy, the Dios Apat and, finally, the en-
trapment of Ares and Aphrodite. The point I will try to make is that even at a very
concrete textual level, we can clearly find that the helplessness of the gods is a re-
versed reflection of human suffering.
5. The ironic attitude and the Homeric gods: Theo-
machy, Dios Apat and the entrapment of Ares and
Aphrodite
The first passage we will discuss is the Theomachy. At the point where the battle over
Troy reaches its peak, Zeus allows the other gods to freely participate in the battle and
Sels Chapter 19: The Function of Irony in Homer
421
fight each other. In this bombastic scene, Homer pulls out all the stops:
[O]n the other gods fell strife momentous and dire, and in different directions the heart in their
breasts was blown. Together then they clashed with a mighty din and the wide earth rang, and
round about great heaven pealed as with a trumpet. And Zeus heard it where he sat on Olym-
pus, and the heart within him laughed with joy as he saw the gods joining in strife (Iliad XXI,
385-390).
16
The first thing that draws our attention here is the peculiar role of Zeus, who
stays at Olympus to enjoy the show. As far as focalisation is concerned, the position
of Zeus is obviously identical to the position of the reader / listener, who is encour-
aged by these lines to laugh with joy as he sees the gods join in strife, as does the
ruler of Olympus himself. In Zeus we immediately recognise the detached ironic
onlooker, watching from up high, smiling.
And the spectacle will give him cause for smiling. It may indeed be the most
striking case of the intermingling of the sublime with the ridiculous and vulgar, as
Calhoun puts it (1937: 11-12). The lines that paint the gods descent from Olympus
are truly majestic: their battle cries fill the air, and the earth shakes so hard that Hades
fears it will crack and reveal the shady realms of the dead (Iliad XX, 47-70). The bat-
tle itself, however, is not that exalted. The gods boast and rail against each other like
little children. The goddesses especially do not act very worthy. The catfight between
Hera and Artemis particularly descends, ending with Hera smacking the goddess of
hunt over the ears with her own bow, after which she runs off crying to Zeus like a
little girl something her father seems to find rather amusing.
The other element that immediately catches the eye is the parallel with the
situation of the mortals. Human tragedy is about to culminate Achilles is setting out
to kill Hector thereby sealing the fate of Troy and consciously securing his own death
sentence. Precisely at this point in the story, where the suffering becomes almost un-
bearable, the gods take over the battlefield and replace tragedy with comedy. There is
absolutely no narrative need for this fight between the gods; it changes nothing in the
outcome of the story. But it does serve as a counterweight to the battle of the humans
sometimes the duels are obviously modelled on previous combats between mortal
champions. This scene of comic relief has a reassuring effect: for once we mortals
watch as the gods themselves struggle on the battlefield. Even if none of them loses
his life, they do all lose their detachedness and dignity. The divinity that wins the
most sympathy is Hermes, who is put in against Leto, but makes his escape with the
witticism that he finds it far to dangerous to fight a lover of Zeus. He unheroically
tells Leto she is free to boast her victory over him amongst the gods.
In the second scene, the famous Dios Apat or beguilement of Zeus, it is the
father of gods and men himself who is shown up. To have free hand in helping the
Achaeans, which Zeus has forbidden her, Hera plots to seduce her husband and put
him to sleep. With the help of Hypnos and the magical girdle of Aphrodite, her plan
succeeds: Zeus becomes so enchanted by his wifes beauty that he does not see
16
Translation by A.T. Murray, Loeb Classical Library.
New Perspectives on Myth
422
through her plans and wants to make love to her there and then. Hera for a moment
feigns to object: she would be ashamed, she says, if the other gods would see them
lying there together. Zeus however quickly does away with that objection:
Hera, fear not in this that any god or man will see, with such a cloud shall I enfold you, a
cloud of gold. Through it not even Helios could discern us, though his sight is the keenest of
all for seeing. At that the son of Cronos clasped his wife in his arms []. Thus in quiet slept
the father on topmost Gargarus, by sleep and love subdued [] (Iliad XIV, 342-353).
17
Typically this scene has been interpreted both as the sacred hieros gamos of
heaven and earth, and as a late interpolation, a sceptical mockery of the Olympians.
Again, the theme of someone looking on is extremely important for the
shameful and comic character of the whole situation. Even Helios cannot look
through this nebula, Zeus tells Hera (XIV, 342-345). That may well be so, but there is
a gaze even more pervasive that that of Helios: for Homer himself watches on, and we
with him. So we are literally placed above the highest of the gods and look down on
him as he finds himself in a position of ignorance and helplessness. In the meantime,
the war for Helen is going on below. But at least we know now that even Zeus is not
above losing his head over a beautiful woman.
The third and last scene I will discuss is maybe the most striking example. It is
the well-known story of the adulterous love affair of Ares and Aphrodite, who are
caught in the act by Aphrodites husband Hephaestus. Hephaestus, who was warned
by all-seeing Helius, has forged an invisible and unbreakable net that falls over the
lovers and binds them tight. The god of smithy then invites the other gods to come
and look:
Father Zeus, and you other blessed gods that are forever, come hither that you may see a mat-
ter laughable and unendurable, how Aphrodite, daughter of Zeus, scorns me for being lame
and loves hateful Ares because he is handsome and strong of limb, whereas I was born mis-
shapen. [] [Y]ou shall see where these two have come up into my bed and sleep together in
love, while I am filled with grief at the sight. [] [T]he gods, the givers of good things,
stood in the gateway; and unquenchable laughter arose among the blessed gods as they saw
the craft of wise Hephaestus (Odyssey VIII, 306-327).
18
The ironic audience, here, is more present than ever: it is the group of gods
around Hephaestus bed, onlookers who entertain themselves from their safe, superior
position by watching the helplessness and shame of others. Homer of course focalizes
not through the eyes of the unhappy victims, but through this divine audience: the
ironic smile of the reader or listener is theirs.
But let us now look at the precise context in which this story is embedded. The
tale is sung by the Phaeacian singer Demodocus, and in his audience we find Odys-
seus, on his way back from Troy to Ithaca. For the first time in his eventful, many
years journey home he has some real hope of actually getting there with the help of
the friendly Phaeacians. Homer does not tell this story here randomly: there are obvi-
ous parallels to be drawn between Odysseus situation and that of Hephaestus. First of
17
Translation by A.T. Murray, Loeb Classical Library.
18
Translation by A.T. Murray, Loeb Classical Library.
Sels Chapter 19: The Function of Irony in Homer
423
all, Odysseus also has reason to fear for the conjugal fidelity of his wife since he has
been away from home for twenty years now. As we know, suitors are indeed planning
to take his place on his throne and in his bed at that very moment. Both, moreover, are
famous for their cunning: Hephaestus is called poluphronos (ingenious, inventive)
(Odyssey VIII, 297), a word that of course immediately recalls the typical epitheton of
Odysseus, polutropos. The adjective poluphronos itself is only used eight times in the
Odyssey, and every single time for one of them both, Hephaestus or Odysseus. In ad-
dition, they are both craftsmen: we know of Odysseus that he has built his own bed-
room and has inventively forged his own bed out of the trunk of an old olive tree
(Odyssey XXIII, 181-205).
19
We can imagine what goes through Odysseus head while he listens to the
singers story. But we, who listen to Homer, know that his wife Penelope has been as
faithful as Aphrodite was fickle. It is no coincidence that the motive of the conjugal
bed is stressed. For while Hephaestus can complain that his shameless wife cheats on
him in his own bed, for Odysseus the olive tree bed, that links him to the god, will
become the symbol of Penelopes loyalty. Once Odysseus finally arrives at Ithaca,
Penelope, afraid that he might be an impostor, puts him to the test by suggesting that
the bed be removed from his bedroom and put elsewhere. At that point, the collected
Odysseus for once loses his grip on himself. Angrily he asks how the bed could have
been replaced, as it is literally rooted in the ground. He then tells the story about how
he made it, a story known to no stranger. This is the final sign for Penelope to accept
that Odysseus is really her long lost husband. Their marriage proves to be as stable
and indestructible as the remarkable bed they share.
So for once, the comparison between god and man works out in favour of the
mortal.
[T]he marriage of the Ithacan couple is of such a nature as to make the gods themselves envi-
ous. The gods imposed these woes on us, explains Penelope in XXIII: 210-212, because
they were jealous of our living together to enjoy our youth and reach the threshold of old
age. For the relationship of Odysseus and Penelope, uniquely stable amongst mortals, is
equally rare among the gods as well. Aphrodite, the fairest of the Olympian goddesses, and
Hephaestus, shrewd patron of intelligence and craft, do not live in such secure happiness with
one another. Their marriage is flimsy as the invisible net which catches the wife in an adulter-
ous embrace (Newton 1987: 19).
So we, mortals, who listen to the story of Ares and Aphrodite, have the rare
pleasure not only to experience the feeling of literally looking down upon such pow-
erful divinities, but also the hope that we can do better than them.
The gods are a thinking concept. Just as man can borrow their distant perspec-
tive, they can take over mans helplessness. There is an extreme satisfaction in this, of
course. For without openly revolting (this would only be terrifying and would destroy
the gods effectiveness as representative of the absolutism of reality), man can have a
taste of what it is like to switch roles. This, of course, can only be done with extreme
19
The parallel has been noticed and discussed by several authors. For a survey, see Newton 1987 and
Brown 1989.
New Perspectives on Myth
424
caution and subtlety. This irony is never in contradiction with the divine power; ulti-
mately, the ironic tone of myth is recognition of the gods superiority. Yet, their su-
preme position is only useful and bearable to the imagination of man when it is
balanced by a parodic tone. But never is the irony implying that the gods should or
could be more dignified. Homers irony is General Irony, the irony that simply ac-
knowledges that a serious look at life is just not an option: for reality is far too com-
plex, ambiguous and paradoxical to approach it in a straightforward manner. Life is
too complex to fit the dichotomy of play and sincerity, of reality and fiction, since we
can only come to a concept of reality through fiction, through myth.
6. Conclusion
In this article, I have tried to show how the theories of Hans Blumenberg, in particular
his notion of the parodic function of myth, can help us to conceptualise the function
of Homers ambiguous portrayal of the gods, and thus make the Homeric epics more
accessible. In my discussion of the three scandalous Olympian scenes, I hope to
have demonstrated how this parody or irony serves to mitigate the discrepancy be-
tween the helplessness of humans and the omnipotence of the gods. Every time, the
situation of the Olympians stood in direct relation to the situation of the mortal he-
roes. And every time, the focalisation of the text allowed for a turning of the tables,
putting the reader / listener in a position where they could view the comical mishaps
of the gods.
This kind of reasoning, of course, is by nature speculative and can claim no
more than to offer a working hypothesis. But it was never my intention to give some
ultimate, fully underpinned interpretation of this ambiguity in the Homeric presenta-
tion of the gods. To do this is practically impossible. Rather, my aim was to supply
for a conceptual line of thinking that allowed the present-day reader of Homer to step
out of a certain modern mindset, that is constructed around a set of dichotomies that
probably were not Homers, and to become aware of the possibility of looking at
these texts in a different way. Truth and falsity, fact and fiction, play and sincerity, are
all oppositions that are central to our thinking so we can never fully abandon them.
Neither is it possible to make a real reconstruction of how these semantic fields func-
tioned and related in the Homeric mind. Nevertheless, it can be illuminating to simply
assume that they worked differently then, and to seek how it might have been differ-
ent. As the case of Calhoun shows, such an approach can elucidate some apparently
problematic features of these texts.
But, more importantly, it can show us that mythology itself was the means by
which these dichotomies were developed in the first place. This is the insight that
Blumenberg advances, that our logical categories were built on the fundamental divi-
sion and structuring of the world that was brought about by myth. This, to me, seems
the great advantage of the Blumenbergian theory. It not only has some interesting
points to make about the mythical functioning of the Homeric epics, but it also allows
Sels Chapter 19: The Function of Irony in Homer
425
us to relate these findings to the mythical aspect of our thinking until this day. This
also brings along a great challenge, for it implies that the tools and concepts we use to
describe myths are themselves in a way mythical. Or as Coupe puts it: reading myth
is also mythic reading (Coupe 1997: 151). This is by no means an excuse for defeat-
ism; it only asks for a broader, more challenging interpretation of what comparative
mythology means. Not only should we be prepared to compare the myths we call
myths with each other, we should also dare to compare myths with the myths we
live with, the myths we use in our everyday speech and thinking. This will probably
require a more or less ambiguous attitude. We should take our own categories serious
and put then into perspective at the same time, consider them true and false at the
same time. But Homer shows us that that is not always feasible. Sometimes, we have
to take a will-o-the wisp as the guiding light.
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List of contributors
Nicholas J. ALLEN
Faculty of Oriental Studies
University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Yuri BEREZKIN
Department of America
Kunstkamera, Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography,
Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia
Vclav BLAEK
Department of Linguistics and Baltic Languages
Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
Stephanus DJUNATAN
Faculty of Philosophy
Parahyangan Catholic University, Bandung, West Java, Indonesia
Willem DUPR
Faculty of Philosophy, Theology and Religious Studies
Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Stephen FARMER
Independent scholar, Portola Valley, CA, USA
Joseph C. HARRIS
Department of English
Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
Victoria KRYUKOVA
Department of Central Asia
Kunstkamera, Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography,
Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia
Emily B. LYLE
Department of Celtic and Scottish Studies
Edinburgh University, Scotland, UK
New Perspectives on Myth
428
Kazuo MATSUMURA
Department of Transcultural Studies
Wako University, Tokyo, Japan
Boris OGUIBNINE
Arts, Literature and Languages
Universit Marc Bloch, Strasbourg, France
Bukola A. OYENIYI
Redeemers University
Ibadan, Nigeria
Robert A. SEGAL
Department of Divinity and Religious Studies
University of Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
Nadia SELS
Department of Latin and Greek
University of Ghent, Belgium
Walter E.A. VAN BEEK
African Studies Centre, Leiden /
Department of Religious Studies, Tilburg University, The Netherlands
Wim VAN BINSBERGEN
African Studies Centre, Leiden /
Philosophical Faculty, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Eric VENBRUX
Faculty of Philosophy, Theology and Religious Studies
Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Michael WITZEL
Department of Sankrit and Indian Studies
Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
Nataliya YANCHEVSKAYA
Department of Sankrit and Indian Studies
Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
429
Index of proper names and motifs
Explanatory comments have only been added when deemed absolutely necessary. Most proper names
in this Index are only self-explanatory to the specialist, although they are usually elucidated by the
main text. Apart from names of authors, their places of work, and papers that have not been included in
the present collection, the overviews of original conference papers in the Introduction to this book has
not been indexed, since the final versions appear in this book. For claritys sake, recognised mythologi-
cal motifs / mythemes have usually been accommodated in a separate entry, detached from the key
word in question. Also see Author Index.
A Black Civilization, 32; cf.
Warner, W.L.
A Dictionary of Middle Egyp-
tian, 247; cf. Faulkner, R.O.
A-bt, 177, the Horizon of the
Bee, in Ancient Egyptian
mythology birth place of
Shu and Tefnut, and of Ho-
rus, q.v., 190; cf. Chemmis
Aachen, 93
Aarne-Thompson comparative
mythological classification,
144, 166-167
Aarne-Thompson-Uther com-
parative mythological classi-
fication, 167
Ab Urbe Condita, 196; cf. Livy
Aba Karmo, 377-378, 402n
Abah Ajat Poerba Sasaka,
378n
Abah Atmajawijaya, 382n
Abah Badra Santana, 382n
Abah Karmo, 377, 402n; and
Pak Undang, 378
c
Abad, Iraq, 171; Caliph of
Baghdad, 65
Abegunle Abeweila, Ooni,
king of Ile-Ife, 127-129,
134-136, 140-141
Abel, biblical mythical figure,
39n
Abeokuta, 133
Aberdeen, Scotland, UK, 428,
20n, 315n
Aboriginal, Aborigines, origi-
nal inhabitants of Australia,
25-30, 35, 38-39, 42, 30n; in
Central Australia, 27
Achaean(s), 421
Achelous, 197
Achilles, 357, 359-371, 421,
362n-363n, 365n, 367n; and
Hector, 366; and Hephaes-
tus, 369
Acholi, 185
Ackawoi, 233
Acra, 306
Adam, biblical first man, 190,
193, 232; and Hava / Eve,
190
Aderemi, 135
Adesoji, 135
Adeyemi, 127
Aetes of Colchis, mythical
king, 193, 195n
Aegean, 151, 183, 188
Aegir, 189
Aeneas, 365-366; and Hector,
362
Aeolic, Ancient Greek dialect,
243
Aeta, see At
Afonja, 133
Africa(n(s)), 17-21, 41-44, 47,
54-56, 109-111, 113, 116,
118-119, 122, 127, 130-131,
140-141, 143-162, 164, 166-
167, 169-175, 178-181, 183-
184, 186-188, 190-192, 195,
198-203, 225-226, 229-232,
236-240, 283-284, 293, 318,
323-324, 330, 20n, 30n,
42n-43n, 143n, 145n, 149n,
151n-154n, 157n, 159n,
164n-166n, 171n-172n,
179n, 188n, 201n, 203n,
225n-226n, 230n, 239n,
379n; East African High-
way, ecological and demo-
graphic corridor from Kenya
to South Africa, 237; Af-
rica-of-the-animals, 42; Sa-
hel, 44, 230-231, 236, 230n;
sub-Saharan, 109-110, 118,
122, 143-145, 147-151, 154,
157-159, 162, 166, 173,
175, 183-184, 192, 201-203,
225, 230-231, 145n, 149n,
159n, 179n, 230n; North ,
see: North Africa; Northern
, 184; West , 19-20, 41,
43, 179, 181, 186, 190, 203,
230-231, 166n, 171n; West
and Central Africa, 186;
Central , 169, 172; Central
& South , 187; East ,
230, 238; and South Central
Africa, 172n; and South
West Asia, 150; South Cen-
tral , 143-144, 148, 151,
167, 171-172, 174-175, 179,
188, 202-203, 164n; Iron
Age, 172 and Southern Af-
rica, 169; Southern , 147,
169-170, 188, 171n; South
Africa(n(s)), 231, 42n; and
Eurasia(n), 20, 143-144,
149-150, 153, 156, 159,
161, 175, 159n, 171n;and
Australia, 225, 236, 240;
and Asian, 119; and China,
New Perspectives on Myth
430
236; and Europe, 198; and
South America, 119; and
Indo-Pacific, 152; also see
Old World, Ifriqa, Palaeo-
Africa(n(s)), Gondwana
African Eve, 225, 238-239
African History, 130
African Studies Centre, Lei-
den, 5, 18, 428, 17n, 41n,
143n
African Studies, 42, 145, 174
Africanist, see African Studies
Africanity, 174
Africanness, 145-146
Afroasiatic, linguistic macro-
phylum, 145, 152, 154-156,
161, 186, 199, 145n, 149n,
154n; and Eurasiatic, 154n;
cf. Chadic, Cushitic, Omo-
tic, Berber, Egyptian, Se-
mitic, Haussa, Arabic,
Hebrew, Borean
Afrocentric/sm, Afrocentricity,
144-146, 150-152, 148n,
151n, 174n; and Martin
Bernal, 151-152; in the
North Atlantic, 145; Afro-
centric model of South-
North transcontinental cul-
tural flow, 174n
Agamemnon, 360
Agate Basin, 109
Agenor, 365, 365n
Aggregative Diachronic Model
of World Mythology, 144,
157, 176n
Agni, 20, 357-370, 361n, 367n;
as sun, 79; and Achilles,
368; and Hephaestus, 368-
369; and Thetis, 361; cf. Hot
Fat
Agrippaeans, 199-200; and
Turks, 199
Ahriman, 79
Ahura Mazd, 77-78, 80-81;
and the Holy Spirit, 80; also
see Ohrmazd
Ainu, 256-257
Ajele, 135
Aji-kui, 88n
Ajip Rosidi, 379
Akhenaten, 319n
Akinmoyero, 134, 141
Akintoye, 127, 129
Akkad, 173
Akkadian, 245, 247, 234n
Alaafin of Oyo and Afonja,
133, 141
Alaska, 115
Albertus Magnus, 192
Albino, 196
Alboin, 196
Alcmene, 244
Aldan Basin, 113
Aleutian Islands, 259
Aleuts, and the Eskimo, 115
Alexander the Great, king of
Macedon, 370
Alexandria, 280n
Algonkian, 115
Alice Springs, 27
Alimi, 133
Allat, 181; cf. Rhea, Tyche,
Cybele, Hathor
All-Father, 29; cf. Father
All-Mother, 29; cf. Mother
All-Shining, see Pasiphae
Almighty, epithet the supreme
being in Sunda context, of
386, 389, 391-392, 394-396,
399-400, 382n, 386n, 389n,
396n, 399n
Aloadae, Giant twins, 181
Alpide belt, 259
Alps, and the Baltic, 114
Amaterasu, 186, 253, 255-256,
258, 261-263; and Hono-
ninigi, 253, 263; and
Susanowo, 253, 261, 263
Amazon River and Amazonia
region, 233, 236, 286, 235n;
and Guiana and, 110; , Co-
lumbia, 115
Amazons, legendary all-female
society, 190
Ambrakia, 343n
Amejiogbe, 128
Ame-no-Uzume, 256, 262
America(n(s)), 19-21, 109-110,
114-116, 119-120, 122, 172,
178-179, 181, 183, 184,
186, 188, 190, 193-194,
196, 200-202, 228, 232-233,
236, 239, 253, 255-256,
282, 290, 427, 159n, 189n,
201n, 341n, 378n; New
World, 201n; North and
South America, 109, 154,
225, 235, 237, 259, 201n,
225n;North America,
Northern Rockies, 179;
North West Coast, 179;
Northwestern, 256; Subarc-
tic, 109, 115; Central and
South America, 119, 236;
Meso America(n(s)), 184,
196, 200, 239, 255, 234n;
America(s), and Asia 109,
115; and Melanesia, 115
American Indians, see Native
Americans
Amerind, linguistic macrophy-
lum, 154, 202, 154n, 201n;
and Austric, 154, 202, 201n;
also see Dene, Amerind
Amerindian, see Native
American
Amma, 179
Anahita, 186, 190; also see
Arduui Sura Anahita,
Anath, Neith, Athena, An-
ansi, Nyambi
Anansi, 186
Anat(h), 186
Anatolia(n(s)), 67, 151, 177,
183; and Ancient Egypt,
177; Kumarbi, 177; cf. Tur-
key, Asia Minor
Anatomically Modern Hu-
mans, 144, 148, 155-158,
160, 162-163, 175, 285,
159n, 182n
Anaximander, 180n, 343n
Ancestral Beings of the
Dreaming, 28-29
Ancient Egypt(ian(s)), 20, 144-
145, 150-151, 155-156, 172-
174, 177-179, 188-194, 196-
197, 199-200, 235, 243-250,
249, 318-319, 143n, 145n,
151n, 166n, 171n-172n,
174n, 235n, 238n, 247n-
248n, 250n, 319n; First-
Dynasty, 192; Delta, 117,
151, 249; Western Delta,
249; Old Kingdom, 197,
244, 248; Middle Kingdom,
250; Memphis, 245; Pyra-
mids, 189; Gods, 248n; Ho-
rus, Seth and Isis, 178; 183;
Min, 186; Shu, 195n; and
Tefnut, 181; Egyptian Rhea,
181; Pta, Phthas, 245; and
the Ancient Near East, 171n,
195n; and Babylon, 319;
and Mesopotamia, 318-319,
319n; and Aegean, 195n;
and Africa, 150; cf. Heliopo-
lis
Ancient Egyptian language:
see Middle Egyptian; De-
motic, 246-247; Demotic
Pt, 246; and Coptic, 247;
Egyptian Hebrew, 247
Ancient Greek(s), Greece, 20,
63, 66-67, 72, 99-100, 144,
150-151, 155, 177-178, 181,
186, 193-195, 197-200, 233-
234, 243-246, 248-250, 336,
342-344, 346, 357-361, 362-
Index of Proper Names and Motifs
431
365, 368-372, 409, 412,
417-418, 420, 428, 100n,
171n, 189n, 235n, 249n,
343n, 345n, 361n-362n,
418n; Apollo and Artemis,
181; Circe, 178; Hephaes-
tus, 245; Pandora, 193; Ha-
des, 178; Hephaestus, 20;
Greek-Greek, intra-epic
comparison, 359; and Ro-
mance languages and litera-
tures, 247; Ancient Greek
language, and Sanskrit, 20,
357-358, 370; also see
Achaean
Ancient Israel(ite(s)), 178, 184,
188, 318-319, 329-331,
319n-320n; kingdom of ,
and Judah, 329
Ancient Mesopotamia, 150;
and Egypt, 173; also see
next entry
Ancient Near East, 172, 177,
88n, 164n, 180n
Ancient Nordic world, 194
Ancient World, 192
Andaman Isl., 158, 229, 231-
233, 237; and Melanesian,
Australian, 230
Andes, 42
Angaite, 109, 115-116, 118
Angara Basin, 113
Anglo-Saxon, 98
Angola(n(s)), 170-171, 180,
186, 190-191; and Southern
Congo, 171
Annual Conference of the In-
ternational Association For
Comparative Mythology;
First, Edinburgh, 18; Sec-
ond, Ravenstein, 5, 17-18,
21, 18n, 143n
Antaeus, 194-195
Antelope, 179
Antenor, 195n
Anthinna, 32
Anthropomorphism, 280
Anthropos: Internationale
Zeitschrift fr Vlker- und
Sprachenkunde / Interna-
tional Review of Anthropol-
ogy and Linguistics / Revue
Internationale dEthnologie
et de Linguistique, 17n
Antiquity, Graeco-Roman,
172, 190, 195-196, 171n-
172n; and the Ancient Near
East, 172n
Antis, American ethnic group,
233
Anubis, 193
Ao, ethnic group in Nagaland,
India, 183
Apache, 233
Apat, 413, 420-421
Aphrodite, 193, 197, 244, 409-
410, 413, 420-423, 195n;
Shining, 244; wife of
Hephaestus, 244; compared
with Egyptian Sekhmet,
248; and Ares, 409; cf.
Graeco-Roman
Apocalypse, book of the New
Testament, and by implica-
tion eschatological
mytheme, 192; cf. Ragnark
Apollo, 181, 189, 194, 197,
199, 245, 365, 420, 365n,
368n; and Artemis, 197; and
Heracles, 189; .cf. Minerva
Apomu Ikere, 140
Appendix, section of Mahab-
harata, 367
Apsu, 191
Aquatic Beings, in Iliad and
Mahabharata, 363
Arab(s), Arabia(n), 119, 154,
161, 181, 247; Htr, 246;
Muslim, 65; and Jews, 161;
South Epigraphic 247
Arabic, Semitic language, 65,
245-246, 145n, 171n
Aramaic, 247
Aranda, see Arrente
Aranrhod, 193
Ararat, 234
Araromi, 128, 135, 137
Araucanian, 233
Arawak, 233
Archaic Cosmos: Polarity,
Space and Time, 270; cf.
Lyle, E.
Arduui Sura Anahita, 76; cf.
Anahita
Ares, 189, 194, 244, 409-410;
and Aphrodite, 410, 420,
422-423; and Aphrodite in
the Odyssea, 413; cf. Mars
Aresa of Iresa Adu, 137
Argonautica, 183, 195n; cf.
Apollonius Rhodius
Argonauts, 200
Argos, 249
Aria Banga, 381
Arikara, 109, 116-117
Aristaeus, 195n
Arjuna, 357-365, 367-370,
361n, 365n; and Krishna,
358, 360-362, 367
Ark of the Covenant, 188
Arnhem Land, 32; and the
Kimberleys, 227
Arrente (Aranda), 28, 31, 119,
237
Artemis, 181, 197, 421
Arthur, king, 177, 183, 189,
191-192; and Morgan, 192
Arts, feminine, see Spider
Aryan, 78, 111, 322; cf. Indo-
Aryan, Indo-European
Aa Vahita, 370n
ASD, see Autism Spectrum
Disorder
Asenneth, 250
Ashlock, 326n
Ai, 76
Asia Minor, 197; cf. Anatolia
Asia(n(s)), 18-19, 109-111,
113-116, 119-120, 122, 124,
144-145, 150-152, 154, 157-
162, 164, 166, 172, 177-
179, 183-184, 186-191, 195-
197, 199, 202, 229, 237,
253-256, 283, 318, 382,
406, 427, 30n, 149n, 151n-
152n, 155n, 159n, 164n-
165n, 171n-172n, 174n,
189n, 201n, 225n, 234n,
375n, 382n; Northeast Asia,
115, 124, 256; East Asia,
113, 166, 186, 254-255,
171n; and South Asia, 144;
and South-East Asia, 144;
East and West Asia, 162;
Central, 152, 154, 161, 164,
172, 177, 179, 188, 190,
199, 283, 159n, 165n;
Steppe, 189n; and East
Asia, 183, 196; West(ern)
Asia, 144, 150-151, 160,
183-184, 186-188, 190-191,
202, 149n, 151n, 155n; Neo-
lithic, 151; Southeast Asia,
154, 187, 196, 253, 255,
382, 164n, 382n; and Aus-
tralia, 111; and East Asia,
188; and South Asia, 109,
166; South Asia, 114-115,
150, 172, 177-178, 190,
196, 229, 189n; Asian-
Mediterranean-Saharan Pe-
lasgian complex, 151; Asia
and Africa, 30n;; Asia and
Australia, 406, 375n; Asia
and America, 116; and
Europe, 120; and Melanesia,
110; so see Far East, Old
World, Eurasia
Aspergers syndrome, 306-307
Asseneth, biblical figure, wife
New Perspectives on Myth
432
of Joseph, 250
Assurbanipal, 249
Assyria(n), 246, 249, 88n
Assyriology, 171; cf. Ak-
kadian, Ancient Near East,
Mesopotamia
Astaroth, 181
Astarte, 181
Asteropaeus, 365
Asto vidotu, death demon, 80-
81
Astronomy-Pole-Unilateral
Being, Additional Narrative
Complex, 157n-158n
Asur, Aur, 78
At, ethnic group in the Central
Philippines, 229
Atalanta-type version of Magic
flight, aspect of the Emer-
gence of First People
mytheme, 120, 122
Atalanta, 195
Atana, Mycenaean, 249; cf.
Athena
Athab/pascan(s), 115, 232; and
Algonkian, 115
Athena, 144, 151, 155, 174,
184, 186, 188, 190, 243,
245. 249, 253, 261, 263,
359-360, 362-363, 415-416,
420, 143n, 146n, 155n,
165n, 174n, 250n; Parthe-
nn, 250n; and Erichtho-
nios, 253, 263; and
Hephaestus, 165n; and Po-
seidon, 165n; and Virgin
Mary, 253, 261, 263; also
see Atana, Neith, Anahita,
Anath, Nyambi
Athens, Athenian(s), 321, 245,
180n, 250n
Athirat, 181
Atmajawijaya, 382n
Atninja, 32n
Atraasis, 178, 234n; cf. Flood,
Noah, Ziusudra
Attic, Ancient Greek dialect,
243; cf. Ionian
Augeas, Ancient Greek mythi-
cal king, 343n
Australia(n(s)), 18-19, 25-32,
34, 38-39, 42, 109, 111,
116, 119-120, 158, 160,
186, 191, 200, 225-233,
236-238, 240, 318, 324,
406, 19n, 30n, 159n, 226n,
228n, 239n, 375n; Aborigi-
nal, 25, 27, 30; Northern
Territory, 31; Central Aus-
tralia, 28, 31; Western Aus-
tralia, 32; Australia, and
Africa, 225; and Europe, 26;
and East Asia, 111; and
Melanesia, 109; and New
Guinea, 160; and Oceania,
18; also see Aboriginal,
Oceania
Austric, linguistic macrophy-
lum, 152, 154-156, 202,
153n-154n, 201n; and
Bantu, 153n; in Upper Pa-
laeolithic, 202; cf. Borean,
Peripheral and Central
Branches
Austroasiatic, 155-156; cf.
Austronesian, Austric
Austronesian, 155, 225n-226n;
Proto- , 156; Madagascar,
226n; cf. Austric
Autism Spectrum Disorder,
306-307
Avadanasataka, 69
Avalon, 192
Avars, 196
Avesta(n), Awesta(n), 75-82,
84-85, 100, 100n; Sraoa,
79; Videvdad, 75, 78, 80-82,
85; Yats, 76; Yima and
Gaiia Mar, 82
Awolowo, 135
Axis Mundi, in the Indonesian
Archipelago, 382n
Ayeuna, 389, 396n
Aymara, 235n
Aynu-rak-kur, hero figure in
Ainu myth, 257
Aztec(s), 184, 233, 318
Baale of Ibadan, 128, 128, 134,
140
Baba Yaga, 67
Babangida, General Ibrahim
Badamosi, 136
Babel, 152
Babylon(ian(s), 181, 186, 197,
232-234, 246, 319, 234n;
pan-Babylonism, 150;
Babylonian Marduk in
Enuma Elish, 186; cf. Mar-
duk
Bacairi, 235n
Ba
c
al Zebul/b, Ugaritic deity,
85
Back-into-Africa, genetic hy-
pothesis of Eurasian return
migration from the Upper
Palaeolithic onward, 144,
158, 161-164, 159n
Bactria-Margiana Archaeo-
logical Complex, 75, 86
Badamosi, 136
Badra, 382n
Baghdad, 65
Bahasa Indonesia, 381, 399,
399n
Bajun, 67
Bakici Baci, representatives of
all the different families
owning sacred ground
within the kingdom, West
African Bantu (Bakongo)
expression, 186; cf. Nyambi
Bakongo, 330
Bald(e)r, 91, 96-98, 101-103,
197, 274, 98n, 102n
Balderus, see Baldr
Baldrs Draumar, part of Poetic
Edda, 102n
Bali, Balinese, 259, 318
Balkan(s), 114, 183
Baltic, 59-60, 63-65, 67-68,
114, 189, 427, 19n; Baltic-
Finnish, 110n; and Hittite,
67; and Slavic, 60, 63, 65,
68
Banana, type of fruit, one of J.
Frazers basic mythemes on
the Origin of Death, 30n
Bandung, 376-377, 382-383,
395, 427, 20n, 375n, 384n
Bangala, African ethnic group,
183
Banhar, Asian ethnic group,
109, 116
Bantu studies, Bantuist, 152
Bantu, linguistic phylum, 144-
145, 152-153, 155-156, 166,
169, 174-175, 178-179, 183-
184, 186, 196-199, 203,
230, 318, 324, 153n, 180n;
speaking Africa, 318, 324;
speaking South Central and
Southern Africa, 203; Cen-
tral Bantu, 169; and
Khoisan, 153; in the Bronze
Age Mediterranean, 197;
also see Niger-Congo
Banusan Ajar Sidik, 380
Bapak Undang, 378
Barotse, Barotseland, 169-170,
172, 180, 193, 198, 188n; cf.
Luyi, Lozi, Rotse, Nkoya,
Luyana
Basarwa, Botswana division of
San, q.v.
Bashorun Ogunmola of Ibadan,
135
Bara, 171n
Bata, 193
Bath, Goodwife of 410
Index of Proper Names and Motifs
433
Bathurst and Melville Islands,
25, 29-30
Batu Bumi Agung, 385, 394
Batu Gedong Peteng, 385, 392
Batu Kaca Saadeg, 385, 392
Batu Karaton, 385, 392
Batu Korsi Gading, 386, 394
Batu Kuta, 393
Batu Kutarungu, 385
Batu Lawang Tujuh, 386, 394
Batu Padaringan, 386, 394
Batu Paibuan, 385, 391
Batu Pakuwon Prabu Sili-
wangi, 386
Batu Palawangan Ibu, 385, 391
Batu Panyipuhan, 385, 391
Batu Poponcoran, 385, 391
Bee(s), 174, 177-178, 190,
174n, 195n; Hive, 177, q.v.;
Ruler, 195n; also see
Transformation, Honey,
Reed, Queen Bee, Melissae,
Melisseus, Luhamba, She of
the Reed and the Bee
Beer, cf. Honey
Beer-sheba, 329-330
Beijing, 18, 226n, 230n; Bei-
jing Chinese dialect, 155
Belfries of the Churches, 64;
cf. cemetery
Belgium, 428, 409n; cf. Flan-
ders
Bella-Bella, 233
Bemba, 180, 188n; cf.
Wawemba
Bena-Lulua, 180
Benin, 190
Beowulf, 96, 98, 101, 96n; and
Sonatorrek, 96n
Berber(s), 118, 145n, 171n;
and Old Egyptian, 145n
Bering Strait, Sea, Beringian,
201, 259, 201n
Bern(aR), father of five Kyn-
munds in Rk Stone con-
text, 93
Bern, town in Switzerland, 93
Bhagavad Gt, 360, 345n
Bible, biblical, 161, 175, 199,
225, 230, 234-235, 237,
239-240, 329-331, 419,
180n, 232n, 320n; Biblical
Hebrew, 180n; cf. Tanach,
Old Testament, constituting
books, and individual bibli-
cal figures e.g. Adam, Eve,
Noah
Bibliotheca, 181, 189, 194; cf.
Apollodorus
Bielorussia(n), 63
Big-bellied, 248; cf. Ogre
Big-Raven, 257
Bihe, 183
Bima, 25, 30
Bird, 160, 233; also see Giant,
Garuda, Lightning Bird
Birth and Childhood, 385
Biur, 380
Black Athena, 144, 151, 174,
184, 249, 143n, 146n, 174n;
cf. Bernal, M., Lefkowitz,
M., Hephaestus, Blaek, V.
Black Sea, 238
Blackbeard the Pirate, 196
Blackfoot, 233
Blenheim, 420
Blodeuwedd, 193
Blood, 197, 158n
Blood-as-Poison / Menstrua-
tion, Additional Narrative
Complex, 157n-158n
Boadicea, 190
Boat, also see Flood myths
Witzel model
Body, 99n; Body Fluids, also
see Flood myths Witzel
model
Bogomils, 114
Bohairic, 246-247, 249
Boii Gauls, in Gallia Cisalpina,
196
Bola Ige, 135
Bones, 31; also see Shaman-
ism, divination
Boni, ethnic group East Africa,
180; cf. Sania
Borean, hypothetical parent
linguistic macrophylum,
144, 152-156, 161, 202,
152n, 154n, 158n-159n,
201n; cf. Eurasiatic,
Afroasiatic, Bantu, Niger-
Congo, Khoisan, Nilo-
Saharan, Sino-Caucasian,
Austric, Amerind
Borneo, 233
Bororo, 233
Borroloola, 29n
Botswana, 171n
Bottom, cf. Global Etymology
of Earth, Bottom, Human
Bougainville, 259
Bous, 96
Brahm, 360, 366-367, 370-
371
Brahmaa, 61
Brahmanic, Brahmanical,
Brahmanism, 70-71
Brahmaprabha, 61
Brahmin, 70
Brains and History, 280; cf.
Farmer, S.
Brazil, 117-118, 235n
Breaking the Spell: Religion as
a Natural Phenomenon,
291n; cf. Dennett, D.
Bride, also see Murderous
bride, The False Wife
Britain, British, 44, 170, 229,
166n; cf. Great-Britain, UK,
English
Britain, the island of, literary
expression, 188
Brno, 427, 20n, 243n
Brocas Area, 299
Bronze Age, 86, 144, 149, 151,
161, 165, 176, 189, 254,
159n, 180n; Mediterranean,
153, 184, 199; Middle ,
150, 164, 166
Brother, 35, 192; Brother-
sister, 253, 263; cf. Sister
Brutus, 418
Buddha, 61, 69-70
Buddhism, Buddhist(s), 59, 61-
63, 65-72, 196, 233, 254,
290, 375-376, 383, 396,
19n, 61n-63n, 383n, 399n;
Southern Buddhists, 68; and
Jain, 61; Baltic and Slavic
Parallels, 19n, 61n-63n; Vi-
naya, 70-71; and Sufism,
376
Buffalo, 117, 200
Buhari, 136
Building with skulls, also see
Demon cuts off mens head,
193-194; cf. Skull
Bulg(h)ars, 196
Bulgaria, 183
Bundahin, 79
Bundjel, Australian supreme
deity, 228n
Burma, 179
Burning of the Khandava For-
est, 358
Bushmen, see San
Buzzard, 182
Byblos, 181
Cabanis, 287
Cabiri, 245
Cacus, 192, 195
Caddo, 109, 116, 178
Caduveo, 118
Cahiers Caribens
dgyptologie, 150
Cahita, ethnic group, South
America, 233
Cain, biblical mythical figure,
New Perspectives on Myth
434
39n
Caingang, ethnic group, South
America, 233, 235n
Calabash, also see Flood myths
Witzel model
California(n), 115, 233, 20n,
235n, 279n; Penuti, and the
Middle Missouri Sioux, 115
Caliph of Baghdad, 65; cf.
Abasid
Calligraphy, Sand, 171n; cf.
c
ilm al-raml
Calvin in Myth, 19n; cf. Mol.
H.J.
Calvinism, 19
Camara, American ethnic
group, 233
Cambodia, 117
Cambridge MA, USA, 5, 17-
18, 427-428, 19n-20n, 59n,
91n, 225n
Cambyses, 245
Cameroon(ian), 41, 43-44, 236,
43n; Egyptologist Oum
Ndigi, 150
Canada, 197
Canberra, 19n
Cannibal Bat, mythical figure,
Brazil, 117
Cannibal Hymn, 189; cf. Unas,
Ancient Egypt
Capitalism, 317
Caraja, 109, 116
Cardinal Directions, see Direc-
tions
Carib, 233, 235n
Caribbean, 183, 233
Carita Ciung Wanara, 379
Carita Parahyangan, 379, 381
Carmelites, Roman Catholic
religious order, 290
Caroline Isl., 233
Carrier, North American ethnic
group, 233
Cat, see Native Cat
atal Hyk, and Ancient
Mesopotamia, 177
Catalogue, Electronic, of Folk-
lore-Mythological Motifs,
110; cf. Berezkin
Catawba, 233
Catholic, see Roman Catholic
Cattle, see Grave-Cattle, Cow
Caucasus, 234
Cauldron, of Kingship, 168,
184, 188, 188n
CDA, Concise Dictionary of
Akkadian, 247, 245n; cf.
Black, G.A., & Postgate, N.
Celtic, 166, 177, 179, 186,
188-191, 193, 196, 271,
427; Europe, 190; and
Uralic, 186; cf. Nkoya
Central and East Chadic and in
Low East Cushitic, 155
Central Khoisan, 156
Cerberus, Kerberos, under-
world hound, 100, 100n,
343n
Cermait, cf. Ogma
Chaco, 118, 232-233, 236n
Chadic, 47, 155-156, 145n; cf.
Afroasiatic, East Chadic
Chariot, 60, 150, 165-166, 361-
362, 165n, 180n; cf. Horse
Chemmis, 177, 190; cf. A-bt
Cheyenne, 233
Chibcha, 235n
Chibinda, 179
Chichen Itza, 196
Chief Bola Ige, 135
Chief Obafemi Awolowo, 135
Chief Obalaaye of Iraye, 134
Chief Oladiran Ajayi, 136
Chief Omololu Olunloyo, 135
Chimariko, 233
China, Chinese, 18, 61, 155-
156, 178-179, 181, 190,
193, 196, 233-236, 253-255,
261-262, 299, 376, 383,
402, 404-405, 171n, 234n-
235n, 282n, 383n; Classic
Old Chinese, 155; Buddhist,
61; Dao De Ching, 404; N
Wa, 193; and South East
Asia, 234n; and Taiwan,
254; in Korea, 196
Chipewyan, 233
Chiricahua Apache, 233
Chiriguano, 232-234
Chnum, 193; cf. Ptah
Choctaw, 233
Chokwe, 170, 180, 182
Christ, 344n
Christ, see Jesus
Christian(s), Christianity, 19,
85, 91, 97, 144, 169-170,
174-176, 179, 183, 186,
196, 200-201, 231, 286,
288, 321, 324, 342, 383,
412, 98n, 147n, 235n; Chris-
tophorus, 200; Myth, 342;
World, 85; and Islam, 175-
176, 201, 383, 147n; cf.
Judaeo-Christian, Bible
Christmas, 183
Christophorus, 200
Chronicles, two book of the
Bible, 329-330
Chukchee, 256-257
Ciamis Regency, 377, 382
Cianjur Regency, 382
Cikahuripan, 385, 391
Ciparigi, 378
Circe, 178, 193; and Pasiphae,
195n
Citarum River, 381
CITI, see Context of Intensi-
fied Transformation and In-
novation
Ciung Wanara, 379, 381
Classificatory kinship, 189n
Cochiti, 233
Codex of Ritual Purity,
Avestan, 76; cf. Videvdad
Coffin Texts, 197; cf. Ancient
Egypt
Colchis, Colchian, 193, 200;
king Aetes, 195n;
Cold, see Spirits
Colonialism, 317, 377
Columbia, 115, 166n; cf. Ama-
zonia
Combat, Combatants, see
Games
Combretacee, tree species, 118
Comoro Isl., 171n
Comparative Method, Com-
parativism, 5, 17-18, 21, 33-
34, 157, 176-180, 182-183,
186-188, 190-192, 194, 197-
200, 239, 248, 253, 267,
315-316, 318, 320-322, 324,
329, 332, 143n, 363n; Con-
trolled , 316, 318; Old ,
316, 321, 332; involving
Australia, 34; of Ptah and
Hephaestus and, 248;
Greek-Greek, intra-epic
comparison, 359; cf. Gener-
alizing
Compensation, 96
Competing, 69, 128
7th Conference on Ethnogene-
sis in South and Central
Asia (ESCA), 18
Conflict, 44-45, 362-363, 366
Confucius, Confucianism, 254
Congo, 168, 170-173, 176,
230, 330; and South Africa,
230
Congo-Zambezi watershed,
200
Contamination, 144
Contest with drought demon,
Aarne-Thompson no. A255,
167-169; also see Games,
Combat, Fontenrose
Context of Intensified Trans-
formation and Innovation,
Index of Proper Names and Motifs
435
158, 160, 163, 158n
Continuities, 5, 234; mytho-
logical, between Africa and
other continents, 107-264,
esp. 143-224
Contradictory messengers
bring death, Narrative Com-
plex, 159-160
Controlled Comparativism, see
Comparative
Conus shell, 188
Cook Group, 233
Coos, North American ethnic
group, 233
Coptic, Copt, 246-250, 412;
Church, 412; Pta, 246;
Sahidic, 246-247; Sahidic
Asenneth, 250; Sahidic
Atrpe, 249; cf. Old Coptic
Corn Mother and Corn-Spirit,
mytheme, 263
Corn, 253, 263; Corn-Spirit,
263; Corn Spirit, Raising
the, Additional Narrative
Complex, 157n-158n
Corpse, 75, 81, 99; demoness,
99n; Strand, 99; Devourer,
99n-100n; also see Living
Corpse, Dead Man Walking,
Nstrnd
Cosmogony of the Separation
of Heaven and Earth, 162,
198, 195n
Cosmogony of the Separation
of the Waters and the Land,
162, 192, 194, 195n
Cosmogony, Cosmogonic,
160-162, 192, 194, 198,
203, 195n; Cosmogonic
Rainbow Snake, 203; Vir-
gin, 161, q.v.; also see Crea-
tion
Cosmological Theory of Myth,
267; cf. Lyle, E.
Cosmology, Cosmological, 18,
267-268, 275
Cosmos, the world, 18, 60,
270; cf. Universe
Cosmos: Journal of the Tradi-
tional Cosmology Society,
18; Cosmos Fellowship, 270
Counselor of the World, 258
Covenant, 188
Cow of Heaven, Additional
Narrative Complex, 157n-
158n; cf. Heaven
Coyote, 124, 258, 157n; and
Antelope, 179; also see
Trickster
Craftsman, 361; cf. Pta,
Hephaestus, Maya
Crane, also see Transformation
Creation, 186, 190, 197, 238;
cf. Cosmogony
Creator Goddess, Creatrix,
186, 165n; Creator, 186,
229-230, 257, 370, 165n;
also see Cosmogony
Cree, North American ethnico-
linguistic group, 233
Crescent, 161, 163; cf. Moon
Crete, Cretan, 177, 244; Cretan
Minos, 189n
Critical Edition, of the Ma-
habharata, 360, 358n
Crocodile, 191; scales, 191;
also see Transformation,
Kimbiji
Cronus, Kronos, 422
Crow, North American ethnic
group, 233
Crow, species of birds, 258
C Chulainn, 189
Cuan, ethnic group, Caribbean,
233
Cubeo, ethnic group, Carib-
bean, 233, 235n
Cultivation, 44
Culture Hero, also see Flood
myths Witzel model
Cunda, a Buddhist monk, 69
Cushitic, 155, 145n; cf.
Afroasiatic
Cut-Nose, 117
Cybele, 181
Cycle, wider category of An-
cient Greek epics, 368; cf.
Homer
Cyclops, see One-eyed
Cycnus, 194-195; cf. Swan
Cypriotic, Ancient Greek dia-
lect, 244
Cyrene, 195n
Czech(s), Czech Republic, 63,
427, 243n
Daedalus, 192
Daena, 75
Dagda, 188
Dahomey, 190
Daijo-sai, 255
Dakota, North, 117
Daly, Australian informant, 31
Dame, La belle , Aarne-
Thompson no. 0264, 167-
169
Dan, biblical location and eth-
nic group, 329-330
Dancing Goddess of Heaven,
Japanese, 256; cf. Ame-no-
Uzume
Danish, 96; and Swedish, 100
Danube, 196
Dao De Ching, 375-376, 402,
405, 405n; cf. Lao Tze
Darwins Cathedral: Evolu-
tion, Religion, and the Na-
ture of Society, 291n; cf.
Wilson, D.S.
Das Mrchen vom Mann im
Monde, 39; cf. Bechstein, L.
Das Wesen des Christentums,
288; cf. Feuerbach, L.
Dat MahaKawasa, Sunda ex-
pression for the Almighty,
386n
David, king, biblical figure,
329-331
Dawn, Japanese goddess, 259
Day Receptacle Woman,
Kwakiutl mythical concept,
258
De Natura Deorum, 245; cf.
Cicero
Dead Man Walking, Nkoya
mythical concept, 168
Dead, also see: Land of ,
King of
Death demon, 100n
Death, Dead, 5, 25, 49, 51, 54,
63, 66, 75-76, 79-81, 94,
101, 168-169, 172, 178,
19n; Dead, Land of the, q.v.;
also see Hero fights , Con-
tradictory Messengers bring
, Underworld, Demon of
Death; Ivan Tretej, King of
Death, origin of, also see:
Originator of death the first
sufferer, Two Messengers,
Waxing and Waning, Ser-
pent, Banana
Delhi, 359
Delphi, 189
Delta, see Ancient Egypt
Deluge, 167, 233, 416, 235n;
also see Flood, Inundation
Deluge, inundation of world,
Aarne-Thompson no.
A1010, 167-169
Demiurge, 191
Demodocus, 422
Demon cuts off mens heads to
build with them, Aarne-
Thompson no. G315, 167-
169
Demon, 81, 169, 172, 257; of
Death, 81; also see Fairy
demoness, serpent, snake
New Perspectives on Myth
436
Demons, 100n; female, 99n
Den norsk-islandske skjalde-
digtning, 99n
Dendrogram, 153
Dene, ethnico-linguistic clus-
ter, North America, 232; cf.
Na-Dene
Dene-Caucasian, 152; and
Austric, 152; cf. Sino-
Caucasian
Deng, 197; Dengs Tears, 197
Denmark, 97, 189
Dentata, see Vagina
Department of America,
Kunstkamera, Peter the
Great Museum of Anthro-
pology and Ethnography,
Russian Academy of Sci-
ences, St. Petersburg, Rus-
sia, 427
Department of Arts, Literature
and Languages, Universit
Marc Bloch, Strassbourg,
France, 428
Department of Celtic and Scot-
tish Studies, Edinburgh
University, Scotland, UK,
427
Department of Central Asia,
Kunstkamera, Peter the
Great Museum of Anthro-
pology and Ethnography,
Russian Academy of Sci-
ences, St. Petersburg, Rus-
sia, 427
Department of Divinity and
Religious Studies, Univer-
sity of Aberdeen, Scotland,
UK, 428
Department of English, Har-
vard University, Cambridge
MA, USA, 427
Department of Forestry, West-
ern Java, 377n
Department of Latin and
Greek, University of Ghent,
Belgium, 428
Department of Linguistics and
Baltic Languages, Masaryk
University, Brno, Czech
Republic, 427
Department of Philosophy,
Erasmus University, Rotter-
dam, the Netherlands, 375n
Department of Religious Stud-
ies, Studies, Tilburg Univer-
sity, the Netherlands, 428,
41n
Department of Sankrit and
Indian Studies, Harvard uni-
versity, Cambridge MA,
USA, 5, 428
Department of Transcultural
Studies, Wako University,
Tokyo, Japan, 428
Der Mythos des 20. Jahrhun-
derts, 339n; cf. Rosenberg,
A., Hitler, A., Nazism
Destruction of humankind, also
see Flood myths Witzel
model; Destroyer, 77n
Deukalion, 189
Deus Otiosus, 227
Dewi Naga Ningrum, 380
Dewi Pangreyep, 380
Dharma, 62, 69, 71
Dialogues concerning Natural
Religion, 288; cf. Hume, D.
Dieri, Australian ethnic group,
119
Dietrich von Bern, 93
Diffusion, 175, 187
Dignification, 399n
Dikusumah, 375, 379-381
Dilolo, 182
Dina Raga Na, 400
Dingirlim-i, 66
Dingo, 31
Dinka, 197
Diomedes, 194
Dionysus, 189
Dios Apat, 420-421; in the
Iliad, 413
Dioscuri, Dioskouroi, 271
Diptera, zoological class, 177
Directions, 84; also see Four
Diver, Earth, see Earth Diver
Divina Comedia, 39n; cf.
Alighieri, Dante
Divyavadana, 61
Djala and Tigri, West Asian
archaeological sites, 234n
Djinani, 25, 30
DNA, Desoxyribonucleic acid,
103, 154, 157, 160-161,
163, 229; DNA-community,
95
Dog, 80; cf. Hllenhund, Cer-
berus
Dogon, 41, 43-55, 179, 181,
187, 203, 43n, 47n; Nommo,
181
Dogrib, 179
Dong, ethnic minority in
China, 179
Doric, Ancient Greek dialect,
243, 249
Dorz, Ethiopian ethnic group,
412
Dragon as power of evil,
Aarne-Thompson no. B11.9,
167-169
Dragon can fly, Aarne-
Thompson no. B11.4.1, 167-
169
Dragon has power of transfor-
mation, Aarne-Thompson
no. B11.5.1, 167-169
Dragon king as wind, Aarne-
Thompson no. D429.2.1,
167-169
Dragon, 167-168, 380; of
Wiru, 380; also see Fiery,
Fight, Sky god, Transforma-
tion, Woman fights
Dragon, Aarne-Thompson no.
B11, 167-169
Dream, 28-29, 347; Dream-
time, 28-29, pivotal Austra-
lian cosmological concept
Drops, 183, 188, 197; cf.
Mvula, Rain
Drought, 167, 191-192, 200;
Drought Serpent, 192; also
see Contest, Waters, Vtra,
Snake Child / Parent of
Drunk, see Intoxication
Drux-ya-Nasu, 75, 81-86
Dryas, 283
Dryness, 192; cf. Drought,
Waters
Duality, 160-161, 270; also see
Pairs
Duality-Two children-Twins,
Narrative Complex, 159-160
Dug-out, 85
Dugum Dani, ethnic group in
New Guinea, 116
Duke Religion Index, 308; cf.
Koenig
Dunia Tengah, Sunda axis
mundi, 382n
Dutch, see Netherlands
Dwarf, Dwarf-like, 248
Dying, see Death
Dymwach the Giant, 188
Dyuktai, ethnic group in Sibe-
ria, 113
Eagle / vulture, Aarne-
Thompson no. D152.1-3,
167-169
Eagle, 179, 183
Early-Modern, 193; Jewish,
193
Earth Diver, 109, 114-115; in
Latin America, 115; and the
Emergence of the First Peo-
ple, 115
Earth Diver, Additional Narra-
Index of Proper Names and Motifs
437
tive Complex, 157n-158n
Earth, 64, 152, 155, 158-162,
178-179, 181-182, 193, 195,
197-198, 201, 203, 235,
238, 385, 157n, 191n, 195n;
also see Gaia, Flood myths
Witzel model, Overturning ,
also see Flood myths Wit-
zel model, Earth-Dragon,
Separation, Reconnection,
Heaven, Mother, Papa,
Global Etymology of Earth,
Bottom, Human
Earth, the, Narrative Complex,
159-160
Earth-Dragon / Mountain /
Volcano, Additional Narra-
tive Complex, 157n-158n;
cf. Fire
East African Highway, eco-
logical and demographic
corridor from Kenya to
South Africa, 237
East Chadic, 156; cf. Chadic,
Afroasiatic
Easter, 183; cf. Fire
Eddas, 95; Poetic , 102n
Edinburgh, Edinburgh Univer-
sity, 18, 270, 289, 427, 20n,
267n
Edison, Thomas A., 192
Egg, 160; also see World Egg
Egypt, see Ancient Egypt
Egyptocentrism, Egyptocen-
trist, 150; M. Bernals Black
Athena thesis as, 151
Egyptology, 105, 150, 171;
Oum Ndigi, 150; Henri
Frankfort, 319n
Eight, personification, 304
Eiks, central Greek concept,
343n
Ekitiparapo, 135
Elder Sister, proposed trans-
formation of Virgin Mother,
192
Elements, transformative cycle
of, 81, 192, 197, 200, 357-
358, 363-364, 369, 157n;
also see Four
Emergence of First People
motif, 109, 114-115, 118-
119; also see: Shed skin,
Suns children killed, Person
is tricked into killing his kin,
People from the Under-
world, the Way from One
World to Another Goes
through a Narrow Opening,
the False Wife, Kind and
unkind girls, Magic flight,
Atalanta type, Originator of
death the first sufferer, Earth
Diver
Emptiness, 192
Enemies, also see Transforma-
tion
Energy, 80, 341n
English, England, 5, 28, 64, 96,
98-99, 110, 156, 281, 427,
110n, 230n, 396n, 404n,
413n; Christian, 183; and
Dutch, 182n; cf. Anglo-
Saxon, Old English, Britain,
Great Britain
Enki, 178
Enlightenment, 345, 413, 416-
417
Enma Dai-, 178
Ennead, 193
Entmythisierung, German,
demythising, 341n
Entmythologisierung, German,
demythologising, in Ancient
Greek intellectual history,
341n, 343n
Enuma Elish, 186, 197
EP, see Emergence of First
People
Epic poets, Greek, 179, 190,
343n; cf. Homer, Apollonius
Rhodius
Equestrian competitions, 63;
cf. Horse
Erasmus University Rotterdam
the Netherlands, 5, 18, 428,
17n, 143n, 375n
Erichthonios, 253, 263
Erythraean, see Red Sea, South
Erythraean, Frobenius
ESCA, see: Conference, 7th,
on Ethnogenesis in South
and Central Asia
Escape, 160, 233, 237; also see
Flood myths Witzel model
Eskimo, 110, 115, 232-233,
235n
Ethiopia(n(s)), 412, 145n; cf.
Dorz
Ethnogenesis, see Conference,
7th
Etruscan, 197
Euenos, 195
Euhemeristic, mythological
theory that gods and heroes
are exalted historical per-
sons, 351n; cf. Euhemerus
Euphrates, 197
Eurasia(n(s)), 19-20, 109-111,
113-115, 119-120, 143-144,
148-149, 152, 154, 156-157,
159, 162-164, 166-167, 171,
173-176, 184, 186, 190,
193, 196-199, 201, 203,
225, 239, 253-254, 288,
20n, 159n, 164n, 176n,
201n, 225n; West Eurasia,
110, 118, 164, 197-198,
164n, 201n; Northern Eura-
sia, 113-114, 120; Eastern
Eurasia, 164; Continental
Eurasia, 111, 113-114, 119;
Continental Eurasia and the
Indo-Pacific, 110; Eurasian
Steppe, 144, 166, 199, 188n;
Upper Palaeolithic, 162; and
African, 162, 201, 203,
159n; and American, 114,
225, 225n; and North Amer-
ica, 119; cf. Europe, Asia
Eurasiatic, linguistic macro-
phylum, 152, 154, 161, 186,
152n, 154n; and Afroasiatic,
154n
Europe(an(s)), 19, 21, 26-27,
39, 62, 113-114, 120, 131,
144, 148, 150, 155, 158-
159, 164, 177-178, 183,
187, 189-190, 192-193, 196,
198, 253-255, 282-283, 330,
357, 43n, 188n; Northern,
144, 177; Northeast, 113;
North-western, 144; Eastern
21, 196; Central , 109;
Western, 144; Europe-
originating, 174; Melusine,
193; Christian, 196; Iron
Age, 196; Neolithic, 178;
and African, 159; and East
Africa, 187; and Asian, 148;
also see Old World, Eurasia
Eve, see African , Out-of-
Africa
Evil demon driven from
heaven, Aarne-Thompson
no. G303.S.1, 167-169
Evil demon has one eye in
middle of forehead, Aarne-
Thompson no. G303.4.1.2.1,
167-169
Evil demon in form of snake,
Aarne-Thompson no.
G303.3.3.6.1, 167-169
Evil demon is gods son,
Aarne-Thompson no. 05
03.1.1, 167-169
Evil demon produces storms,
controls winds, Aarne-
Thompson no. D2141.0.3.
2142.0.1, 167-169
New Perspectives on Myth
438
Evil demon, also see Sky god
Evil Spirit, 81, 84; also see
Dragon
Exodus, Out-of-Africa, 152,
156, 159, 161, 187, 189,
198, 203, 203n; also see
Out-of-Africa, Back-into-
Africa
Exposure-objects, 308
Expression of the Emotions in
Man and Animals, 294; cf.
Darwin, C.
Extended Fertile Crescent, 161,
163
Extended General Sunda The-
sis, 163; cf. Special Sunda
Thesis, Oppenheimer, S.
Eyak, 115
Eyang Prabu Silihwangi, 394-
395
Eye, of Horus, 179; also see
One-eyed person, evil de-
mon
Eyes removed but replaced,
Aarne-Thompson no. E781,
167-169
Faces in the Clouds: A New
Theory of Religion, 295; cf.
Guthrie, S.
Faculty of Oriental Studies,
University of Oxford, Ox-
ford, UK, 427
Faculty of Philosophy, Parahy-
angan Catholic University,
Bandung, West Java, Indo-
nesia, 427-428
Faculty of Philosophy, Theol-
ogy and Religious Studies,
Radboud University Nij-
megen, 427-428
Faculty of Religious Studies,
Radboud University Ni-
jmegen, the Netherlands, 5,
18, 17n, 25n, 335n
Faculty of Social Sciences,
Radboud University Nij-
megen, the Netherlands, 5
Failure to Remember Lessons
Learned, Australian motif,
35
Fairy demoness entices men to
harm them, Aarne-
Thompson no. F302.3.4,
167-169
Faith, 80, 291n
Fall of Man, biblical concept,
179, 193
Fama, Roman, 193, cf. Rumour
Far East, 283
Fate, 81
Father, 419; Heaven, 238;
Zeus, 422; cf. Mother, All-
Father
Fayyumic, Ancient Egyptian
dialect, 246
Federal Government, Nigeria,
136
Feminine Arts, see Spider
Fenrir, 98; and Garmr, 100
Fenrisulfr, 100, 100n
Fertile Crescent, cf. Extended
Fertile Crescent
Feudalism, 317
Fiery dragon, Aarne-
Thompson no. B11.12.3,
167-169
Fight against dragon, Aarne-
Thompson no. B11.10.3,
167-169
Fiji, 229, 233; and New Cale-
donia, 229
Finno-Ugric, 99; cf. Uralic
Fire Giant, 192
Fire, 81, 192, 234, 255, 259-
260, 357-359, 363-364, 368-
369, 371, 158n, 180n; Fire-
Water, 359; cf. Hephaestus,
Kagutuchi, Water(s), Ele-
ments, Fiery Dragon, Easter,
Hot Fat, Phlegian, Maya,
World-Fire
Fire, Additional Narrative
Complex, 157n-158n
First Man, Ganda tradition,
173; cf. Emergence
Fish, 32-33, 35, 233
Five Myths about Nuclear En-
ergy, 341n; cf. Shrader-
Frechette [ add init ]
Flanders, 409n; cf. Belgium
Flight, also see Transforma-
tion, Magic flight, Atalanta
type
Flood myths Witzel model:
A. Gondwana Flood myths;
(1) General flood covers all
except a mountain -- Gond-
wana myths: Pygmy. Mela-
nesia, Australia; 2) Flood as
retribution by god(s) / spirits
& destruction of humans:
Melanesia. Andaman Isl.,
Africa; Escape by boat
(worldwide); (2a) as retribu-
tion for killing of culture
hero rainbow snake: Mela-
nesia, Australia; (2b) by
mistake or spell of rain-
maker / rainbow snake,
some humans eaten by
snake: Australia only (ogre
motif); (2c) as retribution
for other mistakes: Melane-
sia. Australia; (3) Flood
from vessel, calabash, water
/ honey bag: Australia, Af-
rica; (4) Flood caused by
someone s wounds or sores:
Australia, Africa; B. Laura-
sian flood myths: Near East,
India, Siberia. Taiwan, S.E.
Asia, Americas, etc.; include
similar themes as Gondwana
Flood myths; but: rainbow
after flood (Hebrew Bible);
human noise, etc.; Flood by
rain (Near East, etc,), over-
turning of Heaven / Earth
(Polynesia); Flood from flu-
ids of the body
Flood, 161, 167, 180-183, 188,
190-191, 198, 200-202, 225,
227-233, 236-238, 253, 261,
381, 20n, 164n, 182n, 191n,
201n, 226n, 236n; also see
Deluge, Standard Elaborate
Flood Myth, Sintflut, Primal
Waters, Inundation
Flores, 259; and Timor, 259
Fluids, from the Body, see
Body, also see Flood myths
Witzel model
Flute, see Music, Reed
Fly, insect, 82; also see Trans-
formation
Folk-lore in the Old Testament,
179, 329; cf. Frazer, J.
Forehead-Hair, 200
Forest Snake, 191
Forest, 191, 357-358; Snake,
191
Forked Branch, central epi-
phany of the sacred in South
Central Africa, 180
Forum Discussion Group,
Sunda elders, 378n, 382n
Foundation for Scientific Re-
search, FWO, Flanders,
409n
Four, in West African cosmo-
logy, 186, 324
Four, the, (Elements and / or
Cardinal Directions), Addi-
tional Narrative Complex,
157n-158n; Four Genera-
tions (or Five)
Fox, mammal species, 124
Fox, North American ethnic
group, 233
Index of Proper Names and Motifs
439
FOXP2, alleged language
gene, 298n
Fragmented Monster Becomes
the World or Humankind,
Additional Narrative Com-
plex, 157n-158n; cf. Ymir
France, French, 44, 183, 287,
305, 428, 59n; cf. Gallia
[Transalpiana]
Francistown, Botswana town,
171n
Frankenstein, 193; cf. Shelley,
M.
French Revolution, 326, 328,
342
French, see France
Freya, 179
Freyr, 192, 370n
Fridays, 412
Frog, 200; cf. Frog Person,
Kambotwe
Fuegian(s), see Tierra del
Fuego
Fulani, Jihadist(s), 128, 133
Functional Magnetic Reso-
nance Imaging, 290
Funerary rites, 66, 19n; cf.
Death, Ivan Tretej
Fu Xi, 165n; cf. N Wa
FWO, see Foundation for Sci-
entific Research
Gad, biblical prophet, 329-330
Gaia, 193, 195; cf. Earth
Gaiia Martn, mortal life,
78-79, 82
Galicia(n), 64
Galih Pakuan, 379
Gallia, Gaul, 189; Gallia Cisal-
pina, modern North Italy,
196
Galuh, 375, 379-381, 379n
Galunggung, 381
Games, 366
Games-Contests-Combats,
Additional Narrative Com-
plex, 157n-158n
Ganda, 173
Gapura, 391
Gargarus, top of Mount Ida,
Asia Minor, 422
Garmr, 98-100
Garuda, 179, 183; Garuda-bird,
Aarne-Thompson no. B56,
167-169
Gate of Saketeng, 385
Gaut(ish), Gautland, 97-98;
East , 97
Gavio, ethnic group, 109, 116
Gaymard, 78-79
Geb, 192; cf, Earth, Ancient
Egypt
Geez, 247; cf. Ethiopia, Se-
mitic
General Ibrahim Badamosi
Babangida, 136
General Mohammed Buhari,
136
General Sunda Thesis, 163,
164n; cf. Special , Oppen-
heimer, S.
Generalizing, as aspect of
Comparative Method, 324,
326
Genesis, Bereit, biblical book,
181, 186-187, 190-191, 193,
199, 233, 250, 164n
Gepids, Ancient Germanic
ethnic group, 196
German(s), 93, 353, 413-414,
251n; and British, For the
Kapsiki, 44; cf. Old High
German
Germanic, language group, 19,
91, 94-95, 99-101, 166, 177,
193, 196-197, 100n, 110n;
Common, 99; Proto-
Germanic; North Germanic,
95; , Slavic, Romance and
Baltic-Finnish, languages, as
sources of world mythology
database, 110n; Hel, 101;
and Celtic Europe, 177;
and Finno-Ugric, 99n; cf.
Indo-European, Slavic, Ro-
mance, Celtic, etc.
Geryon, 195, 343n; and Cacus,
192
Gesar of Ling, 20, 20n
Ghana, 186; Nyame, primal
god, 186
Ghent, Belgium, 428, 20n,
409n
Gia-Fu, 404n
Giant bird, Aarne-Thompson
no. B31, BS72, 167-169
Giant, 167, 181, 188, 192, 257;
cf. Fire-
Gifford lectures, 289
Gilgamesh, 178, 201, 234,
234n
Girl, see Kind and unkind girld
Glacial Maximum, 113, 227
Glaciation, cf. Great Freeze;
Ice Age
Global Bee Flight, 174, 174n;
cf. van Binsbergen, W.
Global Etymology of Earth,
Bottom, Human, 155f
Glory of Hera, Heracles, Greek
mythical character, 194n
God, 54-55, 118, 162, 177-178,
182, 185-186, 191, 197,
238, 256-257, 290, 299,
329-331, 342, 352-353, 357-
358, 381, 415, 419-420,
39n, 100n-101n, 248n,
290n-291n, 343n, 386n,
411n; , translated term
rendering a concept in Juda-
ism, 386n; Homers, 411n;
and Nirvana, 353; Enki,
178; of Might, 256; of
Tears, 197; also see Rebel-
lion,Goddess
Gods son, also see Evil demon
Goddess, 162, 186, 189, 253,
256-258, 261, 263, 99n,
165n; also see God
Gondwana, 20, 143, 225-226,
231, 237-239, 203n, 225n,
230n; and Laurasian, 226,
237, 159n; in Asia, 159n
Gondwanaland, 226, 228
Gonur, 75, 86, 88, 88n
Gonur-depe, 86
Gorgias, 343, 343n; cf. Plato
Gorgon, 416
Gothic, language, 65n
Goths, Gotland, 93, 95; Gothic
Sea, 92; cf. Hrei-Goths
Governor of Oyo State, 135
Graeco-Roman, 172, 179, 189,
193, 197, 165n, 171n; Aph-
rodite, 193; cf. Antiquity
Grail, 168, 189; also see Magic
cup, Holy Grail
Gran Chaco, 236n
Granulation, granulated surface
texture, see Speckledness,
Leopard
Grave-Cattle, 191
Great Bath, 88,
Great Freeze of the Younger
Dryas, 283
Greater Near East, 234
Greece, see Ancient Greece
Green, colour associated in
Ancient Egypt with
pharaonic protector goddess,
and with the sea, 192
Grendel, 98
Gu-, prefix of ethnonyms in
Southwest Australia, 226
Gu/nnaR, 92
Guapor(n), 233, 235n
Guarayu, 233
Guardian of the Western Quar-
ter, epithet of Varua, 361
Guayaki, 233
New Perspectives on Myth
440
Gudur, 48, 51
Guiana, 110
Gundestrup Kettle, 189
Gunn, Gu/nnaR, 92
Gunung Padang, 375-377, 379-
383, 390-391, 395; and
Gunung Galunggung, 381
Gurana, 31
Guria, 48, 51
Gusti, Sunda supernatural au-
thority, 389, 391, 386n,
389n
Guyana, 236n
Gvrydion, 177
Gwari, African ethnic group,
183
Gylfaginning, Snorri Sturluson,
Edda: Prologue and Gylfa-
ginning,
Gypsies, 187, 197, 187n; cf.
Roma
Hades, 178, 192, 194, 421
Hadoxt Nask, 84
Haida, 179, 233
Hair-Back-of-the-Head, 200
Haisl, HaislaR, 93
Hakata, 152
Hamitic Thesis, 149n; cf.
North-South, Pelasgian The-
sis
Han, Chinese ethnic group,
235n
Harait, 76
Hare, mammal species often
perceived as Trickster, 124,
203
Harm, also see evil, demon,
fairy demoness
Haru, 93
Harvard Round Tables, 18,
157; For Comparative Myth,
17
Harvard University, 5, 17-18,
157, 427-428, 59n, 91n,
225n
Hassle, archaeological site,
Sweden, 189
Hathor, 181, 246, 248; cf. An-
cient Egypt
Hausmrchen, 192, 200; cf.
Grimm, W. & J.
Haussa, 183
Hawaii, Hawaiian, 200, 233,
235n
Hawks, and Buzzards, 182
Head of Iresa, 137
Head, see Demon cuts off
Head-hunting, 196
Heaven and Hell of Gesar of
Ling, 20n, cf. van den Heu-
vel Reinders, Karel Jan
Heaven, 53, 64, 76, 52, 158-
159, 161-162, 178, 181-182,
198, 203, 238, 256, 20n,
191n, 195n; Heaven and
Earth, 64, 158, 161, 181-
182, 198; also see Evil de-
mon, Flood myths Witzel
model, Overturning, Cow of
Heaven, Separation, Recon-
nection, What is in Heaven,
Earth, Rock Cave
Hebrew(s), 77, 85, 181, 193,
233-234, 237, 245, 247,
250, 288, 329, 180n; He-
brew Bible, 234, 237; Post-
biblical , 245; cf. Tanach,
Bible; cf. Israelites, Judaism,
Jews
Hector, 359-360, 362, 364-368,
420-421, 367n
Heider-Simmel experiment,
306-308
Heitsi-Eibib, 186, 194
Hekabe, 100, 100n; cf. Death,
Underworld
Hekate, 100, 100n; cf. Death,
Underworld
Hel(l), 98-101, 20n, 99n-100n;
cf. Death, Underworld
Helen, 193, 359, 422; cf. Me-
nelaus, Proteus
Helius, Helios, 422
Hephaestus, 20, 183, 186, 192-
193, 243-245, 248, 357,
359, 361-364, 366-370, 372,
409, 422-423, 165n, 361n;
and Agni, 20, 357, 359; and
Hera, 366; and Skamander,
364; cf. Pta, Fire
Her(r)ero, 118
Hera, 180, 189, 200, 359, 362-
366, 409-410, 415, 421-422,
194n-195n, 368n; and Ar-
temis, 421; cf. Juno, Voice-
Hera, Heracles
Heracles, 1189, 194-195, 244,
194n-195n, 343n; and Hera,
180; cf. Hercules, Glory of
Hera
Herb of Life, 164n
Hercules, 192, 195; cf. Hera-
cles
Here-beald, 98
Hermes, 188, 421
Hermopolis, Hermopolitan,
200; Ancient Egyptian town
associated with a specific
cosmogonic myth
Hero Fights Death to Save
Somebody, Aarne-
Thompson no. R185, 167-
169
Hero, 117, 162, 169, 257, 361,
365-366; also see Monster
Heyoka Society, North Amer-
ica, 190; cf. Cauldron of
Kingship
Hidden Sun, motif, 253, 255-
256, 260-261; cf. Sun
High God, 185-186, 191, 238
Higher Criticism on Olym-
pus, 411n; cf. Calhoun,
G.M.
Higi, 43-44, 43n
Hill, cf. Primal , Mountain
Himalaya(n(s)), 233-234, 318,
324
Hime-hiko, 253, 262-263
Himiko, 253, 262-263
Himyaritic, 247
Hindu, Hinduism, 179, 183,
196, 233-234, 358, 375-376,
383, 390, 235n, 383n;
Hindu-Tantric, and Bud-
dhism, 399n; Hindu and
Buddhist/Buddhism, 375,
379, 390, 375n, 383n;
Hindu-Buddhist and Sufic,
379, 375n
Hippodameia, 195
Historia Romana, 196; cf. Dio
Cassius
Historiae, 196, 200, 244, 195n;
cf. Herodotus
History of Religions, scholarly
journal, 267
Hittite, 63, 66-67
Hive, 177; cf. Bee
Hod, 197
H-cyn, 98
Hfulausn, 99; cf. Egill Skal-
lagrmsson
Hogon, 45
Hohlenstein-Stadel, archaeo-
logical site, Germany, 280,
295, 284n
Hllenhund, underworld dog,
343n; in Awesta, 100n; cf.
Cerberus
Holocene, 109, 119, 164n
Holy Grail, 189; cf. Grail
Holy One, epithet of Ahura
Mazda, 81
Holy Visions Elude Scien-
tists, anonymous newspa-
per article, 290n
Homers Gods Myth and
Mrchen, 411n; cf. Cal-
Index of Proper Names and Motifs
441
houn, G.M.
Homo Sapiens, 238; cf. Ana-
tomically Modern Humans
Honey / bees / (honey-)beer,
Narrative Complex, 159-160
Honey Bag, also see Flood
myths Witzel model
Hong Kong City University,
152
Hono-ninigi, 253, 256, 261,
263; cf. Amaterasu
Hopi, 178-179, 233, 235n
Horizon of the Bee, see A-bt
Horse, 165-166; in royal in-
thronisation ritual, 189; cf.
Equestrian, Chariot
Horus, 179, 183, 190, 197,
199, 246, 249; also see Eye
of
Hot Fat, 367, 371, cf. Fire,
Agni
Htherus, 98
House of skulls as murderers
abode, Aarne-Thompson no.
F771.1.9, 167-169
Hraigutum, 92
Hraiulf(aR), 93
Hrei-Goths, 92; cf. Goths
HreimaraR, 92
Hrsvelgr, 99
Hsiung-nu, 196
@t-Nt, proposed etymology of
Athena, 243; cf. Pta,
Hephaestus, Bernal, M;
Blaek, V.
Humans, Humankind, Human-
ity, 18, 144, 148, 155-158,
160, 162-163, 175, 180,
285, 395, 401, 404, 421,
159n, 182n; also see de-
struction of , Anatomically
Modern Humans, Monster,
Inhuman, Palaeolithic, Exo-
dus, Out-of-Africa, Global
Etymology of Earth, Bot-
tom, Human
Humbu, 169
Hun(s), Hunnic, linguistico-
ethnic cluster in Western
Eurasia, 196, 188n; cf.
Cauldron of Kingship
Huna, 109, 116
Hunter, mythical figure, 117,
179
Hurihanga, 235
Huwainmo, 116
Hwempetla, 46, 48-49, 51-52,
54-55, 49n
Hyksos, 246, 249
Hymenoptera, zoological class,
177
Hymn, 78, 189
Hypnos, 421
I Ching, see y jng
IACM, see International Asso-
ciation for Comparative My-
thology
Ibadan, 128, 131, 133-135,
428, 127n; and Ijaye, 133;
of Maye Okunade, 128
Iberia, 165n
Ibis, 236
Ibn Rusta, 196
Ibu, 385, 391
Iburi, 262
Ice Age, 38, 226, 238, 238n; cf.
Glaciation
Iceland, 232, 234; and Den-
mark, 97
Icelandic, 96, 233, 65n, cf. Old
Icelandic
Idile, Yoruba patrilineal sys-
tem, 138
IE, see Indo-European
Ifa, 152; cf. Hakata, Sikidy,
c
ilm al-raml
Ife, 127-129, 133-136, 140-
141; Ife North, 136; and
Modakeke, 127-129, 132-
136, 139-141, 20n, q.v.
Ifriqa, 165n; cf. Africa
Igbo, 128
Ijaye, 133
Ijebu, 128
Ikire, 140
Ila, 180, 186, 193, 199
Ile Mimu, Yoruba practice,
127, 136, 138-139
Ile Yiya, Yoruba practice, 136,
138-139
Ile-Ife, 127-129, 133-136, 140;
and Modakeke, 135
Ilias, Iliad, 66, 181, 186, 197,
244, 357-359, 367-368, 409,
413, 420-422, 243n; cf.
Homer, Hephaestus
c
ilm al-raml, highly influential
form of geomantic divina-
tion from Islamic, Abasid
Iraq, see Ifa, Hakata, Sikidy
Ilmarinen, 179
Ilorin, 128, 133
Imam, 135; cf. Islam
Imbi, West Africa / Kongo
concept of personal essence,
186
Immortality, cf. Shed skin,
Snake
Imole, Yoruba court, 140
In Gods We Trust, 291n; cf.
Atran, S.
Inanna, 186; cf. Ishtar, Astarte
Inca, 197, 200, 233, 236, 236n,
238n
India(n(s)), 5, 59-61, 64, 68,
75-79, 83-85, 88, 109, 111,
117, 122, 158, 174, 178-
180, 183-184, 187, 189,
192, 197, 228, 232-235,
237, 255, 258, 318, 358,
362, 364, 368-369, 370,
372, 383, 428, 235n, 382n-
383n; Vvasvat, 79; Yama,
75; and Iranian, 75-76, 88;
and Chinese Sage, 383; and
Japan, 255; cf. Indic, Native
Americans, Old Indian
Indian Ocean, 111, 158, 180,
382n
Indians, American, see Native
Americans
Indic, 100; and Indo-European,
256
Indigenous, 129-130, 136, 140-
141, 404
Indo-Aryan, 180n
Indo-China, Indo-Chinese, 235
Indo-European, linguistic phy-
lum, 59-60, 62-68, 76, 80,
88, 99, 144, 155, 189, 192,
195-196, 256, 268-272, 274-
275, 284, 357-358, 369-371,
19n, 65n, 180n, 202n; spec.
Germanic, 94; Proto-Indo-
European, 99-100, 196;
Indo-Europeans, speakers of
Indo-European, 101, 255;
Indo-Europeanists, 315,
318; also see Old Indo-
European
Indo-Iranian, 85; and Japanese,
235n; and Old Slavic, 59; cf.
Indic
Indology, Indologist(s), 239n;
cf. Indo-Iranian, India(n(s))
Indonesia(n(s)), 20, 229, 232,
235, 259, 318, 323, 381-
383, 427, 164n, 235n, 375n,
382n; Archipelago, 375,
382; Muslims, 394; Indone-
sianness, 317; also see Ba-
hasa
Indo-Pacific, 109-111, 115,
152; and Continental Eura-
sian, 113
Indo-Slavic, 20
Indra, 60, 192, 357-360, 363-
371, 370n; and Brahm, 371
Indus, 88, 164n
New Perspectives on Myth
442
Inguld, Ingulding(s)/a, 96, 93,
96, 102
Ing-Vald, 93, 96, 102
Ing-Valdings, 94
Inhuman decision, also see
King
Inktomi, 186
Innovation, 158, 160, 163
Ino, 189; cf. Leukothea, White
Goddess, Dionysus, Meli-
cartes
INTAS, Russian research fund-
ing organisation, 110n
International Association for
Comparative Mythology, 5,
17-19, 21, 157, 275
International Office, Radboud
University, Nijmegen, 5
Internet, 284
Intoxication, 179
Inuit, 236
Inundation, 235n; also see
Deluge, Flood
Invulnerability, see Magic
ointment
Iolcus, 195n
Ionian, 411; Ionian-Attic, 250
Iove, see Jupiter
Ipetumodu, 128, 136, 140
Iran(ian), 59, 64, 75-79, 83-85,
88, 115, 119, 196, 369, 83n,
370n, 84; Affinity of Old
Iranian and Old Indian, 76;
Yima, 75; Zoroastrians and
Indian Parsees, 84; Sraoa
and Yima and Indian Vi, 79;
and Near East, 77; and In-
dia(n(s)), 75, 78, 84, 88
Iraq, 171n; cf. Abasid
Iraye, 134
Ireland, Irish, Irish, 177, 179,
189, 232-233, 235n; and Old
Egypt, 235
Iresa, 137
Iron-Age Europe, 189
Irony, 409, 417; General, 419,
424; Cosmic, 419; Philoso-
phical , 419
Isakole, 129, 135
Ise-Yiya, 127, 138-139
Isis, 178, 191, 197; cf. Horus,
Ancient Egypt
Islam(ic), 45, 65, 135, 144,
147, 169, 175-176, 178-179,
187, 201, 231, 376, 381,
383, 386, 392, 394, 43n,
147n, 171n, 377n, 383n,
392n; and Judaism, 178;
Islamisation of Central Asia,
187; in Africa, 43n; in
Northern India, 187; in West
Java, 377n; and Christian,
144; cf. Mosque, Imam, Ji-
had, Qurn, Jews
Isoya, 128, 135
Israel(ite(s)), see Ancient Is-
rael(ite(s))
Israel, Israelite kingdom, 329
Issedones, 196
Italy, Italian, 196-197, 234n;
also see Gallia
Ithaca(n), 422-423; cf. Odys-
seus, Penelope
Ivan Tretej, Russian folktale
character, 64; cf. Tretjak
Ivory Throne, 386
Izanagi, Japanese cosmogonic
god, 197, 199, 263, 182n;
and Izanami, 253, 256, 261,
q.v.
Izanami, Japanese cosmogonic
goddess, 197, 199, 253, 256,
261, 263; and Izanagi, 182n,
q.v.
IzIburi, 262
Jabbok, Stream, 199; Bantu
etymology, 199
Jackal, mammal species, 124
Jacob, biblical figure, 181, 199
Jain(s), 61, 68
Jakilin, Moon, in Australian
Aborigian myths, 31
Japan(ese), 18, 20, 177-178,
186, 189-190, 196-197, 199,
253-256, 258-259, 261-263,
428, 182n, 235n, 253n;
Classical, 253; Sun Goddess
Amaterasu, 258, q.v.
Jason, 193, 200, 195n; cf. Hera,
Pelias, Iolcus
Java(nese), 20, 259, 375-376,
379, 381, 390, 406, 427,
375n, 377n, 379n, 381n,
399n; cf. Sunda
Jehovah, 330
Jericho, 194
Jerusalem, 197
Jesus, 29, 253, 263, 344n; cf.
Christ, Christianity
Jews, Jewish, 148, 161, 178,
183, 193, 233-234, 247,
330; in King Davids time,
330; Jewish Aramaic, 247;
and Muslims, 178; cf. An-
cient Israel(ite(s)), Judaism
Jihad, Jihadist(s), 128, 133
Jindalbu, 31
Jinga, Angolan queen, see
Nzingha
Jivaro, 235n
Joab, 329
Joining Forked Branches, see
Kapesh
Jomon, 253, 261
Joshua, biblical book, 187
Jotun, 193
Joukahainen, 191
Judaeo-Christian, 198
Judah, Israelite kingdom, 329
Judaism, 179, 197, 321n, 386n;
Judaeo-Islamic, 178
Judges, biblical book, 186, 199
Julius Caesar, 418; cf. Shake-
speare, W.
Junior status in pantheon, of
Rain god, 198
Juno, and Jupiter, 245; cf. Hera
Jupiter, 245; cf. Zeus
Kabeb, 117
Kabombo, 190
Kabundungulu, 191
Kadua, 385
Kaduveo, 109, 116
Kafue, 169
Kagutuchi, Japanese Fire god,
256, 261
Kahare, 169, 187, 199, 188n
Kakutaro Kubo, 262
Kalali-gir 2, cult centre, 86
Kale, 187; cf. Kahare, Gypsies
Kalevala, 177, 179, 191
Kali, in Hinduism, 196
Kalima, 399
Kalunga-Ngombe, 191
Kalypso, 99
Kama, 178
Kamaiura, 109, 116
Kambotwe, 200; cf. Frog
Kamchatka Peninsula, 259
Kampong Ciparigi, 378
Kamunu, 182
Kamunungampanda, Joining
Forked Branches, 179-180;
cf. Kapesh
Kangaroo, 33, 35
Kanioka, 180, 183; cf. Rozwe
Kaonde, 180, 190, 193
Kapesh, tower-associated
mythical figure, S.C. Africa,
167-168, 179-180, 180n;
Kamunungampanda, Join-
ing Forked Branches, 180
Kaphiri-ntiwa, 173
Kaposhi, 180
Kapsiki, 41, 43-48, 51-55, 43n;
Kapsiki and the Dogon, 44,
47, 54; cf. Higi; and Dogon,
52
Index of Proper Names and Motifs
443
Karaites, 183
Karaton, 385, 392
Karia, 109, 116
Kartvelian, 195n
Kashgar, 233
Kashmir, 233-234, 235n
Katete, 169, 177-178; and Lu-
hamba, 178, 181, 190; cf.
Reed
Kathlamet, 198, 233
Kathmandu, 233; and Kashmir,
235n
Kauravas, 368n
Kawasa, 389
Kayambila, 168-169, 172, 193-
196; cf. Skull, Thatching
Kayoni, 183
Kazanga, 170, 183, 193, 196
Kemushiri, 257
Kenya, 180, 231, 237
Kepala Desa, 378n
Kerberos, see Cerberus
Khan, 196
Khava, 359-360, 363, 368;
Khandava Forest Fire, 357
Khoe, Khoi, 156; cf. Khoisan
Khoekhoe, Khoikhoi, 156; cf.
Khoisan
Khoisan, linguistic macrophy-
lum, 145, 152-153, 155-156,
186, 194, 152n, 155n;
Heitsi-Eibib, 186; and North
Caucasian, 155, q.v.; also
see Central
Khwarazmian, 86
Ki Laras, see Maya
Ki Subarma, 379
Kideng, 379
Kidul, 382n
Kiev, 196, 199
Kikoe-no-Okimi, 262
Kimberley, the Kimberleys,
Australian region, 32, 227
Kimbiji kia Malenda a
Ngandu, Two Persons [?]
with Crocodile Scale, 191
Kimi Kotani, 262
Kind and unkind girls, aspect
of the Emergence of First
People mytheme, 120-121
King makes inhuman decision,
Aarne-Thompson no. M2,
167-169
King, 67, 75, 169, 172, 177-
179, 186, 189, 192, 199,
329-330, 360, 365-366, 375-
376, 379-381, 387, 395,
315n; Agamemnon, 360;
David, 329; Kahare, 199;
Kapesh Kamunungampanda,
179; Nisus of Megara, 199;
of Dead, 177; of Death, 178;
of Galuh, 379; of Oi, 67; of
Pajajaran, 395; of the Sun-
danese, 375-376, 381; Pre-
mana Dikusumah, 380; Ratu
Pusaka, 381; Sanjaya, 381;
Unas, 189; cf. Kingdom,
Neo-Monarchy
Kings College, 315n
Kingdom, 197, 244, 246, 248,
250, 253, 262, 380-381,
381n; Galuh and Gunung
Padang, 380-381; Mataram,
381n; Pajajaran, 381
Kingship, 168, 184, 188, 188n,
cf. Cauldron, Regicide
Kingu, 197
Kinioka, 191
Kinship, cf. Person is tricked
into killing his kin; Classi-
ficatory
Kintu, 173
Kiokwe, 180
Kiowa, 109, 116
Kitsu-biko and Kitsu-bime,
262
KN, standard designation of
Knossos Linear B tablets,
243, 243n
KNAW, see Royal Netherlands
Academy of Sciences
Knossos, 243n
Kojahk, Ancient Egyptian
month, 200
Kojiki, 177, 197, 253, 182n;
and Nihonshoki, 262; also
see Chamberlain, B.H.
Kokytus, 197
Koljo, Uralic death goddess, 99
Kond, 109, 116-117
Kong, 152
Koran, see Quran
Korea(n(s)), 179, 196, 233,
254, 235n
Kortchi, 48
Koryak, 232, 256-257
Krishna, 358-362, 367
Kronos, see Cronus
Kujip, 31
Kumarbi, 177; cf. Hittite, Bee
Kunimond, 196
Kunstkamera, Peter the Great
Museum of Anthropology
and Ethnography, Russian
Academy of Sciences, St.
Petersburg, Russia, 427,
109n
Kuruks, 360
Kurya, 196
Kuta, 393
Kutarungu, 385
Kwakiutl, 179, 233, 256, 258
Kyknos, 195
Kynmund(aR), 93
Kyoto, 18
Kyrgyz, 177; epic Manas, 179,
190
La Divina Comedia, 39n; cf.
Dante Alighieri
Lacus Tritonis, 165n; cf. o
al-Jerid, salt lake in modern
Southeastern Tunisia
Lady of Avalon, 192
Lady Tower, 181; cf. Astaroth
Lagos, 20n
Lake Dilolo, 182
Lamu, 180
Land of dead across water,
Aarne-Thompson no.
E481.2, 167-169
Land of dead in lower world,
Aarne-Thompson no.
E4S1.1, 167-169
Land of dead in West, Aarne-
Thompson no. E4S1.6.2,
167-169
Land of skulls, Aarne-
Thompson no. E4S5, 167-
169
Land of Yomi, 199; cf. Dead,
Underworld
Laos, 117
Laoshang Chanyu, 196
Lapit, 368
Laras, 406, 378n, 382n, 386n,
389n
Late Glacial Maximum, 113,
119
Late Period, Ancient Egypt,
248,
Latin, 63, 72, 115, 197, 289,
357, 359, 428
Laurasian, 20, 143, 225-228,
230-232, 234-240, 255,
159n, 225n; Area, 225;
Flood, 232; and Gondwana,
237-238, 203n; India and
South America, 228
Laurentide, 283
Lawang Kadua, 385
Lawang Saketeng, 385, 391
Le Morte dArthur, 191; cf.
Thomas Malory
Lectures on the Religion of the
Semites, 321; cf. Robertson
Smith, W.
Leiden, 5, 18, 20, 152, 428,
17n, 19n-20n, 41n, 143n
New Perspectives on Myth
444
Lemba, 187
Lemnos, 183, 245
Lengua, South American eth-
nic group, 233
Lent, 64
Leopard, 412; also see Speck-
ledness
Les Grecs ont-ils cru leurs
mythes, 412; cf. Veyne, P.
Les matres de la vrit dans la
Grce archaque, 412n; cf.
Detienne, M.
Leto, 421
Lettish, Latvian, 65, 67, 65n
Leuit Salawe Jajar, 386
Leukothea, 189
Leviticus, Bible book, 184
Lewontin, 284n
Leza, 185
LGM, see Late Glacial Maxi-
mum
Libupe, 177
Libya, 195, 165n
Lie Which Is Corpse, Zoroas-
trian death demoness Drux-
ya-Nasu, 75, 81
Life, 52, 55, 376, 379-380,
395-396, 401, 404, 424,
164n, 401n
Light, 386, 395-396, 400
Lightning Bird and World egg,
Narrative Complex, 159-160
Likambi Mange, 167-169, 190,
192
Likota lya Bankoya, 169-170,
176, 182; cf. Shimunika,
J.M. / van Binsbergen, W.
Lilith, 193
Lingongole, 191
Lipan, 109, 116
Lipepo, 168; cf Wind
Lithuanian, 63, 234, 65n
Living corpse, Aarne-
Thompson no. E422, 167-
169
Loeb Classical Library, 421n-
422n
Loew, Rabbi, of Prague, 192
Logographers in Ancient
Greece, 343n
Logomythie, German, the
mythology of rationality,
353
Logos, 343n, 346n
Loki, 98, 103, 179, 99n
London Zoological Gardens,
294
Longmans & Green, publishing
house, 247n
Lord, 168-169, 172, 178, 187,
189, 329-330, 419, 344n-
345n; Jesus Christ, 344n;
Lord of Death, 168-169,
172, 178; Lord of the Town,
189
Lover, 191n; also see Virgin
Lower Congo, 176, 330
Lower Egypt, 178, 249
Lower World, 114; cf. Under-
world
Lozi, 170, 176, 180-182, 190n;
cf. Luyi, Rotse, Luyana,
Nkoya
Luba, 180-181
Lubumba, Nkoya prophet, 167-
168
Luchazi, 170
Lucius Postumius Albino, 196
Luhamba, 169, 177-178, 181,
190; cf. Bee
Luiseo, 233
Lukolwe, 190
Lunda, 169-170, 172, 177-178,
183, 203; and Nkoya, 178;
Eastern , 177; cf. Ndembu
Lungkruk Pandita Sidik, 380
Lurah, 378, 378n
Lushais, 117
Lushei, 109, 116
Luvale, 170, 176, 182; and
Chokwe, 182
Luwji, Moon, 179
Luyi, 170, 180, 191; cf. Lozi,
Rotse
Lycaon, 363; and Asteropaeus,
365
Lycia, Lycian, 67
Lykoros, 189
Lykos, 189
Mabinogion, 189, 193; cf.
Quest, C. Schreiber-
Madagascar, 177, 187, 225n-
226n; and the Comoro Is-
lands, 171n
Mrings, 92
Mafa, 53
Maghreb, 118
Magic cup, Grail, Aarne-
Thompson no. D1171.6,
167-169; also see
Wunschding
Magic flight, aspect of the
Emergence of First People
mytheme, 121; also see Ata-
lanta type
Magic ointment renders in-
vulnerable, Aarne-
Thompson no. D 1344.5,
167-169
Magic powers, possession of,
Aarne-Thompson no.
D1710, 167-169
Magic tree guarded by snake,
Aarne-Thompson no.
D950.0.1, 167-169
Magic, 120-122, 168, 172n
Magical Ideation inventory,
308; cf. Eckblad & Chap-
man
Magni, 97
Maha Kawasa, 389
Mahabharata, 77, 357-360,
367, 369-370, 358n; cf. Ap-
pendix, Critical Edition
MahaKawasa, 386n
Mai Huna, 109, 116
Maia, 387
Maina, 233
Maker of the Material World,
epithet of Ahura Mazda, 81
Malawi, 173
Mali, 41, 43-44
Malinowski, Bronislaw, 27
Mambwe, 183
Manas, 179, 190
Mandala, 399
Mandan, 109, 116-117
Mandara Mountains, 46, 51,
53, 43n, 49n
Mand, 46-47, 49
Manenga, mythical queen, S.C.
Africa, 168, 182, 197, 199-
200; cf. Flood, Hera
Manetho, 244, 250
Mange, see Likambi
Manggumu, 31
Mni, 244
Manichean(s), 114-115
Mankind, 197, 288; also see
Monster, Humans
Mnnerbund, German, male
association, 93-84, 101
Mantis, Narrative Complex,
159-160
Mantri Anom Aria Kebonan
Kideng Agung, 379
Manu, 77, 234, 271, 274
Maori, 232-235
Mapula, 229
Maravi, 173
Mark Anthony, literary charac-
ter in Shakespeare, 418
Marduk, 186, 197
Margiana Archaeological Ex-
pedition, 86, 86n; cf. Bac-
tria-Margiana
Archaeological Complex
Mariana Islands, 259
Marquesas, 232-233, 235
Index of Proper Names and Motifs
445
Mars, 189; cf. Ares
Maruts, 364
Mary, and Jesus, 253, 263; cf.
Virgin
Masaryk University, 427, 243n
Masculinisation, 161
Mashasha, 177; cf. Nkoya
Masjid Agung, 385, 394
Massachusetts, 17
Mataaho, sceptical mythical
figure, 235
Mataco, American ethnic
group, 109, 116, 233
Mataram, 379n, 381n
Matheo, see Mataaho
Mato Grosso, 118
Maung, 31
Maya, an asura associated with
crafts and fire, 365, 367,
361n, 365n,
Maya, Ki Laras (Abah Adjat
Poerba Sasaka), 406, 378n,
382n, 386n, 389n, 391n-
392n, 394n, 406n
Maya, Mayas, Meso American
ethnic group and language,
184, 196, 236, 235n,
Maye Okunade, 128, 134
Mayowe, Stanford, 194
Mazda, see Ahura
Mbaya, 233
Mbh, see Mahabarata
Mbona, 173
Mbote, 177
Mbunda, 180; and Luchazi,
170
Mbundu, 190
Mbwela, 168, 180
Mead, alcoholic drink from
honey, 177; also see Honey
Mecca, 187; cf. Islam
Medb, 179
Medea, 193; Medea, 189, cf.
Euripides
Medieval, see Middle Ages
Meditation, 399n
Mediterranean, 144, 153, 166,
178, 183-184, 186, 196-197,
199, 202, 238, 151n, 172n,
174n; Eastern, and West
Asia, 196; Mediterranean-
Pelasgian, 165; and West
Asia, 150, 186; in the
Bronze Age, 153, 184, 199;
Eastern , Bronze Age, 178
Medusa, 416
Megara, 199
Mejprat, 117
Melanesia(n(s)), 109-110, 115,
119, 225, 229, 231-232,
237, 282, 229n, 239n; and
Amazonia, 110; and Austra-
lia, 231; cf. Oceania
Melbourne, 27
Melicartes, 189; cf. Melqart,
Heracles, Leukothea
Melissae, 177; cf. Bee
Melisseus, 177; cf. Bee
Melqart, 189; cf. Melicartes
Melusine, and Blodeuwedd,
193
Melville Isl., 25, 29-30
Memalius, 245
Memphis, 244-246, 249
Mencej, 270
Menelaus, 193, 195n; cf. Helen
Menes, legendary first king of
Ancient Egypt, 244
Menial tasks, also see Noble
person
Menog, 77
Menomini, 233
Menstruation, see Blood-as-
Poison
Merneptah, 246
Mesolithic, Natufian, 154n
Mesopotamia(n), 150, 173,
177, 225, 233-234, 238-239,
318-319, 164n, 319n; and
Bible world, 225; Gil-
gamesh, 234
Messengers, Two, one of J.
Frazers basic mythemes on
the Origin of Death, 30n; cf.
Contradictory messengers
Metamorphoses, 189, 193, 197;
cf. Ovid(ius) Naso
Metaphysics, 335-336, 340,
344; cf. Aristotle
Me-Turan, 234n
Mexico, Mexican, 233
Mikmaq, 197
Miao, 261; Miao-Yao, 156;
Proto-Miao-Yao, 155; and
the Lao, 261
Micronesia, 233
Middle Ages, Medieval, 183;
and Early Modern Europe,
192
Middle Babylonian, 246
Middle East, 85, 111, 161, 283;
and Ancient Greece, 186; cf.
West Asia
Middle Egyptian, 246
Middle Persian, 77-79, 81, 85
Middle Vedic, 61
Midgarsormr, 98
Midsummer Nightss Dream,
347, 355n; cf. Shakespeare,
W.
Migrations of the Nations, 196
Miki Nakayama, 262
Miletus, 343n
Milky Way, 113, 238n
Mimesis, 387
Mimu, 136
Min, Ancient Egyptian god,
186; also see Menes
Minerva, 245; and Apollo, 245;
cf. Athena
Minni Cara and Minni Kota,
230n
Minoan, 177; cf. Crete
Minos, king, 189n; cf. Pasi-
phae, Daedalus
Miocene, 383
Missouri, 115, 117
Mist Wader, see Mokerkialfi
Mistake, also see Flood myths
Witzel model
Mistress of the Primal Waters,
161; cf. Mother, Virgin,
Separation, Waters
Mitanni, 271
Mixtec, 235n
Moats Mong, 183
Modakeke, 127-129, 134-137,
139-141; cf. Ife
Mofu, 53
Mogode, Kapsiki village,
Cameroon, 48, 51-53; and
Yugo, 51
Mohenjo-Daro, 88
Moi, 109, 116-117; Ancestors
of the 117
Mokerkialfi, 193
Mol, H.J., 19n
Mong, 183
Mongolia, Mongol(s), 194,
196, 253, 255; and Kyrgyz,
177
Monk, 69, 380-381
Mono, 232-233
Monster keeps water from
mankind until a hero defeats
him and releases it, Aarne-
Thompson no. A1111, 167-
169
Monster, 117, also see Sea
monster, Fragmented
Montreal, 290
Moon, 25, 31-39, 113, 160,
179, 203, 232, 19n, 32n;
Waxing and Waning of,
30n; Moon and Parrot, 32;
and Possum, 31; and Pura-
kapali, 31, 33-35, 38-39; in
Australian Aboriginal Myths
of the Origin of Death, 25 f;
Moon Man, 37; cf. Tjapara,
New Perspectives on Myth
446
Crescent, Luweji
Moon, the, Narrative Complex,
159-160
Morgan Le Fay, 191-192; and
Morgause, 191
Morgause, 191
Mormons, 282
Morning Star, 117
Morocco, 318, 323; Moroc-
canicity, 317; and Indonesia,
323
Moscow, Moscovites, 64, 152
Moses, biblical figure, 319n;
s Red Sea crossing, 198
Moslem, see Islam
Mosque of Majesty, 385, 394-
395
Mossi, 183
Motacilla, genus of birds, 182n
Mother Tongue, scholarly
journal, 229n
Mother, 67, 161-162, 178-179,
181, 186, 191-194, 199,
238, 253, 261, 263, 415,
165n, 191n, 195n, 229n;;
Earth, 238; Goddess, 162;
of God, 415; of Spirits,
67; of the (Primal) Waters,
178-179, 181, 186, 192-194,
199, 195n; Motherhood,
385, 392; Mother-in-Law,
32, 34; Mother-Son, 253;
Mother-Son Deities, 263;
also see Earth, God, Waters,
Separation, Virgin, All-
Mother
Mountain God of Kemushiri,
257
Mountain Ok, ethnic group in
Inner New Guinea, 282
Mountain, 46, 53, 85, 233, 257,
282, 43n, 49n; also see
Flood myths Witzel
model; also see Earth-
Dragon
Mouth, 161; from the , Nar-
rative Complex, 159-160
Mozambique, 180, 182n
Mri, 290
Mry, 246
Muammad al-Zanati, 171n
Mufuenda, 168; cf. Dead Man
Walking
Mulambwa, 172, 176, 181
Mulih, 380
Mundang, 183
Mundas, 235n
Mundi, 382n
Mura, 233
Murato, 109, 116
Murderous bride, Aarne-
Thompson no. T173, 167-
169; cf. The False Wife
Murngin, 32
Murray, River, 29
Murtankala, 29
Music-Orpheus-Flute-Reed,
Additional Narrative Com-
plex, 157n-158n
Muslim, see Islam
Musumba, 172-173
Mut, Ancient Egyptian god
represented as vulture, 183
Mutilated god, Aarne-
Thompson no. A128, 167-
169
Mvula, Rain, Nkoya demi-
urge, 182-183, 188, 198
Mwaat Yaav, Mwati Yamvo,
Lord of Death, in Southern
Congo, 168-170, 172-173,
177-179, 187
Mwenda-Njangula, 167-168,
191, 198
Mwene Manenga, see Manega
Mwene, Nkoya: King, 182-
183, 197, 199
Mycenaean, 243, 249
Myrmidons, 360
Myth and Method, 340; cf.
Reinwald, H.
Myth and Mythology, 387n-
388n; cf. Barnard, A., &
Spencer, J.
Myth of the Sun and Fire, 255
Mythographers, in Ancient
Greece, 343n
Mythological Continuities
between Africa and Other
Continents, 5, 107-252
Mythology of Death and Dy-
ing, 5, 23-106
Ntlakapanaq, 232
Na-Dene, 236; different from
Amerind, q.v.; cf. Dene
Nagaland, Nagaland, 183, 380
Naganuma, 262
Nagara (Gunung) Padang, 375-
380, 383, 388-389, 400-401,
405-406, 399n
Nakal, Meso American mythi-
cal hero, 200
Nakisawame-no-Mikoto, 197
Nalinanga, see Shihoka
Namba, 233
Nambicuara, 235n
Namibia, 194
Nao Deguchi, 262
Nara, 99n
NarCom, see Narrative Com-
plex
Nari, 99n
Narrative Complexes, 159-160,
191, 203, 157n-159n, 176n;
in Pandoras Box, 157; cf.
NarCom, NC
Narrow Opening, 116; also
see: the Way from One
World
Nasilele, 180
Naste Etsan, Navajo spider
goddess, 186; cf. Spider
Nstrnd, Corpse Strand, 99
Natchez, 233
National Party of Nigeria, 135
Nationalsozialismus, 339n; cf.
Hitler, A., Rosenberg, A.
Native Americans, 110, 200,
232-236, 282,235n, 238n; of
the Southeast USA, 183;
and the Eskimo, 110; cf.
Amerind, (Na-)Dene
Native Cat, 33, 35; and Kanga-
roo, 33, 35
Natufian, 154n
Natunda, 118
Natural History of Religion,
345; cf. Hume, D.
Naubandhana, 234
Naumba, 190
Navajo, 178, 186, 236
Nayekwake, 48
Nazism, see Nationalsozialis-
mus
NC, see Narrative Complex
Ndembu Lunda, 203
Neanderthals, 111; Neander-
thaloid, 160
Near East, cf. Ancient Near
East, Greater Near East
Nectar, Soma, Aarne-
Thompson no. A154, 167-
169
Needfire, 183
Negeri Galuh, 381
Negeri Sunda, 381
Neith, 186, 190, 243, 249-250,
195n; cf. Nestis, Athena, @t-
Nt, Bernal, M., Anahita,
Anath, Anansi, Nyambi
Neolithic, 150-152, 158, 160-
161, 163-164, 177-178, 194;
and Bronze Age, 152; and
Early Bronze Age West
Asia, 202; and Early Bronze
Age, 151n; Selknam, 236;
West Central Asia, 164
Neo-Monarchy, 317
Nepal, 233
Index of Proper Names and Motifs
447
Nestis, 197; cf. Neith
Netherlands Institute for
Avanced Studies (NIAS),
Wassenaar, 172n
Netherlands, the, 5, 17-18, 155,
275, 377, 427-428, 17n,
25n, 143n, 172n, 182n,
335n; cf. African Studies
Centre, Radboud University,
Ravenstein, Tilburg Univer-
sity
Netherworld, see Underworld
Neurobiology, 280, 299
New Caledonia, 229
New Guinea(n), 109-110, 115-
117, 119, 158, 160, 225-
227, 229, 259, 282, 159n;
Highland Papua, 115; and
Asia, 109, 116; and Austra-
lia, 158; and Indonesia, 259;
Papuans, 117; cf. Oceania
New Norwegian, 100
New World Dictionary, 344n
New York Times, 289
New York, USA State, 117
New Zealand, 259
Ngajadi Naga Wiru, 380
Ngambela, 186
Ngan, 403
Nganasan, 109
Nghiem, 181
Ngurunderi, 29
Ngweu, 48
NIAS, see Netherlands Insti-
tute for Advanced Studies
Nicomachean Ethics, 344; cf.
Aristotle
Nhggr (hate-striker), 99
Niger-Congo, 144-145, 152-
153, 155, 166, 178, 184,
190, 199, 203, 152n
Nigeria(n(s)), 19, 43, 131, 133,
135-136, 179, 428, 43n,
127n
Nihongi, Nihonshoki, 254, 262
Nijmegen, the Netherlands, 5,
18-19, 427-428, 17n, 19n-
20n, 25n, 335n
Nikkei Niwano, 262
Nikukud, 48
Nile, River, 184, 197, 245, 319
Nilo-Saharan, linguistic
macrophylum, 145, 152,
152n; and Niger-Congo,
152, 152n
Nilotic, Dinka, 197; and Omo-
tic, 231
Nimrod, biblical mythical
character, 181
Nimuendaj, 233
Ningrum, 380
Ninive, 234n
Niobe, 197
Nirantali, 117
Nirvana, 353
NISCO Research School, Fac-
ulty of Social Sciences,
Radboud University Ni-
jmegen, 5
Niir, Mount, 234
Nisus, 199
Niwano, 262
Nkonya, 118
Nkoya, Nkoyaland, ethnic
group and language of Zam-
bia, S.C. Africa, 20, 143-
144, 147-151, 167-174, 176-
193, 195-203, 143n, 159n,
176n, 180n, 188n-190n; and
Luyana language, 170; and
Lozi, 190n; Eastern Nkoya,
177, cf. Mashasha; King
As Death Demon, 172;
Nkoya-Eurasian continui-
ties, 169; and Celtic, 177,
179, 188; and the Gil-
gamesh, 201; and Western
Eurasia, 173
Noah, biblical mythical charac-
ter, 75, 234, 237; and the
Flood Myth, 381; Noahs
Ark, 84, 188; cf. Flood,
Atraasis, Ziusudra, Utnap-
ishtim
Noble person must do menial
service, Aarne-Thompson
no. Q482, 167-169
Nommo, 181
Nootka, 233
Nordic, Norse, 91, 95, 97-99,
101, 103, 179, 189-190,
192, 194, 197, 199-200,
369; Nordic Apocalypse,
192; Nordic Europe, 190;
Nordic Odinn, 200; Nordic
and Sanskrit Asian, 189;
Norse and Iranian, 369; also
see Old Norse
North Africa(n(s)), 118, 143-
144, 147, 169, 190, 200,
230, 323, 149n, 171n; and
the Middle East, 145n
North America(n(s)), 19, 21,
109-110, 113, 115, 122,
172, 178-179, 183, 186,
188, 190, 193-194, 200-202,
253, 255, 201n; Plains Indi-
ans, 282; Prairie, 186; and
South America, 232-233,
259; and North-East India,
109; and South Asia, 114;
cf. Native Americans
North Atlantic, 55, 143, 147-
149, 151, 174-175, 149n,
151n; Modern, 200
North Caucasian, 155, 152n
North Khoisan, 156
Northern Mountain, mythical
dwelling place of Ba
c
al
Zebul/b, Ugaritic deity, q.v.,
85
North-South diffusion, model
for intracontinental African
cultural flow, 184, 201,
151n, 201n; questioned by
Witzel, 230n; cf. South-
North, Afrocentrism,
Hamitic, Pelasgian
Norwegian, New, 100
Nostratic, 152, 154, 152n; and
Afroasiatic, 186; cf. Super-
Nostratic, Eurasiastic, Bo-
rean
NPN, see National Party of
Nigeria
Nsenga, 183
N Wa, 193, 165n; cf. Fu Xi
Nuberu, 200
Nubia(n(s)), 145, 173
Nuclear, 341n
Nuka-biko and Nuka-bime,
262
Numbers, biblical book, 192
Nupe, 183
Nurbakhsh, 383n, 386n, 396n
Nyai Roro Kidul, the Queen of
the South / Indian Ocean,
382n
Nyambi, West and S.C. Afri-
can deity, 180, 182-183,
185-186, 191, 198, 182n; cf.
Nyame, Anahita, Neith,
Athena, Anath
Nyambis Child, Mvula / Rain,
Nkoya mythical figure, 183,
Nyame, 186; cf. Nyambi
Nzambi, 186; cf. Nyambi
Nzingha, Angolan warrior-
queen, 190
Oba Adesoji Aderemi, 135
Obafemi, 135
Obalaaye, 134
Oceania(n(s)), 18-19, 154, 186,
193, 197, 253, 255, 283,
159n, 164n; cf. New Guinea,
Australia, Melanesia, Papua
Odin(n), 96-98, 102, 200
Odyssea / Odyssey, 178, 181,
244, 409, 413, 422-423,
New Perspectives on Myth
448
243n
Odysseus, 178, 360, 422-423,
412n; and Penelope, 423
OE, see Old English
Oenomaus, 195
Ogbomosho, 133
Ogma Cermait, 177
Ogre, Rescue from the, Narra-
tive Complex, 159-160; also
see Flood myths Witzel
model
Ogun Pipin, 137, 139
Ogun, Yoruba creator god, 186
Ogun-Jije, 139
Ogunmola, 135
Ogunsuwa of Modakeke, 128,
134, 140
OHG, see Old High German
Ohrmazd, 78-79; cf. Ahura
Mazda
Oinomaos, 195
Ointment, see Magic ointment
Ojibwa, 233
Oju, 132
Ok, mountain in New Guinea,
282
Oke-Igbo, 128, 135
Okinawa, 253, 262-263
Oknurcha, 32n
Oko-Yiya, 127, 136
Okunade, 128, 134
Oladiran, 136
Old Comparativism, see Com-
parativism
Old Coptic in the, 248
Old Egyptian, 155
Old English, 96, 97, 99
Old High German, 99
Old Icelandic, 65n
Old Indian, 59, 83-84
Old Indo-European, 68
Old Iranian, 84-85; and Old
Indian, 76; and Vedic, 64
Old Norse, 97, 99
Old Persian, 63
Old Prussian(s), 62-64, 69-72;
and Buddhist, 72
Old Russian, 65n
Old Slavic, 59
Old Swedish, 91-92, 99
Old Testament, see Testament
Old Woman, 67-68; Slavic, 68
Old World, 110, 119, 143-144,
148, 152, 158, 164, 172,
194, 199, 201n; cf. Asia, Af-
rica, Europe
Old-Oyo, 127-128, 133
Olunloyo, 135
Olympia, 195
Olympian(s), central Greek
deities, 238, 498-410, 412,
415, 419-420, 422-424,
415n
Olympus, Mount, 244, 361,
365, 410, 421, 411n
Omaha, Native American eth-
nico-linguistic group, 200
Omo Enu, 132
Omo Oju, 132
Omololu, 135
Omotic, 145n; and Chadic,
145n
Onari-kami(in), 253
One-eyed person, Cyclops,
Aarne-Thompson no.
F512.1, 167-169
One-Hair, 200; cf. With-One-
Hair
Onisabur, 262
Ooni Abegunle Abeweila, 127-
129, 134, 136, 140
Ooni Akinmoyero, 134, 141
Opening, 116; cf. the Way
from One World.
Oranmiyan West Local Gov-
ernment Council, 135
Orestes, 244; cf. Euripides
Oriental, 427
Origbo, 136
Originator of death the first
sufferer, aspect of the
Emergence of First People
mytheme, 122-123
Origins of Civilization and the
Primitive Condition of Man,
289; cf. Tylor, E.
Orinoco Delta, 117
Orion, Belt of, 113
Oro, 131
Orpheus, 157n, 200, 157n,
195n; also see Music
OS, see Old Swedish
Oshiho-mimi, 261, 263
Oshogbo, 133
Otherworld, 65; cf. Under-
world, Heaven
Otun Asiwaju of Modakeke,
136
Out-of-Africa, 111, 113, 119,
144, 150, 156-158, 159n;
Pre-Out-of-Africa, 160;
Exodus, 152, 156, 161;
original Out-of-Africa /
Pandora Box Narrative
Complexes, 157; two Sal-
lies, 158, 159n; also see
Exodus, Back-into-Africa,
African Eve, Lefkowitz, M.
Overturning of Heaven and
Earth, also see Flood myths
Witzel model
Owambo, 118
Owu, Yoruba town, 128
Oxford English Dictionary,
281
Oxford University, 357n
Oxford, England, UK, 281,
427, 20n, 357n
Oyekan Owomoyela, 132
Oyere, 136
Oyo, 128, 133-135, 141; s
Field Marshall, 133
Oyo-Ile, 133
Oyo-Yoruba, 141
Pacific Ocean, 116, 186, 196,
233, 256, 258-260; Pacific
Ring of Fire, 259-260;
North Pacific Tribes, 233
Padaringan, 386, 394
Paibuan, 385, 391
Paiute, 233
Paivan, 109, 116
Pajajaran, 376, 381, 395
Pak Undang, 377-378, 399,
377n-378n, 389n, 399n-
400n, 403n
Pakuan, 379, 381
Pakuwon, 386; Pakuwon Ey-
ang Prabu Silihwangi, 394
Pal(a)eolithic, 160-162, 194,
202, 302, 159n, 194n-195n,
201n; Man, 194; Pre-Out-
of-Africa Middle , 160;
Upper Palaeolithic, 161,
202, 195n, 201n; Middle
and Upper , 159n
Palaeo-African, 153, 201, 203,
159n; cf. Exodus, Out-of-
Africa, Back-into-Africa,
Pelasgian
Palawangan, 385, 391
Pale Fire, 180n; cf. Nabokov,
V.V.
Palestine, Palestinians, 148
Palo Alto, 279n
Palop, 118
Pama-Nyungan, 227
Pamipiran, 376, 383
Pamir(s), 75, 83
Pamphylian, 244
Pan, Panic, 83
Pancer, 399
Pancerna, 399
Pandita, 381; Pandita Ajar
Sidik, 380
Pandora, Greek mythical char-
acter, artificial woman
meant to wreak disaster, 193
Pandoras Box, original cul-
Index of Proper Names and Motifs
449
tural (including mythologi-
cal) heritage (predating the
Out-of-Africa Exodus, q.v.)
of Anatomically Modern
Humans, 144, 156-158, 160,
163, 191, 202-203
Pan-Gaean, Flood, 225, 238-
239, 234n
Pangreyep, 380
Pantun, 379
Panyipuhan, 385, 391
Papa, Oceanian terrestrial god-
dess, 197
Papat, compass points
(Sunda), 399
Papatuanuku, 235
Papua(n(s)), 115, 117, 228-
229; and Australian, 229; cf.
New Guinea
Papyrus Harris, 197
Paradise, 191
Parahyangan Catholic Univer-
sity, 379, 381, 427, 375n
Pare, 180
Parent, 192, 253, 261, 263; cf.
Mother, Father, Child, Son,
Daughter
Paresi, 109, 116
Parliamentary Militarism, 317
Parody, 416
Parrot Fish, 32-33, 35; cf. Pos-
sum
Parsees, 84
Parthenon, 195; and Olympia,
195
parthenn, Greek, virgin,
perhaps Libyan, 250n
Pasiphae, 189n, 195n
Pasir Pamipiran, 376, 383
Pataeci, Phoenician gods, 245
Pataikos, 245-246
Patalina Diri, 391
Patroclus, 359-362, 367-368,
420
Pawnee, 200
PDP, Parallel Distributed Proc-
essing; Research Group,
299
Pebans, 235n
Pecheneg Khan Kurya, 196
Pehlevi, 77
Peking University, 18; and
Harvard University Interna-
tional Conference, 18
Pelasgian, 151, 153, 164-166,
178-179, 183-185, 188, 190,
198-199, 201-202, 149n,
151n, 159n, 165n, 171n-
172n, 174n, 180n, 195n;
Hypothesis, 165; Model,
144; West Asia, 174n
Pelew Isl., 233
Pelias, 195n
Pendeta Sakti Bagawat Sajala-
jala, 381
Pendjikent, 85-86
Penelope, 423; cf. Odysseus
Peninsula, 259
Pennsylvania, 290
Penuti, 115
People from the Underworld,
aspect of the Emergence of
First People mytheme, 114
People of the West, see
Mbwela, 168
Peoples Republic of China, 18
Peripheral and Central,
branches of Borean, 154,
161, 202, 201n
Periplus, publishing house,
384n
Perkons, 189
Perlesvaus, 183
Perseus, 416
Persia(n(s)), 63, 77-79, 81, 84-
85, 150, 321, 235n, 282n;
Empire, 282n; and Tadjiks,
84; also see Middle Persian,
Persian, Old Persian
Persian Gulf, 150
Person Frog, Nkoya mythical
character, 200; cf. Kam-
botwe
Person is tricked into killing
his kin, aspect of the Emer-
gence of First People
mytheme, 112
Peru, 233
Perum Perhutani, Department
of Forestry, Ramagobo,
Java, 377n
Pesantren, 392n
Peteng, 385, 392
Peter the Great Museum of
Anthropology and Ethno-
graphy, 427
Petrus / Peter, two books of
the New Testament, 344n
PGM, Papyri Graeci Magici /
Greek Magical Papyri, 194
PGMC, see Proto-Germanic
Phaeacian(s), 422
Pharos, 193
Phidias, 410
Philippines, 229, 233, 259,
235n
Philosophical Faculty, Erasmus
University Rotterdam, 5, 18,
428, 17n, 143n
Philosophie der symbolischen
Formen, 413; cf. Cassirer, E.
Phlegyan(s), 195
Phobos, 194
Phocis, 249
Phoenicia(n(s)), 181, 189, 245,
247
Phorbas, 195
Phrygian, 181
Phthas, see Pta
PIE, see Proto-Indo-European
Pigeon, 33
Pilzen, Czech Republic, 20n
Pima, 178, 233, 235n
Pipin, 137, 139
Pirah, Amazonian ethnic
group, 286-287
Pirate, 196
Plains, North American region,
110, 233; Plains Indians,
282
Pleiades, 113
Pleistocene, 109; Upper, 113;
Terminal, 109
Pluto, Roman underworld god,
178, 192; cf. Hades, under-
world
Polarity, 270
Pole, see Astronomy
Polynesia(n(s)), 225, 232-233,
235, 237, 235n; and Mada-
gascar, 225n
Pomo, 233, 256, 258
Pope, see Sylvester II
Poponcoran, 385, 391
Portola Valley, 427
Portuguese, 287, 188n
Poseidon, 194-195, 365, 415,
165n, 365n; cf. Waters
Possum, Spotted, 31-32; and
Parrot Fish, 35
Postmodernism, 315-316, 321,
332; and the Comparative
Method, 315-334
Post-Palaeolithic, 152
Potiphar, biblical character,
193; cf. Joseph
Powhatan Indians, 183
Prabu Premana Dikusumah,
375, 380-381
Prabu Sang Premana Dikusu-
mah, 379
Prabu Sili(h)wangi, 376, 381,
386-387, 394
Prague, Czech Republic, 192,
420
Prairie, 186
Prajpati, 197; Vivakarman,
361
Prakrti and Purusha, in the
Bhagavad Gita, 345n
New Perspectives on Myth
450
Pre-historic Times, 289, 292;
cf. Lubbock, J.
Presidium of Russian Academy
of Sciences, 110n
Presley, Elvis, 151n
Pre-Socratics, 172n
Priam(us), 367-368, 368n
Primal Hill, 178
Primal Waters and the Flood,
Narrative Complex, 159-
161; also see Waters
Primitive Culture, 289; cf.
Tylor, E.
Principles of Psychology, 287;
cf. James, W.
Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences, USA
scholarly journal, 294
Prometheus, 177-178, 180,
193, 415
Promised Land, 136
Protean transformations of
water-deity, Aarne-
Thompson no. F420.4.1.1,
167-169
Protectorate, status of Barotse-
land, W. Zambia, in colonial
period, 170
Proteus, 193; also see Trans-
formation, Protean
Proto-Germanic, 99-100
Proto-Human, 160
Proverbs, 131-132
Prussian, 60, 62-64, 69-72;
also see Old Prussian
Pta, 20, 243, 245-249; Pta
and Hephaestus, 248
Pterelaos, 199
PubMed, 303n
Puluga, Andaman creator god,
229-230
Puncak Manik, 386, 394
Purification, 82
Purukupali, 25, 30-31, 33-39,
30n, 39n
Purus(h)a, 82, 345n
Pusaka, 381
Puta, mythical Maori prophet,
235
Pygmalion, 192
Pygmy/ies, 230-232, 237
Pyramid Texts, 189, 246, 248,
247n
Pyrrhos, 189
Pythian Odes, 181; cf. Pin-
dar(us)
Python, 416; cf. Typhon
Qatabanian, 247
Queen Shikanda of the Nkoya,
190
Queen, 69, 177, 182, 190, 200,
253, 262, 382n; Boadicea,
190; Himiko, 262; Mlik,
69; Manenga, 200; Naumba
of the Sala, 190; Nzingha,
190; of the South, 382n; of
Yamatai Kingdom, 253,
262; cf. Queen Bee
Quest: An African Journal of
Philosophy / Revue Afri-
caine de Philosophie, 5
Qurn, 161, 396; cf. Islam
Rabbi, Rabbinical, 184, 192;
cf. Loew
Rabbit, mammal species, 124
Ra
c
, 197, Ancient Egyptian
sun-god
Rachmat Subagya, 382n
Radboud University Nijmegen,
5, 18, 427-428, 17n, 25n,
335n
Raulf, 93
Raga, 400
Ragnaro/k, 98, 102, 192
Rain god, Junior status in pan-
theon, 198
Rain, 48-49, 54, 170-172, 176,
182-183, 188, 191-192, 197-
198, 232, 234, 49n, 160n;
and Drought, 192; and
Hwempetla, 49; also see
Mvula, Rainbow, Rainbow
Serpent, Flood myths Wit-
zel model
Rainbow Serpent / Snake, 160,
180, 191, 203, 228, 237;
Rainbow Snake, Cosmic,
Narrative Complex, 159-
160; also see Flood myths
Witzel model
Rainbow, 160, 180, 191, 203,
228, 237; also see Flood
myths Witzel model
Rain-maker, also see Flood
myths Witzel model
Raising the Corn Spirit, see
Corn Spirit
Rangi, 197, 235; cf. Papa
Ranginui, and Papatuanuku,
235
Rasa, Sunda concept of mental
powers, 392n
Ratu Pusaka, 381
Raven, 179, 193, 157n, 353n;
and Eagle, 183; Raven-man,
257; also see Trickster, Big-
Raven
Ravenstein, town, the Nether-
lands, 5, 17, 275, 143n,
231n
Rawabogo Village, 376-378,
377n
Rebellion of gods against their
ruler, Aarne-Thompson no.
A162.8, 167-169
Rebirth, 101
Receptacle, 82, 258
Reconnection of Heaven and
Earth, Narrative Complex,
159-160
Red Sea, 150; cf. Moses,
Erythraean
Re, 92
Redeemers University, 127n,
428
Reed, Person, 177-178, 201;
Mat, 177; Mat and Bee
Hive, 177; also see Music,
Flood, Katete
Reed-and-bee, 151, 177; cf.
She of the
Reed-and-honey, 178
Regency of Sukapura, 377
Regency of Tasikmalaya and
Ciamis, 377
Regency of West Bandung,
377
Regeneration, 36, 49, 19n
Regicide, 179
Reiyka, 262
Religion Explained: the Evolu-
tionary Origins of Religious
Thought, 291n; cf. Boyer, P.
Remarques sur le verbe
croire , 412n; cf. Pouil-
lon, J.
Remus, Roman mythical fig-
ure, 271-272, 274
Rescue, 160, 233, 365; also see
Ogre
Research Group on Magic and
Religion in the Ancient Near
East, Netherlands Institute
for Advanced Study, Was-
senaar, 1994-1995, 172n
Research Institute for Human-
ity and Nature (RIHN),
Kyoto, Japan, 18
Research School NISCO, Rad-
boud University, Nijmegen,
the Netherlands, 5
Researches into the Early His-
tory of Mankind, 288; cf.
Tylor, E.
Resident Officer, 135
Retribution, also see Flood
myths Witzel model
Revolution, 326, 328, 342
Index of Proper Names and Motifs
451
g Veda, 76, 78-79; the Hymns
of the, 89, 345n
Rhea, 181
Rhegion, 351
Rhodes, and Thera, Aegean
islands, 177
RIHN, see Research Institute
for Humanity and Nature
Rind(r), 97
Ring of Fire, Pacific, 259
Rissh-Kseikai, 262
River as barrier to otherworld,
Aarne-Thompson no.
F141.1, 167-169
River as entrance to lower
world, Aarne-Thompson no.
F93.1, 167-169
Rock Cave of Heaven, divine
abode in Japanese mythol-
ogy, 256
Rock of the Ear, in Sunda sa-
cred geography, 385
Rockies, Rocky Mountains,
113, 179
Rk, 91-99, 101-103, 19n; Rk
Stone, 91
Roma, Gypsies, 187n, 197
Roman Catholic, 290, 427,
375n, 379n
Romance languages, 110n
Romanticism, 413
Rome, Roma(n(s)), city and
empire, 187, 193, 197, 245;
Religion, 189; cf. Graeco-
Roman, Fama, Pluto, Venus,
Dio Cassius, Vulcan, Mi-
nerva, Roma-Gypsies
Romulus, 271-272, 274; cf.
Remus
Rondonia, 117-118
Rotse, 180; cf. Lozi, Luyi,
Rozwe
Rotterdam, the Netherlands, 5,
18, 20, 428, 17n, 20n, 143n,
375n
Round Tables, Harvard, 18; cf.
Witzel, M.
Royal Netherlands Academy of
Arts and Sciences, 5
Royal Person Going from
Branch to Branch, Nkoya
mythical figure, 177; cf. Lu-
hamba, Bee
Royal Person Wind, Nkoya
mythical figure, 168
Rozwe, 180, cf. Lozi
Ruanda, 183
Ruaumoko, 235
Rudras, 364
Rugulf, 93
Ruler, 182, 190, 195n; cf. Bee,
King, Kingship
Rules, also see Rebellion
Rumour, 193; cf. Fama
Russia(n(s)), 59, 63-65, 86,
110, 179, 427, 65n, 75n,
109n-110n; and Latin, 63;
also see Old Russian
Russian Academy of Sciences,
427, 75n, 109n
Russian Foundation for Basic
Research, 110n
Rusta, see Ibn Rusta
Rv, see g Veda
Ryukyu, 262
Sm.t, see Sekhmet
Sabaic, 247
Sacred Monk Bagawat Sajala-
jala, 381
Saddle Peak, mythical seat of
primal deity, North Anda-
man Island, 229
Sage, 386-388, 390, 396, 400;
king, 387; Chinese, 383n;
Sundanese, 394; Indonesian,
383; cf. Wisdom
Sagum, 92-93
Sahara, 166, 184, 230
Sahel, see Africa
Sahidic, 246-247, 249-250
Saho-biko and Saho-bime, 262
Saint Petersburg, Russia, 19n-
20n, 75n, 109n
Sas, Ancient Egyptian town,
178, 249, 250n; cf. Neith,
Bee
Sajalajala, 381
Sajarah, 379, 381
Sakapura, 377n
Sakhmet, see Sekhmet
Sakti, 381
SAL U.GI, see Wise Woman
Sala, ethnic group, Central
Zambia, 183, 190
Salawe, 386
Saleh Dana, 379n
Saleh Danasasmita, 376n, 381n
Salin, 380
Salishan, North West Coast
American ethnic group, 233
Sam, 291n
Sambhuya, 61
Samoan, 235n
Samuel, two Bible books; on
God concept, 329
San, ethnic group in Southern
Africa, formerly called
Bushmen, 118, 148; cf.
Khoisan, Basarwa
Sand Calligraphy / Science,
171, 171n; cf.
c
ilm al-raml
Sandawe, 118
Sandy Creek, Australian loca-
tion, 31
Sang Manarah, 379, 381
Sang Surotama, 381
Sang Tamperan, 381
Sanga Yngulu, 50
Sania, 180
Sanjaya, 381, 381n
Sanskrit, 5, 20, 59, 189, 357-
360, 363-364, 367, 369-372,
428, 363n; and Greek, 359,
371; Mahabharata, 357
Santa Fe Institute, 152
Santana, 382n
Santeria, 183
Santrokofi, 118
Sargon II, 173
Sargon of Akkad, 173
Sarianidi, 75, 86, 86n
Sariputra, 70
Sarmatians, 200
Sasaka, 378n
Satan, 64, 330
atapatha Brahmaa, 61, 234
Savanna, 237; cf. Sahel
Saxo Grammaticus, 96, 190
Sayo Kitamura, 262
SBV, Standard Babylonian
Version, 234n
Scales, 191
Scamander, River, 192, 357
Scandinavia(n), 19, 91, 370n;
East , 96-97; cf. Nordic
School of Divinity, History and
Philosophy, University of
Aberdeen, 315n
Scientific American, periodical,
290
Scotland, 18, 427-428, 267n,
315n
Scutum, 244; cf. Hesiod
Scythian(s), 199-200; and
Celtic, 196; cf. Skull
Sea monster, Aarne-Thompson
no. G308, 167-169
Secoya, 115
Seed, 233
Seifikar, Kirsten, 5, 143n
Sekhmet, Ancient Egyptian
goddess, 248; cf. Sakhmet
Selknam, extinct Neolithic
ethnic group, Tierra des
Fuego, 236
Selkup, 109
Seminole, 109, 116
Semitic, 85, 187, 199, 245,
247, 251, 321-322, 145n;
New Perspectives on Myth
452
Semites, 321; Semitic and
Aryan religions, quest for
their differences and simi-
larities, categories and pur-
suits in 19
th
-c. CE
scholarship, 322; cf. He-
brew, Arabic, Akkadian,
Ugaritic, West Semitic,
Afroasiatic
Sen Senu, 50
Senavarma, 67
Seneca, North American ethnic
group, 109, 116-117, 233
Senu, 50-54
Separation, 192, 194, 198,
195n; Separation of Heaven
and Earth, 152, 159, 162,
178, 203, 191n; Narrative
Complex, 159-160; Separa-
tion of Water and Land, 178
Serbo-Croatian, 63
Serbs, 183
Serpent, 180, 191-192, 201,
228, 233, 30n; cf. Snake,
Dragon, Rainbow Snake,
Rainbow
Seth, 178-179, 181, 197
Shabaka, 173
Shamanism / bones, 160-161,
Narrative Complex, 159-160
Shang, 190
Shasta, 233
Shawnee, 233
She of the Reed and the Bee,
Ancient Egyptian royal title,
178; cf. Reed, Bee, Neith
She Who Makes Drunk, 179;
cf. Medb, Mead, Waters
Shed skin as condition of im-
mortality, aspect of the
Emergence of First People
mytheme, 111
Shield of Heracles, see Scutum
Shihoka Nalinanga, 167-168,
190-192, 195; and Likambi,
191, 190n; cf. Likambi
Shikanda, 190; cf. Skanda
Shimshon, 199
Shinkisha, 168
Shintoism, 179
Shipungu, 183
Shu, 181, 190, 192, 195n; and
Tefnut, 190
Shuar, 109, 116
Sia, North American ethnic
group, 178, 235n
Siberia, Siberian(s), 109-110,
113-115, 120, 233-235, 237,
253-255, 235n; Eastern and
Northeastern, 113; and
North American, 120
Sibling, 180; cf. Brother, Sis-
ter, Twins
Sicily, 245
Sidon, 181
Sikidy, 152; cf. Ifa, Hakata
Silihwangi, 376, 381, 386-387,
394-395
Simoeis, 359, 365, 370
Simon Magus, 192
Sinanthropus, 194
Sinkyone, 256, 258, 235n
Sino-Caucasian, linguistic
macrophylum, 154-156,
154n; cf. North Caucasian,
Sino-Tibetan
Sino-Tibetan, 156
Sintflut, Sintflutsage, German,
Flood (myth), 233; cf. Flood
Siolundi, 93
Siona, 115
Sioux, 115
Sister, 192; cf. Brother, Sib-
ling, Twins
SitiR, 92
Skldskaparml, 103
Skamander, River, 359, 363-
367, 369; and Zeus, 371; cf.
Hephaestus, Indra, Agni
Skanda, 190
Skin, 179, 191, 30n
Skirnir, 192
Skjrv, 76
Skull, 168, 194, 196; also see
House of skulls, land of
skulls, Demon cuts
Skunk, 258
Sky, 235, 245; Sky god, 167;
Sky-god fights dragon of the
waters or evil demon,
Aarne-Thompson no.
A162.2-3, 167-169; also
see: Heaven, What is in
Heaven
Slavic, 59-60, 63-65, 67-68,
192, 19n, 110n; and Baltic,
60, 68; and Indian, 64; also
see Old Slavic
Sleep, cf. Hypnos
Slovenian, 270
Snake, 160, 167, 191-192, 203,
228, 237, 343n; snake-man,
168; snake-demon, Aarne-
Thompson no. 391. 91.1,
167-169; Snake Child or
Parent of Drought, 191-192;
Snake in Ancient Greek my-
thology, 343n; Snake of
Tumba, 191; Snake Son of
mountain, 192; also see
Evil demon, Rainbow
Snake, Transformation, tree
Snake, Ancient Egyptian First-
Dynasty King, 192
Snake-man compound, Aarne-
Thompson no. F526.6, 167-
169; also see Forest Snake,
Rainbow
Snorri, 98, 102-103, 98n
Socrates, 343
Soeterbeeck Conference Cen-
tre, Ravenstein, the Nether-
lands, 5, 17
Soghd, 85
Sokoto, 133
Soli, 183
Soma, 179; also see Nectar
Son 78, 161; and Lover, 191n;
also see Separation of Land
and Water, Virgin
Sonatorrek, 96, 101, 103, 96n;
cf. Egill Skallagrmsson
Sorceress, 190-191
Sores, also see Flood myths
Witzel model
Sormani Fund, 5
Sotho, 170
South America, 19, 109-110,
113, 119, 122, 255; and
Eurasia, 239; also see Amer-
ica
South Dakota, 117
South Erythraean, 144, 150; cf.
Red Sea, Frobenius
South Khoisan, 156
South-North, flow of cultural
transmission, 151n, 174n; cf.
North-South, Afrocentrism,
Pelasgian, Hamitic
Spain, Spanish, 200, 233
Speaking, 54, 169, 186, 147n
Special Sunda hypothesis,
164n; cf. Oppenheimer, S.
Speckledness / granulated sur-
face texture / leopard, Nar-
rative Complex, 159-160; cf.
Possum, Spotted
Spell, 291n; also see Flood
myths Witzel model
Spider, 124, 160, 185-186,
201, 203, 258; and Hare,
124; Supreme, 185; Spider
Woman, 186; Naste Etsan,
186; Spider and Feminine
Arts, Narrative Complex,
159-160; cf. Nyambi,
Athena, Neith, Anahita
Spirit, 67, 80-81, 84, 168; of
wind, storm, thunder, cold,
Aarne-Thompson no. F432,
Index of Proper Names and Motifs
453
167-169
Spotted Possum, 31; cf. Speck-
ledness, Parrot Fish
Sraoa, 76-77; and Viu, 79
Stamping, 36
Standard Elaborate Flood
Myth, 181-182, 190, 202,
164n
Star, 117
Stealing, Moon Dishes, 179;
also see Theft
Steppe, 144, 166, 196, 199,
237, 188n-189n
Stone, 27, 91, 254, 19n;
Stones, the, Narrative Com-
plex, 159-160
Storm, also see evil demon,
Spirits, Susanowo
Story-teller, -telling, 274, 379
Strasbourg, 428, 19n, 59n
Stromata, 280n; cf. Clemens of
Alexandria
Styx, 197; cf. Underworld,
River
Subarctic, 109, 115
Subiya, 180
sub-Saharan Africa, 109-110,
143-145, 147-151, 154, 157-
160, 162, 166, 173-175,
183-184, 192, 201-203, 225,
230-231, 143n, 145n, 149n,
159n, 179n, 230n; and North
America, 122; sub-Saharan
Africa on the Emergence of
the First People, 109
Subterranean, see Underworld
Sudan, 185, 200, 151n
Sudika-Mbambi, 191
Sufism, 376, 379, 390, 394,
375n, 377n, 383n, 396n,
402n; and Buddhism, 376
Sukapura, 377
Sukma, 380
Sumatera, / Sumatra, 259
Sumer, Sumer(ian(s)), 151n,
234n; Sumero-Assyrian,
88n; and Neolithic Anatolia,
151
Summit of Light, 396
Sun, 111-113, 178, 193, 253,
255-258, 260-261; Suns
children killed, aspect of the
Emergence of First People
mytheme, 112; Sun and
Moon, 113; Sun-god, 79;
Sun Goddess, 257; also see
Amaterasu, Sun-god; Agni,
Theft, Hidden , Ra
c
Sunda Lexicon, 399n; cf.
Danadibrata, R.A.
Sunda thesis, see Extended ,
Special , Oppenheimer, S.
Sunda, Sundanese, 163, 375-
376, 379, 381-383, 386-387,
389, 391-396, 398-403, 405-
406, 164n, 201n, 375n,
378n-379n, 386n, 392n,
394n, 396n, 399n; Galuh
Kingdom, 381; Sage King,
387; Pakuan Kingdom,
381Literature, 382
Sundjata, 179
Super-Nostratic, 152n; cf.
Nostratic, Eurasiatic, Borean
Supreme God in Ancient Egypt
and, 177
Surt, 192
Surtr, 370n
Surui, 109, 116, 118
Survivals, 298
Survivors, 233; cf. Flood
Susanowo, 197, 253, 256, 263;
and Amaterasu, 261
Sussex, 303n
Suzuki, 405n
Svyatoslav of Kiev, 196, 199
Swan, 194; also see Transfor-
mation
Swarm, 177; cf. Bee
Swaziland, 183
Sweden, Swedish, 91-92, 96-
98, 100, 189; also see Old
Swedish
Sylvester II, Pope, 192
Synesthesia, 303
Syria, 193
Syriac, 245
Syrith, 199
Syro-Palestine, 154n; also see
Palestine / Palestinians, Is-
rael, Ancient Israelites
Syvaldus, king, 199
Taa, ethno-linguistic group in
Southern Africa, division of
Khoisan, 156
Tah, 389
Tahiti, 233
Taittirya Sahita, 70
Taiwan, 196, 237, 253-255
Tajikarao, 256
Tajiks, Tadjiks, 75, 84
Taksaka, 360, 365-366
Taliesin, 189
Talus, 192
Tanach, 161, 187, 189, 199,
180n; cf. Bible
Taala of Madagascar, 187
Tane, 235, 235n
Tanzania, 180
Taoism, 254
Tapara, 25, 30, 36-37, 39n; and
Purukapali, 25, 30, 36, q.v.
Taraka, 190
Taryo, 253-254
Tasikmalaya, 377, 377n
Tasmania(n(s)), 227
Taulipang, 233
Te Hurihanga A Mataaho,
Maori mythical concept of
turning the earth over to end
the Flood, 235
Teach, Edward, 196
Tears of Rain, 170-172, 176;
cf. van Binsbergen, W.
Tears, 169-172, 176, 188, 197;
Tears of Mvula, 183; cf.
Flood, Rain, Drop, Ra
c
Tefnut, 181, 190
Telegraph, UK newspaper,
290n
Temple, 85, 197, 243-244
Tenriko, 262
Tensho-Kotai-Jingukyo, 262
Tereh, 396
Terror, 291n
Testament, Old, 85, 176, 233,
319, 329; cf. Bible, Tanach
Thache, Thatch, see Teach, E.
Thatching, with skulls, 168,
196; cf. Skull, Kayambila,
Building
The Bungling host, mytheme
(Berezkin), 124
The Descent of Man, 289, 291,
294, 297; cf. Darwin, C.
The End of Faith, 291n; cf.
Harris, S.
The False Wife, aspect of the
Emergence of First People
mytheme, 120
The God Delusion, 291n; cf.
Dawkins, R.
The Golden Bough, 179, 150n;
cf. Frazer, J.
The History of the Danes, 96,
98, 190, 97n; cf. Saxo
Grammaticus
The Law, Australian Aborigi-
nal pivotal concept, 28
The Republic, 344; cf. Plato
The Serpent and his Cast Skin,
one of J. Frazers basic
mythemes on the Origin of
Death, 179, 30n
The Way from One World to
Another Goes through a
Narrow Opening, aspect of
the Emergence of First Peo-
ple mytheme, 116
New Perspectives on Myth
454
The White Goddess, 189; cf.
Graves, R.
Theft of Sun, Aarne-Thompson
no. A721.1, 167-169
Theft, 179; cf. previous entry,
Moon, Kapesh
Theodoric the Great, 92-94,
101
Theogonia, 178, 193; cf. He-
siod
Theomachy, 410, 413, 420
Thera, 177, 188n
Thetis, 359, 361
Thimshian, 256
Thompson River, 233
Thompsons, Stith, Motif In-
dex, 235-236
Thor, 93, 96-98
Thrace, 189
Three Kingdom Period, Chi-
nese history, 262
Thule, 236
Thunder, also see Spirits
Tiamat, 197
Tibet(an), 20, 42, 69, 194, 196;
Tibetan Buddhism, 196
Tierra del Fuego, 232, 236,
236n
Tigri, see Djala
Tigris, 197
Tilburg University, the Nether-
lands, 428, 19n, 41n
Timaeus, 250; cf. Plato
Timon of Athens, 180n; cf.
Shakespeare, W.
Timor, 259
Timothy, 2 books of the New
Testament, 344
Tinguian, 235n
Titans, 98, 238, 416; Ti-
tanomachy, 369
Tiwi Islands, 36
Tiwi, Northern Australian eth-
nic group, 25, 30, 36, 38-39,
186, 30n
Tjapara, the Moon, Australian,
37
Tlingit, 179, 193, 233, 256-257
TMS, see Transcranian Mag-
netic Stimulation
Toa, 297
Toba, 109, 116, 232-233
Tocharians, 196
Tokyo, 428, 20n, 253n
Tonga, 180, 259
Tortoise-Turtle, Additional
Narrative Complex, 157n-
158n
Tower of Babel, global etymo-
logical database, 152; cf.
Starostin & Starostin
Tower, 152, 180-182; cf.
Flood, Standard Elaborate
Toxoplasma, 293
Trachis, 419-420
Transcranial Magnetic Stimu-
lation, 290
Transformation, 158, 160, 163,
167-168; flight, Aarne-
Thompson no. D671, 167-
169 of dragon to man or
other animal, Aarne-
Thompson no. D399.1, 167-
169; of snake to man,
Aarne-Thompson no. D391,
167-169; to defeat ene-
mies, Aarne-Thompson no.
D651, 167-169; to fly,
bee, Aarne-Thompson no.
D1S5.1, 167-169; to snake
/ crocodile / dragon , Aarne-
Thompson no. D191.194.
199.2, 167-169; to swan,
crane, Aarne-Thompson no.
D161.1,162, 167-169; to
tree, Aarne-Thompson no.
D215, 167-169; also see
Dragon
Translation, 101n, 247n, 421n-
422n
Tree, 160, 201, 203, 233; Tree,
From the, Narrative Com-
plex, 159-160; also see
Transformation, Magic tree,
Snake
Tretyak, Tretjak, 59, 64
Tretej, 64
Trickster, 124, 233, 238, 258,
157n; Trickster-Raven-
Coyote, Additional Narra-
tive Complex, 157n-158n
Trita, 64
Tritangtu, 376, 386, 394, 397-
398, 401-402, 397n
Tritonis, see Lacus Tritonis,
Tropic of Capricorn, 229
Troy, Trojan(s), 193, 359, 464,
359-370, 421-422, 363n,
368n
Truth of Myth, 81, 340, 424,
343n
Tsetsaut, 233
Tsimshian, 179, 257
Tsonga of South East Africa,
180, 187
Tsukuyomi, Japanese moon
god, 256
Tuamotu, 233
Tuatha D Danann, 188
Tucuna, 233
Tujuh, 386, 394
Tumba, 191
Tunisia, 165n, 171n
Tupinamba, 232-233
Turkey, Turkish, Turk(s), 35,
178, 183, 196, 199
Turkish-Mongolian, linguistic
cluster, 196
Turkmenistan, 86
Turtle, see Tortoise
Tutsi, 148
Twins, 160-161; also see Dual-
ity, and next entry
Two Children, 161; also see
Duality, Twins
Two-Persons, see Kimbiji,
Angolan mythical figure,
191
Tyche, 181
Typhon, 416
Tyr, 98
Tyre, 181
Tyrrhenian, 178
Tzigane, 187
Udayin, 69
Uganda, 237
Ugaritic, 85
UK, see United Kingdom
Ukemochi, Japanese Food
Goddess , 256
Ukrainia(n), 63
Unas, 189; cf. Cannibal Hymn
Underworld, 64, 114, 118, 257,
19n; cf. People from the
Underworld, lower world,
also see River, Hllenhund,
Dog, Cerberus
Unilateral Being, 192; also see
Astronomy
United Kingdom, 18, 427-428,
267n, 290n, 315n, 357n
United States of America, 5,
17-18, 198, 253, 255, 286,
427-428, 20n, 59n, 91n,
225n, 279n; North Western
, 198
Unity Party of Nigeria, 135
Universe, 59-60, 80, 378, 399,
396n
Universit Marc Bloch, 428,
59n
University of Aberdeen, 428,
315n
University of Edinburgh, 267n
University of Ghent, 409n, 428
University of Montreal, 290
University of Oxford, 427
University of Pennsylvania,
290
Index of Proper Names and Motifs
455
University of Sussex, 303n
Upananda, 70
UPN, see Unity Party of Nige-
ria
Upper Egyptian mythical con-
tinuities, or their absense, in
Lower Egypt, 178
Ural Mountains, 114
Uralic, 99, 166, 179, 186, 191,
199; and Germanic, 166;
Uralic traces in Old Egyp-
tian, 199; also see Finno-
Ugric
Uranus, 193, 198
USA, see United States of
America
Usatsu-biko, 262
Usatsu-bime, 262
Utanapishtim, 234; cf. Noah,
Ziusudra, Atraasis
Uttu, 186; cf. Spider
Vaeinaemoeinen, 191
Vagina Dentata, Additional
Narrative Complex, 157n-
158n
Vahita, 370n
Vaiiu, 81
Vala, 60
Vald, 102
Vli, 96-97
ValkaR, 93
Valkis, 93
Vamo, 92, 95, 101-102
van den Heuvel Reinders, Ka-
rel Jan, 20n
Vara, 77-79, 84
Varieties of Religious Experi-
ence, 289; cf. James, W.
Varin(n), 91-92, 94-95, 98,
101-103
Varu, 100-101
Varua, 80, 100-101, 179, 361;
associated with wrapping,
101n; cf. Guardian
Vasus, 364; cf. Maruts
Veda(s), Vedic, 17, 59-61, 63-
66, 70, 72, 79-80, 88, 174,
234, 235n, 282n, 345n; and
Avestan, 76; and Buddhist,
65-66; and Greek, 63; In-
dia, 60; Trita, 64; and Old
Iranian, 64; Yama, 79;
.also see Middle Vedic
Velu Mate Mother of Spirits /
of the Dead (Lettish), 67;
cf. Wise Woman
Venus, 193; cf. Aphrodite
Vessel, also see Flood myths
Witzel model
Victoria River Downs, Austra-
lia, 31
Vdvdt, 75-78, 80-82, 85
Viennese Circle, 339
Vietnam, 117
Vikings, 196
Vilin(n), 93, 96-98, 101-103
Vinaya, 69-71
Viracocha, 197, 200
Virgin, 161; Cosmogonic Vir-
gin Mother and Only Child /
Lover-son, 159-160, 192;
Virgin Mother of the Wa-
ters, 191n; Virgin Mother
Goddess, 253, 261, 263
Virginia, 184
Visaya, 109, 116
Vishnu, 189
Viuua, 76, 78-79
Vvasvat, 76-77, 79; and Yima,
76
Voice-Hera, 366
Volcano, see Earth-Dragon
Volga, 114
Vomiting, 232
Vrind-, Vrindar-v, 97
Vtra, 167, 192
Vulcan, Isles of, 245; further
see Hephaestus
Vulgate, primal Latin Bible
translation, 358n
Wa, Asian ethnic group, 109,
116, 193, 165n
WAd, see Green
Wadoe, 183
Wahemba, 183
Wako University, 428, 253n
Walapai, 235n
Walker of the Height,
Mwenda-Njangula, Nkoya
unilateral mythical charac-
ter, 198
Walumbwe, 183
Wanara, 379, 381
Wandibba, 153n
Wanka, 109, 116
War, 280, 306, 368-369
Warangs, 199
Warao, 109, 115-117
Wasegue, 183
Wassenaar, the Netherlands,
172n
Water Bag, also see Flood
myths Witzel model
Water(s), 81, 122-123, 161-
162, 178, 181, 186, 191-
194, 199-200, 229, 165n,
191n, 195n; and the Land,
200; Primal , 178, 165n;
Waters Below, Aside and
Above, 132, 178, 191; also
see Monster, Waters give
way, Transformation, Sky
god, Aquatic Beings
Waters give way, aspect of the
Emergence of First People
mytheme, 123
Wawacan Sajarah Galuh, 379,
381
Wawemba, 183; cf. Bemba
Waxing and Waning of the
Moon, one of J. Frazers ba-
sic mythemes on the Origin
of Death, 30n; cf. Moon
Wb, Wrterbuch der gyp-
tischen Sprache, 247-248,
246n, 250n; cf. Erman, A.,
& Grapow, H.
Websters New World Diction-
ary, 344n
Wednesdays and Fridays, fast
days among the Ethiopian
Dorz people, 412
Wei Zhi, 262
Welsh, 189
Wernickes area, 299
West Asia, see Asia, West
West Caroline Is, 233
West Scandinavian, 96
West Semitic, 187, 247
Westerly islands, Ancient
Greek mythical concept,
343n
Western, the West, see North
Atlantic, Europe, North
American
Westerners, 418n; cf. Mbwela
Westra, Maaike, 19n
What is in Heaven, Narrative
Complex, 159-160
White God, Additional Narra-
tive Complex, 157n-158n;
cf. Leukothea
White Mountain Apache, 233
Wicca, 189
Wife, see The False , Sek-
hmet, Aphrodite
Williams syndrome, 308n
Wind, 168; also see Dragon,
Spirits, evil demon, Royal
Person Wind, Lipepo
Wingbolu, 128, 134
Wirklichkeitsabsolutismus,
German, absolutism of real-
ity (Blumenberg), 409, 414
Wisdom, 132, 404
Wise Woman (Hittite ), 67
Wishosk, 233
With-One Hair, epithet of one
New Perspectives on Myth
456
Nkoya king Kahare, 199
Witoto, 109, 116
Woman as dragon-slayer,
Aarne-Thompson no.
B11.11.7, 167-169
Woman, 67-68, 167, 186, 258;
cf. Wise Woman
Women of Trachis, 419-420; cf.
Sophocles
Wonari-gami in Okinawa, 262-
263
Wongar, 32-33
Wood, 192
World Buffalo, 200
World Egg, 160; also see
Lightning Bird
World Parents, Izanagi and
Izanami (Japan), q.v., 253,
261, 263
World War 280; II, 306
World-fire, 234
World-Wide Web, 290n; cf.
Internet
Wounds, also see Flood myths
Witzel model
WPS, Wortschatz der
Pharaonen in Sachgruppen,
247n; cf. Hannig, R., &
Vomberg, P.
Wulfstan, 72
Wunschding. magic cup, Grail,
Aarne-Thompson no.
D1472, 1472.1.9-19, 167-
169
Xanthus, 359n
Xi, 181, 234, 165n
Yaav, see Mwaat Yaav
Yabuti, 109, 116-117
Yaga, 67
Yama, 75-77, 79-80, 178, 271,
274; and Prua, 82; cf.
Death
Yamana, 236, 240
Yamatai, 253, 262
Yamvo, see Mwaat Yaav
Yanluo, 178
Yaruro, 109, 116
Yat, 76, 78-79
Yayoi, 261
y jng, I Ching, 375-376, 402,
404-405, 171n
Yima, 75-79, 82, 84; and Gaiia
Martn, 79; and Viu, 77;
in the Avesta, 79
Yimkard, 77
Yiya, 136
Ymir, 194
Yolngu, 32
Yomi, 199
Yoruba(-land), 127-129, 131-
133, 137-141, 178, 183, 186
Yoseph Iskandar, 376n
Yougo, 49-50, 52
Yueh-chi, 196
Yugo, 51
Yugua, 235n
Yu-Lan, 383n, 403n
Yunca, 233
Yurac/kare, 109, 116, 232-233
Zaire, see Congo
Zambezi, River, 168-170, 172-
173, 181-182, 190, 188n; cf.
Congo-Zambezi watershed
Zambia Archives, 188n
Zambia(n), 20, 143-144, 147-
148, 167, 169-173, 176,
180-183, 185, 190-191, 202-
203; Western Zambia, 170-
172, 176, 180-182, 191,
202-203, 182n; Central
Zambia, 183; Central West-
ern Zambia, 170; Central
and Southern Zambia, 169;
Bemba, 182n, 188n; and
Angola, 170
Zanati, see Muammad al-
Zanati
Zaparoans, 235n
Zealand, location in Rk Stone
context, 93
Zend-Avesta, 115
Zervan, 80-81
Zeus, 177, 181, 198, 359, 364-
366, 369-371, 409-410, 415-
416, 421-422; of Phidias,
410, 195n, 351n; also cf.
Jupiter
Zhi, 262
Zhu, 156
Zia, 186
Zimba, period in Zambezian
history, South Central Af-
rica, 173
Zimbabwe(an(s)), 179-180,
183, 193; And Northern Ni-
geria, 179
Zipporah, 187
Ziusudra, 234n
Zmey Gorynych, 192
Zoro, 109, 116
Zoroastrianism, 19, 75-76, 79-
88, 19n
Zui, 233, 318
457
Author index
The author index gives places where an author is mentioned in the discursive text, but ignores the end
bibliographies of individual chapters unless the author was not specifically mentioned elsewhere in
the text. Apart from names of authors, their places of work, and papers that have not been included in
the present collection, the overviews of original conference papers in the Introduction to this book have
not been indexed, since the final versions appear in this book. For publications by multiple authors, all
authors names have been indexed, whenever possible.
Aarne, Antti, 144, 166-167
Abell, F., 307
Acra, F., 306
Ade-Ajayi, J.F., 127, 129-130,
133
Adelaar, A., 155
Adolphs, R., 307
Afanassiev, A.N., 62
Aikhenvald, A.J., 67
Akanji, Olajide Olayemi, 134
Akinjogbin, I.A., 142
Akintoye, S. A., 127, 129
Akinwumi, O., 142
Alavi, A., 290
Albert, I.O., 129
Albertus Magnus, 192
Albright, William Foxwell,
319, 319n
Alexander, Hartley Burr, 178
Alighieri, Dante, 419, 39n
Allen, Louis A., 36
Allen, N.J., 192, 269, 275, 357,
369-371, 427, 20n, 233n,
235n, 362n, 368n
Alpern, S.B., 190
Altheide, T.K., 158n
Amen, D., 290
Amiel, H.F., 419
Amo, C.M., 299
Amselle, J.-L., 148n
An, D., 235n
And, Metin, 183
Andrews, Tamra, 191, 197-198
Anggawisastra A.K., 381n
Anthes, R., 197
Anuchin, D.N., 64-65, 65n
Apollodorus, 177, 181, 189,
194, 416
Apollonius Rhodius, 183, 200,
195n
Apthorpe, R.J., 183
Archambault, J., 117
Argyle, W.J., 183
Aristotle, 193, 302, 321, 335-
336, 340, 344
Armstrong, K., 383n
Arredondo, P., 302
Asheri, David, 196
Ashlock, P.D., 326n
Askelf, S., 299
Atja, P., 376n, 379n, 381n
Atran, S., 279, 289, 292, 295-
296, 309, 291n, 297n
Atsma, Aaron J., 181
Aura Jorro, F., 243
Austin, N., 420
Bachofen, J.J., 200
Bachtiar, T., 382n
Bacon, Francis, 324, 419
Bacon, Roger, 192
Baime, M., 290
Bajun, L.S., 67
Baldick, J., 196
Banissy, M.J.., 304
Barber, E.W., 236n, 260n,
339n
Barber, Karin, 132
Barber, P.T., 236n, 260n, 339n
Barbey, A.K., 291n
Barbour, I., 351n
Barbujani, G., 151n
Barnard, A., 387n-388n
Barnes, M., 91
Baron-Cohen, S. 306
Barret, S.A., 258n
Barrett, L., 301
Barrett, P.H., 310
Barsalou, L.W., 299n
Barth, Fredrik, 282
Bartholomae, C., 84, 77n
Bascom, W.R., 42n-43n
Bastin, Yvonne, 153n
Batibo, H.M., 153n
Battaggia, Cinzia, 158n
Baumann, H., 118, 186, 226n,
230n
Baumgartner, W., 247n
Beaujard, P., 177, 187
Beauregard, M., 290
Bechstein, Ludwig, 39
Beckwith, M.W., 117, 230n,
235n
Behan, M., 190
Belcher, S., 41n, 43n, 46n
Belier, W.W., 269
Bengtson, J.D., 155, 155n
Bennett, Patrick R., 153
Benveniste, E., 76
Berezkin, Y., 109-110, 115,
203, 427, 20n, 25n, 202n,
389n
Berger, P.L., 268
Berlinerblau, J., 151n
Bernal, Martin Gardiner, 144,
150-151, 184, 193, 243,
249-251, 146n, 151n, 155n,
174n, 249n-250n
Berndt, C.H., 26, 28, 30-31,
119
New Perspectives on Myth
458
Berndt, R.M., 26, 28, 30-31,
119
Besnard, M.H., 117
Best, Elsdon, 197
Best, J., 189
Betz, H.D., 194
Biella, J.C., 247
Bierhorst, J., 236n
Binford, L.R., 194
Black, G.A., 245n
Black, J., 247, 245n
Blacker, C., 196
Blanchard, D.C., 293
Blanchard, R.J., 293
Blaek, Vclav, 243, 251, 427,
20n, 155n
Bleek, W., 155
Blench, Roger, 152
Bloch, Ernst, 339
Bloch, M., 302
Blok, J.H., 190
Bloomfield, M., 76
Blumenberg, H., 20, 339, 409,
413-417, 419-420, 424,
353n, 414n
Boas, F., 258n, 327n
Bogoras, W., 257n
Bolle, K.W., 340n
Bonnefoy, Yves, 187
Boothroyd, J.C. 293
Borghouts, J.F., 171n
Boschi, Ilaria, 158n
Bottro, J., 171n
Bouch-Leclercq, A., 171n
Bouchet, J., 182
Bouju, Jacky, 46n
Bowler, D.M., 307
Boyce, M., 83n
Boyer, P., 279, 289, 292, 295-
296, 309, 291n, 297n
Brand, G., 340n
Bravi, Claudio M., 201n
Brehm, Alfred, 293
Brelsford, W.V., 183, 190
British Columbia Folklore
Society, 166n
Bromwich, Rachel, 189
Bronkhorst, J., 72
Brown, C.G., 423n
Brown, D.E., 155-156
Brown, E.D., 170
Brundage, W., 194n
Buchler, Ira R.., 29, 191
Buck, C.D., 202n
Budge, E.A.W.T, 186
Bugge, S., 91n
Bulf, H., 294-295
Bultmann, R., 339
Burke, Kenneth, 418, 414n
Burkert, W., 183, 269, 194n-
195n
Burlingame, E.W. 72
Butler, S., 244
Byrne, R.W., 301
Cabanis, Jean Pierre, 287
Cagni, L., 178
Calafell, Francesc, 158n
Caland, W., 65
Calhoun, G.M., 410-413,416-
417, 420-421, 424, 411n,
415n
Callaway, Henry, 177
Campbell, J., 41, 51, 41n, 51n,
236n, 340n
Canessa, N., 294
Cann, R.L., 156
Canteras, N.S., 293
Capello, H., 186
Capinera, J.L., 178
Cappa, S., 294
Carnoy, A., 244
Carriere, J.S., 304
Carus, Titus Lucretius, 419
Casal, U.A., 196
Cassirer, E., 339, 347, 413,
339n
Cassius Dio, L., 196
Castelli, F., 307
Castro-Caldas, A. 299
Catrical, E., 294
Cavalli-Sforza, L.L., 145-146,
186, 152n, 155n, 158n
ern, J., 247
Chacon, Richard J., 196
Chamberlain, Basil Hall, 177
Changeux, J.-P., 286, 280n
Chantraine, P., 243n
Chapman, L.J., 308
Chatelain, Heli, 191
Chaucer, Geoffrey, 419
Cheney, D.L., 301
Cheung, R.T., 299
Chippindale, C., 26
Chittick, W.C., 383n, 386n,
394n, 402n
Choksy, J.K., 84
Chomsky, Noam, 155, 298
Chrtien, J.-P., 146n
Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 245,
419
Claessen, H.J.M., 190
Clark Hall, J.R., 98
Clark, Ella E., 98, 113, 179
Clark, G., 113
Clarke, Kenneth Wendell, 166n
Clment Huart, 196
Clement of Alexandria, 280n
Clothier, J., 169
Clouston, W.A., 189
Cochrane, Eve, 189
Coia, Valentina, 158n
Colavito, Maria M., 387
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 347
Collinder, B., 100n
Collingwood, R.G., 326n
Comas, David, 158n
Conrad, J.L., 183
Coqury-Vidrovitch, C., 148n
Corcella, A., 196
Cordeu, E.J., 118
Corp, N., 301
Cosmides, L., 301
Cotterell, Arthur, 177, 185-186,
193
Cou(l)drette, 193
Coupe, L., 344, 413, 425, 344n,
414n
Cowell, E.V., 72
Cox, M., 307
Cruciani, Fulvio, 158n
Csapo, E., 417n
Csibra, G., 306
Culin, S., 152
Cunnison, I.G., 177
Crsgen, D., 339n
dAquili, E., 290
Dalby, David, 153
Dale, A.M., 187, 193
Dalla Barba, B., 294-295, 301
Dalley, S., 234n
Damasio, A.R., 294, 299
Damasio, H., 294, 299
Damba, Larisa, 201n
Danadibrata R.A., 392n, 394n,
399n
Danasasmita, S., 376n, 379n,
381n
Dandekar, R.N., 76
Dang Nghiem Van, 181
Dante, see Alighieri
Darwin, C., 287-289, 291-294,
296-298, 309, 291n
Davidson, T., 183
Davis-Kimball, J., 190
Davison, Katherine, 179
Dawkins, R., 279, 286, 289,
295-296, 298, 309, 290n-
291n, 297n
Day, M.S., 234n, 340n
de Buck, A., 179, 197
de Dominico, S., 151n
de Haan, M., 306
de Heusch, L., 173
de Nicols, A.T., 387n
de Vries, J., 101, 339, 101n,
164n, 180n, 351n
de Vries, N., 189
Author Index
459
de Wilman-Grabowska, H., 196
de Win, Xaveer, 343
Debrunner, H.W., 118
Delatte, A., 171n
Delatte, E., 171n
Deleuze, G., 147
Demetriou, N., 309
Denbow, James, 153n
Dennett, D., 279, 289, 292,
296, 309, 291n, 297n
Dennett, R.E., 186
Dentith, S., 417, 418n
Derrida, J., 147, 324, 148n
Descartes, Ren, 192
Destro-Bisol, Giovanni, 158n
Detienne, M., 343n, 411n-412n
Dexter, Robbins 181
Dickson, J.H., 177
Diels, H., 338, 343
Dieterlen, G., 46, 46n
Dike, Kenneth Onwuka, 130
Diop, Cheikh Anta, 150-151
Dipierri, Jose E., 201n
Djunatan, S., 375, 427, 19n-
20n, 377n-378n, 386n,
389n, 396n, 399n-400n,
403n, 406n
Djuri, M., 351
Doniger, W., 230n
Doquet, A., 46n
Dornan, S.S., 118
Dorsey, G.A., 117
Dosrev, V., 178
Doty, W.G., 52n, 340n
Doucet, S., 301
Draffkorn Kilmer, A., 177
Dray, William, 326n
Du Bois, W.E.B., 151
Dubova, N.A., 86-88, 86n-87n
Dubuisson, D., 341n
Dumzil, G., 269, 270-273,
369-370
Dunbar, R., 301
Dundes, A., 181, 236-237, 239,
42n, 226n, 228n-230n,
234n, 236n-237n, 239n,
261n
Dupr, W., 427, 332, 335, 353,
427, 20n, 331n, 341n, 347n
Durkheim, E., 27, 305, 327n
Dutt, N., 72
Dye, David H., 196
Eames, K., 307
Eckblad, M., 308
Eckhardt, K.A., 101n
Edel, D., 179
Edelman, G., 299
Edgerton, F., 61, 68
Edwards, I.E.S., 178, 194
Egberts, A., 249-250, 155n,
246n, 249n
Eggan, F., 318
Egill Skallagrmsson, 96, 99,
101, 103
Ehret, C.E., 153n
Eiichiro, I., 263n
Eilberg-Schwartz, H., 321n
Ekadjati, E.S., 381n
Eliade, M., 103, 181, 322,
338n, 340n
Eliseev, Serge, 196
Elkin, A.P., 38
Eller, M., 304
Elmberg, J.E., 117
El-Shamy, Hasan M., 166n
Elson, Christina M., 184
Elwin, V., 117
Emelyanov, V.V., 88n
Emery, W.B., 177
Empedocles, 197
Endicott, P., 229n
Engels, F., 200
English, Jane, 404n
Erdoes, Richard, 178
Erman, A., 247-248, 246n,
250n
Etter, A., 234n, 239n
Euhemerus, 197
Euripides, 189, 244
Evans, Arthur J., 183
Evans-Pritchard, E.E., 145, 200
Everett, D., 286-287
Fad, T., 171n
Fabricius, 189
Fadipe, N.A., 132, 137-139
Falola Toyin, 128, 133
Farmer, S., 279, 282-288, 296,
300, 309, 427, 20n, 143n,
147n, 194n, 281n-282n,
285n, 297n-298n, 308n
Farnell, Lewis R., 189
Farroni, T., 306
Faulkner, R.O., 189, 247, 247n
Fauth, W., 155n
Fauvelle-Aymar, F.-X., 146n
Fedorova, Sardana A., 201n
Feldman, S., 180, 182n
Fernandez, A., 299
Feuerbach, L.A., 288
Finkelberg, M., 273
Finnegan, Ruth, 128
Finsler, G., 411n
Fishbane, Michael A., 197
Flaubert, G., 419
Flight, Colin, 153
Flournoy, T., 305
Fodor, J., 298
Fonseca, I., 187n
Fontenrose, J., 167, 173, 177,
181, 189, 194-195
Ford, C.W., 42n-43n
Frlag, Maicar
Forster, Peter, 154, 157, 163,
158n
Fournet, J.L., 250n
Fox, D.C., 119
Fox, P.T., 299
Frank, D., 183
Frank, M., 339n
Frankfort, H., 319n
Fraser, C., 303
Fraser, Lady Antonia, 190
Frazer, J.G., 171-172, 177-181,
183, 198, 236, 315, 319,
321-322, 325, 329-331, 30n,
150n, 226n, 319n-320n,
331n
Freeman, A., 289-290
Freud, Sigmund, 27
Friedman, Jonathan, 140
Frisk, H., 243n
Frith, C., 307
Frith, U., 307
Frobenius, L., 119, 144-145,
150, 179-180, 150n, 164n,
230n
Frymer-Kensky, T., 178
Fung Yu-Lan, 383n, 403n
Furne, E.I., 243n
Gaborieau, M., 270
Gadd, C.J., 178, 194
Gade, K.E., 98n
Gahs, A., 194
Gamkrelidze, T.V., 66
Ganguli, K.M., 358n
Gao, J.H., 299
Gardiner, E., 188
Gardner, J., 234n
Gaster, T.H., 229n-230n
Gautrey, P.J., 310
Ge, L., 302
Geertz, C., 317-318, 323-324,
328, 318n, 323n, 326n,
379n, 392n, 399n
Gellner, E.A., 200
George, A., 247, 245n
Gerland, G.K.C., 178
Geschwind, Norman, 289
Giacomini, N., 293
Gia-Fu Feng, 404n
Gibbon, Edward, 410
Gilkey, L., 351n
Gillen, J.F., 27-28, 31, 31n
Gimbutas, M., 178
Girard, Ren, 148n
Gluckman, H.M., 145, 170n
Golder, F.A., 257n
New Perspectives on Myth
460
Golubenko, Maria V., 201n
Gonda, J., 234n, 239n
Goneim, M.Z., 177
Gonzalez-Reimann, L., 285
Goodale, J.C., 38
Goodall, J., 293, 302
Goodman, G.S., 302
Gould, S., 284n
Grabowski, T.J., 294, 299
Grafman, J., 291n
Grapow, H., 247-248, 246n,
250n
Graves, R., 189, 180n, 194n
Gray, L.H., 179, 189, 226n
Grayson, James Huntley, 179
Greenberg, J.H., 229
Griaule, M., 46-47, 46n-47n
Griffin, J., 420
Griffin, R., 306
Griffith, Ralph T.H., 78
Griffiths, R.C., 158n
Grimm, Jacob, 192, 200
Grimm, Wilhelm, 192, 200
Groen, M., 306
Grnvik, O., 93, 91n
Grosseteste, Robert, 192
Gruppe, O., 194n
Gubina, Marina A., 201n
Guerber, H.A., 193
Guliaev, Valeri I., 190
Gundlach, R., 178
Gntert, H., 99-100, 99n-100n
Gusdorf, G., 340n
Gusinde, M., 232, 236n
Gterbock, Hans G., 177
Guthrie, Malcolm, 153, 155,
186, 197, 199
Guthrie, S., 279, 289, 291-296,
298, 301, 309, 291n
Guy, Will, 187n
Hackin, J., 196
Hahmo, S.-L., 99n-100n
Halit, H., 306
Hall, C., 98
Hammer, M.F., 158n
Hammond, N.G.L., 178, 194
Hamp, E.P., 250n
Han Xiaorong, 188
Hancock, I., 187n
Hanks, C., 290
Hannig, R., 247n
Happ, F., 307
Haraway, Donna J., 193
Harding, S., 147n
Harpending, Henry, 152n
Harris, J., 91, 93, 96, 103, 274,
279, 427, 19n, 91n, 96n,
101n, 103n
Harris, S., 289, 296, 309, 291n,
297n
Hart, G., 197
Hart, R., 26,
Hart, W.C.M., 38
Hastings, James, 179, 189,
226n
Hatab, L.J., 344, 340n
Haviland, J., 26
Hawkes, Kristen, 152n
Haxby, J.V. 294, 299
Heberlein, A.S., 307
Hedley, D., 347n
Hegel, G.W.F., 94, 145, 288,
339
Heidel, A., 234n
Heideman, Eric M., 193
Heider, F., 306-309, 307n
Heider, K.G., 116
Heine, Bernd, 153n
Heine, H., 419, 339n
Hekataios, 343n
Helck, W., 177, 186, 190
Helgason, J., 103n
Hellanicus, Hellanikos, 343n
Hellquist, E., 100
Hemmerdinger, B., 250n
Hempel, C.G., 326n
Henderson, J.B., 279, 285-288,
296, 300, 309, 281n-282n,
285n, 297n-298n
Henschen, F., 194
Henzi, P., 301
Heraclitus, 338
Herbert, S., 310
Herodotus, 196, 200, 244-246,
249, 321, 195n, 243n, 250n
Hertz, Wilhelm, 193
Hesiod, 156, 178, 193, 197,
244, 369, 343n
Hiatt, L.R., 27-28, 38, 29n
Hichwa, R.D., 294, 299
Higley, Sarah L., 192-193
Hiltebeitel, A., 368
Hitler, A., 339n
Hobson, T., 329
Hodgson, R., 289
Hoffman, M.A., 151n
Hfler, O., 91n
Hofstra, T., 99n-100n
Holenstein, E., 305
Holmes, S., 158n
Homer, 20, 243, 249, 344, 357-
358, 368, 370-372, 409-413,
416-417, 420-425, 343n,
411n, 415n
Hong, H., 293
Hook, Richard, 183
Hooke, S.H., 318-319, 319n
Hoover, J.J., 179
Hopfner, T., 197
Horton, Robin, 128
Houlihan, P.F., 177
Howe, S., 146
Howitt, A.W., 241
Hrozny, B., 155n
Hbner, K., 340, 351-352,
340n, 343n-345n, 352n
Hudjashov, G., 226n-227n
Hulbert, H.B., 196
Hume, D., 288, 291, 295-296,
298, 309, 345, 327n
Hunt, G., 258n, 327n
Husserl, E., 147n
Hutcheon, L., 418
Hutton, Ronald, 183
Ibn Rusta, 196
Ibn-Faln, 65
Idel, M., 193
Idinopulos, T.A., 183
Ifeany Nnoruka, S., 338n
Ikime, O., 142
Ingvar, M., 299
Innes, G.,179
Isaak, M., 163, 181-182, 157n,
164n, 201n, 226n
Iskandar, Y., 376n, 379n, 381n
Ivanov, V.V., 66-67, 65n
Ivens, R., 186
Iverson, P., 301
Jack, C.R. Jr., 299
Jackson, L.H,. 299
Jacottet, E., 168, 180, 185, 188,
191, 198, 175n, 203n
Jaeger, D., 193
Jahn, Alfred, 247
Jakobsdttir, Svava, 177, 179
Jalla, Adolphe D., 180, 182,
188
James, W., 187, 287, 289-290,
291n
Jamme, Chr., 341n
Janda, M., 100-101, 101n
Jansen, J., 179
Janzen, J., 176
Jasanoff, J.H., 155n
Jaspers, K., 339
Jauoen, R., 53n
Jenkins, T., 158n
Jennings, C., 128, 133
Jensen, A.E., 180
Jenyn, 420
Jerome, St., 85
Jett, Stephen C., 201n
Jin, Z., 299
Jochelson, W., 257
Johnson, M., 300
Johnson, M.H., 301, 306
Author Index
461
Johnson, Michael, 183
Johnson, Samuel, 128, 132-
134, 137-138
Jolly, A., 301
Jolly, Eric, 46n
Jonas, Hans, 339
Jones, G., 193
Jones, Livingston French, 179
Jones, P., 27n
Jones, T., 193
Jonsson, K.M., 248n
Juillerat, B., 53n
Jung, C.G., 155, 340n
Junod, H.A., 187
Jurewicz, J., 183
Kaberry, Phyllis M., 32
Kaiser, M., 152n
Kamma, F.C., 229n
Kamuwanga, Liswaniso, 181
Kant, I., 145, 336
Kaplony, P., 178
Kapogiannis, D., 291n
Karafet, T., 158n
Karlgren, B., 155-156
Karst, J., 195, 165n
Karsten, T.E., 100n
Kaul, F., 189
Kawanga, Davison, 170
Keates, S.G., 113
Keith, A.B., 189
Keller, A.G., 411n-412n
Keller, W., 238n
Kelly, D.J., 302
Kelsen, Hans, 182, 198, 229n-
230n
Kemp, B.J., 178
Kenneth Maddock, 29
Kenrick, D., 187n
Kerenyi, K. / C., 177, 342,
340n-341n
Khalsa, D.S., 290
Khamidjanova, M.A., 83
Khusnutdinova, Elsa K., 201n
Ki Subarma, 379, 380n
Kim, S.K., 293
Kimambo, I., 173
Kindaichi, K., 257
King, L.W., 186
Kirk, G.S., 338, 367, 353n,
411n
Kirk, R.L., 38
Kitamura, Sayo, 262
Kivisild, Toomas, 201n
Klaeber, F., 103
Klein, E., 245n
Klieman, Kairn, 153n
Klimov, Georgii Andreevich,
195n
Klin, A., 307
Klindt-Jensen, O., 189
Klystra, A.D., 99n-100n
Knight, M., 188n
Knipe, D.M., 177, 179
Kobusch, T., 339n
Kocher, T.D., 152n
Kmkulkz, Elmira, 179,
190
Koehler, L., 247n
Koenig, H., 308
Kohn, D., 310
Kolakowski, L., 351
Kolig, Erich, 237n
Koltuv, Barbara Black, 193
Korab-Karpowicz, W.J., 387n
Kovacs, M.G., 234n
Kroeber, A.L., 258n
Krueger, F.291n
Kryukova, V., 75-76, 427, 19n
Kuiper, F.B.J., 60, 183, 235n
Kuper, H., 183
Kuusi, M., 118
Kuzmin, Y.V., 113
Kwan, D., 304
Lai, K.L., 405n
Lakoff, G., 300
Lambert, W.G., 178
Lao Tsu, Lao Tze, 375-376,
402, 404-405; 404n-405n
Law, R., 190
Leach, E.R., 202
Leaf, W., 410
LeDoux, J.E., 296
Lee, J.S., 302
Lee, K., 302
Lee, T.M., 299
Leeming, David Adams, 200
Lefkowitz, M.R., 151n
Legge, J., 405n
Leo, I., 294-295, 301
Leonard, William Ellery, 197
Leslau, W., 247
Levinas, E., 148n
Levinson, S.C., 287
Lvi-Strauss, 94, 340, 345,
345n
Levy, G.R., 194n
Lewis, Mark Edward, 181
Lewisohn, L., 407
Lewontin, R.C., 284n
Lhote, H., 190
Li, G., 299
Liddell, H.G., 243n
Liebrucks, Bruno, 340
Lim, H.K., 308
Lindblom, Gerhard, 185
Linossier, Raymonde, 196
Littleton, C.S., 269
Liu, S., 302
Liverpool, H.U., 183
Livius, Livy, 196
Lloyd, A.B., 195n
Lombard, D., 377n, 399n
Lommel, H., 84-85
Long, R.C.E., 184
Lnnroth, L., 91n
Looby, Robert, 193
Los, F.J., 178, 196, 199-200
Lubbock, J.H., 289, 291-292
Lucan, 419
Luckman, Thomas, 268
Lucretius, see: Carus
Luria, A., 299
Lyle, E., 18, 267, 269-273,
427, 20n, 143n
Lynch, P.A., 43n
Macalister, R.A.S., 189
Macaulay, V., 158n
MacCulloch, J.A., 189
MacEachern, Scott, 153n
MacGaffey, W., 43n
MacGregor, A.J., 183
Mackenzie, Donald Alexander,
192, 197
MacLean Rogers, G., 151n
Maddock, K.,28-29, 191
Maenchen-Helfen, O., 188n
Maestu, F., 299
Magnone, P., 234n, 239n
Magnussen, S., 302
Maho, Jouni, 153
Maier, J., 234n
Mainga, M., 170n
Malcolmson, K.A., 304
Maldi, D., 118
Malhi, Ripan S., 201n
Malinowski, B., 27
Malory, Thomas, 191
Mann, Michael, 153n
Marazov, I., 189
Marchal, Charles-Henri, 196
Marcus, G.F., 298n
Mareschal, D., 300
Margalith, Othniel, 199
Maringer, J., 194
Markham, C.M., 293
Marler, J., 181
Marques, J.F., 294
Martens, J., 189
Martin, A., 294, 299
Martinez-Labarga, Cristina,
201n
Marushiakova, Elena, 187n
Maspero, Gaston, 166n
Maspero, Henri, 196
Mathieu, R., 235n
Matsumura, K., 253, 255, 273,
428, 20n, 255n, 262n
New Perspectives on Myth
462
Matthe, Marcus, 180
Mauss, M., 305
Mayr, E., 326n
Maziarz, E., 351n
Mbitu, N., 42n-43n
McClelland, J.L., 299
McCone, Kim, 269
McConnel, U., 27, 39n
McCormick F., 189
McGready, A.G., 250n
McKenna, A.J., 148n
McLennan, J.F., 289, 291
Meador, K.G., 308
Meder, Theo, 26, 39, 39n
Meeussen, A.E., 153, 155
Meistere, Baiba, 189
Mellaart, J., 194
Mencej, Mirjam, 270
Menozzi, A., 145-146, 186,
151n-152n, 155n
Mercer, S.A., 189, 247n
Meredith, G., 419
Meritt, H.D., 98
Merlan, F., 26
Merritt, H.D., 98
Metspalu, Mait, 201n
Meyer, E., 189
Meyerowitz, E.L.R., 150n
Militarev, A.Y., 154n
Millard, A.R., 178
Millroth, B., 118
Mindlin, B., 118
Mitchell, A., 309
Modiano, D., 158n
Monaghan, Patricia, 200
Monet, Jefferson, 179
Money, N. 290
Montagu, A., 147n
Montgomery, J.A., 194
Montgomery, J.E., 65, 65n
Mookerjee, A., 183
Moral, P., 158n
Morgan, Lewis Henry, 189n,
200
Morrison, F., 64
Morton, J., 301
Mountcastle, V., 299
Mountford, C.P., 26, 28, 36-37
Mowinckel, S., 319n
Muecke, D.C., 418-420
Mller, H., 178
Mller, H.-P., 343n
Mller-Kosack, G., 53, 43n
Mulligan, Connie J., 201n
Mulvenna, C.M., 303
Mundy, P., 306
Munson, T.M., 351n
Muntemba, Shimwaayi, 193
Murray, A.T., 421n-422n
Murray, M.A., 183
Muuka, L.S., 170n
Myers, F.R., 26, 29
Nabokov, V.V., 180n
Nagel, Ernest, 328n
Nakashima, B.R., 293
Namafe, C.M., 181
Napolskih, V., 115
Naso, Publius Ovidius, 189,
193, 197
Naumann, Nelly, 253, 255
Nehring, A., 252
Neil, R.A., 72
New, J., 301
Newberg, A., 290
Newcomb, F.J., 178
Newton, I., 201
Newton, R.M., 423, 423n
Niebuhr, R., 341n
Nietzsche, F., 419
Nikkil, O., 99n-100n
Niu, Z., 299
Noreen, A., 102
Nth, W., 390n
Nubakhsh, Javad, 407
Nugent, P., 43n
Nurse, Derek, 153n
Nussbaum, A., 155n
ODonoghue, H., 98n
OMeara, J.J., 189
Obayashi, Taryo, 253-254
Obenga, T., 150
Ode, A.W.M., 155
Oden, N.L., 151n
Oefner, P.J., 158n
Oguibnine, Oguibenine, Boris,
59, 64-66, 70, 428, 19n,
143n
Oguntomisin Dare, 128, 133
Ohman, A., 294
Okpeh, O., 142
Olckers, A., 158n
Oliver, Roland, 153n
Olmsted, G.S., 189
Omosini, Olufemi, 136
Oppenheimer, S., 163-164,
203, 164n, 201n
Ortiz, Alfonso, 178
Ortiz, T.M., 299
Osborne, C.R., 36, 38
Ossipova, Ludmila P., 201n
Otten, H., 67-68
Otto, E., 178
Otto, R., 415
Otto, W.F., 342
Oum Ndigi, 150, 192
Ovidius / Ovid, see Naso
Owomoyela, Oyekan, 132
Oyeniyi, Bukola Adeyemi, 19,
127-128, 135, 140, 428,
19n-20n
Paden, W.E., 320, 325
Page, Jake, 200
Papanicolaou, A.C., 299
Paproth, H.J., 254, 264
Papstein, R., 176
Paquette, V., 290
Paracelsus, T.B. von
Hohenheim, 192
Parada, Carlos, 199
Parfitt, T., 187
Park, Young-Mann, 196
Parkerson, G.R. Jr., 308
Parmenides, 343, 353
Parrinder, G., 118
Partridge, E., 195
Pascalis, O., 302
Paul, St, Apostle, 344
Pavlov, P.Y., 113
PDP Research Group, 299 (cf.
Index of Proper Names)
Peiros, Ilya, 156
Penglas, C., 193
Pennington, R., 152n
Pentkowski, N.S., 293
Ppin, J., 351n
Perfetti, C.A. 299
Perrot, C.-H., 146n
Persinger, M.A., 290
Petersson, K.M., 299
Pettersson, O., 186
Pettinato, G., 234n
Pezdek, K., 302
Pherecydes, Pherekydes, 410,
343n
Philippi, D.L., 177, 182n
Piaget, J., 289
Piazza, A., 145-146, 186, 152n,
155n
Pilastro, A., 151n
Pilling, A.R. 38
Pindarus / Pindar, 181
Pinker, S., 298n
Pirart, E., 77
Plato, 250, 339, 343-344, 339n
Pokorny, J., 155, 202n
Ponette, P., 235n
Popov, Vesselin, 187n
Popper, K., 326n
Postgate, N., 247, 245n
Ptscher, W., 188, 194n
Pouillon, Jean, 412n
Pourdehnad, M., 290
Preller, L., 243n
Prime, R., 42n-43n
Prins, G., 170n
Puhvel J., 63, 189, 272
Author Index
463
Pulvermller, F., 299
Quest, Charlotte Schreiber, 189
Quinn, P.C., 302
Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred, 27
Ragin, F., 239, 239n
Rakhimov, R.R., 83
Ranger, T.O., 173
Rappenglck, M.A., 195n
Rasanayagam, A., 158n
Rasing, T., 188n
Raven, J.E., 353
Rawlinson, G., 245
Ray, E.D., 309
Ray, J.D., 171n
Rdei, K., 105
Reefe, T.Q., 180
Regolin, L., 294-295
Reidla, Maere, 201n
Reinwald, Heinz, 340
Reis, A., 299
Renfrew, C., 151n
Reynolds, M., 304
Rhys, J., 189, 192
Rice, Michael, 177, 151n
Richards, J., 306
Richards, Polly, 46n
Richardson, N., 369
Rickards, Olga, 201n
Ricks, S.D., 247n
Ricoeur, Paul, 340
Ristau, C.A., 292
Robert, C., 243n
Roberts, A., 180
Robertson Smith, William,
315, 321-322
Robinson, P., 309, 281n, 285n
Rogerson, J.W., 348
Rooke, A., 182
Rose, Deborah B., 31
Rosen, S., 301
Rosenau, P.M., 316-317
Rosenberg, A., 339n
Rosenberg, Donna, 194
Rosidi, A., 379, 380n
Rossi Osmida, G., 88n
Rountree, Helen C., 184
Ruhlen, Merritt, 155, 155n
Rumelhardt, D.E., 299
Rydberg, Viktor, 199
Sagiv, N., 303
Sagot, P., 301
Sahlins, M., 189
Saleh Danasasmita, 379n, 381n
Salmon, Wesley C, 328n
Salomon, F., 197, 200
Sampson, R., 193
Sandhei, M., 302
Santanna, J.290
Santolamazza, P., 158n
Sapolsky, R.M., 293
Sarianidi, V.I., 86n
Saxo Grammaticus, 96, 98,
190, 97n
Sayfan, L., 302
Scarborough, M., 351n
Schaal, B., 301
Schelling, F.W.J., 340, 347,
351, 347n
Scheub, H.E., 197, 53n
Schlottmann, A., 309
Schoenbrun, David, 153n
Schoffeleers, J.M., 173, 173n
Schopen, G., 62, 67-71, 71n
Schott, S., 178
Schrader, O., 252
Schreiber, H., 196
Schroeder, B., 148n
Schltz, J., 169
Schwabl, H., 344
Schwartz, Howard, 197
Scott, K., 303
Scott, R., 243n
Scozzari, R., 158n
Seal, Graham, 200
Sedakova, O.A., 63
Segal, R., 268, 315, 322, 340,
428, 20n, 41n, 51n-52n,
318n-320n, 322n, 326n,
338n, 341n
Seki, K., 196
Selbie, J.A., 179, 189, 226n
Seligman, C.G., 150n
Selous, Frederick Courteney,
193
Sels, N., 409, 428, 20n
Serruys, H., 196
Sethe, K., 178
Seyfarth, R.M., 301
Shakespear, J., 117
Shakespeare, W., 347, 418-419,
180n, 355n
Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft,
193
Shen, P., 158n
Shepherd, J.R., 196
Shevoroshkin, V., 152n
Shimunika, J.M., 172, 176,
172n
Shkoda, V.G., 85
Shnirelman, V.A., 154n
Shokpeka, S.A., 43n
Shrader-Frechette, K., 341n
Sierksma, F., 200
Sikes, E.E., 411n
Simion, F., 294-295, 301
Simmel, M.-A., 306-309, 307n
Simmons, K. , 299n
Simner, J., 303, 305
Simoneau, K., 118
Simos, P.G., 299
Simuh, 383n, 386n
Siok, W.T., 299
Siri, S., 294
Sirois, S., 300
Skeat, Walter W., 217
Skjrv, P.O., 76
Slater, A.M. 302
Slaughter, V., 308
Smart, Ninian, 320
Smilek, D., 304
Smith, David Glenn, 201n
Smith, Edwin William, 186-
187, 193
Smith, G. Elliot, 179, 150n,
Smith, George, 181
Smith, J.Z., 320-321
Smith, Michael E., 184
Smith, R., 133
Smith, S., 310
Smith, W. Robertson, 315,
321-322
Smith, W.R., 38, 241, 234n
Snorri Sturluson, 102n-103n
Sobolev, A.N., 64
Sokal, R.R., 151n
Solmsen, F., 252
Sommer, J., 177
Song, Min-Young, 196
Sophocles, 419
Soussignan, R., 301
Sparks, R., 185
Spear, Thomas, 153n
Spedini, Gabriella, 158n
Spencer, A.J., 178
Spencer, B., 27-28, 31, 31n
Spencer, Herbert, 289
Spencer, J., 387n-388n
Sperber, Dan, 412
Speyer, J.S., 73
Spratling, M., 300
Sproat, Richard, 284, 281n
Squire, Charles, 189
Sreenathan, M., 229n
St.-Pierre, L.S., 290
Stachowiak, H., 347n
Stanner, W.E.H., 28
Starostin, Georgiy, 152, 155-
156, 196, 155n, 158n, 180n,
195n, 202n
Starostin, Sergei, 144, 155-156,
196, 155n, 158n, 180n,
195n, 202n
Steblin-Kamensky, I.M., 76n
Stepanov, Vadim A., 201n
Sterner, J.A., 43n, 53n
Stesichorus, 194
Stone, W.L., 117
New Perspectives on Myth
464
Stoneking, M., 156, 152n
Straathof, W., 378n-379n
Strehlow, T.G.H., 119
Strenski, I., 341n
Stricker, B.H., 200, 172n
Stubbs, Dacre, 186
Su, M., 291n
Subagya, R., 382n-383n
Sullivan, W., 236n, 238n
Sumardjo, J., 381n-382n, 386n,
397n, 399n, 401n
Sundermeier, T., 54, 53n-54n
Sutton, Peter, 29
Swann, B., 190
Swanton, J.P., 179, 193
Tabler, E.C., 193
Takcs, 247, 245n
Takahashi, L.K., 293
Tamm, Erika, 201n
Tamminen, Maya, 177, 179,
191
Tamuno, N.T., 142
Tan, L.H., 299
Taylor, M.C., 316-317
Templeton, A.R., 158n
Tennyson, A., 419
Thangaraj, K., 229n
Theagenes of Rhegion, 351,
410
Thierry, A., 196
Thierry, G.J., 178
Thivierge, J.P., 298n
Thomas, A.M. 300
Thomas, William Jenkyn, 200
Thommen, E., 307
Thompson, Stith, 144, 166-167,
225, 232-233, 235-236,
166n, 226n, 229n-230n,
235n, 239n
Tillich, Paul, 342
Tonnaer, A., 30, 29n
Tooby, J., 301
Topitsch, Ernst, 339
Toporov, V.N., 60, 62-64, 67,
72
Torrend, J., 175n
Torroni, A., 158n
Toulmin, Stephen, 350
Tranel, D., 294, 299
Trapnell, C.J., 169
Tregear, E., 235n
Trimble, M., 289-290
Tsakanikos, E., 303
Tucker, L.A., 306
Turati, C., 294-295, 301
Turner II, Christy G., 154n,
Turner, Jessica Anderson, 235n
Turner, Ralph L., 187n
Turner, V.W., 179, 203
Tylor, E.B., 288-289, 291
Ullman, M., 171n
Underhill, P., 164, 158n
Ungerleider, L.G., 294, 299
Urioste, George L., 197, 200
Urton, G., 197, 200
Usher, T., 226n-227n
Uther, Hans-Jrg, 166-167
Vainberg, B.I., 86
Valaki, C.E., 299
Valenza, E. 294-295, 301
van Beek, Walter, 41, 203, 428,
19n, 42n, 46n, 49n, 51n-
52n, 55n
van Binsbergen, Wim M.J., 3,
5, 17-18, 20, 143-144, 147,
149, 152-153, 157-159, 163,
169-170, 172-173, 176, 178,
181, 183-187, 190, 192,
196-200, 202, 428, 19n-20n,
43n, 143n, 146n-147n,
149n, 151n, 153n-155n,
157n-159n, 164n-165n,
170n-173n, 180n, 182n,
194n-195n, 201n, 226n,
230n-231n, 249n, 338n,
341n, 379n, 401n, 403n-
404n
van Buitenen, J.A.B., 358n
van der Sluijs, Marinus An-
thony, 178, 180, 183
van Dijk, J., 181
van Gennep, A., 33n
van Warmelo, N.J., 187
Vansina, Jan, 153, 172, 200,
153n, 164n, 173n
Venbrux, Eric, 3, 5, 17-19, 25-
26, 30, 36-37, 186, 428,
19n, 27n, 143n
Vergilius, Virgil, 192
Verginelli, Fabio, 158n
Vernant, Jean-Pierre, 340
Veyne, P., 412, 417, 412n
Vigilant, Linda, 152n
Villems, Richard, 201n
Vincent, J.-F., 53n
Vitaliano, Dorothy B., 182
Voevoda, Mikhail I., 201n
Vomberg, P., 247n
von Friesen, O., 91n
von Schlegel, F., 418
von Sicard, H., 152, 187-188,
198-199
von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff,
U., 410, 411n
Vouloumanos, A., 301
Vyas, A., 293
Vycichl, W., 247-250, 246n-
247n, 249n
Waddell, W.G., 250
Walcot, P., 193
Walker, G.B., 181, 198
Wallace, D.C., 158n
Wallace, Robert, 413n
Walle-Olsen, A., 302
Walsh, V., 303
Wandibba, Simiyu, 153n
Ward, D., 271, 303-304
Ward, J., 303-304
Warmelo, W.L., 187
Warner, W. Lloyd, 32
Wastiau, B., 186
Watanabe, K., 293
Waterman, P.P., 26, 28, 33,
26n, 31n-32n
Waters, Frank, 179, 192
Wathelet, P., 358
Watkins, C., 66
Watson Andaya, V., 196
Waugh, Daniel C., 177
Waxman, S.G., 289
Weber, A., 73
Weber, Max, 342, 327n
Wegener, Alfred, 159n
Werker, J.F., 301
Werner, A., 175, 178, 198,
164n
Wessn, E., 92, 91n
Wessing, R., 19n, 379n, 382n,
386n, 397n, 402n
West, E.W., 89
West, M.L., 273
Westbeech, George Copp, 193
Westermann, G., 300
Whit, Laurie Anne, 378n
White, C.M.N., 176, 200
Whitehead, A.N., 172
Whitehead, Ruth Holmes, 198
Whiten, A., 301
Whitt, L., 391n
Wibisana W., 381n
Widmark, G., 91n
Wiggs, C.L., 294, 299
Wilbert, J., 117-118, 236n
Wilkins, W.J., 222
Wilkinson, T.A.H., 178, 194,
197
Williams, B.B., 151n
Williams, M., 183
Willis, Roy, 180-181, 186, 190,
193, 202
Wilson, A.C., 156, 152n
Wilson, C., 151n
Wilson, D.S., 296, 309, 291n,
297n
Wiratakusumah, J., 404n
Author Index
465
Wirtz, K., 183
Witczak, Krzysztof T., 244,
244n
Witherby, S.A., 303
Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 347n
Witzel, Michael, 4, 17-18, 20,
143, 157, 171, 181, 194,
225, 253, 255-256, 273,
279, 282, 284-288, 296,
300, 309, 428, 20n, 143n,
159n, 174n, 201n, 203n,
225n, 235n-236n, 238n,
281n-282n, 285n, 297n-
298n
Wood, E.T., 158n
Woodford, S., 416n
Woudhuizen, Fred, 153, 178,
183, 186-187, 196-197, 199,
146n, 153n, 164n-165n
Wright, G.E., 319n-320n
Wrigley, C., 173, 173n
Wurm, S.A., 226n
Wyschogrod, E., 148n
Xenophanes, 285, 288, 298,
302, 342, 410, 280n, 343n
Yahya, Iip D., 377n
Yamada, Hitoshi, 253-254,
264, 234n, 236n
Yanchevskaya, N., 59, 64, 428,
19n-20n
Yang, E.S., 299
Yang, L., 235n
Yetts, W.P., 196
Yi, S., 113
Yoshida, Atsuhiko , 253-254
Zaumen, Bill, 284, 281n
Zegura, S.L., 158n
Zhadanov, Sergey I., 201n
Zhang, W., 299
Zournatzi, A., 190
466